Revised Subharmbha social 7 2077 for CTP final

Lesson Social Etiquettes and
Norms
6

We are social beings. We live
in a society. Besides the laws
enforced by the government,
there are certain established
traditional rules, regulations
and norms in the society. They
have been developed over the
years and accepted for the
welfare and well-being of the
respective society. They are
called social etiquettes and
norms. Different societies Social Norms

may have different social
etiquettes and norms. As a member of the respective society, we have to
respect and abide by them.

A family is also the foundation of social etiquettes and norms. The family
norms and values directly or indirectly contribute to the development
of social norms and values. The family is, in fact, a pre-primary school.
Socialization begins in the family. A society reflects the overall picture of the
various families living in that society.

Social etiquettes and norms are important in maintaining peace, harmony,
and mutual co-operation and understanding in the society. They reflect the
overall nature and character of a particular society. They are the identity
of the society. They have been developed over a long period of time and in
practice for collective good. They make the society more cultured, civilized,
ordered and organized.

Social etiquettes and norms change according to time but slowly. Social
rules and norms suitable in one situation may turn to be impracticable in
another situation. It is important that such rules and norms should serve the
broader interest of the society. Hence, we should follow the good ones and
discard the bad ones.

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Some Social Etiquettes and Norms

Family Neighbourhood and Society

Respect seniors and love juniors Help people in need

Respect female members Don’t discriminate anybody on any
ground

Respect each other’s opinion Share ideas and opinions

Regard parents and guests as Gods Cooperate and behave equally

Share things and works Respect public properties,

Make best use of family resources Utilize society’s means and resources
for collective interest.

Speak politely Contribute to community well-being

Enjoy feasts and festivals together Share each other’s cultures and
festivals

Observe family rites and rituals Follow social norms and values

Be disciplined and obedient Fight against social evils and problems

Points to Remember:

F Besides official laws, there are certain traditional rules, regulations and
norms in the society.

F Social etiquettes and norms are developed for the good of the society
over a long period of time.

F Society is the sum total of families living together in a particular place.
F Social etiquettes and norms are important in maintaining peace,

harmony, and mutual co-operation and understanding in the society.
F Social etiquettes and norms change according to time but slowly.
F We should follow the good social etiquettes and discard the bad ones.

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Key Terms and Words:

• Abide by : adhere to, follow
• Discard : get rid of, abandon
• Enforce: put a rule, apply, carry out
• Etiquettes: manners, politeness
• Feast : banquet and celebration, big feed

Evaluation Activities

Short answer questions:
1. What is social etiquette?
2. What does the social etiquette reflect?
3. Why is it important to follow social norms and etiquettes?
4. What kinds of social etiquettes exist in family and society?
5. How are family values and norms related to social norms and values.
6. What do the social etiquettes and norms reflect? Write with examples.

Community Based Work:
There may be some special family etiquettes and norms in your family.
List them out and share with your friends in the class.

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UNIT

5

OUR EARTH

In this unit, we will learn the following:
• Landforms and Factors Influencing its Changes
• Climatic Change and its Effects
• Disaster Management
• Physical Environment of Nepal
• Map Work and Map Reading
• Longitudes and Latitudes
• Continent of Europe
• Continent of Australia

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Lesson Landforms and Factors
Influencing Its Changes
1

The face of the earth keeps changing. It doesn’t remain the same forever. The
earth surface is not regular. It is different from place to place. There are high
and low lands, valleys, plateaus and plain areas. This varying landform of the
earth is called Topography. The topography of the earth gradually changes.
This phenomenon has been taking place since the origin of the earth. We can’t
experience many of these changes as they take place. The present surfaces of
the earth were formed over different period of time.
There are a number of internal and external forces which affect the surface
of the earth. Earthquake and volcanoes are internal factors that bring
sudden and drastic changes on the earth surface. It was such internal
force, for example, created the Himalayan region where there was sea a
long time ago. But, most of the changes are caused by the external forces
through long and gradual processes. The agents of external forces include
the running water, rainfall, ocean current, waves, tides, moving masses of
ice, winds, frost, temperature, plants, animals, and so on. These forces wear
away the surface gradually and deposit them on low lands. Some islands get
submerged in the oceans, and sometimes, the rising of ocean floors creates
new islands. Weathering, erosion and transportation are the different
processes continually acting upon the surface of the earth.
The fact is that there are a number of forces and movements which are
always active in shaping the earth’s crust. This is why the earth surface is
always changing. They are as follows:

Natural Forces That Change the Earth Surface

Internal Forces External Forces

Earthquake Volcano Sun Glacier Frost
Wind River
Rain Plants, Animals
Heat/Cold (Temperature)

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Internal Forces

Earthquake: It is a sudden movement
of a portion of earth’s crust caused by
some natural forces. It is one of the most
terrifying natural phenomena. It makes
the earth shake or tremble causing
construction, destruction, landslide,
rising of the surface or sea etc. During Earthquake
earthquake, either horizontal or vertical
movements of the earth’s crust take place
folding and pushing the surface up and down. The portion which is pushed
up forms Fold Mountains and the portion pushed down forms Valleys and
seas. The Himalayas (Asia), the Alps (Europe), the Rockies (North America)
and the Andes (South America) are the examples of the fold mountains.

Volcano: It is the hot molten materials, Volcano
flames, ash, smoke, gases etc coming out
with great force from deep inside the earth
through an opening in the earth’s crust.
Such molten materials called lava are
deposited on the earth surface. It changes
the face of the earth. How much the
earth’s surface gets changed depends on
the type of the volcano and on the amount
of molten materials that are thrown out.
Cone-shaped Volcanic Mountain like Mt
Kilimanjaro (Africa) and Fujiyama (Japan)
are formed by the deposition of lava.

External Forces Glacier
Glacier: Glacier is the thick mass of
ice or a river of ice flowing downhill the
mountain. It brings a lot of changes on the
earth surface. It cuts, sweeps, carries and
deposits materials either on its sides or at
the end of its course. It might even cause
landslide and flooding.

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Frost: It is found more in cold and mountain
areas. The water collected in the cracks
of large rocks freezes in the form of ice
during night and melts during day. Freeze
water expands and breaks the rocks into
pieces.

River: A river, while flowing down, cuts its
banks or erodes the top soil and subsoil in
its upper course and deposits in the lower Frost

course. In its final stage of flow, its speed
decreases and the sediment and silt carried get gradually deposited at the
mouth and on the sides of the river. This forms a raised land called a delta.
It forms various land features along its course changing the surface of the
earth like lakes, tributaries, island etc.

Wind: Moving air is called wind. It is one Storm
of the external forces of change on the
earth face. It works visibly in dry and
desert regions. Strong wind erodes and
transports sand, dust, stone fragments
and pebbles from one place to another
and forms unique land features. Wind also
causes sea or ocean waves which erode
coastal areas.

Heat, Cold and Rain: During the day, the Flood
temperature rises and it is the opposite
during night. This causes breaking off of
rocks due to expansion and contraction.
Rain water erodes soil, stones, pebbles,
trees and deposits them in low lying areas.
It also causes landslides, soil erosion,
flood, and creates ditches, lakes, gorges
etc.

Plants, Animals and Human Beings: Plants penetrate the surface and
soft part of the rocks. They make the earth crust crack and split. Animals
and insects like rats, rabbits, porcupines, ants, earth worms, etc dig, make

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burrows, nests and move the soil. As a Earthworm
result, the earth’s surface keeps changing.
Human beings are also important agents
of change. Construction, development
works, deforestation and so many other
human activities cause constant changes
on the earth face.

Points to Remember:

F The face of the earth keeps changing due to Internal and External forces.
F Internal forces like earthquake brings sudden and drastic changes and

external forces cause slow but permanent changes.
F Sudden and terrifying movement of a portion of the earth due to some

internal forces is called earthquake.
F Hot molten materials, flames, ash, smoke, gases etc coming out with

great force from inside the earth through an opening in the earth’s crust
is called volcano.
F Rivers, wind, frost, glaciers, temperature, plants, animals, and human
beings change the face of the earth.

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. What are the two forces that bring changes on the earth face?
2. Which forces bring sudden and radical changes on the surface of

the earth?
3. What forces bring gradual changes through long processes on the

face of the earth?
4. What is an earthquake?
5. What is a glacier?
6. What is wind?
7. What is the main difference between the internal and external forces

that bring changes on the earth face?
8. What is topography ?

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9. What is a delta?
10. What is a volcano?
11. Write two names of the volcanic mountains?
12. List out the fold mountains you know

Short answer questions:

1. How do the internal and external forces or elements bring changes
on the earth surface?

2. The surface of the earth doesn’t remain the same forever, why?
Explain.

3. What is volcano, how does it bring changes on the surface of the
earth?

4. Write down the names of any three land forms created from the
process of erosion and deposition.

5. How do the plants, animals and human beings bring change on the
surface of the earth? Explain.

6. How does a river bring change on the surface of the earth? Explain.
7. What is an earthquake? How does it change the face of the earth?

Explain.

Community Based Work:

Look around your community. There may be many human activities taking
place. Make a list of them and write how they are bringing about changes
on the surface of the earth.

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Lesson Climate Change and Its
Effects
2

What Global Warming and Climate Change Are
The average weather condition of a
certain place over a period of time
is called climate. Temperature and
precipitation are the main elements
of climate. Climate is different
from weather in the sense that it
doesn’t usually change moment
to moment. It remains the same
for considerable period of time. It
changes a little over a long period
of time. But, weather changes
moment to moment.
But, due to growing human activities
like industrialization, deforestation, the climate all over the world is changing
faster than it would do naturally. It has been experienced that the overall
temperature in the atmosphere is rising and rainfall has been quite irregular
in many parts of the world. This phenomenon is known as climate change.
Global warming and climate change refer to an increase in average global
temperatures. A warming planet thus leads to a change in climate which
can affect weather in various ways. Natural events and human activities are
believed to be contributing to an increase in average global temperatures.
This is caused primarily by increases in “greenhouse” gases such as Carbon
Dioxide (CO2).

Main Indicators of Climate Change
As explained by the US agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), there are seven indicators that would increase in
a warming world, and three indicators would to decrease. Air temperature
near surface, humidity, temperature over oceans, sea surface temperature,
sea-levels, ocean heat content and temperature over land are all increasing
indicators, while glaciers, snow cover and sea ice are decreasing indicators.

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The Greenhouse Effect

By nature, there used to be a balance in the atmosphere. But the atmosphere
is becoming thicker due to greenhouse effect in the past few decades.
Energy from the sun drives the earth’s weather and climate, and heats the
earth’s surface. In turn, the earth radiates energy back into space. Some
atmospheric gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some
of the outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of a
greenhouse. These gases are therefore known as greenhouse gases.The
greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature on Earth as certain gases in the
atmosphere trap energy.

Six main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (cCaOr2b)o, nmdeitohxaidnee)(CanHd4) (which
is twenty times as potent a greenhouse gas as nitrous
o(isHxiFadClesso)(,cNpo2enOrs)f,ildupeolrrueosdcatahrbgreoreenesnf(luhPooFruCinsse)aatgenadds.sinudlpuhsutrriahlexgaafslueosr:idheyd(SroF6f)l.uWoraotecar rvbaopnosr

Many of these greenhouse gases are actually life-enabling. Without them,
heat would escape back into space and the earth’s average temperature

Impact of Globing Warming

would be a lot colder. However, if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger,
then more heat gets trapped than needed, and the earth might become less
habitable for humans, plants and animals.

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Impact of Globing Warming / Climate Change

Climate change has become a serious problem in modern days. Its effects
are many and global in nature. Some of the major effects are as follows:

• Ice from polar-regions and high
mountain ranges melts and makes
the level of sea water increase.

• Soil erosion, flood and landslide
caused

• Irregular rainfall Melting Ice

• Low lying coastal land and islands
are likely to get submerged.

• Water cycle can fluctuate. It will cause unpredictable rainfall, storms,
waves, droughts etc.

• Natural life cycles are disturbed: plants bloom early, migratory birds
lay eggs in inappropriate locations, etc.

• Higher temperatures provide suitable environments for tropical
insects to migrate to higher altitudes.

• Epidemic diseases spread rapidly. Germs multiply faster.

• Water sources run dry due to the lack of adequate snowfall.

• Temperature sensitive plants and animals can’t grow well or may not
survive.

• Aquatic animals and plants too are affected.

Measures to be Adopted

In fact, developed and industrial countries are more responsible for climate
change. But its effects are worldwide. Nepal has been already experiencing
its impacts. Himalayan mountains are in great threat. Pattern of rainfall
seems to be disturbed. Several species of animals and plants are extinct and
some are in the state of extinction. Crops cultivation seems to be affected.
Due to over melting of snows, the beautiful Himalayas are looking naked
and ugly.

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Some of the measures that should be adopted to mitigate the
affects of climate change are as follows:

• Emission of greenhouse gases should be controlled.
• Use of fossil fuel should be reduced.
• Use of clean fuel and energy should be increased.
• Public vehicles should be encouraged.
• More trees and plants should be planted and protected.
• We should control the use of compounds that deplete ozone layer as

ammonia, chlorine etc.
• Strong laws should be made and implemented to protect environment.
• Haphazard urbanization and industrialization should be controlled.
• There should be close cooperation among nations in this regard.

Points to Remember:

F Global warming and climate change refer to an increase in average
global temperatures.

F A warming planet leads to a change in climate which can affect weather
in various ways.

F This is caused primarily by increase in “greenhouse” gases such as
Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

F There are 7 indicators that would increase in a warming world, and 3
indicators would to decrease.

F Greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature on Earth as certain gases
in the atmosphere trap energy.

F Humans are adding ever-increasing amounts of extra carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere.

F Throughout Earth’s history, climate has varied, recent warming is more
due to human activities.

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Key Terms and Words:

• Deplete: decrease
• Epidemic : widespread, catching
• Extinct : dead, obsolete
• Fluctuate: change
• Fossil : organic remains of previous time
• Haphazard : with out plan, aimless
• Humidity : very damp weather
• Migratory : moving to another place
• Ozone: Stratosphere, wind
• Panel : group, committee
• Radiate : give off, light up
• Submerged: inundated

Evaluation Activities

Short answer questions:
1. What is climate ? How does it differ from weather?
2. What do you understand by green house gas?
3. How does green house gas affect climate?
4. What is green house effect? How does it occur.
5. What is the climate change? What are the causes for it?
6. What are the impacts of the climate change? Write in Points.
7. What is global warming? How does it affect us?
8. Write the signs of climate change and their effects in Nepal.
9. What measures should be taken to control global warming and
climate change?
10. What are the indicators of climate change? Mention them

Community Based Work:
Meet some people in your community and find out whether they are aware
of global warming and climate change or not and also whether they have
noticed any signs of this in the last few years, and write a report based
on your finding.

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Lesson Disaster Management

3

“Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of community or a society
causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses
which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using
its own resources”. This is the UN’s
definition of disaster.

Disaster is quite often sudden,
unpredicted and unexpected. It is
mostly caused by natural forces
such as earthquake, landslide, flood,
avalanche, storm, volcanic eruption,
epidemic etc. Human activities have
nothing to do with disasters caused
by internal forces like earthquake and Disaster

volcanoes. But, human activities are
indirectly responsible for landslide, flood, epidemic etc.

However, some disasters are caused by human beings as well intentionally
or unintentionally. Disasters caused by human beings unintentionally can
also be called accidents. Wildfires, wars and terrorist acts are some of the
examples of intentionally caused human disasters.

Deforestation, environmental degradation, haphazard development,
uncontrolled population growth, poverty, proliferation of weapon of mass
destruction (WMD) etc are some of the causes of human made disasters.
Whatever may be the causes or forms of the disaster, it causes tremendous
pain, hardship, suffering, deaths, injuries, destruction and environmental
degradation. Some disasters can be so huge in scale that it will be very
difficult to be tackled by the affected community alone.

Disaster Prevention
There is a saying, “Prevention is better than cure.” Preventive measures
can avoid manmade disasters and accidents, and minimize damages of
the natural disasters. If we take preventive measures and keep ourselves

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prepared, we can minimize damages.

Disaster doesn’t come by knocking the
door. It can occur anytime in any scale.
However, there are certain indicators
and trends. We should follow them
and act accordingly. It is important
to keep ourselves prepared at least
for the most potential disasters like
earthquake, flood, landslide, fire, storm,
epidemic, terrorist acts etc. We should
keep ourselves informed, and keep
essential safety items and equipment
ready for such eventualities. We should
establish weather stations and develop
mechanism of timely dissemination of Man Made Disaster (Twin Tower)

information on weather condition. If
the weather is bad, we should quickly move to safe places. Fire fighting and
earthquake safety drills should be practiced on regular basis. Awareness
programmes , fore thought and preplanning can reduce the damages of
disaster.

Afforestation programmes can help prevent landslide, flood and air pollution.
We should protect, preserve and promote environment. We should use road,
fire, electricity, equipment and sensitive devices with much care. Production
of weapons of mass destruction should be stopped.

Disaster Management
Disaster management is basically what we do during and after any disaster
to minimize its damages. As disasters take place unexpected, we are often
caught unprepared. It is a critical period of time. Maximum restraint, calm
and composure are required during disaster management. We should handle
the situation coolly and calmly. We should not get panicked.

Disaster management may require a lot of resources in man, material and
equipment. Rescue and relief of victims, injured, wounded and dead will be
challenging. We should try to save life first. Injured should be given first aid
and taken to hospital. Dead bodies of human beings and animals, if any,
should be properly disposed.

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Nearby government agencies, security forces, clubs, social organizations
should be immediately informed of the disaster. Volunteers should be
mobilized. One should take command, control and coordination of the rescue
and relief operation.
Water, sanitation, food, shelter, health hazard should be given proper
attention. There may be water contamination and shortage of food and
shelter. We can minimize the damage of any disaster if we conduct rescue
and relief works in a coordinated manner.

Points to Remember:

F Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of community or a
society.

F Disaster is quite often sudden, unpredicted and unexpected.
F Disaster can be caused by natural forces and human beings as well.
F Whatever may be cause, disaster causes tremendous pain, suffering,

and environmental degradation.
F We can prevent, and reduce damages of disaster by taking proper

precautionary measures.
F Disaster management demands high standard of skill, coordination and

commitment.

Key Terms and Words:

• Avalanche : snowslide, falling large mass
• Commitment: assurance, obligation
• Composure : calmness, control
• Contaminated: adulterated, tarnished
• Dissemination : distribution, circulation
• Dispose : deal with, arrange
• Epidemic: fast spreading disease
• Eventualities: probabilities
• Hazard: danger
• Proliferation: rapid increase
• Rescue: saving from danger
• Restraint: self-control

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Evaluation Activities

Short answer questions:
1. What is disaster?
2. What can be the effects of the disaster? Write in points.
3. What are the causes of man-made disasters?
4. How can we prevent man-made disaster?
5. What do you understand by disaster management?
6. What measures should be taken to prevent disaster?
7. Why is prevention is better than the management after disaster?
Justify with examples.
8. How can we minimize the effect of the disasters?

Community Based Work:
(a) Some disasters might have taken place in your community. You find
out one from your parents and other elders in your community and
write a report on it.
(b) Write a paragraph about each of the following organizations.

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Lesson Physical Environment of
Nepal
4

Location and Size

Nepal is located in the Southern lap of the great Himalayan Range. It lies in
the South Asia between China and India. It extends from the East to West.
It is in between
80° 4' to 88 ° 12'
East Longitude,
and it measures
about 800
kilometers along
its Himalayan
axis. In the same
way, it is between
26° 12' to 30°
27' North Latitude
with North-South
width of 150 to Physical map of Nepal

250 km. It has
147,181 sq. km of total land. It is 65 and 22 times smaller than its immediate
neighbours, China and India respectively, and it ranks 93rd in the world.

Nepal is landlocked country but it has tremendous geographic diversity. It
rises from 60 m elevation in the tropical Terai to the Earth's highest Points
8,848 m (29,029 ft), Mount Everest or Sagarmatha. Within the narrow
width lies variety of landforms. Diversity in landforms is one of the important
features of Nepal. Along North- South, Nepal can be divided into three
distinct geographical belts: Mountain, Hill and Terai. In other way, it is divided
into three major river systems, from East to West: Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani
and Karnali.

Mountain Region
The Mountain Region occupies the northern belt of the country from east to
west. This region ranges between 3300 m to 8848m above the sea level. It
occupies about 15% of the total area of Nepal. The snow-line is at 5,000m.

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There are some 90 peaks over 7,000 Mountain Region (Humla)
meters and eight exceeding 8,000
meters (26,247 ft) including Mount
Everest. Unlike the Mahabharata,
the Himalayas are not continuous
across Nepal. Instead there are
about 25 sub-ranges including the
Kanchenjunga, Khumbu around
Mt. Everest, Langtang North of
Kathmandu, Annapurna North of
Pokhara and Dhaulagiri further
West, then Kanjiroba North of
Jumla etc.

Alpine, often semi-arid valleys—including Humla, Jumla, Dolpa, Mustang,
Manang and Khumbu—cut between Himalayan sub ranges or lie north of
them. Some of these valleys historically were more accessible from Tibet
than Nepal, and are populated by people with Tibetan affinities called
Bhotiya or Bhutia including the famous Sherpas in Khumbu valley near
Mount Everest. Valleys with better
access from the hill regions to the
south are culturally linked to Nepal
as well as Tibet. Permanent villages
in the mountain region stand as
high as 4,500 meters (14,764 ft)
with summer encampments even
higher. There is little area suitable
for cultivation. Vegetation differs
according to altitudes. Mostly
coniferous trees and grassland are Upper Manang

found. Population density is very
low. Yak, sheep and goat rearing and tourism are the main occupations.

The Hill Region
Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (Pahar in Nepali)
is mostly between 610 m and 3300 m altitude. This region begins at
the Churia hills in the South and covers the Mahabharata Range (lesser
mountain). Chure will extends from an altitude of 610 m to 1872 m in the

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north. The folded mountain that
rises from 1500 m to 3660 m from
the sea level is called Mahabharat
Range. It extends from Mechi in
the East to Mahakali in the West.
Its width varies from 80km to 128
km. This region occupies about 68
% of the country’s land area. There
are some fertile river basins and
valleys in this region. The urbanized
Hill Region

Kathmandu and Pokhara Valleys
fall within this region. The Hill region ends dramatically where the main
Himalayan Range abruptly rises
thousands of meters.

This belt has mild climate. This
region receives enough rainfall
in summer. Geographically, this
region is wider, richer and denser
than mountain region. Cattle
rearing, farming, horticulture,
tourism and trade are main
occupations. Mostly deciduous Magar Women

trees are found. Mainly, Limbus, Rais, Gurungs, Magars, Chhetris and
Bahuns live here.

The Terai Region

The Tarai or Madhesh region begins
at the Indian border in the South
and extends up to the foothills of
Churia range called the Siwaliks or
Churia. Terai refers to hot, wet, low,
flat, fertile land. The Terai region
extends from Mechi in the East to
Mahakali in the West. It is about
Terai Region

17 % of the total area of Nepal. Its
width varies from 25 to 32 km. Its elevation is between 60 m to 610 m from
the sea level.

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The Terai Region is divided into Inner Terai BP Highway, Sindhuli
and Outer Terai. The Southernmost part of
it is called the Outer Terai. There lies Churia
Hills and Mahabharata Range to the North
of the Outer Terai, and the flat and fertile
land between them is called dun valleys or
the Inner Terai, Bhitri Madesh. Udaypur in
the Eastern Region, Sindhuli and Chitwan
in the Central Region and Dang in the Mid-
Western region are the Inner Terais.

The Terai Region receives water by the
rivers flowing down from the Mountain and
Hill Regions. There is very fertile alluvial
soil deposited by the rivers in the Terai.
This region produces most of the food and
cash crops in the country. It is, therefore,
very rightly called the ‘Granary of Nepal’.
Agriculture, cattle rearing, trade, industry
Tharu Women

etc are main occupations. Sub-tropical thick
forests like Char Kose Jhadi are found. It is more facilitated and densely
populated than both hill and mountain regions. Madeshis, Tharus, Muslims,
Musahar etc are the main inhabitants. Terai ends and the Hills begin at a
higher range of foothills called the Mahabharata Range.

Points to Remember:

F Nepal lies in the Southern lap of the great Himalayan Range in the South
Asia between China and India.

F With 147,181 sq. km, it is 65 and 22 times smaller than its neighbours,
China and India respectively.

F It rises from 60 m in the tropical Terai to the Earth's highest Points 8,848
m (29,029 ft), Mount Everest.

F Along North- South, Nepal can be divided into three distinct geographical
belts: Mountain, Hill and Terai.

F Mountain Region occupies about 15%, Hill about 68% and Terai about 17%
of land.

F Diversity in landforms is one of the important features of Nepal.
F Unlike the Mahabharata, the Himalayas are not continuous across Nepal.

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Key Terms and Words:

• Abruptly : all of a sudden, suddenly
• Affinity : same type, liking
• Alluvial : a kind of soil, rich soil
• Conifer : evergreen alpine
• Deciduous : not around for long, momentary
• Elevation : height, altitude
• Encampment : camp, site
• Horticulture : gardening, farming of fruits
• Lap : loop, circuit

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is the location of Nepal?
2. What is the size of Nepal?
3. Into how many geographical regions is Nepal divided?
4 What are the valleys between the Churia Hills and Mahahabharat
Range called?
5. What is the snowline in Nepal?
6. How many sub-ranges of himalayas are there in Nepal?
7. What percentage of land is occupied by Terai, Hill and Mountain?
8. Name 4 sub ranges of Himalayas.
9. Name 3 semi-arid valleys of Nepal.
10. What is Char Koshe Jhari?
11. Why is Terai called the granary of Nepal?

Short answer questions:
1. Why are the Terai, valleys and basins more fertile than hills and
mountains? Give reasons.
2. Into how many region can Nepal be divided according to river
system? Write briefly.
3. Draw an outline map of Nepal and show the physical features and
the main river systems.
4. List out the Himalayan Ranges from the East to West and one
Mountain Peak in each of them.

Community Based Work:
You may be living either in the Mountain or the Hill or Terai Region.
What types of soil and landforms are there in your community? Prepare
a report.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 123

Lesson Map Work and
Map Reading
5

What a Map Is
A map is a representation of the earth or a portion of the earth drawn to scale
on a flat surface or paper. In broad sense, it can be either physical or political
map. Physical map shows physical features, reliefs, natural resources and
political map shows political division, human made structures and activities.
Maps are very useful. They give us various information about topography,
human activities, natural resources and so on. A map should have a Title,
Legend or Key or Index and most importantly Scale.

Finding Direction and Bearing on a Map
If we want to find direction and or bearing of a certain place from another
place on the map, we should first join the two Points by drawing a line.

Jomsom

Nepalgunj

Kathmandu is North - West of Biratnagar Kathmandu
and Biratnagar is South-East of Kathmandu.
Nepalgunj is South-West of Jomsom and Biratnagar
Jomsom is North-East of Nepalgunj.

An outline map of Nepal showing Biratnagar, Kathmandu, Jomsom and Nepalgunj

Then we should draw a north line parallel to the north line or grid line of the
map from the Points of the own location. Now, the line shows the direction
in which the place we like to know lies. We can even find out the bearing or

124 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

degree from own location to that location using protector or a compass. To
find this out, first 0 degree on the compass or protector should be aligned on
the north line of own place and then find out the degree or bearing of the
desired place reading the degree in the protector the line is indicating.
From this map, now we know that Jomsom is in the North-West of Biratnagar,
and Nepalgunj is in the South-west of Jomsom.

Drawing a Map of Nepal
The following is a simple method of drawing a map of Nepal.

First draw a rectangle ABCD: AB=CD=20cm and AD=BC=10cm or half the
length of AB or CD. Measure 4 cm from A along AB and AD, and mark as E
and F respectively. Again measure 4 cm from C along CB and CD, and mark
G and H respectively. Join EF, FG, GH and HE as shown on the figure, which
is a parallelogram.

A 4 cm E J B

4 cm

F 10 cm
H

4 cm

D K G C
4 cm

20 cm
Method of Drawing a Map of Nepal

Now, draw a map of Nepal using the rectangle and the parallelogram as the
base. Once you finish drawing, measure 10 cm along AB and DC, and mark
as J and K respectively. Join J and K with dotted line as shown in the diagram
which divides Nepal almost into two halves. We can insert any information
we like in this map using proper conventional signs and symbols.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 125

Some Symbols Used in a Map: Canal

Peak Dam

Mountain Range North of Map

Lake International
Boundary
River State Boundary
Bridge
Pass District
Road Boundary
Railways Ropeways/Cable
Path car
Capital
Town/City Airways

Temple Oil

Sea

Stupa

Points to Remember:

F A map is a representation of the earth or a portion of the earth drawn to
scale on a flat surface.

F A map should have a Title, Legend or Key or Index and most importantly
the Scale

126 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. What is a map?
2. If you are facing to the north, which direction will your left hand

show?
3. What does a physical map show?
4. What are the important components of a map?

Short answer questions:

1. What is meant by legend or index in a map? Why are they important?
2. Take a map of Nepal and find the direction of the following cities

from Kathmandu: Bhadrapur, Dharan, Bharatpur, Dhangadi and
Dipayal.
3. Draw a map of Nepal on the basis of the scale given below: Rectangle
AB= CD=15 cm, AD=BC=7.5 cm, and parallelogram RO = QP =3 cm.
AU=DV=CV=BU=7.5 cm.
4. Draw a full page outline map of Nepal and insert the following
information: (Use proper symbols) Capital city, Regional
headquarters, trade centres: Kakarvitta, Biratnagar, Birgunj,
Bharatpur, Bhairahawa, Nepalgunj; Lakes: Phewa, Rara, Shey-
Phoksundo; highways East-West, Araniko, Siddhartha, Tribhuwan,
Mechi; Peaks: Kumbhakarna, Mt Everest, Langtang, Annapurna,
Saipal and Api, and Tea and Jute growing areas.

Community Based Work:

Sketch an outline map of the area from your house to school. Show shops,
office buildings, bridges, temples, rivers, ponds, houses, trees etc, and
any other roads linked to it.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 127

Lesson Longitudes and Latitudes

6

Latitudes

• Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn east to west on a map or globe
for some specific purposes.

• They join together all places having the same angular distance north
or south of the Equator.

• They are measured in degrees. The Equator, which is located in the
middle of the globe, is measured as 0°.

• The equator is taken as the reference Points in order to begin the
measurement of latitudes.

• Besides the Equator, there are altogether
180 latitudes: 90 in the north and 90 in
the south of the equator.

• Latitudes run horizontally on either side
of the Equator.

• Latitudes are circles parallel to one
another but with varying lengths.

• The equator (40,000km or 25000milies)
is the largest circle of latitudes whereas
the North Pole and the South Pole are
merely Points.

• For example: 70° N latitude has a smaller circumference than that of
25° N latitude.

• 1° latitude is 111 km or 69 milies approximately.
• Latitudes are distances (angular) between angles north or south of

the Equator. For example: when we say,
‘45° N latitude, it means the latitude
passes through all the places on the
earth that are 45° N of the reference
latitude or the Equator.
• Latitudes are measured from 0°

128 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

(Equator) to 90° N and to 90° S (North Pole and South Pole). Hence,
the Equator at 0° latitude makes a 90° or right angle with North Pole
or South Pole.
• When giving values of the latitudes, the letter N or S should be added
to indicate whether the given place is north or south from the Equator.
• The half of the globe to the north of the Equator is known as northern
hemisphere, and the other southern half is known as the southern
hemisphere.

Longitudes
• Longitudes are imaginary lines,
measured in degrees, join all places
having the same angular distance east or
west of the Prime Meridian or Greenwich
Meridian.
• Longitude is the angular distance of a
place from the Prime Meridian to the
east or west.
• Prime Meridian, which is the reference
line for measuring longitudes is
considered as 0° longitude.

• There are 360 longitudes: 180 in the
eastern hemisphere and 180 in western hemisphere.

• The same line of longitude is numbered as 180° E and 180°W.

• They are half-circles, not parallel and are of equal lengths.

• Longitudes run vertically of the Prime Meridian.

• All longitudes start from one pole and join at another pole.

• They are the widest part at the equator.

• The Prime Meridian 0° along with 180° longitude divides the earth
into eastern and western hemisphere.

• Longitudes are called meridians because all the places located along
the same longitude (meridian) experience noon or mid-day at the
same time.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 129

• Longitudes and latitudes intersect the Equator and form grid on the
surface of the earth and help us to locate a place on the globe or
earth.

• Each degree of latitudes and longitudes is divided into 60 minutes
and each minute into 60 seconds.

• Every longitude is 4 minutes apart from another successive longitude:
1 hr (15x4 min=60 min) in every 15° longitudes.

• In a place east of the Greenwich Meridian, time is added at a rate of
4 minutes per degree of longitude to the time of Greenwich. Similarly,
4 minutes per degree is subtracted for the time of a place west of the
Greenwich.

• With the help of longitudes, we can find out the Standard Time
calculated from the Greenwich Meantime as well as the local time
difference of any two given longitudes or places.

For Example: Nepal lies between 26° 22’ N to 30° 27’N and 80°4’ E to 88°
12’E. It means Nepal is in north of the equator and east of the Meridian.
86°15’ E longitude is the standard longitude of Nepal. Time is faster towards
east as the earth moves from west to east. So, as per its distance from the
Prime Meridian, the standard time of Nepal is 5 hrs 45 minutes ahead of
the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). And, there is a local time difference of 32
min (8x4 min=32 min) within Nepal. It means, the sun rises in the far-west of
Nepal only 32 minutes after it has risen in the far-east. But for convenience,
there is one standard time in the whole country.

Key Terms and Words:

• Circumference : periphery, perimeter
• Horizontally: crosswise, crossways
• Hemisphere: half of the earth
• Meridian: longitude, midday line ( it is midday in a certain place when its

longitude faces the sun directly)
• Reference : remark, citation, relating

130 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. What is latitude?
2. What is longitude?
3. What is the Equator?
4. What is the hemisphere?
5. What is Greenwich Mean Time?
6. What is the full form of GMT?
7. What is the Prime Meridian?
8. What distance is covered by 1° latitude ?
9. What is the time gap from one longitude to another longitude?
10. How many hemisphere are there? Name them.
11. Why are longitude called Meridians?

Short answer questions:

1. Write down any four differences between longitudes and latitudes?
2. Draw a figure of an earth and show how the equator and the Prime

Meridian divide the earth’s surface into hemispheres?
3. Find out the approximate (only degrees) longitudes and latitudes

of the following cities: Kathmandu, New Delhi, Tokyo, Bankok,
Islamabad, Paris, London, New York, Los Angeles.
4. What are the important of longitude and latitude ?

Community Based Work:

Find out the approximate longitude and latitude of your place.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 131

Lesson Continent of Europe

7

Location and Size
Europe is the second-smallest continent. Only Australia and Oceania has
less landmass. Europe extends from the island nation of Iceland in the west
to the Ural Mountains of Russia in the east. Europe’s northernmost Points
is the Svalbard archipelago of Norway, and it reaches as far south as the
islands of Greece and Malta.

Europe lies in northern hemisphere. It extends from 25° W to 65° E longitudes
and 35° n to 73°n latitudes. Its location is very favourable because of its
central position.
Europe is described as a peninsula of peninsulas. A peninsula is a piece
of land surrounded by water on three sides. Europe is a peninsula of the
Eurasian supercontinent. It has many peninsulas projecting into the sea.
It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Atlantic Ocean in the
west, and the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas in the south. The

132 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

Ural Mountains and the Ural River separate Europe from Asia.

Europe and Africa are joined by a narrow water channel called Gibraltar
Strait, which links the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. There are
many islands in Europe like the British Isles, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete.

Europe in comparison with its size has the longest coastline among all the
continents. It has a highly indented
coastline with bays, gulfs and sea.
There are many natural harbours
and ports. No part of Europe is 1600
km away from the sea. The sea has
moved deep into the land. Main seas
are White Sea, The Adriatic Sea,
Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Aegean Sea
and Caspian Sea.

Europe can be divided into four major Fjord
physical regions, running from north
to south: Western Uplands, North
European Plain, Central Uplands and
Alpine Mountains.

Western Uplands

The Western Uplands, also known as the Northern Highlands, curve up the
western edge of Europe. It defines the physical landscape of Scandinavia
(Norway, Sweden, and Denmark),
Finland, Iceland, Scotland, Ireland,
the Brittany region of France, Spain,
and Portugal.

The Western Uplands is defined by Rhine
hard, ancient rock that was shaped
by glaciation. Glaciation is the
process of land being transformed
by glaciers or ice sheets. As glaciers
receded from the area, they left a
number of distinct physical features
like marshlands, lakes, and fjords.
A fjord is a long and narrow inlet of

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 133

the sea that is surrounded by high, rugged
cliffs. Many of Europe’s fjords are located
in Iceland and Scandinavia.

North European Plain

The North European Plain extends from the
southern United Kingdom east to Russia.
It includes parts of France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Poland,
the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and
Lithuania), and Belarus.

Most of the Great European Plain lies Elbe

below 152 meters (500 feet) in elevation.
It is home to many navigable rivers, including the Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Oder,
and Vistula. The climate supports a wide variety of seasonal crops. These
physical features allowed for early communication, travel, and agricultural
development. This plain remains the most densely populated region of
Europe.

Central Uplands
The Central Uplands extend east-west across central Europe and include
western France and Belgium,
southern Germany, the
Czech Republic, and parts
of northern Switzerland and
Austria.

The Central Uplands are
lower in altitude and less
rugged than the Alpine region
and are heavily wooded.
Important highlands in this
region include the Massif
Central and the Vosges in Danube River

France, the Ardennes of
Belgium, the Black Forest and the Taunus in Germany, and the Ore and
Sudeten in the Czech Republic. This region is sparsely populated except in
the Rhine, Elbe, and Danube river valleys.

134 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

Alpine Mountains

The Alpine Mountains include ranges in the Italian and Balkan peninsulas,
northern Spain, and southern
France. The region includes
the mountains of the Alps,
Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinaric
Alps, Balkans, and Carpathians.

High elevations, rugged
plateaus, and steeply sloping
land define the region. Europe’s
highest peak, Mount Elbrus
(5,642 meters/18,510 feet), Alpine Mountain

is in the Caucasus mountain of
Russia. The Alpine region also includes active volcanoes, such as Mount
Etna and Mount Vesuvius in Italy.

Rivers and Climate
Volga, Elbe, Danube, Rhine, Ural,
Weser, Oder, and Vistula etc are
the main rivers of Europe. Most of
the rivers in Europe are navigable.
The Danube, which flows through
seven countries, is also called an
international river.

Most of the Europe experiences Volga River

temperate climate. Only a small part
of the north east of the continent has cold and dry climate. The north - west
highlands enjoy cool and pleasant climate. It is cold in the north and warm
in the south. The Western Europe receives rainfall throughout the year. Most
of Europe receives enough rainfall. The Mediterranean region along the
Mediterranean Sea has warm climate with rain in winter. This type of climate
is known as Mediterranean climate. It is very suitable for growing fruits. So,
this region is called the ‘Garden of the World’.

Flora & Fauna
Much like its physical regions, Europe’s plant and animal communities
follow a general north-south orientation. The tundra, found in Iceland and

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 135

the northern reaches of Scandinavia and Russia, is a treeless region where
small mosses, lichens, and ferns grow. Huge herds of reindeer feed on these
tiny plants.

The taiga, which stretches across
northern Europe just south of the tundra,
is composed of coniferous forests, with
trees such as pine, spruce, and fir. Moose,
bear, and elk are native to the European
taiga.

Just south of the taiga is a mixture of
coniferous and deciduous trees. Although
this area remains heavily forested, Elk

the continents forests were drastically
reduced as a result of intense urbanization throughout human history.

Finally, small, drought-resistant plants border the Mediterranean Sea. Trees
also grow in that southernmost region, including the Aleppo pine, cypress,
and cork oak. The only primate native to Europe, the Barbary macaque,
inhabits this Mediterranean basin. A small troop of Barbary macaques lives
on the tiny island of Gibraltar, between Spain and the African country of
Morocco.

The waters surrounding Europe are home to a number of organisms,
including fish, seaweeds, marine mammals, and crustaceans. The cold water
surrounding northern Britain and Scandinavia is home to unique species
of cold-water corals. All of the major bodies of water in Europe have been
fished for centuries. In many places, including the Mediterranean and North
seas, waters have been over fished.

Today, around 15 percent of Europe’s animal species are threatened
or endangered, mainly by habitat loss, pollution, over exploitation, and
competition from invasive species. The European bison, the heaviest land
animal on the continent, is one of the most threatened species.

Socio-Economic Life
Europe has a long history of human development and is considered the
birthplace of Western Civilization. Today, Europe is home to the citizens
of Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,

136 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia,
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Monaco,
Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San
Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
Ukraine, the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern
Ireland), and Vatican City.

All the countries in Europe are developed. The energetic and industrious
people have made Europe the most advanced continent in the world. The
main economic activities of European people are industries, fisheries, trade,
business, animal
husbandry and
agriculture. Industrial
revolution began from
the Great Britain and
spread all over Europe.
Europe has plenty of
power resources, raw
materials, means of
transport and other
infrastructures for
development.
Flag of European Union (EU)
There are many
languages spoken in
Europe. People speak English, French, German, Spanish, Dutch, Russian,
and many other languages. Majority of people are Christians. Christmas
and Easter are the main festivals. Many people from Asia and Africa have
migrated into Europe.

Some of the European countries have formed a union called European Union
(EU). They (except England) use a common currency known as Euro. There
is free trade within the union. People from member countries don’t need
passport and visa to visit each other’s countries within the union.

Nepal maintains friendly relations with all European countries. England,
Germany, France, Switzerland, Norway etc are major donor countries to
Nepal. EU is assisting in promoting human rights and democracy in Nepal.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 137

Points to Remember:

F Europe is the second-smallest continent. Only Australia and Oceania
has less landmass.

F Europe is described as a peninsula of peninsulas. A peninsula is a piece
of land surrounded by water on three sides.

F Europe has four physical regions: Western Uplands, North European
Plain, Central Uplands, and Alpine Mountains.

F Most of the Great European Plain lies below 152 meters (500 feet) in
elevation.

F Europe’s highest peak, Mount Elbrus (5,642 meters/18,510 feet), is in
the Caucasus Mountains of Russia.

F The Alpine region also includes active volcanoes, such as Mount Etna
and Mount Vesuvius in Italy.

F The only primate native to Europe, the Barbary macaque, inhabits this
Mediterranean basin.

F The European bison, the heaviest land animal on the continent, is one of
the most threatened species.

F European Union is called EU and its currency Euro.
F Europe is a rich and advanced continent.

Key Terms and Words:

• Archipelago: peninsula, island
• Crustacean : arthropod, shellfish
• Gulf : sea inlet, bay
• Glaciation : coldness, frigidity
• Harbour : bay, port
• Indented : depressed, sectioned
• Lichens: moss
• Navigable : guide along water, sail
• Primate: anthropoid, baboon, ape
• Receded: decreased, diminished
• Rugged: hilly, bumpy, mountainous
• Seaweeds : algae

138 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. Why is Europe called the peninsula of peninsulas?
2. What is the elevation of European plain?
3. Which is the highest peak in Europe?
4. Which region has active volcano in Europe?
5. What is the full form of EU?
6. Name any 5 countries of Europe.
7. What is peninsula?
8. What is Tundra?
9. What is Taiga?
10. Why is Eurasia called a supercontinent?
11. What is a fjord?
12. Name 3 big rivers of Europe.
13. Why is Mediterranean climate zone called garden of the world?

Short answer questions:

1. Into how many geographical regions can Europe be divided into?
2. Describe the geographical reasons of Europe in brief.
3. Describe the flora and fauna of Europe in brief.
4. Describe the social economic life of Europe?
5. Give geographical reasons:

(a) Europe’s rivers are suitable for internal navigation.
(b) North-West Europe receives rainfall throughout the year.
(c) Finland is called the land of thousand lakes.
(d) Eastern part of Europe has extreme climate.
(e) Mediterranean region of Europe is called the ‘garden of the

world.’
6. Trace an outline map of Europe and insert the following:

Alps Mountain, River Danube, Taiga, London, Paris, Moscow, Atlantic
Ocean, Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Gibraltar, Rome.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 139

Lesson Continent of Australia

8

Location and Size
Australia is the smallest continent, largest island and the sixth largest country
after Russia, Canada, China, the USA and Brazil. It lies between 114° E to
154° E longitude and 10° S to 40° S latitudes. It means it is completely in
southern and eastern hemisphere. It is the only continent which is crossed
by only one major latitude; the Tropic of Capricorn. It divides the continent
almost into two halves.

Australia is bordered by the Timor and Arafura Seas in the north, the Coral
Sea in the north-east, the Pacific Ocean and the Tasmania Sea in the east
and the Indian Ocean in the south-west. The small islands of Indonesia
in the north and New Zealand in the south-east are Australia’s nearest

140 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

neighbours. There are several islands around Australia like New Zealand,
Papua New Guinea etc. Including the islands, Australia is called Oceania.

Physical Features

Australia is not only the smallest, but also the driest continent. Unlike other
continents, there are no
great mountains or big rivers
in Australia. There are very
less indentations as it has a
regular coastline. However,
the north-west coast is quite
broken.

Australia can be divided
into three physical divisions:
Eastern Highlands, Western
Plateau, and Central Plains.
Eastern Highland: The Australia's Highest Pick Mt. Kosciusko

eastern highland is about
3000km parallel to the east coast stretching north-south. It is also called
the Great Dividing Range as it separates the rivers flowing west from those
flowing east. Its average altitude is 900 m. It has lower altitude and gentler
slopes in the north than in the south. Mt Kosciusko 2228 m in New South
Wales is the country’s highest peak.

Western Plateau: It is a huge flat and dry plain land. It covers nearly two-
third of the total land area. It is one of the oldest parts of the earth like the
Deccan plateau of India. It is almost entirely covered with sand making the
Great Australian Desert.

Central Plains: In between the eastern Highlands and the Western Plateau,
there lies the Central Plains. It is also called Downs and extends from the
Gulf of Carpentaria in the north to the southern ocean. The Carpentarian low
land slopes gently towards land and the north-west coast is quite broken. Due
to tropical climate and thin population, it is not much cultivated. The central
part, Eyre basin, is low lying basin separated by the Selwyn range from the
Carpentarian low land. The southern part is drained by the continent’s only
river system the Murray Darling.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 141

Climate, Vegetation and Wildlife
Australia has varying climatic conditions. The
western part is basically a desert. The southern
part receives rainfall in winter whereas the
northern part in summer. The mild climate with
winter rain is called the Mediterranean climate.
Summer brings heavy rain in the eastern part.
As Australia lies in the southern hemisphere, its
climate is opposite to that of Nepal. When it is
summer in Nepal, it is winter in Australia and
vise versa.

The vegetation and animals found in Australia
are very unique. Many of the plants and animals
of Australia are hardly found in other parts of
the world. As Australia is mostly hot and dry, Kangaro

there are plants having strength to protect from
heat. Coconut, palms and mangroves are common throughout Australia.
Important flowering plants native to Australia include the jacaranda and
hibiscus, breadfruit, eucalyptus, and banyan.

Birds are very common in Australia. There are more than 110 endemic bird
species in Australia including many seabirds. Many flightless birds, such as
emus, kiwis, cassowaries etc are native to Australia. Lizards and bats make
up the majority of Australia’s native land animals. Australia has more than a
hundred different species of fruit bats.

The few native land animals in Australia are unusual. Australia is the only
place in the world that is home to mammals that lay eggs. Many of the most
familiar animals native to Australia are marsupials, including the koala,
kangaroo, and wallaby. Marsupials
are mammals that carry their
newborn young in a pouch.

Socio-Economic Life Aborigines
Australia is the least populated
continent. It was discovered by
Captain Cook from England about
two century ago. Most people live in

142 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

the eastern and western coast. Native dwellers, poor and backward people
live a nomadic life in central and northern part. Although it has people
from all over the world, the biggest number of immigrants is from the Great
Britain and Ireland. The European immigrants are advanced and live a high
standard life. Many Nepalese youths go to Australia every year to study and
settle down.

It has abundance of natural resources. Agriculture, sheep rearing and mining
are the main occupations. Aborigines, the native people of Australia, live
around the Savanna or Downs. Their
main occupation is animal rearing
and hunting of wildlife. Wheat farming
and sheep rearing is extensively done
in the grassland or savanna. Wool
and meat are obtained from the
sheep. Australia is one of largest wool
exporters. Dairy farming also is an
important occupation in Queensland.
The Mediterranean regions of the Sydney Opera House

south are well known for fruit and
wheat farming.

Some important minerals are found in plenty. Australia is the leading
producer of gold, silver, lead, zinc, coal, iron, copper, bauxite and uranium. It
alone produces one-third uranium of the world.

Australia is a developed country. It has a plenty of manufacturing industries.
It exports machinery equipment, wool, wood, wheat, dairy products, meat,
skin, gold, silver, copper and coal.

Canberra is its national capital. Australia has about 25 million population.
One of the most famous buildings in the world is the Sydney Opera House.
It overlooks the Pacific Ocean in Sydney Harbor. The building’s defining
characteristic is a series of large, white triangular “shells,” which reflect the
abundance of sailboats in the region. More than 8 million people visit this
performing arts center every year. It was named a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in 2007. Other cities are Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth.

Nepal maintains good relationship with Australia. Australia is helping Nepal
in conservation and utilization of forest and swampy lands.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 143

Points to Remember :

F Australia is the smallest continent, largest island and the sixth largest
country after Russia, Canada, China, the USA and Brazil.

F Australia can be divided into three geographical regions: Eastern
Highlands, Central Plains and Western Plateau.

F Unlike other continents, there are no great mountains or big rivers in
Australia.

F The vegetation and animals found in Australia are very unique.
F Although it has people from all over the world, the biggest number is

from the Great Britain and Ireland.
F Canberra is its national capital. Australia has about 25 million of

population.
F Flora and fauna across the islands of Australia and Oceania is unique.
F Australia’s native plants include the jacaranda, hibiscus, breadfruit,

eucalyptus, and banyan.
F Lizards and bats make up the majority of Australia’s native land animals.
F Canberra is its national capital. Australia has about 25 million of

population.
F The Great Barrier Reef, a UNESCO World Heritage Site off the coast of

northeast Australia, is 344,400 sq km.

Key Terms and Words:

• Abondance : plenty
• Endemic : native local
• Indentations: dent, depression
• Sailboat : a boat propelled with wind
• Wallaby: marsupial like kangaroo, koala etc

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Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. In which hemisphere is Australia located?
2. Who discovered Australia?
3. Write about the World Heritage Sites in Australia?
4. What is the capital city of Australia?
5. Who are the natives of Australia called?
6. Which is the highest peak of Australia?
7. What is the name of the major river of Australia?
8. What are marsupials?
9. Why is Australia very dry?
10. What is the great dividing range ?
11. What do you mean by 'downs'?
12. What divide Australia almost into two equal halves?

Short answer questions:

1. Into how many geographical regions can Australia be divided? List
them out and write about one of them.

2. Describe the geographical location of Australia.
3. Describe the flora and fauna of Australia in brief.
4. The seasons of Australia and Asia are just opposite, when one has

summer, the other has winter, Why? Give reasons.
5. Mention some of the unique plants and animals found in Australia

and write about any two of them in brief.
6. Why sheep rearing is popular in Australia?
7. Name any 5 main Australian items of export?
8. Australia is rich in natural resources. Justify with examples
9. Trace an outline map of Australia and insert the following:
Darwin, Sydney, Pacific Ocean, R Murray Darling, Great Dividing

Range, Australian desert, Tasmania, Area of winter rain.

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UNIT

6

OUR PAST

In this unit, we will learn the following:
• Introduction to Medieval Nepal
• Political Condition of Medieval Nepal
• Social and Cultural Condition of Medieval Nepal
• Economic Condition of Medieval Nepal
• Art and Culture of Medieval Nepal
• Human Civilization
• The Hwang-Ho Valley Civilization
• The Mesopotamian Civilization

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Lesson Introduction To Medieval
Nepal
1

Nepal’s history is divided into three main periods: ancient, medieval and
modern. The history of Nepal from the rise of the Mallas to the conquest
of Prithivi Narayan Shah over the Kathmandu Valley is considered as the
Medieval Period. This period roughly begins in 936 BS and ends in 1825 BS.
During this period, there were mainly three kingdoms in Nepal. There were
Tirhut or Mithila kingdom in the south, Nepal Valley in the Kathmandu Valley
and Khas kingdom in the west.

Simraungadh (Mithila) State
This state was established by Nanya Dev. Nanya Dev was of the Karnataka
dynasty, India, conquered the south-eastern part of Nepal and established
this state in 1097 A.D. This state was also called Doya or Mithila State. Its
capital was at Simraungadh, which now lies in Bara District. It remained in
existence till 1326 BS. This Kingdom extended up to present day Bihar state
of India. It was a powerful and relatively advanced kingdom in culture and
arts. The last ruler of this state was Harisimha Dev. In 1326, Gayasuddin
Tuglak, the Sultan of Delhi invaded and destroyed this kingdom.

Nepal Valley

In those days, present day Kathmandu valley used to be known as Nepal
Valley. In this valley, there
were three kingdoms.
They were Kantipur,
Patan and Bhadgaon
(Bhaktapur). They were
ruled by the Malla kings.
Nepal Valley was quite
powerful and developed
in art and culture during
the rule of Yaksha
Malla. Nepal Valley was
one political entity. The
kingdom was extended Bhaktapur

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 147

as far as Bhot in the north and Mithila (Tirhut) in the south. But, the kingdom
got divided among his sons and daughter: Ratna Malla got Kantipur, Raya
Malla Bhadgaon, Rana Malla Banepa and his daughter Patan. This is why
there were separate rulers in the Nepal Valley. Although they were from the
same clan, they didn’t have close cooperation. One would attempt to rise at
the cost of another. Nepal Valley fell into Prithivi Naran Shah’s hand in 1826
BS.

The Khas Kingdom of the Western Nepal

In 1150, a ruler called Nagaraja, who came from Tibet established a Kingdom
in the west of present day Nepal. Its capital was at Sinja, present day Jumla,
Karnali Zone. It was a big state. It extended up to Nuwakot, Trisuli in the east,
Kedar (Kumaon and Gadhwal) in the
west, Mansorowar (Tibet) in the north
and Bodhgaya in the south.

After Nagraj, many other kings ruled
this kingdom. The later kings of this
dynasty adopted the surname of
Malla. This state got split by 1506
BS, and several smaller states were
formed. There were as many as 22
Khas Kingdome

states in the Karnali region and 24
states in the Gandaki region. Because of their numbers, they were better
known as Baise and Chaubise States. Among Baise Rajyas, Jumla and
among Chaubises, Palpa was more powerful.

Sen Kingdoms
The Sen Dynasty was established by Rudra sen of Plapa. His son, King
Mukunda Sen extended his territory up to Morang in the east. But, the state
got divided after his death. In the south-east of present day Nepal, three
separate Sen states: Makawanpur, Chaudandi and Bijaypur were formed
towards the middle of the sixteenth century. To the north of these eastern
Sen states, there were Limbuwans and Khumbuwans. Butwal, Rising and
Tanahun were also under Sen King’s rule until their annexation.

As there was no national feelings and unity, the kingdoms were fragmented
into numerous smaller states. The divided states were only as big as to-
day’s districts. Many of them had very small population. The kings used the

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kingdoms as their family property. There was wide spread mistrust among
them. They used to attack each other. This made them weaker and weaker
and finally they fell in the hand of Prithivi Narayan Shah, the founder of
modern Nepal.

Points to Remember:

F Nepal’s history can be divided into three main periods: ancient, medieval
and modern.

F The period from the rise of the Mallas to the conquest of Prithivi Narayan
Shah of the Kathmandu Valley is considered as the Medieval Period..

F There were mainly three kingdoms: Tirhut or Mithila in the south, Nepal
Valley in the Kathmandu Valley and Khas kingdom in the west during the
medieval period.

F Tirhut or Mithila state was established with its capital at Simraungadh at
Simara by Nanya Dev of Karnataka, India.

F After Yaksha Malla, Nepal Valley got divided into three separate kingdoms
as kantipur, Badhgaon and Patan.

F Nagaraja from Tibet established a Khas Kingdom in 1150 BS in the west
of with its capital at Sinja, Jumla.

F The Khas kingdom got split into Baise (Karnali Region) and Chaubise
(Gandaki Region) states by 1506 BS .

F Many of the Baise and Chaubise states were only as big as to-day’s
districts.

F Prithivi Narayan Shah unified many of these states and laid the foundation
of the modern Nepal.

Key Terms and Words:

• Annexed: joined, added
• Clan : family, group, kinfolks
• Dynasty: empire, regime, house
• Entity : object that exists, body
• Fragmented: broke into pieces

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 149

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. Which period is considered as the medieval period in the history of
Nepal?
2. How many kingdoms were there in Nepal in the beginning of the
medieval period?
3. Who established the kingdom of Tirhut?
4. What were the another name of Simraungardh?
5. Where was the capital of Tirahut, and where is it now located?
6. When did Nepal Valley get divided?
7. How many states were there in Gandaki and Karnali regions towards
the end of the medieval period?
8. Who was the founder of the Khas state?
9. Where was the Khas state capital, and where is it now located?

Short answer questions:
1. Into how many periods was the history of Nepal divided? Write about
one of the periods in brief.
2. Why were the Baise and Chaubise states called so? Name some of
the Baise and Chaubise states.

Community Based Work:
Nepal has been restructured into 7 federal states. Mention some
advantages of federal states, consult with your teacher or elders if
needed.

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