Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine

Gentiana lutea

Gentiana lutea (Gentianaceae) Gentian Key medicinal plants
An erect perennial
Gentian growing to 4 ft (1.2 m),
with star-shaped
yellow flowers and
oval leaves.

Gentian is a powerful bitter, and the herb is an essential Parts Used
ingredient of traditional aperitifs and bitters such as
Angostura bitters. The customary aperitif about half Root is harvested
an hour before a meal is more than a social nicety— in autumn for
the bitter constituents stimulate gastric juices and use in remedies
prime the stomach, enabling it to cope effectively with to improve
a heavy meal. Medicinally, gentian strengthens a weak digestion.
or underactive digestive system.

Key Actions Root contains
bitter principles
■ Bitter
■ Digestive stimulant Fresh root
■ Eases stomach pain

Gentian is a tall, attractive plant and has Research Dried chopped root
been cultivated in gardens at least since the
time of the 16th-century herbalist Gerard. ■ Amarogentin Although present
in much smaller quantities than
gentiopicroside, amarogentin is the
constituent largely responsible for
the bitterness of gentian. It is 3,000
times more bitter than gentiopicroside,
and, tasted at dilutions of 1:50,000, it
is possibly the most bitter substance
on the planet.

Habitat & Cultivation Traditional & Key Preparations & Their Uses
Current Uses
This largest member of the diverse QCaution Do not take if suffering from acid indigestion or a peptic ulcer.
gentian family is native to the Alps and ■ Origin of the name Gentius,
other mountainous regions of central king of Illyria in the 2nd century bce, Tincture (to make, p. 292). For Decoction (to make, p. 291).
and southern Europe from Spain to reputedly discovered the virtues of poor appetite, take 2–5 drops For anemia and weakened digestion,
the Balkans, flourishing at altitudes the plant. The name gentian attests
of 2,300–7,900 ft (700–2,400 m). to its use in classical times. with water before meals. take 5 tsp 3–5 times a day.
The large root crowns can be split or ■ Action of bitter principles
the plant grown from seed. Due to There are 4 main taste receptors stimulant on the gallbladder and liver, nutrients, including iron and vitamin 99
overharvesting from the wild, this is on the tongue: sweet, sour, salty, encouraging them to function more B12, and is therefore useful for iron-
now a threatened species, so buy only and bitter. It has been shown that efficiently. Gentian is therefore useful deficiency anemia (usually resulting
cultivated root. It needs a loamy soil the bitter principles in gentian in almost any condition where the from blood loss). It is often added to
and a sheltered site. The root is dug stimulate the bitter taste receptors digestive system needs to be toned prescriptions for women with heavy
up in early autumn and dried. on the tongue, causing an increase up. It is often taken as a digestive tonic menstrual bleeding.
in the production of saliva and in old age.
Related Species gastric secretions. This in turn ■ Nutrient absorption Self-help Uses
stimulates the appetite and improves By improving digestive function,
Many gentian species are bitter-tasting the action of the digestive system gentian increases the absorption of ■ Anemia, p. 301.
plants and a number are used in herbal in general. nutrients across the gut wall. It aids ■ Fever, p. 311.
medicine as a result, for example ■ Digestive stimulant By the absorption of a wide range of ■ Weakened digestion, p. 319.
Japanese gentian (G. scabra) and the stimulating the action of the stomach, ■ Gas & bloating, p. 306.
Chinese qin jiao (G. macrophylla). many symptoms associated with
weak digestion, such as gas,
Key Constituents indigestion, and poor appetite,
are relieved. Stomach and other
■ Bitter principles secretions are improved, which in
(gentiopicroside, amarogentin) turn helps increase the absorption
of nutrients. The herb also acts as a
■ Gentianose
■ Inulin
■ Phenolic acids

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GinkGo biloba

Key medicinal plants Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae) Ginkgo
A deciduous tree with
Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree, Bai Guo (Chinese) one or several main
trunks and spreading
branches. It grows to
100 ft (30 m).

Ginkgo is thought to be the oldest tree on the planet, Parts Used
first growing about 190 million years ago. Though long
used as a medicine in its native China, its therapeutic Leaves improve the circulation.
actions have only recently been researched. The leaves They are used to make tinctures,
(and their extract) are used to treat poor circulation and tablets, and fluid extract.
to maintain a plentiful blood flow to the central nervous
system. Ginkgo is also valuable for asthma and other
allergic problems.

Several clinical trials have found that Fresh leaf
gingko proved useful as a treatment
for dementia, including Alzheimer’s The husk of the
disease, although some studies have ginkgo seed is
found no positive benefit. Other removed before use
research indicates possible use in
conditions as varied as depression, Dried leaves
glaucoma, and poor peripheral
Ginkgo trees are widely cultivated for arterial blood flow. Seeds are prescribed by the
their leaves, which are an excellent herbal ■ Anti-inflammatory action Chinese for urinary problems
remedy for poor circulation and asthma. Ginkgo’s ability to reduce and wheezing.
inflammation makes it valuable
Habitat & Cultivation in conditions where nerve tissue Seeds
is damaged by inflammation, for
Native to China, ginkgo trees are example multiple sclerosis. Key Preparations & Their Uses
grown in large-scale plantations in ■ Platelet activating factor
China, France, and in South Carolina (PAF) Ginkgo inhibits PAF, a QCautions Do not exceed the dose. May cause toxic reactions if taken to excess.
in the U.S. They produce green substance released by a range Take on professional advice if using blood-thinning medication. Restricted herb in
to yellow fan-shaped leaves with of blood cells that causes the some countries.
radiating veins, and round fruits blood to become stickier and
about 3 cm (1 in) across. Leaves more likely to produce clots. Tincture of leaves (to make, Tablets Take for poor
and fruit are harvested in autumn. p. 292). For poor circulation, take circulation and memory loss.
Traditional & 1 tsp 2–3 times a day with water.
Key Constituents Current Uses
Decoction of the seeds is used by herbalists to treat wheezing.
■ Flavonoids ■ Chinese herbal medicine
■ Ginkgolides Ginkgo seeds are used to Fluid extract made from the fresh leaves is prescribed by medical herbalists
■ Bilobalides relieve wheezing and to lessen for asthma.
phlegm. They are also given to
Key Actions treat vaginal discharge, a weak taken daily by millions of people from nerve tissue and strengthen
bladder, and incontinence. The middle age onward to maintain and the circulation.
■ Circulatory tonic leaves are traditionally used for improve cerebral circulation and the
■ Anti-inflammatory treating asthma. memory, and to reduce the possibility Self-help Uses
■ Anti-asthmatic ■ Western herbal medicine of a stroke. It is also a valuable
■ Anti-allergenic Western interest in ginkgo has medicine to take after a stroke, ■ Failing memory, p. 319.
■ Antispasmodic concentrated on the remarkable where it is thought to support ■ High blood pressure &
ability of the leaves to improve
Research the circulation, especially poor arteriosclerosis, p. 301.
circulation to the brain, and the
■ Clinical trials Extensive research herb’s antiallergenic and anti-
since the 1960s has established the inflammatory actions, which make
importance of ginkgo in improving it a particularly useful herbal remedy
poor cerebral circulation and aiding for the treatment of asthma. Ginkgo
100 memory and concentration. is a bestselling herbal medicine in
France and Germany, where it is

Glycyrrhiza Gl abra

Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fabaceae) Licorice Key medicinal plants
A woody-stemmed
Licorice perennial growing to
61⁄2 ft (2 m), with dark
With a constituent—glycyrrhizic acid—that is 50 times Parts Used leaves and cream to
sweeter than sugar, it is not surprising that licorice is mainly mauve flowers.
thought of as a candy. Yet it is also one of the most
valuable of all herbal medicines, a powerful anti- Root is harvested in
inflammatory that is effective in conditions as varied autumn. It has valuable
as arthritis and canker sores. It is among the most anti-inflammatory
used herbs in European medicine, and has been properties.
taken medicinally for several thousand years.

Research Fresh root

■ Adrenal agent Research Dried root An extensive system
shows that on being broken down of taproot, branch roots,
Licorice has pealike flowers in summer. in the gut, glycyrrhizin has an anti- and runners can spread
It is cultivated commercially for its roots. inflammatory and antiarthritic to 3 ft (1 m)
action similar to hydrocortisone and
Habitat & Cultivation other corticosteroid hormones. It Key Preparations & Their Uses
stimulates production of hormones
Licorice grows wild in southeastern by the adrenal glands and reduces QCautions Excessive doses can cause serious side effects, including high blood
Europe and southwestern Asia, but it the breakdown of steroids by the pressure. Do not take large doses with high blood pressure. During pregnancy, or for
is now extensively cultivated. It is liver and kidneys. long-term use, take on professional advice.
propagated by dividing the roots in ■ Glycyrrhizin Research in Japan
autumn or spring. The root of in 1985 showed that glycyrrhizin was Tincture (to make, p. 292). Dried juice stick Powder
3–4-year-old plants is unearthed in effective in the treatment of chronic For gastritis, add 1⁄2 tsp to 1/2 cup Chew for indigestion. Gently rub onto
late autumn. hepatitis and liver cirrhosis. (100 ml) water and take twice a day.
■ Protective mucus Licorice as canker sores.
Related Species a whole reduces stomach secretions
but produces a thick protective Decoction For constipation, make a decoction (see p. 291) with
Various Glycyrrhiza species are mucus for the lining of the stomach, 1 part licorice and 3 parts dandelion root. Drink 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) twice a day.
used medicinally in a similar way making it a useful remedy in
to licorice, for example the inflammatory stomach conditions. Fluid extract is prescribed for peptic ulcers.
Chinese gan cao (G. uralensis). ■ Isoflavones The isoflavones are
known to be estrogenic. Licorice ■ Adrenal stimulation Self-help Uses 101
Key Constituents is often used to treat menopausal Licorice stimulates the adrenal glands,
symptoms, including hot flashes. helping in Addison’s disease, where ■ Constipation, p. 307.
■ Triterpene saponins the adrenal glands cease to function ■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 310.
(glycyrrhizin, up to 6%) Traditional & normally. ■ Loss of appetite
Current Uses ■ Constipation Licorice is useful as
■ Isoflavones (liquiritin, a gentle laxative. & vomiting, p. 306.
isoliquiritin, formononetin) ■ Traditional uses Licorice has ■ Canker sores, p. 306.
long been valued for its medicinal ■ Oral thrush, p. 314.
■ Polysaccharides uses. It was taken in ancient Greece
■ Phytosterols for asthma, chest problems, and
canker sores.
Key Actions ■ Soothing herb Inflammatory
conditions of the digestive system
■ Anti-inflammatory such as canker sores, gastritis,
■ Expectorant peptic ulceration, and excessive
■ Demulcent acid problems benefit from licorice’s
■ Adrenal agent demulcent and anti-inflammatory
■ Mild laxative properties, as do many chest
complaints, arthritis, inflamed
joints, and some skin problems.
Licorice is also soothing for
inflamed eyes.

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key medicinal plants Hamamelis virginiana Witch hazel
A small deciduous
Hamamelis virginiana (Hamamelidaceae) tree growing to16 ft
(5 m), with coarsely
Witch Hazel toothed, broadly
oval leaves.
Witch hazel was a traditional remedy of many Native Parts Used The leaves are odorless
North American peoples. They used poultices soaked but have a bitter,
in a decoction of bark to treat tumors and inflammations, Leaves and young twigs aromatic taste
especially of the eye, and took the herb internally for are distilled to make
hemorrhaging and heavy menstrual bleeding. European “witch hazel.”
settlers in the 18th century soon came to value witch
hazel for its astringency, and its use spread to Europe
and beyond.

Key Actions

■ Astringent
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Stops external and

internal bleeding

Traditional &
Current Uses
■ Established properties Witch Bark is used

hazel contains large quantities of in tinctures Dried leaves
tannins. These have a drying, and ointments

astringent effect, causing the

Witch hazel produces distinctive flowers in tightening up of proteins in the skin Fresh leaves
winter followed by brown fruit capsules that, and across the surface of abrasions.
when ripe, eject 2 seeds up to 13 ft (4 m) This creates a protective covering

away from the tree. that increases resistance to

Habitat & Cultivation inflammation and promotes healing Fresh bark Dried bark
of broken skin. Witch hazel also

Witch hazel is a woodland tree, appears to help damaged blood Key Preparations & Their Uses
indigenous to Canada and eastern vessels beneath the skin. It is thought

parts of the U.S. Today it is that this effect may be due to the QCaution If using internally, take only under professional supervision.

commonly cultivated in Europe. flavonoids as well as to the tannins.

The trees are grown from When witch hazel is distilled it retains

hardwood cuttings or from seed, its astringency, suggesting that

both of which are planted in astringent agents other than tannins

autumn. The leaves are gathered are present.

in summer and dried. The bark ■ Skin problems Witch hazel

is harvested during the autumn is a very useful herb for inflamed

and dried as quickly as possible in and tender skin conditions, such as Tincture of bark (to make, p. 292). Distilled witch hazel Dab onto insect
the shade. eczema. It is mainly used where the Dilute 1 tbsp in 1/2 cup (100 ml) cold stings, sore skin, and broken veins.
skin has not been significantly broken water and sponge onto varicose veins.
Related Species and helps to protect the affected Ointment of bark (to make,
area and prevent infection. p. 295). Apply to hemorrhoids
European hazel (Corylus avellana) is ■ Damaged veins Witch hazel twice a day.
a similar herb. It is used occasionally is valuable for damaged facial veins,
in European herbal medicine as an varicose veins, and hemorrhoids, Infusion of the leaves (to make, p. 291). Use as a lotion (see p. 296) for broken
astringent to treat diarrhea. The oil is veins and cysts.

nutritious and can be used to treat and is an effective remedy for

threadworms in children. bruises. Due to its astringent Witch hazel also makes an effective Self-help Uses

Key Constituents properties, it helps to tighten eyewash for inflammation of the ■ Bruises, p. 304.
distended veins and restore their eyes. Less commonly, it is taken ■ Cleansing wounds, p. 304.

■ Tannins (8–10%) normal structure. internally to alleviate diarrhea, ■ Eczema, p. 300.

■ Flavonoids ■ Other uses A lotion can be helping to tighten up the mucous ■ Hemorrhoids, p. 302.

■ Bitter principle applied to the skin for underlying membranes of the intestines, and ■ Skin rashes, p. 303.

102 ■ Volatile oil (leaves only) problems such as cysts or tumors. for bleeding of any kind. ■ Varicose veins, p. 302.

HarpagopHytum procumbens Devil’s claw key medicinal plants
A trailing perennial,
Harpagophytum procumbens (Pedaliaceae) reaching 5 ft (1.5 m)
in length, with fleshy
Devil’s Claw lobed leaves and
barbed, woody fruit.

The colorful name of this African plant is derived Parts Used
from the appearance of its tough, barbed fruit. The
medicinal properties of devil’s claw were first discovered Tuber is harvested in autumn
by various southern African peoples, who used a and used in a variety of
decoction of the tuber to treat digestive problems antiarthritic preparations.
and arthritis. The herb is now widely available in
pharmacies and health food stores in the West as
a remedy for arthritis and rheumatism.

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Analgesic
■ Digestive stimulant
■ Antiarthritic

Devil’s claw, found growing in the Transvaal, Research Chopped dried tuber
has bright purple flowers in spring.
■ Anti-inflammatory French Sliced dried
Habitat & Cultivation research (1992) indicated that tuber
devil’s claw is anti-inflammatory,
Devil’s claw is native to Namibia, but opinion is divided on its Key Preparations & Their Uses
Botswana, and South Africa, where effectiveness in practice.
it is a protected species due to over- ■ Pain relief There is some QCautions Do not take if suffering from gallstones or peptic ulcer. Do not take
harvesting of wild plants. It thrives evidence to confirm devil’s claw’s during pregnancy. May interact with anticoagulants.
in clay or sandy soils, preferring use as an analgesic as it seems to
roadsides and open areas, especially be effective in easing the symptoms Decoction (to make, p. 291). Tincture (to make, p. 292).
places where natural vegetation of joint pain. For rheumatism, simmer 1 tsp root For arthritis associated with
has been cleared. Propagated from ■ Bitter The strongly bitter action in 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) water for 15 minutes. poor digestion, take 30 drops
seed in spring, the young tubers of devil’s claw stimulates and tones Take in small doses over 1–2 days.
are unearthed in autumn and cut the digestive system. Many arthritic with water twice daily.
into pieces about 3⁄4 in (2 cm) long. conditions are associated with poor
Care is taken not to mix the tubers, digestion and absorption of food, Tablets Take for arthritis
which contain the active constituents, and the stimulant effect of this and rheumatism.
with the roots, as this can render herb on the stomach and gallbladder
the herb ineffective. contributes to its overall therapeutic relief from pain arising from a range Self-help Uses 103
value as an antiarthritic remedy. of joint and muscular problems,
Related Species including gout, back pain, fibrositis, ■ Arthritis & inflamed joints, p. 313.
Traditional & and rheumatoid arthritis. ■ Back pain due to joint
Two related species, both growing Current Uses
in Africa, are used medicinally in inflammation, p. 313.
a more or less similar way to ■ African traditional remedy
devil’s claw. Devil’s claw is used by various peoples
in southern Africa, including the
Key Constituents Khoisan and the Bantu. Traditionally
it has been used as a tonic, especially
■ Iridoid glycosides for digestive problems; for arthritis
(harpagoside) and rheumatism; to reduce fevers;
and as an ointment for sores,
■ Sugars (stachyose) ulcers, and boils.
■ Phytosterols ■ Western uses Current Western
■ Flavonoids use of devil’s claw is broadly in line
with its traditional application. It is
commonly available over the counter
in tablet form for arthritic and
rheumatic conditions and can bring

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Humulus lupulus

key medicinal plants Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae) Hops
A tall, climbing
Hops perennial, growing
to 23 ft (7 m). Hop
The bitter taste of hops, which is well known to beer ■ Volatile oil (1% ), humulene plants are either male
drinkers, largely accounts for this herb’s ability to strengthen ■ Flavonoids or female.
and stimulate the digestion. Hops are also sedative and ■ Polyphenolic tannins
make a valuable remedy for sleeplessness and excitability. ■ Estrogenic substances Traditional &
When the plant was first used to brew beer in England in Current Uses
the 16th century, it aroused great opposition: a petition Key Actions
to Parliament described it as “a wicked weed” that would ■ Historical uses Hops feature
“endanger the people.” ■ Sedative only occasionally in early herbals,
■ Soporific and the health benefits ascribed
■ Antispasmodic to them are similar to our
■ Aromatic bitter understanding today.
■ Sedative The herb is used mostly
Hops have been cultivated for brewing Habitat & Cultivation Research for its sedative effect. A sachet placed
beer since at least the 11th century. inside a bed pillow releases an aroma
The bines (stems) are trained up raised Indigenous to Europe and Asia, ■ Bitter principles that calms the mind. Hops help to
wire runners. hops flourish along roadsides and in The bitter principles as a whole reduce irritability and restlessness
open areas. They are grown strongly stimulate the digestive and promote a sound night’s sleep.
commercially throughout northern system, increasing the rate of ■ Tension Blended with other
Europe and northern states of gastric and other secretions. A herbs, hops are good for stress,
the U.S. Flowers of the female plant number of constituents, such as anxiety, tension, and headaches,
(strobiles) are picked in early autumn lupulin, are sedative, though it is not though they should not be used
and dried at a low temperature. yet entirely understood how they if depression is a factor. Their
work. Lupulon and humulon antispasmodic action makes hops
Related Species are antiseptic. useful for certain types of asthma
■ Other research The herb and for period pain.
Hops are related to marijuana relaxes smooth muscle and has ■ Aid to digestion Hops are
(Cannabis sativa, p. 181). been shown to have an estrogenic beneficial for the digestion, increasing
effect. Some isolated constituents stomach secretions and relaxing
Key Constituents are thought to depress central spasms and colic.
nervous activity.
■ Bitter principles (lupulin containing Self-help Uses
humulon, lupulon and valerianic acid)
■ Insomnia, p. 309.

Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses

Strobiles (female flowers) are leafy conelike QCaution Do not take if suffering from depression.
catkins. Ripe strobiles may be used fresh but are more
commonly dried for their sedative and bitter action.

The strobiles develop Sachet Make a sachet with Infusion (to make, p. 291).
at the end of bines that 100 g dried herb. Put inside For insomnia, drink 3⁄4 cup
grow up to 13 ft (4 m)
a pillow to aid sleep. (150 ml) at night.

Dried strobiles Fresh strobiles Tablets usually contain other herbs.
104 Take for stress or sleeplessness.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For excessive
anxiety, take 20 drops diluted in a glass of
water 3 times a day. For digestive headaches,
take 10 drops with water up to 6 times a day.

Capsules (to make, p. 292). To stimulate the appetite, take a
300 mg capsule 2 times a day before meals.

Hydrastis canadensis Goldenseal key medicinal plants
A small herbaceous
Hydrastis canadensis (Ranunculaceae) perennial, with a thick
yellow root and an
Goldenseal erect stem growing
to 1 ft (30 cm).

Goldenseal is a North American remedy, prized during Parts Used
the 19th century as a cure-all. The Cherokee and other
Native Americans used it, mixed with bear fat, as an insect Rhizome contains alkaloids that
repellent, and they also made it into a lotion for wounds, help to soothe and astringe the
ulcers, and sore, inflamed eyes. It was given internally for mucous membranes.
stomach and liver problems. Today it is employed as an
astringent, antibacterial remedy for the mucous
membranes of the body.

Goldenseal is an unusual looking plant with Research Dried rhizome
a single, red inedible fruit.
■ Alkaloids For an herb with Rhizome has a
Habitat & Cultivation such a high medicinal reputation, characteristic golden
there has been very little research
Goldenseal grows wild in moist into its pharmacology, but it is yellow color
mountainous woodland areas of known that goldenseal’s medicinal
North America and prefers soil actions are due largely to the Fresh rhizome
that is well covered with dead isoquinoline alkaloids.
leaves. Due to excessive harvesting ■ Hydrastine Research in Key Preparations & Their Uses
in the wild, instances of goldenseal Canada in the late 1960s showed
in its natural habitat have become that hydrastine constricts the blood QCautions Toxic if taken to excess. Do not take if suffering from high blood pressure.
very rare. In 1997 it was listed as an vessels and stimulates the autonomic Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Not suitable for children.
endangered species, and so only nervous system.
cultivated produce should be used. ■ Antibacterial Although this Capsules For gastritis, Tincture (to make, p. 292).
Goldenseal is propagated by root herb’s mode of action and degree take a 300 mg capsule For excess mucus, take 20 drops
division. Rhizomes from 3-year-old of effectiveness is not fully known,
plants are dug up in the autumn and it has been found that the herb’s 3 times a day. with water 3 times a day.
dried in the open air on cloth. constituents collectively have a
stronger antibacterial activity than Powder is used to make capsules (see p. 292).
Key Constituents berberine alone.
■ Berberine Berberine is bitter, Decoction (to make, p. 291). For sore throats, gargle 21⁄2 tbsp 3–4 times a day.
■ Isoquinoline alkaloids antibacterial, and amebicidal.
(hydrastine, berberine, Recent research has established Infusion of powder (to make, p. 291). For yeast infections, apply 3⁄4 cup (150 ml).
canadine) that it can be used to lower harmful
blood-fat levels and stabilize blood wash or douche for vaginal yeast to absorb certain nutrients, notably 105
■ Volatile oil glucose levels. and vaginal infections generally. B vitamins.
■ Resin ■ Canadine Research shows that The infusion is also valued as a ■ Gynecological uses
this alkaloid stimulates the muscles remedy for psoriasis. Goldenseal helps to reduce heavy
Key Actions of the uterus. ■ Digestive problems Taken menstrual bleeding and is used by
internally, goldenseal increases herbal practitioners and midwives
■ Bitter tonic Traditional & digestive secretions, astringes the to help stop bleeding following
■ Anti-inflammatory Current Uses mucous membranes that line the gut, childbirth (postpartum hemorrhage).
■ Antibacterial and checks inflammation. It should Goldenseal stimulates the uterus and
■ Uterine stimulant ■ Mucous membranes Most not be taken for extended periods should not, therefore, be taken
■ Stops internal bleeding authorities agree that goldenseal of time as it reduces the gut’s capacity during pregnancy.
is a potent remedy for disorders
affecting mucous membranes of
the body, notably of the eye, ear,
nose, and throat, the stomach and
intestines, and the vagina.
■ Countering infection As
a dilute infusion, goldenseal can
be used as an eyewash, as a
mouthwash for infected gums,
and as an extremely effective

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key medicinal plants Hypericum perforatum St. John’s wort
An erect perennial
Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae) growing to 32 in
(80 cm), with bright
St. John’s Wort yellow flowers in a
flat-topped cluster.
St. John’s wort flowers at the summer solstice. In medieval Parts Used
Europe it was considered to have the power to protect Bright yellow petals
against ill health and evil influences. Medicinally it was Flowering tops are have oil glands
thought to heal wounds and “all down-heartedness.” In the picked when the containing hypericin
19th century the herb fell into disuse, but recent research flowers have opened.
has brought it back into prominence as a key herb for
nervous exhaustion and depression. It is now one of the
most used herbal medicines in the world.

A review in 2009 also concluded

that the herb was helpful in treating

severe depression. Research shows

that St. John’s wort works on Fresh
neurotransmitter levels (e.g. serotonin) flowering tops
in several different ways.

■ Viral infection St. John’s wort

extracts (particularly hypericin, the

red pigment found in the petals and

leaves) have strong antiviral activity, Fresh flowers
notably against influenza, herpes, and

hepatitis B and C.

St. John’s wort was a folk remedy for insanity ■ Safety St. John’s wort rarely Dried flowering tops
in the Middle Ages. causes side effects itself, but
it does interact with certain Key Preparations & Their Uses
Habitat & Cultivation conventional medicines, mostly

St. John’s wort thrives in temperate increasing the rate at which they QCautions Can cause sensitivity to sunlight. Due to possible interactions, seek
regions worldwide. It prefers a sunny are broken down by the liver. professional advice if taking a prescribed medicine, including blood thinners.
site and well-drained, chalky soil. It This changes the amount of the Restricted in some countries. Do not combine with other antidepressants.

can be grown from seed or by root drug present in the bloodstream,

division in autumn. The flowering significantly reducing its Infused oil Make by
tops are harvested in summer. effectiveness. In rare situations, steeping the herb
this can be life threatening. in oil for 6 weeks
Related Species (see p. 294). Dab
Traditional & onto minor wounds
A number of other Hypericum species Current Uses and burns.
have a roughly similar medicinal action.

Key Constituents ■ Nerve tonic The herb acts as a
restorative and neuroprotective,

■ Phloroglucinols (hyperforin) helping to reverse long-term nervous Cream (to make, p. 296). For Tincture (to make, p. 292).

■ Polycyclic diones (hypericin) exhaustion and lowered mood. It cramps or neuralgia, rub onto For depression, take 1⁄2 tsp
■ Flavonoids can prove useful in seasonal affective the affected part. with water 3 times a day.

Key Actions disorder and chronic anxiety, and Infusion (to make, p. 291), Drink 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily as a digestive tonic.
improves sleep quality.

■ Antidepressant ■ Menopause The herb is

■ Anxiolytic considered a specific for the lowered commonly used to promote healing ■ Back pain, p. 313.

■ Antiviral mood that can accompany after surgery and minor burns. ■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Wound healer menopause, often combined with The oil can be particularly helpful ■ Cold sores, chicken pox, &

■ Anti-inflammatory black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, in relieving neuralgia—shingles, shingles, p. 304.

Research p. 79) in such cases. sciatica, and toothache being ■ Depression & decreased vitality
■ Tissue healing The red infused common applications. due to menopause, p. 316.

■ Depression Clinical research oil has potent wound-healing Self-help Uses ■ Neuralgia, p. 308.
since the 1970s has established St. properties and historically has been ■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 313.

John’s wort as an effective treatment used to heal knife and stab wounds. ■ Anxiety, depression & tension, ■ Tired & aching muscles,

106 for mild to moderate depression. Nowadays, St. John’s wort oil is more p. 308. p. 312.

Inula helenIum

Inula helenium (Asteraceae) Elecampane key medicinal plants
A perennial growing
Elecampane to 10 ft (3 m), with
golden yellow, daisy-
Prized by the Romans as a medicine and as a food, Parts Used like flowers and large,
this herb derives its botanical name from Helen pointed leaves.
of Troy, who, according to legend, was holding Root contains inulin, a
elecampane in her hand when she set off with Paris mucilaginous (jelly-like) Sturdy
to live with him in Troy. The root of the plant has substance that soothes flowering
long been seen as a gently warming and tonic herb, and relieves coughing. stem
and is particularly useful for chronic bronchitis and
other chest problems.

Key Actions Dried root

■ Expectorant Fresh root
■ Soothes coughing
“Elecampane will the spirits sustain,” ■ Increases sweating Key Preparations & Their Uses
is a medieval saying. It reflects the herb’s ■ Mildly bitter
tonic properties. ■ Eliminates worms QCautions Can cause skin reactions. Do not take internally in pregnancy
■ Antibacterial or if breastfeeding.
Habitat & Cultivation
Research Decoction (to make, p. 291). Tincture (to make, p. 292). For bronchitis,
Native to southeastern Europe For irritable coughs, take 1⁄3 cup mix 21⁄2 tbsp with 21⁄2 tbsp thyme tincture.
and western Asia, elecampane ■ Inulin Inulin was first isolated
now grows in many temperate from elecampane in 1804 and (75 ml) 2–3 times a day. Take 1 tsp 3 times a day.
regions, including parts of the U.S. took its name from the herb. It
It is also cultivated. Propagated has mucilaginous qualities that Syrup For coughs, make an infusion (see p. 291) and simmer until it has reduced
from seed in spring or by root help soothe the bronchial linings. to half its volume, before adding the sugar or honey (to make, p. 293). Take 1–2 tsp
division, it prefers moist, well-drained ■ Antimicrobial Alantolactone every 2 hours.
ground. The root is unearthed in has been shown to have significant
autumn, cut up, and then dried at activity against the tuberculosis ■ Chronic chest complaints digestion. It stimulates the appetite 107
a high temperature. mycobacterium. Researchers in Elecampane’s qualities have led to and relieves dyspepsia. It is a useful
Ireland found that the root had its specific use for chronic bronchitis remedy for the treatment of worms.
Related Species potent effect against MRSA, an and bronchial asthma. It is particularly ■ Infection In the past, elecampane
antibiotic-resistant “superbug.” useful because it both soothes the was used in the treatment of
Xuan fu hua (I. japonica) grows ■ Whole herb As a whole, the bronchial tube linings and is an tuberculosis. It works well with
in China and Japan. Other relatives root has a stimulant, expectorant expectorant. In addition, the herb other antiseptic herbs and is given
used medicinally include sunflower effect, encouraging the coughing is mildly bitter, helping recovery for infections such as tonsillitis. Its
(Helianthus annuus), common up of mucus from the lungs. The by improving digestion and the restorative, tonic action complements
fleabane (Pulicaria dysenterica), and volatile oil is known to be partly absorption of nutrients. its ability to counter infection.
echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 94). responsible for this and also for ■ Digestive problems
the herb’s antiseptic properties. Elecampane has been taken Self-help Use
Key Constituents traditionally as a tonic herb for the
Traditional & ■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 310.
■ Inulin (up to 44%) Current Uses
■ Volatile oil (up to 4%),
■ Chest infections Elecampane
containing alantol has long been valued for its tonic,
and sesquiterpene lactones strengthening effect on the
(including alantolactone) respiratory system and for its
■ Triterpene saponins ability to resolve chest infections.
■ Phytosterols Its warming effect on the lungs,
combined with its ability to gently
stimulate the clearing of mucus
from the chest, makes it safe for
young and old. It can be used in
almost all chest conditions, and
is very useful when the patient
is debilitated.

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key medicinal plants LavanduLa officinaLis Lavender
A perennial shrub
Lavandula angustifolia syn. L. officinalis (Lamiaceae) growing to 3 ft (1 m),
with spikes of violet-
Lavender blue flowers extending
above the foliage.

Lavender is an important relaxing herb, but it is better Parts Used
known for its sweet-scented aroma than for its medicinal
properties. It became popular as a medicine during the Flowers are
late Middle Ages, and in 1620 it was one of the medicinal harvested toward
herbs taken to the New World by the Pilgrims. It was the end of flowering,
described by the herbalist John Parkinson (1640) as when the petals have
being of “especiall good use for all griefes and paines begun to fade.
of the head and brain.”

■ Neuroprotective Flowers contain
■ Antimicrobial high levels of
volatile oil

Lavender is widely cultivated for perfume Research Fresh
and medicinal use. flowers
■ Lavender oil A 2014 clinical trial
Habitat & Cultivation found lavender oil taken internally Dried flowers
to be more effective than both a
Native to France and the western placebo and a conventional tranquilizer Key Preparations & Their Uses
Mediterranean, lavender is cultivated in relieving generalized anxiety. It also
worldwide for its volatile oil. It is showed antidepressant activity. Other QCaution Do not take essential oil internally except under professional supervision.
propagated from seed or cuttings studies have found similar benefits
and needs a sunny position. The and tended to confirm relaxant,
flowers are picked in the morning antidepressant, and gently sedative
in high summer and are dried, or activity. The oil is thought to have low
distilled to produce essential oil. toxicity and significant antibacterial
and antifungal activity.
Related Species ■ Flowers Lavender flowers and oil
have similar properties. Although
Spike lavender (L. spica) yields more little research has been conducted,
oil than L. officinalis, but of an inferior it is likely the flowers have a
quality. L. stoechas is used as an significantly greater carminative and
antiseptic wash for wounds, ulcers, neuroprotective activity. Applied
and sores in Spain and Portugal. externally, flower extracts are
insecticidal and rubefacient (irritant
Key Constituents and stimulating to the local circulation).

■ Volatile oil (up to 3%) Traditional & Tincture (to make, p. 292). Massage oil For headaches, combine
containing over 40 constituents, Current Uses For insomnia, take 1⁄2 –1 tsp 20 drops with 1 tbsp carrier oil and
including linalyl acetate (30–60%),
cineole (10%), linalool, ■ Nervous system Lavender is well with water at night. apply (see p. 297).
nerol, borneol known for its soothing and calming
effect and is combined with other Essential oil Apply undiluted to insect stings.
■ Flavonoids sedative herbs to relieve sleeplessness,
irritability, headaches, and migraine. Infusion (to make, p. 291) is a calming remedy for digestive problems.
Key Actions It also helps to alleviate depression. For indigestion, take 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) twice a day.
■ Digestion Like many herbs
■ Antispasmodic with a significant volatile oil content, strongly antiseptic, helping to heal Self-help Uses
■ Relieves anxiety lavender soothes indigestion and burns, wounds, and sores. Rubbed
108 ■ Antidepressant colic, and relieves gas and bloating. onto insect stings, it relieves pain and ■ Back pain, p. 313.
■ Asthma Lavender’s relaxing effect inflammation, and can be used to treat ■ Bites & stings, p. 303.
makes it helpful for some types of scabies and head lice. Massaging a few ■ Burns & sunburn, p. 309.
asthma, especially where excessive drops on the temples eases headaches, ■ Earache, p. 312.
nervousness is a feature. and five drops added to a bath at night ■ Headaches & migraine, p. 309.
■ Essential oil The oil is an relieves muscle tension, tones the ■ Insomnia, p. 309.
invaluable first aid remedy. It is nervous system, and encourages sleep. ■ Neuralgia, p. 308.
■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 313.

Linum usitatissimum

Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae) Flaxseed key medicinal plants
A slender annual, to
Flaxseed, Linseed 3 ft (1 m) tall, with
narrow leaves, blue
Flaxseed or linseed has been cultivated in the Middle Parts Used flowers, and spherical
East for at least 7,000 years, and its seed and fiber seed capsules.
have been put to innumerable uses—both medicinal
and industrial—throughout history. Flaxseed has been Whole seeds gently
shown to have very high levels of polyunsaturated support elimination
essential fatty acids, making it valuable in maintaining and cleanse the colon.
a healthy heart and circulation, and in preventing Cracked or ground
chronic inflammatory diseases. seeds need to be used
for other medicinal
■ Phytoestrogenic benefits. Golden
■ Cancer-fighting linseed varieties are
usually preferred.

Research Key Preparations & Their Uses

■ Omega-3 oils Flaxseed is QCaution Do not use immature seeds, which may be toxic. Store cracked or
unusual in that it has very high levels ground seed in a closed container and keep in the fridge.
of alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3
Flaxseed is the best vegetable source polyunsaturated fatty acid, similar to Oil from the seed is convenient to use
of omega-3 essential fatty acids. those most commonly found in fish but goes rancid easily. Take 1–2 tsp
oils. Research indicates that omega-3 daily as a nutritional supplement.
Habitat & Cultivation oils have significant anti-inflammatory
activity. They also help to protect the Cracked or ground seed Take
Originally native to temperate zones heart and circulation, and to reduce 1–2 tbsp daily with water to help
in Europe and Asia, flaxseed is heart irregularities. The seed, rather
now widely cultivated in temperate than the oil, helps to lower relieve menopausal symptoms.
regions, including Canada and the cholesterol levels.
U.S., Argentina, and northern Europe. ■ Cancer-fighting Ground flaxseed Flour is mixed with water and used as a poultice, and used in baking as a
It is grown from seed in spring and appears to be specifically useful phytoestrogenic food during menopause.
harvested when the seed is ripe in late against endometrial, breast, and
summer or early autumn. prostate cancer: it is rich in omega-3 significant mucilage content, the applied to painful or tender boils and 109
oils, which are deficient in most seeds are also soothing and anti- carbuncles, softening the skin and
Related Species Western diets; in lignans, which are inflammatory, reducing irritation drawing out the purulent material.
phytoestrogenic and reduce the and inflammation in the gut in A Portuguese recipe recommends
Purging flax (L. catharticum), native impact of estradiol (a potentially such conditions as colitis, irritable combining flaxseed oil with red
to western Europe, is a purgative, harmful type of estrogen); and in bowel, and hemorrhoids. wine as an effective topical remedy
but no longer used. mucilage and fiber, which prevent ■ Respiratory & urinary for wounds.
reabsorption of unwanted estrogens disorders The seeds, which need ■ Menopause Adding flaxseed
Key Constituents from the intestines. Flaxseed added to be split or ground up before being to the diet can support estrogen
to the diet lowers PSA levels (used to swallowed, soothe the chest and, balance at menopause and reduce
■ Fixed oil (approximately 35%) measure prostate cancer risk) and to a lesser extent, the urinary tract. associated symptoms. Flax and other
mostly alpha-linolenic acid thus is thought to protect against They have proved helpful in chronic seeds can be made into a
(omega-essential fatty acid) prostate cancer. or paroxysmal coughs, bronchitis, and “menopause cake.”
emphysema, and in urinary troubles
■ Protein (about 26%) Traditional & such as chronic cystitis. Self-help Uses
■ Fiber (about 14%) Current Uses ■ External uses A poultice of the
■ Mucilage (about 12%) crushed seeds or of flaxseed flour is ■ Constipation, p. 317.
■ Sterols ■ Laxative Flaxseed has mostly ■ Menopause, p. 316.
■ Lignans been used as a bulk laxative,
especially valuable in chronic
Key Actions constipation. The seeds soak up
fluid in the gut, helping to make
■ Demulcent the stool softer and encouraging
■ Emollient easier bowel movements. They
■ Laxative should be taken with about 5 times
their volume of water. With their

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LobeLia infLata

key medicinal plants Lobelia inflata (Campanulaceae) Lobelia
An annual growing
Lobelia, Indian Tobacco to 20 in (50 cm), with
lance-shaped leaves
and pale blue, pink-
tinged flowers.

Lobelia is a powerful antispasmodic used for respiratory Parts Used
and muscle disorders. In common with other Lobelia
species, it was a traditional Native American remedy Aerial parts have
for many conditions. It was used as a “puke weed” to important antispasmodic
induce vomiting, as a remedy for worms and venereal properties and help relieve
disease, and as an expectorant. Lobelia was also smoked respiratory complaints.
as a substitute for tobacco, and was reputed to share
some of its magical qualities.

Key Actions
■ Respiratory stimulant

■ Antispasmodic

■ Expectorant

■ Induces vomiting

■ Increases sweating Fresh

Traditional & Dried aerial parts aerial parts
Current Uses Fresh leaves

■ Native American remedy
Lobelia was a traditional Native

Lobelia’s pale blue flowers were believed to American remedy with a wide range Key Preparations
have magical properties and were used of applications. Its use was later & Their Uses
to ward off ghosts. championed by the American
herbalist Samuel Thomson (1769–

Habitat & Cultivation 1843), who made the herb the RCautions Take only when prescribed by a medical herbalist
mainstay of his therapeutic system or doctor and do not eat the fresh plant. Excessive ingestion
An indigenous American plant, (see p. 27). He mainly used it to is rare (vomiting normally occurs first) but can be fatal. Restricted
lobelia is found in much of North induce vomiting. herb in some countries.

America, especially in eastern parts ■ Therapeutic properties The

of the U.S. It grows by roadsides and whole herb is strongly antispasmodic.

in neglected areas, and prefers acid The constituent lobeline stimulates

soil. The aerial parts are harvested the respiratory center within the

in early autumn, when the seed brain stem, producing stronger

capsules are most numerous, and and deeper breathing. Laboratory

are carefully dried. investigations during the 1990s

Related Species suggest that lobeline has

At least 4 other Lobelia species were antidepressant activity. Infusion is prescribed Tincture is given
traditionally used by Native Americans. ■ Respiratory problems for bronchitis. to relieve asthma.
A powerful antispasmodic and

One, great lobelia (L. siphilitica), as its respiratory stimulant, lobelia is Tablets containing lobelia in
Latin name suggests, was credited valuable for asthma, particularly combination with other herbs are
by Native Americans and European bronchial asthma, and chronic used to treat bronchial asthma.
settlers with the power to cure bronchitis. The herb helps to relax

syphilis. Chinese lobelia (ban bian the muscles of the smaller bronchial

lian, L. chinensis) is used in Chinese tubes, thereby opening the airways, ■ External applications Some combination with cayenne, lobelia has

herbal medicine mainly as a diuretic stimulating breathing, and promoting constituents, especially lobeline, been used as a chest and sinus rub.

and for snake bite. the coughing up of phlegm. In the break down rapidly in the body, and ■ Tobacco addiction

Key Constituents Anglo-American herbal tradition, lobelia is often most effective applied The piperidine alkaloids, especially

lobelia has always been combined externally. Its antispasmodic action lobeline, have similar chemical

■ Piperidine alkaloids (6%)— with cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, helps to relax muscles, particularly effects to nicotine, found in tobacco

principally lobeline, but p. 74); the heating, stimulant action smooth muscle, making it useful for (Nicotiana tabacum, p. 240), and

many others present helps to push blood into areas that sprains, and back problems where lobelia is employed by herbalists

110 ■ Carboxylic acids lobelia has relaxed. muscle tension is a key factor. In to help patients give up smoking.

Lycium chinense

Lycium chinense syn. L. barbarum (Solanaceae) Goji berry key medicinal plants
A deciduous shrub
Goji Berry, Chinese Wolfberry growing to 13 ft (4 m),
with bright green
leaves and scarlet
berries.

Goji berry is a major Chinese tonic herb, first Parts Used
mentioned in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic
(Shen’nong Bencaojing) written in the 1st century ce. Root is used in preparations
Traditionally it is believed to promote long life—a to relieve fevers.
Chinese herbalist, said to have lived for 252 years,
ascribed his longevity to tonic herbs, including goji
berry. Today, both the berries and the root have a
wide range of medicinal uses.

Research Fresh
root
■ Immune modulation
Research that has been carried out Dried root Fresh
over the past 30 years indicates goji berries
berry supports immune function, in Berries can be eaten on sprig
part countering the reduction of raw or dried, or used
white blood cell production resulting in cooking, e.g. soups.
from aging. It also appears to
Goji berry produces berries that are prevent infection by preventing Dried
a blood tonic. bacteria and viruses from attaching berries
to cell membranes, particularly in
Habitat & Cultivation the liver. The polysaccharides have Key Preparations
cancer-fighting activity. & Their Uses
Goji berry grows throughout much ■ Zeaxanthin This compound,
of China and Tibet, and is cultivated occurring in higher concentration QCautions Avoid during pregnancy. It can interact
extensively across central and in goji berry than any other food, with some prescribed medicines: do not take with warfarin.
northern China. It is grown from is taken as a supplement to support
seed in autumn. The root can be eyesight and the health of the retina. Decoction of the
unearthed at any time of the year, It is thought to protect against age- root (to make,
but is most commonly harvested related macular degeneration. p. 291). For fevers, take
in spring. The berries are picked in ■ Tonic and neuroprotective 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily.
late summer or early autumn. Several clinical trials in China have
found that goji berry juice promotes Tincture of the root Making a decoction with berries
Key Constituents general well-being, reducing signs (to make, p. 292). For Chop dried berries and simmer
of fatigue, weakness, depression, coughs and wheezing, (see p. 291). For poor eyesight,
■ Beta-sitosterol and stress. In early-stage research, take 1⁄2 tsp diluted with
Berries only: goji berry has shown promise as a water 3 times a day. take 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily.
■ Polysaccharides neuroprotective agent, and seems
■ Betaine to act within the brain to prevent importance in the elderly is the diet of anyone seeking to keep 111
■ Sterols some aspects of the degenerative gradually being endorsed by research. healthy in their later years. A small
■ Carotenoids—mostly zeaxanthin processes associated with Combined effects that protect handful of berries taken on a daily
■ Vitamins B1, B12, and C Alzheimer’s disease. immune, liver, cardio-vascular, and basis (eaten raw or as part of a larger
Root only: brain function from deterioration dish) makes a useful contribution to
■ Cinnamic acid Traditional & suggest that goji berry has a place in long term good health.
■ Psyllic acid Current Uses

Key Actions ■ Circulation In China, goji berry
is taken as a blood tonic and to
■ Tonic improve the circulation. It is also
■ Protects liver taken in order to help lower blood
■ Neuroprotective pressure and treat a range of
■ Lowers blood pressure symptoms that include dizziness
■ Anti-aging and tinnitus.
■ Slowing aging The traditional
use of goji berry as a tonic of key

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key medicinal plants Melaleuca alternifolia Tea tree
An evergreen reaching
Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae) 23 ft (7 m), with
layers of papery bark,
Tea Tree pointed leaves, and
white flower spikes.

Tea tree, and in particular its essential oil, is one of the Parts Used Leaves have a
most important natural antiseptics. Useful for stings, strong aroma
burns, wounds, and skin infections of all kinds, the herb Leaves have high levels of a when crushed
merits a place in every medicine chest. Tea tree is native strongly antiseptic volatile oil
to Australia and is a traditional remedy of the Aborigines. and are used in preparations for
Its therapeutic properties were first researched during skin problems and infections.
the 1920s, and it is now widely used in Europe and the
U.S., as well as in Australia.

■ Antifungal
■ Antiviral
■ Immune stimulant

Research Fresh
leaves
■ Antiseptic properties Tea tree

essential oil was first researched in

1923 in Australia. Since the 1960s

it has been intensively investigated, Dried leaves
and its antiseptic properties are

well established. Clinical trials, mainly

Tea tree provides one of the most effective in Australia, have shown that it is Key Preparations
natural antiseptics. effective at treating a broad range & Their Uses
of infectious conditions, especially
Habitat & Cultivation fungal and skin problems such as QCaution Do not take the
vaginal yeast, acne, and warts. essential oil internally except
Tea tree is native to Australia, ■ Active constituents One of under professional supervision.

flourishing in moist soils in northern the most important constituents is

New South Wales and Queensland. known to be terpinen-4-ol, which Cream Add 5 drops
It is now cultivated extensively, is significantly antiseptic and well essential oil to 1 tsp
especially in New South Wales. tolerated by the skin. The oil also base cream and apply
Tea tree is grown from cuttings contains cineol, which can irritate to pimples 3 times
in summer. The leaves and small the skin. The cineol content varies— a day.

branches are picked throughout poor-quality oil has more than

the year and distilled to produce 10%; in some cases up to 65%.

essential oil. Traditional &
Current Uses
Related Species
Other Melaleuca species that provide ■ Traditional remedy Tea tree is

valuable essential oils include cajuput a traditional Aboriginal remedy. The

(M. leucadendron, p. 233), broad- leaves are crushed and either inhaled Infusion (to make, p. 291). For chronic Essential oil Add 3 drops
leaved paperbark tree (M. viridiflora) or used in infusions for coughs, colds, infections, infuse 1⁄2 tsp herb in 3⁄4 cup to 12 drops carrier oil and
and M. linariifolia, the essential oil of and skin infections. (150 ml) of water. Take twice a day. dab onto athlete’s foot.

which is very similar to tea tree. ■ Skin problems Tea tree can be Pessaries (to make, p. 297). For vaginal infections, insert one a day.
applied to skin infections such as
Key Constituents athlete’s foot and ringworm, as well

■ Volatile oil containing terpinen-4- as to corns, warts, acne, and boils, ■ Oral infections The herb is infections. It may be used as a pessary

ol (40%), gamma-terpinene (24%), infected burns, wounds, insect bites effective in mouthwashes, countering or can be diluted in a carrier cream

alpha-terpinene (10%), cineo (5%) and stings, and other skin conditions. oral infection and gum disease, and and then applied.

(percentages are variable). ■ Chronic infections Tea tree may it can also be used as a gargle for Self-help Uses
be taken internally as a treatment for sore throats.
Key Actions
chronic, and some acute, infections, ■ Vaginal infections Tea tree is ■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Antiseptic notably cystitis, glandular fever, and an excellent remedy for vaginal ■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304.

112 ■ Antibacterial chronic fatigue syndrome. irritation and infection, including yeast ■ Vaginal yeast infection, p. 314.

Melissa officinalis

Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae) Lemon balm key medicinal plants
A perennial growing
Lemon Balm, Melissa to 5 ft (1.5 m), with
tiny white flowers
and deeply veined,
toothed leaves.

In writing that “Balm is sovereign for the brain, Parts Used
strengthening the memory and powerfully chasing
away melancholy,” John Evelyn (1620–1706) neatly Aerial parts are used in a variety
summarized lemon balm’s long tradition as a tonic of preparations as a calming remedy.
remedy that raises the spirits and comforts the heart.
Today, this sweet-smelling herb is still widely valued for Leaves produce
its calming properties, and new research shows that it a lemon scent
can help significantly in the treatment of cold sores. when crushed

Research Dried aerial parts Fresh aerial
parts
■ Volatile oil German research
Lemon balm’s botanical name, Melissa, has shown that the volatile oil, and in Key Preparations
comes from the Greek for bee and refers to particular citral and citronellal, calm & Their Uses
the great attraction the plant holds for bees. the central nervous system. The oil
is also strongly antispasmodic. QCaution Do not take the essential oil internally
Habitat & Cultivation ■ Polyphenols Polyphenols are except under professional supervision.
antiviral. In particular, they combat the
Native to southern Europe, western herpes simplex virus, which produces
Asia, and northern Africa, lemon cold sores. In one research study, the
balm now grows throughout the average healing time of cold sores was
world. The plant is propagated from halved to about 5 days and the time
seed or cuttings in spring. The aerial between outbreaks doubled.
parts are picked from early summer ■ Thyroid Lemon balm inhibits
onward and are best harvested thyroid function.
just before the flowers open, when
the concentration of volatile oil is Traditional & Essential oil For shingles, add 5 drops
at its highest. Current Uses to 1 tsp olive oil and massage the
painful area gently (see p. 297).
Key Constituents ■ Traditional uses This herb has
always been taken to lift the spirits. Infusion (to make, p. 291). Tincture (to make, p. 292). For
■ Volatile oil up to 0.2% (citral, Taken regularly, it was believed to For nervous headaches, drink anxiety and mild depression, take
caryophyllene oxide, linalool, encourage longevity. Other traditional 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 3 times a day. 1⁄2 tsp with water 3 times a day.
and citronellal) uses include healing wounds, relieving
palpitations and relaxing the heart, Lotion For cold sores, make an infusion (see p. 291) and apply
■ Flavonoids and treating toothache. regularly (see p. 296).
■ Triterpenes ■ Modern relaxing tonic Lemon
■ Polyphenols balm is a relaxing tonic for anxiety, Juice Apply as needed to cuts and scrapes.
■ Tannins mild depression, restlessness, and
irritability. It reduces feelings of Ointment (to make, p. 295). Apply to insect stings.
Key Actions nervousness and panic and will
often quiet a racing heart, being ■ Other uses Lemon balm is a ■ Cold sores, chicken pox, 113
■ Relaxant a valuable remedy for palpitations first-aid remedy for cuts and insect & shingles, p. 304.
■ Antispasmodic of a nervous origin. Lemon balm stings and is good for fevers.
■ Increases sweating is also useful when too much anxiety ■ Flu with muscle aches
■ Carminative is causing digestive problems such as Self-help Uses & pains, p. 311.
■ Antiviral indigestion, acidity, nausea, bloating,
■ Nerve tonic and colicky pains. ■ Anxiety, depression, ■ Nausea due to emotional
■ Cold sores Lemon balm relieves & tension, p. 308. problems, p. 306.
cold sores and reduces the chances
of further outbreaks. ■ Stomachache, p. 305.
■ Hormonal herb Following the
discovery of its antithyroid effect, the
herb is given to people with an
overactive thyroid.

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Mentha x piperita

key medicinal plants Mentha x piperita (Lamiaceae) Peppermint
A strongly aromatic,
Peppermint square-stemmed
annual, growing to
32 in (80 cm) with
serrated leaves.

Peppermint’s origin is a mystery, but it has been in Parts Used
existence for a long time—dried leaves were found
in Egyptian pyramids dating from around 1000 bce. Aerial parts are distilled
It was highly valued by the Greeks and Romans, but for their volatile oil and used
only became popular in Western Europe in the 18th in a variety of preparations.
century. Peppermint’s chief therapeutic value lies in
its ability to relieve gas, flatulence, bloating, and colic,
though it has many other applications.

Peppermint is cultivated in many parts of Research Dried aerial parts
the world for its oil.
■ Volatile oil Research has shown Leaves have high
that the volatile oil is strongly levels of volatile oil,
antibacterial. Menthol (a constituent which has important
of the oil) is antiseptic, antifungal, digestive properties
cooling, and anesthetic to the skin,
although it is also an irritant. Fresh aerial parts
■ Whole herb The whole plant
has an antispasmodic effect on the Key Preparations
digestive system. Clinical trials in & Their Uses
Denmark and the UK during the
1990s have confirmed its value QCautions Do not give peppermint to children
in the treatment of irritable under 5. The essential oil is best taken internally
bowel syndrome. on the advice of a healthcare practitioner; it is not
suitable for children under 12.
Habitat & Cultivation Traditional &
Current Uses Lotion made with
Peppermint is grown commercially infusion (see p. 296).
and in gardens throughout Europe, ■ Digestive problems Apply to irritated skin.
Asia, and North America. It is Peppermint is excellent for the
propagated from seed in spring and digestive system, increasing the Essential oil Dilute to Infusion (to make,
is harvested just before it flowers flow of digestive juices and bile 2% (see p. 297) and p. 291). To improve
in summer, in dry sunny weather. and relaxing the gut muscles. It dab onto temples to digestion, drink 3⁄4 cup
reduces nausea, colic, cramps, and (150 ml) after meals.
Related Species gas, and soothes an irritated bowel. ease headaches.
In soothing the lining and muscles
Peppermint is a hybrid of watermint of the colon, it helps diarrhea and
(M. aquatica) and spearmint relieves a spastic colon (often the
(M. spicata), which have similar, though cause of constipation).
milder, therapeutic properties. ■ Pain relief Applied to the
skin, peppermint relieves pain and
Key Constituents reduces sensitivity. It also relieves
headaches and migraines linked to
■ Volatile oil (up to 1.5%), digestive weakness.
including menthol (35–55%), ■ Infection Diluted oil is used as an
menthone (10–40%) inhalant and chest rub for respiratory
infections. The whole herb is
■ Flavonoids (luteolin, important for digestive infections.
menthoside)

■ Phenolic acids
■ Triterpenes

Key Actions Self-help Uses Tincture mixed with other herbs, is prescribed mainly for digestive problems.
Capsules are prescribed for irritable bowel syndrome.
■ Antispasmodic ■ Digestive headaches, p. 309.
■ Eczema, p. 300.
■ Stimulates sweating ■ Nausea with headache, p. 306.
■ Neuralgia, p. 308.
■ Antimicrobial ■ Gas & bloating, p. 306.

■ Analgesic
114 ■ Carminative

Myristica fragrans

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae) Nutmeg tree key medicinal plants
An evergreen tree
Nutmeg & Mace, Rou Dou Kou (Chinese) growing to 39 ft
(12 m), with aromatic
leaves and clusters of
small yellow flowers.

Nutmeg and mace both come from the nutmeg tree Parts Used Fresh,
and have very similar medicinal properties. They scarlet aril
are infrequently used in the West because of their Aril (mace) surrounds
toxicity at high dosages, but nonetheless are important the seed casing. It is used in
medicines, employed principally to stimulate cooking and as a medicine.
digestion and to treat infections of the digestive tract.
Nutmeg also has long been valued as an aphrodisiac Aril (mace)
and as a remedy for eczema and rheumatism. turns yellow
as it dries

■ Prevents vomiting
■ Stimulant
Mace:
■ Stimulant
■ Carminative

Traditional & Woody seed Fruit with
Current Uses casing containing seed and aril
kernel (nutmeg)
■ Digestive problems Nutmeg
essential oil has an anesthetic and Dried seed and aril
stimulating effect on the stomach
Nutmeg and mace are cultivated and intestines, increasing appetite Seed kernel (nutmeg) Dried seed
commercially in the tropics. and reducing nausea, vomiting, and is a stimulant remedy for kernel (nutmeg)
diarrhea. It is a helpful remedy for intestinal infections and
Habitat & Cultivation many digestive problems, especially rheumatic conditions. In
gastroenteritis. China, nutmeg is known
Native to the Molucca Islands of ■ Sleep aid Though nutmeg is as rou dou kou.
Indonesia, nutmeg trees are now a stimulant, it has narcotic and
widely cultivated. They are propagated anticonvulsant properties and Key Preparations & Their Uses
from seed, sown when ripe. The can be successfully used at low
tree yields fruit after about 8 years, dose (a pinch of powder will do) QCaution Take the essential oil internally only under professional supervision.
and can continue to fruit for over as a sleep aid for short- or long-term Do not take more than 3 g of either herb a day. Do not use during pregnancy.
60 years. The fruit is picked when sleep problems. Laboratory studies
ripe and the nutmeg and mace are also indicate that nutmeg has Powdered mace is Grated nutmeg For
separated and dried. antidepressant activity. prescribed to treat eczema, mix 2 tsp
■ Aphrodisiac In India, nutmeg gas and bloating. with a little water
Key Constituents has a long reputation as an into a paste and apply.
aphrodisiac. It is believed to
Nutmeg: increase sexual stamina. Essential oil of Infusion For gastroenteritis,
■ Volatile oil (up to 15%), ■ External uses Ointments based nutmeg is occasionally add a pinch of nutmeg
on the fixed oil (nutmeg butter) are used by herbalists to to 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) of
including alpha-pinene, used to treat rheumatic conditions. peppermint infusion (see
beta-pinene, alpha-terpinene, They have a counterirritant effect, treat vomiting. p. 291). Take 3 times a day.
beta-terpinene, myristicin, stimulating blood flow to the area.
elincin, safrole In India, nutmeg is ground into a Ointment made from fixed oil (nutmeg butter). For rheumatic conditions, 115
■ Fixed oil (“nutmeg butter”), paste and applied directly to areas apply several times a day.
myristine, butyrin of eczema and ringworm.
Mace: ■ Safety Low medicinal doses and
■ Volatile oil (similar to nutmeg culinary amounts of nutmeg and mace
but with a higher concentration are safe. In excess, however, the herbs
of myristicin) are strongly stimulant, hallucinogenic,
and toxic. The consumption of just
Key Actions two whole nutmegs has been known
to cause death.
Nutmeg:
■ Carminative
■ Relieves muscle spasms

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Ocimum tenuiflOrum

key Medicinal plants Ocimum tenuiflorum syn. O. sanctum (Lamiaceae) Holy basil
An aromatic annual
Holy Basil, Tulsi (Hindi) growing to about
28 in (70 cm), with
small, purple-red or
white flowers.

Holy basil, like sweet (culinary) basil, comes from India, Parts Used
where it is revered as the herb sacred to the goddess
Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, the god who preserves life. Tulsi Aerial parts are tonic and
means “matchless,” and the herb has very important invigorating and have a wide
medicinal properties—notably its ability to reduce blood- range of other properties.
sugar levels. In Indian herbal medicine, holy basil has a
wide range of uses, relieving fevers, bronchitis, asthma, Leaves are serrated and
stress, and mouth ulcers. covered in fine hairs

■ Reduces fever
■ Adaptogenic
■ Anti-inflammatory

Holy basil is so called because it is often Research Dried aerial parts
planted around temples and courtyards Fresh aerial parts
in India. ■ Diabetes Research into holy basil’s
ability to reduce blood-sugar levels, Key Preparations & Their Uses
Habitat & Cultivation and thus help diabetes, has been
going on for some decades. It has QCautions Do not take during pregnancy. Do not take if trying to conceive.
Holy basil is native to India and other now been established as a useful
tropical regions of Asia. It is also medicine for some types of diabetes.
grown extensively in Central and ■ Indian research Research in
South America, mainly for its India has shown that holy basil
medicinal properties. Holy basil can helps lower blood pressure and has
be grown from seed and is often anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, and
cultivated as a potted plant. The fever-reducing properties. Preliminary
aerial parts are picked before the research also indicates that the herb
flowers open, in early summer. strengthens immune resistance,
protects against radiation, has
Related Species anticancer properties, and inhibits
sperm production.
The familiar culinary species,
sweet basil (O. basilicum, p. 241), Traditional & Juice For skin infections, apply 1/2 tbsp Decoction (to make, p. 291)
is a close relative. Current Uses to the affected part twice a day. is used for fevers and as a tonic.
Take 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) daily as a
Key Constituents ■ Traditional use Holy basil
has always been considered to be general tonic.
■ Volatile oil (1%) including a tonic, invigorating herb, useful for
eugenol (70–80%) improving vitality. Powder For mouth ulcers, rub
■ Ayurvedic remedy In Ayurvedic powder gently into sore areas
■ Flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin) medicine, holy basil is chiefly employed several times a day.
■ Triterpene (ursolic acid) for fevers. A classical Indian recipe
■ Polyphenols mixes holy basil, black pepper (Piper ■ Diabetic remedy The herb’s ■ Other uses Juice is extracted and
■ Saponins nigrum, p. 250), ginger (Zingiber ability to help stabilize blood-sugar applied to insect bites, ringworm,
officinale, p. 155), and honey in a levels makes it useful in the treatment and skin diseases. It is also used as
Key Actions remedy that prevents infection and of diabetes. ear drops for ear infections. Juice or
controls high fever. ■ Respiratory problems Holy powdered herb helps mouth ulcers
■ Antispasmodic ■ Heart & stress Holy basil basil is valuable for respiratory to heal.
■ Analgesic is thought to have an affinity with infections, especially colds, coughs,
116 ■ Lowers blood-sugar levels the heart, protecting it from stress bronchitis, and pleurisy. It also Self-help Use
and lowering blood pressure and treats asthma.
cholesterol levels. It has a reputation ■ Bites & stings, p. 303.
for reducing stress and is regarded
as adaptogenic—helping the body to
adapt to new demands and stresses.

Paeonia lactiflora

Paeonia lactiflora syn. P. albiflora (Paeoniaceae) White peony key Medicinal plants
An upright perennial,
White Peony, Chinese Peony, Bai Shao Yao (Chinese) growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m),
with large white
White peony’s history of medicinal use in China Parts Used flowers and divided,
stretches back for at least 1,500 years. It is known dark green leaves.
most widely as one of the herbs used to make “Four Root has important
Things Soup,” a female tonic, and it is also a remedy tonic and pain-relieving Root has
for gynecological problems and for cramps, pain, and properties. It is boiled antispasmodic
dizziness. Traditionally, it is considered that women and dried for use in a properties
who take the herb on a regular basis become as wide range of
radiant as the flower itself. preparations.

Research Dried root

■ Paeoniflorin White peony Fresh root
has significant anti-inflammatory
White peony is cultivated for its root, which and antispasmodic properties, and Key Preparations & Their Uses
is a hormonal tonic, and for its flowers. preclinical research indicates that
its traditional use for problems such QCaution Do not take during pregnancy.
Habitat & Cultivation as rheumatoid arthritis is justified.
Paenoniflorin, the constituent most Dong quai
White peony is cultivated throughout responsible for these effects, is also
northeastern China and Inner thought to lower blood pressure Decoction (to make, p. 291) helps relieve Rehmannia
Mongolia. It is propagated from seed and support blood flow to the heart. period pain, heavy bleeding, and other
in spring, or from root cuttings taken ■ Polycystic ovary syndrome menstrual disorders. To relieve period
in winter. The root of 4- or 5-year- (PCOS) White peony has a pain, take 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) 3 times a day.
old plants is harvested in spring hormone-balancing activity that helps
or autumn. to reverse the symptoms of PCOS, Four things soup (to make, White peony
which include irregular menstruation see p. 315). Drink 3⁄4 cup
Related Species and infertility. In combination with (150 ml) daily as a general tonic.
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101) it
P. suffructicosa, also commonly has been shown to support regular Chuan xiong
used in East Asian herbal ovulation and to lower the raised
medicine, and peony (P. officinalis, testosterone levels that typically the most widely used female tonic (see pp. 40–41) and will help “blood 117
p. 243), a European species, occur in PCOS. in China. deficiency” states, as well as hot
have broadly similar properties ■ Supports cognition There is ■ Gynecological remedy White flashes and night sweats.
to white peony. accumulating evidence that white peony helps menstrual disorders,
peony supports mental function, including heavy bleeding and Self-help Uses
Key Constituents including spatial awareness and bleeding between periods, and is
memory. Although no clinical specifically used to treat period pain ■ Heavy menstrual bleeding, p. 315.
■ Monoterpenoid glycosides trials have yet been published, and cramps. It is a blood and yin tonic ■ Hot flashes & night sweats, p. 316.
(paeoniflorin, albiflorin) white peony appears to have a ■ Period pain, p. 315.
strong neuroprotective effect
■ Benzoic acid within the brain.
■ Pentagalloyl glucose ■ Cold sores Pentagalloyl glucose
may have an antiviral action against
Key Actions the cold sore virus, herpes simplex.

■ Antispasmodic Traditional &
■ Anti-inflammatory Current Uses
■ Enhances cognition
■ Lowers blood pressure ■ Four Things Soup White peony
is regarded primarily as a women’s
herb. Together with rehmannia
(Rehmannia glutinosa, p. 125), chuan
xiong (Ligusticum wallachii), and dong
quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63), it is an
ingredient in “Four Things Soup,”

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Panax ginseng

key medicinal plants Panax ginseng (Araliaceae) Ginseng
A perennial growing
Ginseng, Chinese Ginseng, Ren Shen (Chinese) to 3 ft (1 m), with oval,
toothed leaves and a
cluster of small green-
yellow flowers.

Ginseng is the most famous Chinese herb of all. It has Parts Used
been prized for its remarkable therapeutic benefits for
about 7,000 years, and was so revered that wars were Root is harvested after 4 years,
fought for control of the forests in which it thrived. An when the active constituents are
Arabian physician brought ginseng back to Europe in most concentrated.
the 9th century, yet its ability to improve stamina and
resistance to stress became common knowledge in In China, dried
the West only from the 18th century. root is chewed
to provide an
energy boost

Research
■ Adaptogen Ginseng has been

researched in detail over the last

50 years in China, Japan, Korea,

Russia, and many other countries.

Its remarkable adaptogenic quality

(helping the body adapt to stress,

fatigue and cold) has been confirmed. Dried root
Trials show that ginseng significantly

improves the body’s capacity to cope

with hunger, extremes of temperature,

and mental and emotional stress.

Ginseng has always been valued as a tonic ■ Hormonal support The Fresh root
in old age. ginsenosides, which are similar
in structure to the body’s own
Habitat & Cultivation hormones, can be adapted within the

Ginseng is native to northeastern body to tone up deficient hormonal Key Preparations & Their Uses
China, eastern Russia, and North states. Clinical trials support the root’s

Korea, but is now extremely rare in traditional use by men, as they age, QCautions Do not exceed dose (can cause insomnia and high blood pressure). Take
the wild. Ginseng cultivation requires to maintain vitality and virility. There on professional advice if using blood-thinning medication. Young healthy adults should not
great skill. It is propagated from seed in is also evidence it helps with both take ginseng more than 6 weeks. Avoid caffeine while taking it. Do not take if pregnant.

spring and requires rich, well-drained impotence and erectile dysfunction.

soil. The plant takes at least 4 years to Research indicates that ginseng Capsules For nervous
exhaustion, take a 500 mg
mature. The root is then normally is equally valuable for women and is capsule once a day.
harvested in autumn and washed a useful medicine at menopause and
and steamed before being dried. beyond, aiding hot flashes and

Related Species lowered mood, and improving

sexual arousal.

San qi (P. notoginseng, p. 243), ■ Other research Ginseng

P. pseudoginseng, and American increases immune function and Soup is a common way of
ginseng (P. quinquefolium, p. 243) resistance to infection and improves taking ginseng in China. Add
all have significant benefits. liver function. Ginseng is a key herb 1 g dried root per portion

in maintaining health and quality of of vegetable soup. Take daily.

Key Constituents life in those with cancer. Tablets are a convenient way of taking ginseng. Take for short-term stressful
events, such as moving a household.
■ Triterpenoid saponins (0.7–3%), Traditional &
ginsenosides—at least 25 have Current Uses from late middle age onward, helping Self-help Uses
been identified
■ Chinese remedy In China,
■ Acetylenic compounds

■ Panaxans ginseng is best known as a stimulant, them endure the long hard winters. ■ Impotence & premature

■ Sesquiterpenes tonic herb for athletes and those ■ Western tonic In the West, ejaculation, p. 316.

Key Actions subject to physical stress, and as a ginseng is viewed not so much as a ■ Maintaining vitality, p. 319.
male aphrodisiac. It is also a tonic for medicine, but as a life-enhancing tonic. ■ Poor sleep & nervous

■ Adaptogen old age, and is traditionally taken by It is useful for those coping with exhaustion, p. 309.

118 ■ Tonic people in northern and central China stressful events, such as taking exams. ■ Short-term stress, p. 308.

Passiflora incarnata

Passiflora incarnata (Passifloraceae) Passionflower key medicinal plants
A climbing vine
Passionflower, Passiflora, Maypop growing to 30 ft (9 m),
with 3-lobed leaves,
Passionflower’s name comes from its beautiful flowers, Parts Used ornate flowers, and
thought to represent Christ’s crucifixion—5 stamens egg-shaped fruit.
for the 5 wounds, 3 styles for the 3 nails, and white
and purple-blue colors for purity and heaven. The herb Aerial parts are picked as
has valuable sedative and tranquilizing properties and needed for relaxing infusions.
has a long use as a medicine in Central and North
American herbal traditions, being taken in Mexico for
insomnia, epilepsy, and hysteria.

Passionflower was used by the Algonquin Key Actions Fresh
people of North America as an herbal flower
tranquilizer. ■ Sedative
■ Antispasmodic Dried aerial
Habitat & Cultivation ■ Tranquilizing parts
Fresh
Native to the southern U.S. Research aerial parts
(Virginia, Texas, and Tennessee)
and to Central and South America, ■ Tranquilizing properties Key Preparations & Their Uses
passionflower is now extensively Pharmacological research shows the
cultivated in Europe, notably in herb to have sedative, tranquilizing, QCautions Passionflower can cause drowsiness. Do not take high doses
Italy, as well as in North America. and sleep-inducing properties. A 2001 in pregnancy.
It is propagated from seed in spring clinical trial found that passionflower
and needs plenty of sun. The aerial was as effective in relieving anxiety as Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a useful Infusion (to make, p. 291). For
parts are gathered when the plant oxazepam, a conventional tranquilizer, sedative for an overactive mind. occasional sleeplessness, drink up
is flowering or in fruit. and had fewer reported side effects. Take 1 tsp with water daily. to 11⁄2 cups (300 ml) during the evening.
A clinical study in 2011 found
Related Species improvement in subjective sleep quality Tablets are a common over-the-counter
in those taking passionflower. remedy for insomnia and stress.
There are approximately 400 Passiflora ■ Indole alkaloids Research has
species, some of which are popular not yet conclusively established ■ Tranquilizing effects Its ability properties are the key to its 119
garden plants. A number have a that passionflower contains to reduce anxiety makes usefulness, reducing the overactivity
similar sedative action to passionflower. indole alkaloids. passionflower valuable for many responsible for the disorder.
P. quadrangularis has been found nervous states, and it is used to treat
to contain serotonin, one of the Traditional & conditions as diverse as asthma, Self-help Uses
main chemical messengers within Current Uses palpitations, high blood pressure,
the brain. and muscle cramps. In each case, ■ Insomnia, p. 309.
■ Insomnia Passionflower is best its antispasmodic and tranquilizing ■ Sleeplessness due to
Key Constituents known as a remedy for insomnia and
disturbed sleep patterns, and is useful backache, p. 313.
■ Flavonoids (apigenin) for short-term bouts of sleeplessness.
■ Amino acids ■ Gentle sedative This herb
■ Cyanogenic glycosides is widely acknowledged to be a
good medicine for anxiety, tension,
(gynocardin) irritability, and insomnia. Its gentle
■ Indole alkaloids (trace) sedative properties produce a
soothing and relaxing effect, reducing
nervous activity and panic, and
making it a mild and non-addictive
herbal tranquilizer, comparable in
some ways to valerian (Valeriana
officinalis, p. 148). Occasionally, it is
prescribed for convulsions.
■ Pain relief Passionflower has
valuable painkilling properties and
is given for toothache, period pain,
and headaches.

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Pelargonium sidoides

key medicinal plants Pelargonium sidoides (Geraniaceae) Pelargonium
An evergreen herb growing to
Pelargonium, Umckaloabo 10 in (25 cm), pelargonium
forms a rosette of long-stalked,
heart-shaped leaves with
striking purple-black flowers.

Known as umckaloabo (thought to mean “heavy cough” Parts Used
in Zulu), pelargonium has been used for centuries by
traditional South African healers as a key remedy for Root is used for its strong
coughs and respiratory infections and for gastrointestinal antimicrobial activity.
disorders. The herb came to the attention of Europeans in
the early 1900s after an Englishman named Charles Stevens
was cured of his tuberculosis by a Basuto traditional healer
who had given him large doses of pelargonium root.

■ Antiviral
■ Immune enhancing
■ Expectorant

Pelargonium is a potent medicine for coughs, Research Root is sliced
colds, and sore throats. and dried
■ Antimicrobial Pelargonium before it is used
Habitat and Cultivation extracts have been shown to have
strong activity against a wide range Root
Pelargonium is still collected from of bacteria, notably those commonly
the wild in the eastern parts of South responsible for ear, nose, throat, and Key Preparations & Their Uses
Africa where it is native, though chest infections. Extracts have also
demand for the root has led to been shown to act against herpes Cautions Give to children under 1 year of age only on professional advice.
increased commercial cultivation. viruses. The root exerts a tonic effect
The root is harvested at the end of on the immune system. Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a Tablets can be taken to
the growing season, sliced, and then ■ Upper respiratory tract valuable remedy for acute and support and strengthen
kiln dried. The plant is mostly problems German research over
propagated from seed. the last 15–20 years has established chronic bronchitis. immune function.
conclusively that pelargonium is a
Related Species safe and effective treatment for Fluid extract is best for children with upper respiratory tract infections.
problems affecting the upper
Many other geranium species have respiratory tract and chest. Clinical
medicinal activity, including another trials have shown that it is an
South African species, P. reniforme, effective treatment for acute and
which is often used for the same chronic bronchitis, tonsillitis, sinusitis,
indications. The closely related and the common cold, reducing
American cranesbill and herb robert the intensity of symptoms and
(Geranium maculatum and Geranium speeding recovery.
robertianum, both p. 216) are strongly ■ Children’s remedy Unusually,
astringent in action. several clinical trials have focused
on treating respiratory infections
in children, and the results of these
indicate that pelargonium is a very
safe and well-tolerated medicine
for children (from 1 year old) with
coughs, colds, sore throats, and
sinus problems.

Key Constituents Traditional & problems and chest infections. respiratory infections, including
Current Uses It combines well with elderberry tuberculosis, but conditions as diverse
■ Polyphenols (including high levels extract, also easily found and very as painful periods, liver disease,
of proanthocyanidins) ■ Respiratory infections Now safe for children. and gastroenteritis.
commonly available in health stores ■ Traditional African remedy
■ Coumarins and pharmacies, pelargonium can Pelargonium has a much wider range Self-help Uses
be considered a front-line home of uses in South Africa, where the
Key Actions treatment for upper respiratory root has been used to treat not only ■ Colds & congestion in children,
120 ■ Antibacterial p. 318.

Persea americana

Persea americana (Lauraceae) Avocado key medicinal plants
An evergreen tree,
Avocado growing to 65 ft
(20 m), with dark
green, leathery leaves
and white flowers.

Many parts of the avocado tree have a use in herbal Parts Used
medicine. The leaves and bark are effective remedies for
digestive problems and coughs. As well as being extremely Leaves are an astringent
nutritious, the fruit has a wide range of medicinal uses. remedy for diarrhea.
Native peoples of Guatemala, for example, use the pulp
to stimulate hair growth, the rind to expel worms, and the
seeds to treat diarrhea. The fruit pulp is used as a baby
food in West Africa.

■ Relieve coughs Dried leaves Fresh
■ Promote menstrual flow leaves
Fruit pulp:
■ Emollient Rind has
■ Carminative the ability to
Rind: expel worms
■ Eliminates worms
Seed
Research
Avocado is very nutritious and makes an Bark is stripped from the
excellent baby food. ■ Cholesterol Research tree for use in treating
shows that the fruit helps lower diarrhea and dysentery.
Habitat & Cultivation cholesterol levels.
■ Poisons Livestock that have Seed contains good-quality oil.
Indigenous to Central America, grazed on avocado leaves, fruit, or Fruit is nutritious and is
avocado is widely cultivated for its bark have been observed to suffer Fruit used to “draw” wounds.
fruit in tropical and subtropical areas, less toxic effects from snake bite
including Israel, Spain, and South and other poisons. Key Preparations & Their Uses
Africa. It is propagated from seed. The ■ Herpes simplex Laboratory
leaves are harvested as needed; the experiments have shown that QCaution The leaves and bark should not be used during pregnancy.
unripe fruit is picked when fully grown. avocado leaf extracts strongly inhibit
the herpes simplex virus, responsible Decoction of leaves or Mashed pulp To help wounds
Related Species for cold sores and genital herpes. bark (to make, p. 291). For to heal, apply a little mashed

Other Persea species have similar fruits Traditional & diarrhea, take 1⁄3 cup pulp 3 times a day.
to avocado and are used in a similar way. Current Uses (75 ml) 3 times daily.

Key Constituents ■ Leaves & bark Avocado Oil from the seed. For skin blemishes, rub
leaves and young bark stimulate a little oil on the area daily 3 times a day.
Leaves & bark: menstruation and can induce
■ Volatile oil (methylchavicol, abortion. The leaves are taken for 121
diarrhea, bloating, and gas and are
alpha-pinene) valuable for relieving coughs, for liver
■ Flavonoids obstructions, and for clearing high
■ Tannins uric acid levels, which cause gout.
Fruit pulp: ■ Fruit The rind is used to expel
■ Unsaturated fats worms. The fruit pulp is considered
■ Protein (about 25%) to have aphrodisiac properties. Used
■ Sesquiterpenes externally, it soothes the skin. It is
■ Vitamins A, B1, and B2 applied to suppurating wounds and
to the scalp to stimulate hair growth.
Key Actions ■ Oil The expressed oil of the
avocado seed nourishes the skin. It
Leaves & bark: softens rough, dry, or flaking skin and,
■ Astringent massaged into the scalp, it improves
■ Carminative hair growth.

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PiPer methysticum

Key medicinal plants Piper methysticum (Piperaceae) Kava
An evergreen shrub
Kava, Kava Kava climbing to 10 ft (3 m),
with fleshy stems and
heart-shaped leaves.

Kava has major ritual and cultural significance among Research calming and stimulating intoxicant.
the peoples of the Pacific Islands, where it is as much a It produces a euphoric state when
part of daily social life as coffee is in the West. At ■ German ban In 2002, German taken in large quantities.
modest doses, kava is calming and tranquilizing. regulators banned kava products ■ Relaxing remedy Kava is a safe
At large doses, it leads to intoxication and euphoria, due to concerns that extracts were and proven remedy for anxiety that
though without a hangover the next day. It has a hot, toxic to the liver and had led to does not cause drowsiness or affect
slightly aromatic and bitter taste and leaves the mouth 20 deaths. Many other countries the ability to operate machinery. It is
feeling slightly numb. followed Germany’s example. valuable for treating muscle tension
The ban was repealed by the as well as emotional stress.
and a shady position. The root is German authorities in 2015. Those ■ Pain relief With its tonic,
harvested at any time of year. campaigning against it had long strengthening, and mildly analgesic
maintained that the traditional use of properties, kava is a good remedy
Kava has huge, tapering leaves, growing Related Species kava, especially water-based extracts for chronic pain, helping to reduce
to 10 in (25 cm) across. Its root is used of kava, were inherently safe. sensitivity and to relax muscles that
medicinally to relieve pain. The closely related P. sanctum is native Australian regulators had adopted are tensed in response to pain.
to Mexico. It is similar to kava in many this approach in 2003 by allowing the ■ Arthritic conditions The
Habitat & Cultivation ways; for example, it also contains sale of water-based extracts of kava. analgesic and cleansing diuretic effect
kava lactones and is traditionally taken A rigorous reexamination of the 20 of Kava often makes it a beneficial
Kava is an indigenous Polynesian vine as a stimulant. Other related species fatal cases found that only two cases herb for treating rheumatic and
and grows throughout the Pacific include matico, betel, cubeb, and could in any way be attributed to arthritic problems such as gout. It
Islands as far east as Hawaii. It is pepper (P. angustifolia, P. betle, the use of kava. helps to bring relief from pain and
cultivated commercially in parts P. cubeba and P. nigrum, pp. 249–250). ■ Anxiety A 2003 review of kava to remove waste products from the
of the U.S. and in Australia. Kava is found that “compared with placebo, affected joint.
propagated from runners in late winter Key Constituents kava extract is an effective ■ Antiseptic Kava is routinely used
or early spring and is usually grown on symptomatic treatment for anxiety.” by peoples of the South Pacific to
frames. It needs well-drained, stony soil ■ Resin containing kava The authors commented that “few treat infection, especially where pain
lactones, including kawain adverse events were reported in the is a key symptom. In New Guinea,
reviewed trials.” Kava is nonaddictive, it is taken to soothe and treat sore
■ Piperidine alkaloid and clinical evidence suggests it is also throats and to relieve toothache.
(pipermethysticine) a safe and effective treatment for It makes a valuable urinary antiseptic
anxiety linked with depression, and will help in treating cystitis,
Key Actions for insomnia, and for pain relief. urethritis, urinary frequency, and
bladder irritability.
■ Tonic Traditional & ■ External uses The herb makes
■ Reduces anxiety Current Uses a useful analgesic mouthwash for
■ Urinary antiseptic treating toothache and mouth ulcers.
■ Analgesic ■ Traditional aphrodisiac Kava
■ Induces sleep is valued in the South Sea Islands as a

Parts Used Traditionally the root is Key Preparations & Their Uses
chewed and fermented
Root relieves pain and with saliva QCautions Do not exceed recommended dosage or take for more than
counters urinary infections. 2 months at a time. Use water-based extracts. Do not take during pregnancy.
If there is a history of liver disease, take only on professional advice. Subject to
legal restrictions in many countries.

Dried root Infusion (to make, p. 291).
122 To relieve anxiety and muscle
tension, drink 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) a day.

Tablets containing a water-based extract can be taken for anxiety.

P l a n ta g o s p p.

Plantago spp. (Plantaginaceae) Psyllium Key medicinal plants
An annual, growing
Psyllium, Ispaghula (Hindi), Flea Seed to 16 in (40 cm) high,
with narrow leaves and
Produced by several Plantago species—P. ovata, P. psyllium, and Scandinavia during the 1980s clusters of minute
and P. indica—psyllium has been used as a safe and have shown that psyllium has both a white-brown flowers.
effective laxative for thousands of years in Europe, laxative and an antidiarrheal action.
North Africa, and Asia. Given their small size and brown ■ Diabetes A 1998 clinical trial with ■ Detoxifying herb The jellylike
color, psyllium husks and seeds have been mistaken for 125 patients concluded that 5 g of mucilage produced when psyllium
fleas, hence their folk name flea seed. Bland-tasting, they psyllium taken 3 times a day helped to is soaked in water has the ability to
swell when moistened, and have a jellylike consistency lower blood-fat and -glucose levels in absorb toxins within the large
in the mouth. people with type 2 diabetes. intestine. Psyllium is commonly taken
to reduce autotoxicity (the toxins are
Psyllium is widely cultivated for its husks Related Species Traditional & expelled from the body with the
and seeds, which are used as a remedy Current Uses husks and seeds in the feces).
for bowel problems. Common plantain (P. major, p. 251) ■ Digestive ailments The
is prescribed for diarrhea and ■ Laxative Psyllium is prescribed soothing, protective effect imparted
Habitat & Cultivation irritable bowel syndrome. Che qian zi in conventional as well as herbal by the mucilage-rich husks and
(P. asiatica) is used in China as a medicine for constipation, especially seeds benefits the whole gastro-
The three species that produce diuretic, for diarrhea, and for when the condition results from an intestinal tract. Psyllium is taken for
psyllium grow throughout southern bronchial congestion. The powdered over-tensed or over-relaxed bowel. stomach and duodenal ulcers, and
Europe, North Africa, and Asia, husk is given late in pregnancy to aid Both husks and seeds contain high for acid indigestion.
especially in India, and are extensively normal presentation of the fetus levels of fiber (the mucilage) and ■ Urinary infections The
cultivated. They are propagated from (head-down position in the uterus). expand, becoming highly gelatinous demulcent action of psyllium
seed in spring and require plenty of when soaked in water. By maintaining extends to the urinary tract. In
sun. The seeds are harvested when Key Constituents a high water content within the large India, an infusion of the seeds
ripe in late summer and early autumn. intestine, they increase the bulk of (the only time this preparation
■ Mucilage (arabinoxylan) the stool, easing its passage. is used) is given for urethritis.
■ Fixed oil (2.5%)—mainly linoleic, ■ Other bowel problems ■ External uses When psyllium
Contrary to expectation, psyllium husks are soaked in an infusion of
oleic, and palmitic fatty acids is a useful remedy for diarrhea. calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73),
■ Starch It is also an effective treatment they make an effective poultice
for many other bowel problems, for external use, drawing out
Key Actions including irritable bowel syndrome, infection from boils, abscesses,
ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s disease. and whitlows (pus-filled swellings
■ Demulcent In India, psyllium is commonly used on the fingertips).
■ Bulk laxative to treat dysentery.
■ Antidiarrheal ■ Hemorrhoid relief Psyllium Self-help Uses
is valuable for hemorrhoids, helping
Research to soften the stool and to reduce ■ Chronic diarrhea & irritable
irritation of the veins. bowel syndrome, p. 307.
■ Regulating bowel function
Clinical trials in the U.S., Germany, ■ Constipation, p. 317.
■ Difficult passage of the stool

& hemorrhoids, p. 302.

Parts Used Husks are generally powdered for Key Preparations & Their Uses
use in a variety of preparations.
Seeds should be soaked in QCautions Do not exceed the stated dose. Always take with plenty of water.
water before they are used.

Cold maceration For constipation, soak Capsules of powdered husk (p. 292).
20 g of seeds in 3⁄4 cup (200 ml) water for For hemorrhoids, take a 200 mg
10 hours. Take the whole dose at night. capsule 3 times a day.

Seeds Powdered husk Poultice For boils, mix 5 g of powdered husks with sufficient infusion of calendula 123
to make a thick paste. Apply (see p. 295) 3 times a day.

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Polygonum multiflorum

Key Medicinal Plants Polygonum multiflorum (Polygonaceae) Fo Ti
A perennial climber,
Fo Ti, He Shou Wu (Chinese) growing to 33 ft (10 m),
with red stems, light-
green leaves, and white
or pink flowers.

A Chinese tonic herb with a bittersweet taste, fo ti is Parts Used
thought to concentrate qi (vital energy) in its root, so
that taking this herb gives vitality to the body. It Root is highly valued in Chinese
has always been considered a rejuvenating herb, medicine for its tonic properties.
helping to prevent aging and encouraging longevity. It is unearthed in the autumn.
Traditionally, much folklore is attached to this herb,
and large, old roots are thought to have
remarkable powers.

Key Constituents Dried root

■ Anthraquinone glycosides Key Preparations & Their Uses
■ Stilbene glycoside
■ Polyphenols QCaution Only the prepared root from Chinese herbal shops should be used.
■ Phospholipids, including lecithin
Fo ti is one of the oldest Chinese tonic Decoction (to make, Tablets, known as Tincture (to make, p. 292).
herbs. It is used to help lower blood Key Actions p. 291). As a general shou wu pian, are To reduce blood cholesterol
cholesterol levels. tonic, take the decoction taken in China for levels, take 1 tsp twice a day
■ Tonic their rejuvenating
Habitat & Cultivation ■ Antioxidant over 2 days. with water.
■ Mild sedative properties.
Fo ti is native to central ■ Lowers cholesterol levels
and southern China, and is cultivated ■ Neuroprotective Powder may be added to food for its tonic effect. Take 5 g a day.
throughout that region. It is
propagated from seed or by root Research properties, and to increase fertility ■ Premature aging Fo ti is
division in spring, or from cuttings in both men and women. prescribed in China for people
in summer. The plant requires ■ Cholesterol levels In animal ■ Liver & kidney remedy showing signs of premature aging.
well-fertilized soil and plenty of experiments in China, fo ti was In Chinese herbal medicine, fo ti’s This suggests it helps the body
protection from winter weather. shown to significantly reduce raised most important use is as a tonic function in a balanced, healthy way.
The roots of 3- to 4-year-old fo ti blood cholesterol levels. Also, for the liver and kidneys. By In particular, there is a lot of evidence
plants are unearthed and dried in a clinical trial, over 80% of patients strengthening liver and kidney to support the root’s use to aid
during the autumn. Older, larger with high blood cholesterol who had function, it helps cleanse the blood, reversing hair loss and graying of
roots are prized for their been taking decoctions of the root enabling the qi to circulate freely the hair.
therapeutic properties, but showed an improvement. around the whole body. ■ Malaria The herb is prescribed
are generally not available to ■ Blood-sugar levels Chinese ■ Nerve & blood tonic Fo ti is in the treatment of chronic malaria,
obtain commercially. research has revealed that fo ti given in Chinese herbal medicine to when it is often combined with
helps increase the levels of sugar people with symptoms, such as ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 120),
Related Species in the blood. dizziness, weakness, numbness, and dong quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63),
■ Neuroprotective Preclinical blurred vision, that indicate inefficient as well as green tangerine peel
Bistort (P. bistorta, p. 253), one of research points to fo ti having a nerves and “blood deficiency.” (Citrus reticulata).
the most strongly astringent of all stabilizing effect on brain function,
herbs, and knotgrass (P. aviculare, and that it might—as traditional
p. 253) are used in European herbal use would suggest—prove valuable
medicine. They do not have the in slowing aging processes within
same tonic therapeutic properties the central nervous system.
as P. multiflorum. In Chinese herbal
medicine, P. cuspidatum is used Traditional &
to treat amenorrhea (absence Current Uses
124 of periods).
■ Popular tonic Although fo ti is
not the earliest tonic herb listed in
Chinese herbal medicine (it is first
mentioned in 713 ce), it has
become one of the most widely
used. It is taken regularly by
millions of people in the East
for its rejuvenating and toning

Rehmannia glutinosa

Rehmannia glutinosa (Scrophulariaceae) Rehmannia Key medicinal plants
A perennial, reaching
Rehmannia, Di Huang (Chinese) 1–2 ft (30–60 cm),
with large, sticky leaves
and purple flowers.

An important Chinese tonic herb, rehmannia has figured Parts Used
extensively in many traditional herbal formulas and
has an ancient history: it was referred to by Ge Hong, Root is unearthed in autumn. It has
the 4th-century ce Chinese physician and alchemist. a protective action on the liver.
Rehmannia is a “longevity” herb and has a marked tonic
action on the liver and kidneys. Research has confirmed Root is chewed
its traditional use, showing that it protects the liver and raw and has a
is useful for hepatitis.
slightly bitter taste

Rehmannia’s appearance gave rise to its Research Dried root Fresh root
Western folkname “Chinese foxglove.”
■ Liver remedy Chinese research Key Preparations & Their Uses
Habitat & Cultivation has shown rehmannia to be a very
important liver-protective herb, QCaution Take only on professional advice during pregnancy.
Rehmannia grows wild on sunny preventing poisoning and liver
mountain slopes in northern and damage. Clinical trials in China Rehmannia
northeastern parts of China, have demonstrated that it can
especially in Henan province. be effective in treating hepatitis. Chinese Shu di huang Simmer 15 g root
Rehmannia can be cultivated, in ■ Other research Chinese figwort in 2 cups (500 ml) red wine for
which case it is propagated from research over the last 10 years 20 minutes. For blood loss and
seed sown in autumn or spring. indicates that rehmannia has a Remedy Decoct 15 g rehmannia and 10 g anemia, take 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily.
The root is harvested in autumn, positive stabilizing effect on blood- Chinese figwort (see p. 291). For fevers,
after the plant has flowered. sugar regulation, and aids liver and
pancreatic function. Ongoing take 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 2–3 times daily.
Related Species preclinical research in China is
examining the herb’s usefulness bleeding. It is warming rather than ■ Chinese formulas The herb 125
R. lutea is used in Chinese herbal in preventing osteoporosis. cooling, and is considered to be a is an ingredient of many famous
medicine as a diuretic. prime kidney tonic. herbal formulas, most notably
Traditional & ■ Blood pressure Rehmannia is “the pill of eight ingredients,” which
Key Constituents Current Uses used to treat high blood pressure. contemporary Chinese herbalists
Interestingly, while sheng di huang consider to “warm and invigorate
■ Iridoids ■ Raw & prepared root In Chinese appears to raise blood pressure, the yang of the loins.”
■ Polysaccharides herbal medicine, the root (di huang) shu di huang has the opposite effect.
■ Phytosterols is known as sheng di huang when ■ Longevity Rehmannia is a Self-help Uses
■ Phenethyl glycosides it is eaten raw and shu di huang traditional and valuable tonic for
when it has been cooked in wine. old age. It is considered to help ■ Heavy menstrual bleeding, p. 315.
Key Actions The former is the most commonly prevent senility. ■ Weakened liver & metabolism,
taken remedy. Both are yin tonics
■ Tonic (see p. 40), but have different p. 319.
■ Anti-inflammatory therapeutic indications.
■ Kidney tonic ■ Sheng di huang The raw root
■ Lowers blood pressure “cools the blood,” and is given to
■ Antidiabetic help lower fever in acute and chronic
■ Reduces fever illnesses. Its cooling nature is
■ Antihemorrhagic reflected in its use for problems such
as thirst and a red tongue that arise
from “heat patterns.” Sheng di huang
is useful for treating people with
impaired liver function and is used
specifically to treat hepatitis and
other liver conditions.
■ Shu di huang This preparation
is used specifically for blood loss
and “blood deficiency” states such
as irregular and heavy menstrual

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Rheum palmatum

Key Medicinal Plants Rheum palmatum (Polygonaceae) Chinese rhubarb
A thick-rhizomed
Chinese Rhubarb, Da Huang (Chinese) perennial growing to
10 ft (3 m), with large
palm-shaped leaves
and small flowers.

Chinese rhubarb has long been prized as the most Parts Used
useful purge in herbal medicine, safe even for young
children due to its gentle action. It has been used in Rhizome contains anthraquinones, which are
China for over 2,000 years and is an extremely effective laxative, and tannins, which are astringent.
treatment for many digestive problems. Paradoxically,
it is a laxative when taken in large doses but has a Rhizome is a mild
constipating effect in small measures. The rhizome appetite stimulant and
has an astringent, unpleasant taste. helps improve digestion

Key Actions

■ Laxative
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Astringent
■ Stops bleeding
■ Antibacterial

Research
■ Anthraquinones & tannins

Chinese rhubarb’s medicinal value

is largely due to the irritant, laxative,

and purgative properties of the

Chinese rhubarb grows best close to anthraquinones, and in large doses Dried rhizome
water. In summer it produces clusters the rhizome is strongly laxative.
of red flowers. A 2007 Chinese study concluded Fresh rhizome
that the anthraquinones in rhubarb
Habitat & Cultivation
“possess promising anticancer Key Preparations & Their Uses
Native to China and Tibet, where properties and could have a broad

the best-quality herb is still found, therapeutic potential.” QCautions Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Do not take during
Chinese rhubarb now also grows in ■ Antibacterial properties menstruation or if prone to gout or kidney stones. Not suitable for children.
the West. It is found in the wild and Decoctions of the root have been

is widely cultivated. It is grown from shown to be effective against

seed in spring or by root division Staphylococcus aureus, an infectious

in spring or autumn and requires a bacterium that causes mouth ulcers

sunny position and well-drained soil. and folliculitis (an acne-type infection

The rhizomes of 6–10-year-old plants of the beard area). In laboratory

are dug up in the autumn after the studies, rhubarb has been found

stem and leaves have turned yellow. to have notable activity against

Related Species Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium Decoction (to make, p. 291). For Tincture (to make, p. 292). To
that causes stomach ulcers. an occasional bout of constipation, stimulate the appetite, take 20
R. tanguticum and R. officinale have take 1/2 cup (100 ml) each evening. drops with water twice a day.
similar uses to R. palmatum. These Traditional &
3 species are considered to be Current Uses Tablets are one of the most convenient ways of taking the herb. Take for
superior in action to other rhubarbs. occasional bouts of constipation.
■ History Chinese rhubarb was

The familiar, edible rhubarb is first mentioned in the 1st-century ce

R. rhaponticum. Chinese text The Divine Husbandman’s laxative, helping to clear the colon ■ Other uses Chinese rhubarb

Key Constituents Classic, and has been grown in the without causing excessive cramping. can be applied to burns, boils, and

West since 1732. It is one of the few This is useful for treating constipation carbuncles. The herb acts as a tonic

■ Anthraquinones (about 3–5%), herbs still used today in conventional where the muscles of the large and mild appetite stimulant and

rhein, aloe-emodin, emodin as well as herbal medicine, and is listed intestine are weak. serves as a useful mouthwash for

■ Flavonoids (catechin) in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1988. ■ Diarrhea Small doses of the root mouth ulcers.

■ Phenolic acids ■ Constipation Large doses of are astringent, relieving irritation of Self-help Use
■ Tannins (5–10%) Chinese rhubarb are combined with the inner lining of the gut, thus

126 ■ Calcium oxalate carminative herbs and taken as a reducing diarrhea. ■ Constipation, p. 307.

Rhodiola Rosea

Rhodiola rosea (Crassulaceae) Rhodiola Key Medicinal Plants
A fleshy perennial
Rhodiola, Golden Root growing to 16 in (40 cm)
in height with thick oblong
leaves and clusters of
yellow flowers.

An Arctic plant that thrives in extreme environments, Parts Used
rhodiola’s rose-colored roots have pronounced medicinal
activity, enhancing the ability of the body to deal with Root helps to support physical
stresses of all kinds. An adaptogen, similar to ginseng and mental endurance and to
(Panax ginseng, p. 118), rhodiola also acts on the central counter the effects of stress.
nervous system, supporting memory and concentration
under conditions of stress, and helping to relieve nervous
exhaustion and mild to moderate depression.

■ Monoterpenes (including rosiridin)
■ Triterpenes

Rhodiola root is most commonly taken to Key Actions Dried rhizome
improve mental and physical performance.
■ Adaptogen Fresh rhizome
Habitat and Cultivation ■ Antidepressant
■ Aids mental performance Key Preparations & Their Uses
Rhodiola is indigenous to ■ Anti-inflammatory
mountainous and Arctic regions of Cautions Can cause irritability and sleep disturbance. Not advisable in manic and
the northern hemisphere, including Research bipolar disorders.
Canada, Scotland, Scandinavia, Russia,
and Alaska. Rhodiola is still mostly ■ Adaptogen Rhodiola is an Decoction Take 21/2 tsp twice a day
collected from the wild, threatening unusual medicine—an adaptogen to promote physical endurance.
its long-term survival in some regions, that combines the ability to promote
though it is now cultivated in Canada, physical and mental endurance with Tablets take as recommended by
Norway, and Finland. antidepressant and anti-inflammatory supplier for lowered mood and vitality.
activity. Though large-scale clinical
Related Species trials are lacking, research shows that Tincture (to make, p. 292). To support memory and concentration, take
rhodiola root increases the capacity 1/2 tsp 2–3 times a day.
The central Asian R. quadrifida is used to resist physical and mental fatigue.
in Mongolia to enhance strength and ■ Clinical trials In a 2000 altitude and winter cold. The roots ■ Other uses Rhodiola is 127
vigor. R. crenulata and R. rosea are Armenian clinical trial, young healthy have also been taken to promote traditionally considered to help
used in Chinese medicine, though hospital doctors working night shifts longevity, ease depression, and treat improve fertility in both men and
across China many different species were given a rhodiola extract. After infection. Rhodiola is now most women. In Siberia, rhodiola roots
of Rhodiola are used to alleviate 2 weeks, those taking the extract commonly taken to improve mental are given to marrying couples to
fatigue and protect against the cold. showed significantly fewer signs of and physical performance and to promote fertility and the health of
Chinese research into R. crenulata mental fatigue, including better levels protect against the harmful effects of their future children. In Mongolia,
indicates that this species aids of concentration and short-term ongoing stress. alongside its use as a tonic, rhodiola
endurance and has a protective memory, than those taking a placebo. ■ Russian medicine Rhodiola is given for infections such as
activity against radiation. In a 2015 U.S. clinical trial, 57 adults became an official medicine in Russia bronchitis and pneumonia, and
with moderate depression were in 1969, being recommended for a wide is also used as a mouthwash for
Key Constituents given rhodiola or sertraline, a range of health problems, not only as bad breath.
conventional antidepressant. an adaptogen (see Research), but for
■ Phenylpropanoids (rosavins— Both medicines proved effective, psychiatric and neurological problems, Self-help Use
occuring only in Rhodiola rosea) but those taking rhodiola reported such as depression and schizophrenia.
fewer side effects. ■ Maintaining vitality, p. 319.
■ Salidroside
■ Flavonoids Traditional &
Current Uses

■ Key traditional uses In Europe
and Asia, the central core of
rhodiola’s use in traditional medicine
has always been its power to
increase endurance and work rate,
and the capacity to cope with high

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Key medicinal plants RosmaRinus officinalis Rosemary
A strongly aromatic
Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae) evergreen shrub
growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m),
Rosemary with narrow, dark
green, pinelike leaves.
Rosemary is a well-known and greatly valued herb Parts Used
that is native to southern Europe. It has been used Volatile oil is most
since antiquity to improve and strengthen the memory. Leaves are gathered in summer concentrated in
To this day it is burned in the homes of students in and used in preparations or distilled the leaves
Greece who are about to take exams. Rosemary has for their oil.
a longstanding reputation as a tonic, invigorating herb,
imparting a zest for life that is to some degree reflected
in its distinctive aromatic taste.

Research
■ General circulation A 2011

study published in Phytotherapy

Research found that rosemary exerted

anti-inflammatory and protective

effects on the inner lining of blood

vessels in young adults. Such research Dried leaves
supports the understanding that many

active compounds in rosemary Fresh leaves
support a healthy circulation. A

small 2006 clinical trial in Germany Key Preparations
concluded (in line with traditional

Rosemary was a symbol of fidelity between usage) that rosemary raised blood & Their Uses
lovers, on account of its ability to improve pressure in people suffering from
the memory. low blood pressure. All those taking QCaution Do not take the essential oil internally except under a professional
rosemary also reported feeling practitioner’s supervision.

Habitat & Cultivation better at the end of the trial.

Native to the Mediterranean, rosemary ■ Other actions Japanese

grows freely in much of southern laboratory research in 2003 found

Europe and is cultivated throughout that diterpenes within rosemary Essential oil To improve
the world. It is propagated from seed (carnosic acid and carnosol) strongly concentration, burn
or cuttings in spring and prefers a stimulated nerve growth factor, several drops in an oil
warm, moderately dry climate and suggesting that rosemary may burner (to use, p. 297).

a sheltered site. The branches are stimulate nerve repair. A 2015 review Tincture (to make, p. 292)
gathered during the summer after in Cancer Letters stated that these is an excellent tonic. For
flowering and dried in the shade. constituents also had “promising stress, take 40 drops twice
results of anticancer activity.” daily with water.
Key Constituents
Traditional & Infusion (to make, p. 291). To relieve headaches, take 21/2 tsp every 3 hours.
■ Volatile oil (1–2%) containing Current Uses The infusion, rubbed into the scalp, improves hair growth.
borneol, camphene, camphor,

cineole ■ Circulatory stimulant

■ Flavonoids (apigenin, diosmin) Rosemary has a central place in is valuable for fainting and weakness spirits, it is useful for mild to

■ Tannins European herbal medicine as a associated with deficient circulation. moderate depression.

■ Rosmarinic acid warming, tonic remedy that ■ Restorative Rosemary aids ■ Other uses Applied as a lotion

■ Diterpenes (including carnosic stimulates blood flow throughout recovery from long-term stress or diluted essential oil, rosemary

acid and carnosol) the body, especially in those with and chronic illness. It is thought eases aching, rheumatic muscles.

Key Actions low blood pressure. It is thought to to stimulate the adrenal glands Add the infusion, or essential oil,

promote blood flow to the head, and is used specifically for debility, to bathwater for a reviving soak.

■ Tonic thus improving memory and especially when accompanied by Self-help Uses
■ Stimulant concentration. It may be taken to poor circulation and digestion.

■ Astringent relieve migraine and headaches and ■ Uplifting herb Rosemary is ■ Migraine, p. 309.

■ Nervine encourages hair growth and health. often prescribed for people who ■ Premenstrual syndrome, p. 315.

■ Anti-inflammatory ■ Poor circulation Thought to are stressed and “failing to thrive.” ■ Sore throats, p. 311.

128 ■ Antioxidant raise low blood pressure, the herb Valued as an herb that raises the ■ Tired & aching muscles, p. 312.

Salix alba

Salix alba (Salicaceae) White willow Key medicinal plants
A deciduous tree
White Willow growing to 80 ft
(25 m), with green
Justly famous as the original source of salicylic acid Parts Used tapering leaves, and
(the forerunner of aspirin), white willow and closely catkins in spring.
related species have been used for thousands of years Bark is stripped from
in Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America to relieve young branches and used Bark is dark
joint pain and manage fevers. Dioscorides, a Greek fresh or dried. gray and deeply
physician in the 1st century ce, suggested taking “willow fissured
leaves, mashed with a little pepper and drunk with wine”
to relieve lower back pain.

Key Actions Dried bark Fresh bark

■ Anti-inflammatory Key Preparations
■ Analgesic & Their Uses
■ Reduces fever
■ Antirheumatic QCaution Avoid if allergic to aspirin. Do not
■ Astringent take during pregnancy or if breastfeeding.
Not suitable for young children. Rarely, may
Research cause gastrointestinal upset.

White willow is used in Britain to make ■ Salicylic acid & aspirin Salicylic St John’s wort
cricket bats. The bark has anti-inflammatory acid, a strongly anti-inflammatory
properties. and analgesic compound, was first Cramp bark
isolated from salicin in willow bark
Habitat & Cultivation in 1838. It was the forerunner of Tincture (to make, p. 292). Remedy Make a decoction (see p. 291)
aspirin, a chemical drug developed in For rheumatism, take 1/2 tsp with 10 g each of white willow, St John’s
Native to much of Europe, white Germany during 1899. Salicylic acid wort, and cramp bark. For aching muscles,
willow is also found in North Africa (and salicin) has many of the with water 3 times a day.
and Asia, thriving in damp areas, such properties of aspirin but causes drink 3/4 cup (150 ml) twice a day.
as on riverbanks. It is propagated notably fewer side effects. As such,
from semi-ripe cuttings in summer it is now being widely researched as Tablets often also contain
or from hardwood cuttings in winter. an alternative to aspirin-based anti- other herbs. Take for arthritis.
The trees are frequently pollarded inflammatory medicines such as
and bark is stripped from branches ibuprofen. Unlike aspirin, salicylic Decoction (to make, p. 291). For painful joints and aching rheumatic muscles,
of 2- to 5-year-old trees in spring. acid does not thin the blood, and take 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) 3 times a day.
any problems it might cause within
Related Species the digestive tract are likely to Traditional & may also be used to ease headaches 129
be minor. Current Uses and head pain.
Many Salix species, for example ■ Clinical trials Over the last 15 ■ Menopause A cooling herb that
crack willow (S. fragilis), are used years, clinical trials have shown that ■ Joint remedy White willow is reduces sweating, willow bark can be
interchangeably with white willow. high-strength willow bark extract an excellent remedy for arthritic and helpful in controlling symptoms such
S. acmophylla is used on the Indian offers an effective alternative to rheumatic pain affecting the back, as hot flashes and night sweats.
subcontinent as a remedy for mainstream anti-inflammatory and joints such as the knees and hips,
fevers. In North American herbal medicines, particularly in treating though large doses may be required, Self-help Uses
medicine, black willow (S. nigra) conditions such as osteoarthritis and such as a standardized tablet. In
is given as an anaphrodisiac lower back pain. In a 2008 clinical combination with other herbs and ■ Arthritis & inflamed
(sexual depressant). trial published in Phytomedicine, dietary changes, it relieves inflammation joints, p. 313.
among people with arthritis of the and swelling, and improves mobility in
Key Constituents hip or knee, aged between 50 and painful or creaky joints. ■ Back pain due to joint
75, those taking willow bark extract, ■ Fevers & pain White willow inflammation, p. 313.
■ Phenolic glycosides after 6 weeks, were rated by is taken to manage high fevers. It
(up to 11%) doctors as doing significantly better ■ Hot flashes & night
than those taking standard aspirin- sweats, p. 316.
■ Salicin based medication. Those taking
■ Flavonoids willow bark reported far fewer
■ Polyphenols side effects.

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Salvia miltiorrhiza

key medicinal plants Salvia miltiorrhiza (Lamiaceae) Dan shen
A hardy perennial
Dan Shen, Chinese Sage growing to 32 in
(80 cm), with toothed
oval leaves and clusters
of purple flowers.

Recent scientific research supports dan shen’s traditional Parts Used
usage as a remedy for heart and circulatory problems such
as angina and palpitations. The Divine Husbandman’s Classic Root is an ancient
(Shen’nong Bencaojing), the earliest of all Chinese herbal Chinese remedy for
texts, listed dan shen as an herb that “invigorates the circulatory disorders.
blood,” and it is still used as a circulatory remedy. In
particular, it is taken for period pain and other conditions
resulting from circulatory congestion.

Research
■ Tanshinones There has been

extensive research into dan shen in

China, and the tanshinones have been

shown to have a profound effect on

coronary circulation, reducing the

symptoms of angina and improving

heart function.

■ Heart attack The whole herb

(rather than isolated constituents)

has been used in China to assist Dried Dried root
patients who are recovering from chopped root
Dan shen is an important circulatory a heart attack, and it appears to
stimulant. It is sold in herbal markets support heart function at this Key Preparations & Their Uses
across China for use in medicinal formulas. critical time. Clinical trials in China,
however, have shown that dan shen

Habitat & Cultivation is most effective when taken as QCautions For serious circulatory or heart problems, take only under professional
a preventative, rather than as a supervision. The tincture may produce digestive and skin reactions. Avoid in pregnancy.
Native to China, dan shen is now

cultivated in northeastern China remedy after the heart attack

and Inner Mongolia. It requires has taken place.

moist, sandy soil and is propagated ■ Other research Many recent

by root division in spring. The root is clinical trials involving dan shen have

harvested from late autumn through used Chinese herbal combinations,

early spring. rather than dan shen alone, so it is

hard to draw conclusions. However,

Related Species they do provide further evidence

Sage (S. officinalis, p. 131) is closely of dan shen’s usefulness in cardio-

related, but is used for an entirely vascular problems such as high blood Tincture is used by herbalists Decoction (to make, p. 291).
different range of medical problems. pressure, angina, and heart disease. to treat angina and other For painful periods, take 1⁄3 cup
In Mexico, the related species Unusually, two clinical trials in China circulatory problems.
(75 ml) up to 3 times a day.

S. divinorum is used as a hallucinogen. (2012) found that injected extracts

of dan shen were helpful in pre- circulatory problems. It particularly stagnation, primarily those affecting

Key Constituents eclampsia, a serious condition during benefits coronary circulation, the lower abdomen, such as absent

■ Diterpenes (tanshinones) pregnancy which involves fluid opening up the arteries and improving or painful periods and fibroids.

■ Phenolic compounds retention and high blood pressure. blood flow to the heart, and is ■ Sedative The sedative action of

■ Volatile oil Traditional & therefore helpful in treating coronary dan shen helps to calm the nerves,
■ Vitamin E Current Uses heart disease. Though it does not and it is therefore helpful in treating
lower blood pressure, dan shen angina, a condition made worse by
Key Actions ■ Circulatory stimulant Dan relaxes the blood vessels and anxiety and worry. Palpitations,

■ Tonic to heart and circulation shen has been esteemed by the improves circulation throughout insomnia, and irritability also benefit

■ Anticoagulant Chinese for thousands of years as a the body. from dan shen’s sedative properties.

■ Dilates the blood vessels circulatory stimulant. Like hawthorn ■ Circulatory congestion Dan Self-help Use
■ Sedative (Crataegus oxyacantha, p. 87), it is shen is used traditionally to treat

130 ■ Antibacterial a safe, effective remedy for many conditions caused by blood ■ Palpitations, p. 302.

Salvia officinaliS

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae) Sage key medicinal plants
An evergreen
Sage growing to 32 in
(80 cm), with square
stems and hairy grey-
green or purple leaves.

Sage’s botanical name is a clue to its medicinal importance: Parts Used
Salvia comes from salvare, meaning “to cure” in Latin.
A medieval saying echoes this: “Why should a man die Leaves have valuable
while sage grows in his garden?” Today, sage is an excellent antiseptic and astringent
remedy for sore throats, poor digestion, and irregular properties.
periods, and it is also taken as a gently stimulating
tonic. It has a slightly warm, noticeably bitter, and Purple sage,
astringent taste. S. officinalis
purpurascens, is
the preferred
medicinal variety

■ Clears mucus
■ Nerve tonic
■ Estrogenic

Research Dried leaves Fresh
leaves
■ Nerve tonic Ongoing research
Sage is known most commonly as a taking place in the UK provides Key Preparations
culinary herb, but it is also of great strong support for the traditional use & Their Uses
medicinal importance. of sage to enhance memory. In the
most recent study (2008), healthy QCautions Do not take medicinal doses during pregnancy or while
Habitat & Cultivation volunteers averaging 73 years of age breastfeeding, or if epileptic.
showed a significant improvement in
Native to the Mediterranean, sage memory processing and accuracy of Infusion (to make, Tincture (to make, Fresh sage leaves
is cultivated all around the world, attention after taking a single dose of p. 291). Use as a gargle p. 292) is a digestive are a useful first aid
thriving in sunny conditions. It is sage extract. Interestingly, a moderate for sore throats up to tonic. Take 40 drops with remedy. Rub on stings
grown from seed in spring and the dose, equivalent to 2.5 g of sage, water twice a day.
plants are replaced after 3 to 4 years. proved most effective, more so than 3 times a day. and bites.
The leaves are picked in summer. higher doses.
■ Sore throat In a randomized trial makes it ideal as a gargle for sore and is traditionally taken by a mother 131
Related Species published during 2006, a sage throat throats and throat infections. It can while weaning.
spray was found to relieve throat equally be used for mouth ulcers ■ Digestive tonic Sage has a long
In all, there are about 500 species of pain in people who had acute and sore gums. traditional use as a digestive aid,
Salvia. Spanish sage (S. lavandulifolia) is throat infection. ■ Hormonal remedy A valuable supporting stomach health and
the most familiar culinary variety and ■ Hormonal activity The herb’s remedy for irregular and scanty promoting better digestion
does not contain thujone. Two close longstanding use during menopause periods, sage encourages better and absorption.
relatives of S. officinalis are dan shen has also been researched. In the blood flow at menstruation. The
(S. miltiorrhiza, p. 130) and clary sage most recent study, undertaken in herb is thought to reduce or prevent Self-help Uses
(S. sclarea, p. 265). Switzerland (2011), women with sweating and can prove particularly
at least 12 months of hot flashes effective during menopause. ■ Bites & stings, p. 303.
Key Constituents reported an average 64% decrease It also helps to reduce hot flashes ■ Diarrhea, p. 307.
in symptoms after 8 weeks of and night sweats and it has a ■ Hot flashes & night
■ Essential oil (1–2%) taking sage. calming, relaxant aspect. Sage will
■ Diterpenes ■ Lowering blood fat levels decrease breast-milk production, sweats, p. 316.
■ Triterpenes A clinical trial published in 2011 in ■ Mouth ulcers, p. 306.
■ Phenolic compounds Phytotherapy Research concluded ■ Sore throats, p. 311.
that “sage may be effective and safe
including rosmarinic acid in the treatment of hyperlipidemia.”
■ Tannins All blood fat markers showed
improvement in those taking sage.
Key Actions
Traditional &
■ Antiseptic Current Uses
■ Astringent
■ Sore throat Sage’s combination
of antiseptic and astringent action

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SambucuS nigra

key medicinal plants Sambucus nigra (Caprifoliaceae) Elder
A deciduous tree
Elder growing to 33 ft
(10 m), with oval
leaves, cream flowers,
and blue-black berries.

Elder has more folklore attached to it than almost Parts Used
any other European plant, except perhaps mandrake
(Mandragora officinarum, p. 232). Chopping elder Flowering tops
branches was considered dangerous in rural England reduce fevers and help
as it was believed that the tree was inhabited by the coughs, colds, and flu.
Elder Mother, and to avoid her wrath, woodcutters
would recite a placatory rhyme. Elder is a valuable Flowers
remedy for flu, colds, and chest conditions. reduce
inflammation
■ Diuretic
■ Increases sweating

Elder was traditionally known as “Nature’s Research Fresh
medicine chest.” flowering
■ Elder berries Israeli research
Habitat & Cultivation from 1995 found 90% of people tops
that were given elderberry extract
Native to Europe, elder thrives recovered in 2–3 days, while 90% Dried flowering tops
in woods, hedges, and in open of those taking the placebo took up
areas. It is now found in most to 6 days. Further clinical trials have Berries are nutritious and
temperate regions, and is often supported these findings—a 2014 may be used as a mild laxative.
cultivated. Elder is propagated from review concluded there was “good
cuttings in spring. The flowering scientific evidence” that elderberry Berries contain Fresh berries
tops are harvested in late spring extract was an effective treatment vitamins A and C
and the berries are picked in early for influenza. Although the safety
autumn. profile of elderberry has not been Dried berries
established, evidence indicates it is
Key Constituents a safe influenza remedy for adults Key Preparations & Their Uses
and children.
Berries: QCautions None known. Do not consume unripe berries.
■ Flavonoids Traditional &
■ Anthocyanins Current Uses Cream made with
■ Lectins
■ Vitamins A and C ■ Coughs & colds The berries have flowering tops (see
Flowers: an established antiviral activity, helping
■ Flavonoids prevent and speed recovery from p. 296). Apply freely
■ Anthocyanins upper respiratory infections, such
■ Triterpenes as colds and flu. Following traditional Infusion of flowering tops to chapped skin. Tincture of flowering tops
■ Volatile oil (0.7%) usage, the flowers are taken to
■ Mucilage stimulate sweating and relieve fever (to make, p. 291). For colds, drink (to make, p. 292). For hay fever, take
■ Tannins by cooling the body. An elderflower
infusion makes a soothing remedy 3/4 cup (150 ml) 3 times a day. 1 tsp with water 3–4 times a day.
Key Actions when suffering from cold and flu.
■ Congestion & allergies The Decoction of berries (to make, p. 291). For rheumatic aches, take 1/2 cup
■ Antiviral flowering tops tone the mucous linings (100 ml) 3 times a day.
■ Clears mucus of the nose and throat (increasing
132 ■ Anti-inflammatory their resistance to infection) and are of waste products and are of value Self-help Uses
prescribed for chronic congestion, in arthritic conditions.
ear infections, and allergies. Infusions ■ Other uses Flowers and berries ■ Allergic rhinitis, including hay
with other herbs can reduce severity are mildly laxative and appear to help fever, p. 300.
of hay fever attacks if taken some lower blood pressure. The flowers
months before the season. are thought to help control diabetes. ■ Colds, flu, & fevers, p. 311.
■ Arthritis By encouraging The berries appear to enhance ■ Colds & congestion in children,
sweating and urine production, immune function.
elder flowering tops aid removal p. 318.
■ Earache due to chronic

congestion, p. 312.

SchiSandra chinenSiS

Schisandra chinensis (Schisandraceae) Schisandra key medicinal plants
An aromatic woody
Schisandra, Wu Wei Zi (Chinese) vine reaching up to
26 ft (8 m), with pink
Schisandra ranks along with other Chinese tonic herbs Parts Used flowers and spikes of
as an excellent tonic and restorative. It helps in stressful red berries.
times and increases zest for life. The berries tone the Fruit helps the body Berries are chewed
kidneys and sexual organs, protect the liver, strengthen to cope with stress. every day for 100 days
nervous function, and cleanse the blood. The name wu as a tonic in China
wei zi means “5-flavored herb,” since this herb reputedly
tastes of the 5 main elemental energies (see p. 40). It
has a sour, salty, and slightly warm taste.

Research Dried fruit

■ Aiding performance Healthy Key Preparations & Their Uses
adults given schisandra extract
showed a marked improvement QCautions Large doses can cause heartburn. Can interact with some medicines.
in both physical and mental stamina. Take only on professional advice, if taking prescribed medicines.
Russian sailors given schisandra had
Schisandra is one of China’s most important an increased capacity to maintain and Decoction (to make, p. 291). For coughs and
tonic herbs, widely taken as a sexual tonic. endure normal working regimens, shortness of breath, decoct 5 g crushed
and Russian factory workers were berries with 1/2 cup (100 ml) of water.
Habitat & Cultivation reported to have decreased Divide into 3 doses and drink during a
sickness levels. 24-hour period.
Schisandra is cultivated in north- ■ Protecting the liver The lignans
eastern China, especially in the have been shown to have pronounced and women, schisandra reputedly respiratory infections such as 133
provinces of Jilin, Lianoning, antihepatoxic (liver-protective) action. increases the secretion of sexual chronic coughs, shortness of
Heilongjiang, and Hebei. It is Up to 30 different lignans have been fluids and, in men, it also improves breath, and wheezing.
propagated from seed in spring. identified in schisandra, which all sexual stamina. ■ Balancing fluid levels
The fruit is harvested in autumn contribute to this effect. One clinical ■ Liver treatment herb Schisandra is used to tone up
when it is fully ripe. trial reported a 76% success rate in Schisandra has proven benefits for and strengthen kidney function
treating patients with hepatitis, with the liver and is used in the treatment and to help the body balance
Related Species no side effects being noted. of hepatitis and poor liver function. levels of fluid, making it helpful
■ Nervous system Schisandra is ■ Sedative Although a stimulant, for treating night sweats, thirst,
Though less therapeutically known to stimulate the nervous schisandra is used in Chinese medicine and urinary frequency.
active than schisandra, the berries system, increasing the speed of reflex to “quiet the spirit and calm the heart.” ■ Skin rashes Recently, Chinese
of the related nan wu wei zi nervous responses and improving It is given for insomnia and dream- herbalists have started to use
(S. sphenanthera) are commonly mental clarity. The berries have a disturbed sleep and is a fine example schisandra to treat urticaria (hives)
used in Chinese medicine for the mild antidepressant activity and of how adaptogenic herbs often work and other skin problems, including
treatment of acute coughs. are thought to improve nervous in apparently contradictory ways to eczema. It is usually given for
irritability and forgetfulness. In Russia, restore normal body function. these conditions in the form
Key Constituents schisandra has been used to treat ■ Mental & emotional disorders of a medicinal wine.
people with severe mental health In Russia and China, schisandra berries ■ Additional uses Schisandra
■ Lignans (schizandrin, disorders including schizophrenia and have traditionally been prescribed to is used for a wide variety of
deoxyschizandrin, gomisin) chronic alcoholism. Clinical studies treat mental illnesses such as neuroses. other physical disorders, including
in 1967 found that those taking a They are also given to improve diarrhea and dysentery, as well
■ Triterpeneso schisandra tincture became more concentration and coordination as to help improve failing sight
■ Volatile oil sociable and less emotionally tense. and are a traditional remedy for and hearing.
■ Vitamins C and E forgetfulness and irritability.
Traditional & ■ Respiratory infections The Self-help Use
Key Actions Current Uses herb is used in the treatment of
■ Low sex drive, p. 316.
■ Nerve tonic ■ Tonic Schisandra is a major tonic
■ Adaptogenic herb and acts throughout the body,
■ Protects liver strengthening and toning many
different organs.
■ Sexual stimulant Probably best
known as a sexual tonic for both men

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Scutellaria baicalenSiS

key medicinal plants Scutellaria baicalensis syn. S. macrantha (Lamiaceae) Baical skullcap
A perennial growing
Baical Skullcap, Huang Quin to 1–4 ft (30–120 cm)
high, with lance-shaped
leaves and purplish-
blue flowers.

In 1973, 92 wooden tablets were discovered in a Parts Used
2nd-century ce tomb in northwestern China. Among
other herbs listed in prescriptions for decoctions, Root is harvested
tinctures, pills, and ointments was Baical skullcap. The when the plant is
herb has had an established role in Chinese herbal 3–4 years old in
medicine at least from that time, and is one of the autumn or spring.
main remedies for “hot and damp” conditions, such
as dysentery and diarrhea. Root has anti-
inflammatory

properties

Research
■ Flavonoids Baical skullcap has

been quite widely researched in

China, and it is clear that it has

marked anti-inflammatory, anti-

allergy, and antioxidant effects,

all 3 actions mostly being due to

the flavonoids.

■ Clinical evidence Clinical studies

investigating different applications of

Baical skullcap show the herb has Dried root Fresh root
promise in the treatment of

Baical skullcap is an important medicinal infections, including bronchitis, Key Preparations & Their Uses
plant in China and is also cultivated as and dysentery, high blood pressure,
an ornamental. chronic hepatitis, and allergic rhinitis QCautions Best taken under professional supervision.
(hay fever). The root has anticancer
Habitat & Cultivation
activity, with studies showing small-

Baical skullcap is found in China, scale positive results in patients with Baical skullcap
Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and Russia. lung and prostate cancer.

It thrives on sunny, grassy slopes and ■ Diabetes The herb may be useful

open areas between 330 ft (100 m) for problems arising from diabetes, Self-heal
and 5,900 ft (1,800 m) above sea including cataracts.

level. Baical skullcap is propagated ■ Weight-loss aid A South Korean Decoction (to make, p. 291). Remedy For headaches,
from seed sown in autumn or spring. clinical trial in 2011 looked at the For feverish chest colds, drink decoct 15 g root with 10 g
The roots of 3- to 4-year-old plants effectiveness of a baical skullcap and 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) 3 times a day. self-heal (see p. 291).
are harvested in autumn or spring. platycodon (Platycodon grandiflorum) Drink 1⁄3 cup (75 ml)
combination in treating obesity. After 3 times a day.
Related Species 2 months, the group taking the herbs
had lost significantly more weight than
Skullcap (S. lateriflora, p. 135)

is a close relation. It is a Native the placebo group. Tincture (to make, p. 292). For hay fever,

North American remedy for take 40 drops with water 3 times a day.
anxiety and stress.
Traditional & ■ Circulatory remedy Baical ■ Allergic conditions The herb is
Key Constituents Current Uses

■ Cold & bitter herb In

■ Flavonoids (about 12%)— traditional Chinese medicine, skullcap is a valuable remedy for useful for treating allergic conditions

baicalin, wogoniside Baical skullcap is “cold” and “bitter” circulation. In combination with other such as asthma, hay fever, eczema, and

■ Sterols (see p. 42). It is prescribed in China herbs, it is used to treat high blood hives. The flavonoids in particular

■ Benzoic acid for hot and thirsty conditions such pressure, arteriosclerosis, varicose inhibit the inflammatory processes in

Key Actions as high fevers, coughs with thick veins, and easy bruising. the body that lead to allergic reactions.

■ Sedative yellow phlegm, and gastrointestinal ■ Other uses Applied to the Self-help Uses
infections that cause diarrhea, skin, Baical skullcap treats sores,

■ Antiallergenic such as dysentery. It is also given swelling, and boils. It is also given ■ Allergic rhinitis including hay

■ Antibacterial to people suffering from painful for circulatory problems that arise fever, p. 300.

134 ■ Anti-inflammatory urinary conditions. from diabetes. ■ Wheezing, p. 301.

Scutellaria lateriflora

Scutellaria lateriflora (Lamiaceae) Skullcap key medicinal plants
A perennial growing
Skullcap, Virginian Skullcap, Mad Dog to 2 ft (60 cm), with
an erect, many-
A Native American herb, skullcap was traditionally taken Parts Used branched stem and
for menstrual problems. It was also used in purification pink to blue flowers.
ceremonies when menstrual taboos had been broken. Aerial parts are
Skullcap became well known in 19th-century America harvested in summer Seed capsules,
as a treatment for rabies, hence its folk name “mad dog.” for use in a number of when dry,
Today, it is mainly used as a tonic and sedative for the calming preparations. look like
nerves in times of stress. It has a bitter, slightly skullcaps
astringent taste.

Key Actions

■ Sedative
■ Nervine tonic
■ Antispasmodic
■ Mild bitter

Research Dried aerial parts

Skullcap is easy to recognize. It has pairs ■ Anxiety remedy Little research Fresh aerial parts
of pink to blue flowers and distinctive has been carried out on this species
seed capsules. of Scutellaria despite its long use in Key Preparations & Their Uses
North American and British herbal
Habitat & Cultivation medicine to ease anxiety and stress. QCautions Best taken under professional supervision.
A small English study published in
A native of North America, skullcap 2011 tested skullcap against placebo Infusion (to make,
still grows wild in much of the U.S. in reducing anxiety in 43 “non-anxious” p. 291). For short-term
and Canada. It thrives in damp people. Those taking skullcap showed relief of stress and
conditions, for example on significantly better overall mood anxiety, take 21⁄2 tbsp
riverbanks, and needs plenty of levels at the end of the 2 weeks 3 times a day.
sun. Skullcap can be propagated of the study.
from seed or by root division in Tincture (to make, Capsules (to make,
spring. The aerial parts of 3- to Traditional & p. 292). For nervous p. 292). For nervous
4-year-old plants are harvested Current Uses tension and headaches, exhaustion, take a 200 mg
in summer, when in flower. take 1⁄2 tsp with water capsule twice daily.
■ Native American cure The twice a day.
Related Species Cherokee used skullcap to stimulate
menstruation, relieve breast pain, and Tablets, often containing other sedative herbs, are taken for insomnia.
There are around 100 species of encourage expulsion of the placenta.
Scutellaria. In the past, European ■ 19th-century remedy The stress and worry cause muscular Self-help Uses 135
skullcap (S. galericulata) and lesser Physiomedicalists (followers of a tension. Skullcap is often prescribed
skullcap (S. minor) have been used 19th-century Anglo-American school on its own, or with other sedative ■ Anxiety, depression, & tension,
in a similar way to S. lateriflora, but of herbal medicine) first discovered herbs, to treat insomnia, and it is also p. 308.
today they are considered to have skullcap’s use as a nervine. They given for period pain.
a less important therapeutic action. recognized that it has a “deeper” ■ Migraine, p. 309.
Baical skullcap (S. baicalensis, p. 134) action on the nervous system than ■ Panic attacks & headaches, p. 308.
is also closely related. many other herbs and used it for
hysteria, epilepsy, convulsions, and
Key Constituents rabies, as well as for serious mental
illnesses such as schizophrenia.
■ Flavonoids (scutellarin) ■ Current uses Today, skullcap is
■ Bitter iridoids (catalpol) taken mainly as a nerve tonic and for
■ Volatile oil its restorative properties. It helps
■ Tannins support and nourish the nervous
system, and calms and relieves stress
and anxiety. Its antispasmodic action
makes it useful for conditions where

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Key medicinal plants Serenoa repenS Saw palmetto
A small palm
Serenoa repens syn. Sabal serrulata (Palmaceae) growing to 20 ft
(6 m), with fans of
Saw Palmetto yellow-green leaves
and ivory flowers.

Saw palmetto berries were eaten by Native North Parts Used
Americans and animals. According to legend, on seeing the
animals grow “sleek and fat,” European settlers tried Berries have powerful diuretic
the berries and attributed medicinal properties to them. and tonic properties. They
The fruit pulp was used as a tonic from the 19th century are a traditional North
onward, and today it is used to help in debility, for American remedy for
urinary tract problems, and for reducing an enlarged a wide range of problems.
prostate gland.

■ Diuretic
■ Male tonic

Research Berries have
a vanilla,
■ Benign prostatic
nutty flavor

hypertrophy (BPH) Extensive

clinical research, mostly in Europe,

has shown that a lipid or fat extract Dried berries Fresh berries
of saw palmetto is effective in

reversing enlargement of the

prostate gland. In the process, Key Preparations & Their Uses
the extract reduces urinary retention

Saw palmetto has dark purple to black and eases urine flow. In many QCautions Do not use during pregnancy, while breastfeeding, if taking
berries, growing in the center of the leaf fans. European countries saw palmetto hormonal drugs, or if you have a hormone-dependent cancer.
extract is a standard treatment for
Habitat & Cultivation
enlarged prostate. It is not clear

Saw palmetto is indigenous to North how extracts of the herb work. Saw palmetto Licorice
America and can be found growing ■ Combination with nettle root

in sand dunes along the Atlantic and In the late 1990s two clinical trials

Caribbean coasts from South Carolina gave men with early stage BPH a

to Texas. It is propagated from seed combination of saw palmetto and

in spring and needs well-drained soil nettle root. One trial compared the

and plenty of sun. The berries are herbs with placebo, the other with Infusion (to make, p. 291) is a
harvested when ripe in autumn, then finasteride, a standard conventional diuretic. For enlarged prostate,
dried, often with the seeds removed. treatment for BPH. Results for the
take 3/4 cup (150 ml) daily.

Related Species herb combination in both trials were

very good, with a clear improvement

The Maya of Central America used in symptoms in respect to placebo,

the roots or leaves of S. japa, another and similar outcomes for those taking Horsetail
small palm, as a remedy for dysentery the herbs or finasteride, but those

and abdominal pain. The crushed taking the herbs experienced fewer Tincture (to make, p. 292) Remedy Make an infusion
roots of S. adamsonii were used by side effects. can be taken as a long-term (see p. 291) with 2 tsp saw
the Houma, who also lived in Central tonic for debility. Take 1 tsp palmetto, 2 tsp horsetail, 1 tsp licorice,
America, as an eye lotion. Traditional & and 3⁄4 cup (200 ml) water. Take 1/2 cup
Current Uses with water daily. (100 ml) as a tonic twice a day.
Key Constituents
■ Urinary remedy Saw palmetto

■ Lipid (fat) content includes has been nicknamed the “plant It is a useful remedy in cystitis and weight gain. Fruit pulp or tincture is

phytosterols catheter.” This is because it has the prostatitis (inflammation of the given to those suffering from wasting

■ Flavonoids ability to strengthen the neck of prostate gland). illnesses and for general debility and

■ Polysaccharides the bladder, and to reduce an ■ Anabolic action Saw palmetto failure to thrive.

enlarged prostate gland. It can be is a tonic and is one of the few
Key Actions Western remedies that is considered Self-help Use
equally useful in treating lower

■ Anti-inflammatory urinary tract symptoms, such as pain, to be anabolic—it strengthens and ■ Impotence & premature

136 ■ Antispasmodic frequency, and urgency in urination. builds body tissues and encourages ejaculation, p. 316.

Silybum marianum

Silybum marianum syn. Carduus marianus (Asteraceae) Milk thistle Key medicinal plants
A spiny biennial,
Milk Thistle, Mary thistle growing to 5 ft
(1.5 m), with white-
veined leaves and
purple flower heads.

Milk thistle has been used in Europe as a remedy for Parts Used
depression and liver problems for hundreds, if not
thousands, of years. Recent research has confirmed Flower heads are eaten as a tonic
traditional herbal knowledge, proving that the herb has food and can be used in remedies.
a remarkable ability to protect the liver from damage
resulting from alcoholic and other types of poisoning.
Today, milk thistle is widely used in the West for the
treatment of a range of liver conditions.

■ Anticancer Fresh flower
■ Anti-allergenic head
■ Increases breast-milk production
Dried flower Spiny, thistle-
Research head like leaves are

■ Silymarin German research from gray-green
the 1970s onward has focused on
silymarin, a substance contained Seeds contain silymarin,
in the seeds. This exerts a highly which protects the liver.
protective effect on the liver, They are the main part
maintaining its function and preventing used in remedies.
damage from compounds that are
normally highly toxic. It has been Seeds
shown that severe liver breakdown,
Milk thistle has distinctive white markings resulting from ingesting carbon Key Preparations & Their Uses
on its leaves caused, according to tradition, tetrachloride or death cap mushrooms,
by the Virgin Mary’s milk. can be prevented if silymarin is QCautions May cause allergic reactions in rare cases. Seek
taken immediately before, or within guidance from your health care practitioner if planning to
Habitat & Cultivation 48 hours. In Germany, silymarin has take alongside chemotherapy.
been used successfully to treat
Native to the Mediterranean, milk hepatitis and liver cirrhosis. Decoction of seeds (to Tincture of seeds may be
thistle grows throughout Europe and is ■ Other research In several clinical make, p. 291). For liver taken to help hay fever.
naturalized in California. It grows wild, trials, silymarin extracts protected
thriving in open areas, and is cultivated liver function in people taking infections, take
as an ornamental plant. Milk thistle likes chemotherapy for cancer, including, 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) a day.
a sunny position and self-seeds readily. in one trial, children suffering from
The flower heads are picked in full leukemia. Research so far suggests Capsules of seeds (to make, p. 292).
bloom in early summer and the seeds that silymarin extracts support For a hangover, take a 500 mg capsule.
are collected in late summer. healthy liver function during
chemotherapy and do not reduce Tablets are prescribed for long-term treatment of liver disorders.
Related Species the effectiveness of chemotherapy
drugs. Laboratory research indicates tonic after the winter months when ■ Liver disorders Today, milk 137
Other closely related herbs, including that silymarin, particularly silybin, people had been deprived of fresh thistle is the main remedy used
holy thistle (Cnicus benedictus, has significant anticancer properties. vegetables. They were also taken to in Western herbal medicine to
p. 191) and globe artichoke (Cynara In a 2011 clinical trial in Iran, patients increase breast-milk production, and protect the liver and its many
scolymus, p. 199), protect the liver with allergic rhinitis experienced were considered excellent for metabolic activities, and help
from toxicity and exert a positive significantly fewer symptoms when melancholia (depression), which was renew its cells. The herb is used
restorative action on liver function. taking a silymarin extract. traditionally associated with the liver. in the treatment of hepatitis and
Gerard states in his Herball of 1597, jaundice, as well as in conditions
Key Constituents Traditional & “My opinion is that this [milk thistle] where the liver is under stress—
Current Uses is the best remedy that grows against whether from infection or excess
■ Flavonlignans (1–4%) all melancholy diseases.” alcohol, or from chemotherapy.
(known collectively as “silymarin”) ■ Traditional uses Milk thistle
flower heads, boiled and eaten like
■ Bitter principles artichokes, were useful as a spring
■ Polyacetylenes

Key Actions

■ Liver protective
■ Chemoprotective

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Symphytum officinale

Key Medicinal plants Symphytum officinale (Boraginaceae) Comfrey
A perennial growing
Comfrey, Knitbone to 3 ft (1 m), with
thick leaves and bell-
Comfrey’s names testify to its traditional use in mending like white to pink
broken bones. “Comfrey” is a corruption of con firma, or mauve flowers.
meaning the bone is “made firm,” Symphytum is derived
from the Greek for “to unite,” and knitbone speaks for Parts Used
itself. Comfrey is also a wound herb. K’Eogh in his Irish
Herbal (1735) wrote that it “heals all inward wounds Root is harvested in autumn when
and ruptures.” Today, it is still highly regarded for its the allantoin levels are highest.
healing properties.

Fresh root

Research Fresh
aerial parts
■ Active constituents Allantoin
Comfrey was known to the Greek physician is a cell-proliferant that stimulates Dried root Aerial parts are rich Dried
Dioscorides in the 1st century ce, who wrote the repair of damaged tissue. The in anti-inflammatory and aerial parts
about it in his Materia Medica. herb’s anti-inflammatory activity astringent substances.
is partly due to the presence of
Habitat & Cultivation rosmarinic acid and phenolic acids. Key Preparations & Their Uses
■ Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
An indigenous European plant, Research shows that, as isolated QCautions Do not use on dirty wounds as rapid healing can trap dirt or pus.
comfrey grows in all temperate substances, certain pyrrolizidine Take internally only under professional supervision. Restricted in some countries.
regions of the world, including alkaloids can be highly toxic to the Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.
western Asia, North America, and liver. It is still unclear whether they
Australia. It thrives in moist, marshy are toxic in the context of the Chopping leaves
places. It can be grown from seed in whole plant, as they are only present For boils, apply as a
spring or by root division in autumn, in minute amounts, often being poultice (see p. 295).
and the leaves and flowering tops completely absent from samples
are harvested in summer. The root of dried aerial parts. The highest Infused oil of leaves Ointment of leaves
is unearthed in autumn. concentration is in the root, which (to make, p. 294). (to make, p. 295).
should not be used internally. Skin Apply to sprains. Apply to bruises.
Key Constituents applications, as well as the aerial parts
of the plant, are considered safe. Tincture of root (to make, p. 292). Apply undiluted to acne.
■ Allantoin (up to 4.7%) ■ Clinical research In Germany
■ Mucilage (about 29%) and elsewhere in Europe, comfrey sprains, fractures, and broken bones applied to heal problems such as
■ Triterpenoids is widely used for sprains, bruises, has been known for thousands of insect bites, scars, skin inflammation,
■ Phenolic acids and sports injuries. Research, mostly years. It encourages ligaments and acne, and mastitis.
in Germany, endorses the traditional bones to knit together firmly. A
(rosmarinic acid) knowledge of comfrey’s wound- comfrey compress applied immediately Self-help Uses
■ Asparagine healing ability. In a 2007 study, to a sprained ankle can significantly
■ Pyrrolizidine alkaloids physicians rated the efficacy of a reduce the severity of the injury. The ■ Acne & boils, p. 305.
comfrey leaf cream in healing combination of tannins and mucilage ■ Fractures, p. 312.
(0.02–0.07%) abrasions. The doctors rated its helps to soothe bruises and grazes. ■ Fungal skin infections, p. 304.
■ Tannins effectiveness as good or very good ■ Other uses Comfrey preparations ■ Healing wounds, p. 304.
in 93% of cases, and complete healing have many other uses and can be ■ Inflamed skin rashes, p. 303.
Key Actions took 4 days with comfrey and 7 days ■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 313.
with placebo. Other studies indicate
■ Demulcent comfrey’s value in promoting tissue
■ Astringent repair and as an anti-inflammatory
■ Anti-inflammatory in conditions such as sprained ankle,
138 ■ Heals wounds and bones osteoarthritis, and lower back pain.

Traditional &
Current Uses

■ Injuries Comfrey’s ability to
promote the healing of bruises,

Ta b e b u i a s p p.

Tabebuia spp. (Bignoniaceae) Pau d’arco Key Medicinal plants
An evergreen tree
Pau d’Arco (Portuguese), Lapacho (Spanish) (deciduous in cold
climates) reaching
Bark from the pau d’arco tree has been valued ■ Tonic 100 ft (30 m), with
for centuries in traditional South American herbal ■ Antitumor pink flowers.
medicine for its remarkable health benefits. Today,
it is given as a remedy for inflammatory and infectious Research including wounds, fever, dysentery,
problems, including conditions such as chronic fatigue and intestinal inflammation, as well as
and candidiasis. It is also used for other conditions and ■ Antibacterial and antifungal certain types of cancer and snake bite.
has a mixed reputation as a treatment for cancer, activity A Colombian review (2013) ■ Infections Given the large
including leukemia. of research data on Tabebuia species, number of active constituents in
much of which was undertaken pau d’arco, it is not surprising that
medicine, so quality control of dried in South America, highlighted pau this beneficial herb is used in South
bark can be difficult. T. avellanedae d’arco’s strong, direct activity against America and by herbal practitioners
is considered to be the most several key bacteria, notably throughout the world. It is an
therapeutically effective species, Staphylococcus aureus and important, natural antibiotic for
while T. impetignosa is the species Helicobacter pylori, the latter being bacterial and viral infections,
that is most commonly available. the principal cause of stomach ulcers. especially of the nose, mouth, and
Pau d’arco is not normally It also has broad-ranging activity throat, and is considered helpful for
cultivated—the prized inner bark is against many fungal agents, including chronic conditions such as CFS
collected from trees growing in the Candida albicans. (chronic fatigue syndrome).
wild, throughout the year. ■ Antitumor properties Pau Pau d’arco is also used for fungal
d’arco’s anticancer action has been conditions, including ringworm and
Pau d’arco is valued for its durable wood Key Constituents established in laboratory thrush, and is considered especially
and for its bark that has important experiments, with many of its useful for treating chronic candidiasis.
therapeutic properties. ■ Napthaquinones (lapachol) constituents suppressing the growth ■ Anti-inflammatory action
■ Anthraquinones of cancer cells. Research in Brazil in Pau d’arco reduces and relieves
Habitat & Cultivation ■ Coumarins the 1960s raised great hopes that inflammatory problems, especially
■ Flavonoids pau d’arco might prove to be a major in the stomach and intestines. It
An indigenous South American tree, ■ Iridoids cancer treatment, but clinical is used to treat a wide range of
pau d’arco grows well in mountainous ■ Carnosol research has failed to produce other inflammatory conditions,
terrains. In Peru and Argentina it is positive results. including cystitis, inflammation of
found growing high up in the Andes. Key Actions the cervix, and prostatitis.
Pau d’arco is also found in low-lying Traditional & ■ Cancer remedy Clinical
areas (in Paraguay and Brazil), where ■ Antibacterial Current Uses experience in Brazil, combined
it is thought to have originated. Many ■ Antifungal with its worldwide use by herbalists
Tabebuia species are used in herbal ■ Antiparasitic ■ Early cure-all The Incas, the as a cancer remedy, suggests that
■ Immunostimulant Callawaya in Brazil, and other Native pau d’arco may be beneficial in
■ Anti-inflammatory South American peoples all prized the treatment of cancer, including
pau d’arco as a cure-all. They used leukemia. However, more intensive
it to treat a variety of conditions, research is needed into its
therapeutic value.

Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses

Inner bark is prized for its immunostimulant properties. QCaution If taking anticoagulant medication, take pau d’arco only on professional
It is used to treat many inflammatory conditions. advice. Do not take during pregnancy. Avoid if trying to conceive.

Bark has important
antibiotic properties

Decoction (to make,
p. 291) is a traditional
preparation in South
America. For candidiasis,
drink 3/4 cup (150 ml)
3 times a day.

Ointment (to make, p. 295). Tincture (to make, p. 292) is
For wounds, apply freely. suitable for long-term use.
For cfs, take 40 drops with

water 3 times a day.

Dried inner bark

139

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Key medicinal plants TanaceTum parThenium Feverfew
An herbaceous
Tanacetum parthenium (Asteraceae) perennial growing
to 2 ft (60 cm), with
Feverfew numerous daisylike
flower heads.

Feverfew’s main traditional use was as a woman’s Parts Used
herb. Nicholas Culpeper in The English Physitian
(1652) sings its praises as “a general strengthener of
[the] womb ... it cleanseth the womb, expelleth the
after-birth and doth the woman all the good she can
desire of an herb.” Feverfew is now used principally
as a treatment for migraine, but has also long been
thought of as an herb for arthritis and rheumatism.

Research Aerial parts
are harvested in
■ Migraine When, in 1973, the wife summer when the
of a Welsh doctor ended her 50- plant is in flower.
year history of migraine with
Feverfew has daisylike flowers that bloom a course of feverfew, a detailed Dried The leaves contain
all summer. scientific investigation got underway. aerial parts parthenolide, which
In clinical trials in Britain during the helps prevent migraine
Habitat & Cultivation 1980s the herb was shown to be an
effective remedy for migraine. Further Fresh aerial parts
Originally from southeastern clinical trials across Europe, including
Europe, feverfew is now common one in 2006 that combined feverfew Key Preparations & Their Uses
throughout Europe, Australia, and and willow bark (Salix alba, p. 129),
North America. It can be propagated attest to feverfew’s ability to treat Cautions Eating fresh leaves may cause mouth ulcers. Do not take feverfew
from seed or cuttings, and prefers migraine. The trials indicate feverfew if taking warfarin or other blood-thinning drugs. Do not take during pregnancy.
well-drained soil and sun. The leaves may need to be taken long term (for Can cause allergic reactions in rare cases.
are picked as required and the aerial 6 months or more) for full effect.
parts as a whole are harvested in ■ Rheumatoid arthritis Fresh leaves To prevent Tincture (to make, p. 292). For
summer when the plant is in flower. Feverfew’s effectiveness in the migraine, eat 2–3 leaves long-term prevention of migraine,
treatment of rheumatoid arthritis daily on a piece of bread.
Related Species is being investigated. take 10 drops a day.

Feverfew is a close relative of Traditional & Capsules (to make, p. 292). For symptomatic relief of headaches
tansy (Tanacetum vulgare, p. 274), Current Uses take a 100 mg capsule daily.
and the chrysanthemum and
chamomile species. ■ Fevers As its name implies, Tablets often contain other herbs. Take for headaches.
feverfew may be used to lower
Key Constituents temperature and cool the body.
■ Gynecological uses The herb
■ Volatile oil (alpha-pinene) has been used since Roman times
■ Sesquiterpene lactones to induce menstruation. It is also
given in childbirth to aid expulsion
(parthenolide) of the placenta.
■ Sesquiterpenes (camphor) ■ Migraine & headaches In small
quantities, feverfew is now used as a
Key Actions preventative for migraine. It has to be
taken regularly, and at the first signs
■ Anti-inflammatory of an attack. It is useful for migraine
■ Analgesic associated with menstruation, and
■ Reduces fever for headaches.
■ Antirheumatic ■ Arthritis remedy The herb
140 ■ Promotes menstrual flow can help arthritic and rheumatic
pain, especially with other herbs.

Self-help Use

■ Migraine prevention, p. 309.

Taraxacum officinale Dandelion Key medicinal plants
A perennial growing
Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae) to 20 in (50 cm),
with ragged basal
Dandelion leaves, hollow stalks,
and golden flowers.

Known principally as a weed, dandelion has an astonishing Parts Used
range of health benefits. In Western folk medicine, the
leaves, which can be eaten in salads, have long been used Leaves are juiced, eaten raw in salads,
as a diuretic. They were recommended in the works or dried for use in herbal preparations.
of Arab physicians in the 11th century, and in an herbal
written by the physicians of Myddfai in Wales in the
13th century. The root, which has a shorter history
of medicinal use, is good for the liver.

Key Actions Dried leaves

■ Diuretic Root is harvested after
■ Detoxifying 2 years and is dried or roasted.
■ Bitter

Research Fresh root

■ Leaves Research published in Leaves contain
the journal Planta Medica, in 1974, high levels of
confirmed that dandelion leaves potassium
are a powerful diuretic, though
their exact mode of action is not Fresh leaves
understood. Many other small-scale
Dandelion’s name, which is a corruption of studies have confirmed this diuretic, Dried root
the Latin dens leonis, meaning“lion’s teeth,” or more accurately, aquaretic effect
derives from the appearance of its flowers. of dandelion leaf. Aquaretic refers Key Preparations & Their Uses
to the fact that many herbal diuretics
Habitat & Cultivation stimulate just the elimination of Marigold petals Borage flowers
water and potassium. As dandelion
Dandelion grows wild in most parts leaf has very high levels of potassium, Tablets have a diuretic effect.
of the world and is cultivated in it is thought that no net loss of this Take for fluid retention.
Germany and France. It is propagated mineral occurs on taking the leaf.
from seed in spring. The young leaves ■ Root A 2004 laboratory study Tonic salad made with dandelion leaves. Tincture of root (to make, p. 292).
are picked in spring for tonic salads, reported dandelion root had marked Eat regularly for its cleansing benefits. For eczema, take 1⁄2 tsp diluted with
and later as a medicine. The root anticancer activity. It significantly 1⁄2 cup (100 ml) water 3 times a day.
of 2-year-old plants is unearthed increased tumor necrosis factor and
in autumn. apoptosis (programmed cell death). Decoction of root (p. 291). For acne, take 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) 3 times a day.
Infusion of leaves (p. 291). For swollen ankles, take 2 cups (500 ml) daily.
Related Species Traditional & Juice made from leaves. For fluid retention, take 1 tbsp 3 times a day.
Current Uses
Pu gong ying (T. mongolicum) is used skin problems, such as eczema, and from the pancreas and supporting 141
in Chinese herbal medicine to “clear ■ Diuretic Dandelion leaf is used arthritic conditions, where improved stable blood-sugar levels.
heat” and relieve toxicity, especially as a diuretic and treats high blood clearance of waste products can
of the liver. pressure by reducing the volume reduce local inflammation. Self-help Uses
of fluid in the body. ■ Other uses Dandelion root is a
Key Constituents ■ Detoxifying remedy Dandelion good prebiotic, supporting the health ■ Acne & boils, p. 305.
root is a key detoxifying herb that of the gut flora. It has traditionally ■ Constipation, p. 307.
■ Sesquiterpene lactones gently stimulates the liver and gall been used in the early stages of type 2 ■ Detoxification for hangover, p. 309.
■ Triterpenes bladder’s capacity to clear waste diabetes, stimulating insulin release ■ Fluid retention, p. 315.
■ Polysaccharides products from the body. This action ■ Hives, p. 303.
Leaf only: makes it valuable in the many health
■ Coumarins conditions that involve chronic toxicity,
■ Carotenoids whether this toxicity is linked to
■ Minerals (especially potassium) inflammation, infection, or dietary or
Root only: environmental factors. The root is
■ Taraxacoside typically taken to treat constipation,
■ Phenolic acids
■ Minerals (potassium, calcium)

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Key medicinal plants Terminalia arjuna Arjun
An evergreen tree
Terminalia arjuna (Combretaceae) reaching 100 ft (30 m),
with pale yellow
Arjun flowers and cone-
shaped leaves.
The bark of the arjun tree has been used in Indian Parts Used
herbal medicine for at least 3,000 years, and has Bark has constituents that
always been valued as a remedy for the heart. The lower blood pressure and
first person credited with prescribing arjun for heart reduce cholesterol levels.
disease was Vagbhata, an Indian physician of the
7th century ce. Arjun is an example of an herb for
which the traditional use has been confirmed by
modern pharmacological research.

Arjun is a handsome evergreen tree. Its Research Dried
bark is prescribed to help heart and bark
circulation problems. ■ Cardiac tonic Research has
been going on into arjun in India Bark is used to treat
Habitat & Cultivation since the 1930s. The results have heart disease in India
been highly conflicting, with some
Arjun is found throughout most studies indicating that it increases Key Preparations
of the Indian subcontinent, from heart rate and blood pressure, and & Their Uses
Sri Lanka to the foothills of the others suggesting the reverse. It
Himalayas. It thrives in wet, marshy seems that the herb is best used QCaution Take only under professional supervision.
areas and on riverbanks. The tree is to treat conditions where the blood
grown from seed and the bark supply to the heart is poor, for
is cut in late winter. example in ischemic heart disease
and angina. In a 2002 clinical trial
Related Species in India, 58 men with angina were
given arjun. Results were very
A number of other Terminalia species positive, with those taking arjun
are also used medicinally, notably experiencing a marked reduction
beleric myrobalan and chebulic in angina symptoms and an increased
myrobalan (T. belerica and T. chebula, capacity to exercise.
p. 275). Both are close relatives of ■ Cholesterol Indian research has
arjun and are among the most used demonstrated that arjun reduces
herbal medicines in India. blood cholesterol levels.

Key Constituents Traditional & Decoction is used by herbalists to Tincture is a valuable cardiac tonic.
Current Uses treat poor circulation to the heart. Herbalists prescribe it to treat angina.
■ Tannins
■ Triterpenoid saponins ■ Traditional heart remedy ■ Modern heart remedy Arjun is Powder is a traditional
■ Flavonoids In Indian herbal medicine, arjun has beneficial for angina and poor coronary Ayurvedic remedy,
■ Phytosterols always been taken as a heart tonic. circulation. It is also of benefit if the prescribed for asthma.
It has a long history of treating heart heart’s rate and rhythm are abnormal.
Key Actions failure and edema (a condition in By lowering blood cholesterol levels, reducing blood pressure, and
which fluid accumulates in the ankles supporting normal heart function,
■ Cardiac tonic and legs because the heart is not arjun improves the health of the
■ Lowers blood pressure pumping adequately). circulation and reduces the risk of
142 ■ Reduces cholesterol levels ■ Ayurvedic medicine Ayurvedic developing a serious heart problem.
physicians use arjun to restore balance
when any of the 3 humors, kapha,
pitta, or vata (see p. 37), is present in
excess. As a decoction, the bark is
given to treat diarrhea and dysentery.
Powdered bark is part of a traditional
Ayurvedic treatment for asthma. Arjun
is also given in Ayurveda for bile duct
problems, as well as for poisoning and
scorpion stings.

Thymus vulgaris

Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae) Thyme Key medicinal plants
An aromatic shrub
Thyme, Garden Thyme growing to 16 in
(40 cm), with woody
Thyme was praised by the herbalist Nicholas Culpeper stems, small leaves,
(1616–1654) as “a notable strengthener of the lungs, and pink flowers.
as notable a one as grows; neither is there a better
remedy growing for that disease in children which they Parts Used
commonly call chin-cough [whooping cough].” Thyme is
an excellent antiseptic and tonic, and today it is still used Aerial parts, harvested in summer,
as a respiratory remedy, as well as being important for a contain antiseptic volatile oil.
variety of other ailments.
Leaves have
an aromatic,
bitter taste

Research Fresh leaves

Thyme’s pink flowers attract bees in ■ Volatile oil Thyme’s volatile oil is Dried aerial parts
profusion and give a distinctive flavor strongly antiseptic—the constituent Fresh aerial parts
to the honey. thymol, in particular, is a most
effective antifungal. The oil is also Key Preparations
Habitat & Cultivation expectorant and it expels worms. & Their Uses
■ Anti-aging Research in the 1990s
Thyme is a cultivated variety of the in Scotland suggests that thyme and its QCautions Do not take the essential oil internally.
wild thyme (T. serpyllum, p. 276) of volatile oil have a markedly tonic Do not use the essential oil externally during pregnancy.
southern Europe and is now grown effect, supporting the body’s normal
worldwide. It is raised from seed or function and countering the effects Infusion (to make, p. 291).
by root division in spring and prefers of aging. More recent research For colds, take 1/2 cup
light, chalky soils. The aerial parts are indicates that thyme is strongly (100 ml) 3 times daily.
harvested in summer. antioxidant and may help maintain
higher levels of essential fatty acids Essential oil for acne, Syrup (to make,
Related Species within the brain. dilute to 5% and dab p. 293) is a traditional
■ Stomach ulcers Extracts of onto inflamed spots.
There are many Thymus species, each the herb have shown strong cough remedy. Take
with a different volatile oil content. antibacterial activity against H. pylori, 1 tbsp 3 times a day.
Wild thyme (T. serpyllum, p. 276) is a bacterium often associated with
often used in the same way as thyme. stomach ulcers. Tincture (to make, p. 292). For thrush, apply 40 drops, 2–3 times daily.
■ Menstrual pain Many compounds
Key Constituents within thyme relieve muscle cramps. ■ Worms Thyme is often used to Self-help Uses 143
A 2014 Iranian clinical trial compared treat worms in children.
■ Volatile oil (mostly thymol the ability of thyme and ibuprofen ■ External uses Applied to the ■ Allergic rhinitis, p. 300.
and carvacrol) to relieve period pains. The findings skin, thyme relieves bites and stings, ■ Back pain, p. 313.
showed both treatments to and is used for sciatica and rheumatic ■ Bites & stings, p. 303.
■ Flavonoids be effective. pains. It helps ringworm, athlete’s foot, ■ Colds & flu, p. 311.
■ Phenolic acids thrush, and other fungal infections, ■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 310.
Traditional & as well as scabies and lice. Thyme ■ Earache, p. 312.
Key Actions Current Uses infusion and diluted oil are also ■ Fungal infections, pp. 304 & 314.
massaged into the scalp to encourage ■ Maintaining vitality, p. 319.
■ Antiseptic ■ Infections The antiseptic and hair growth and reverse hair loss. ■ Mild asthma, p. 301.
■ Tonic tonic properties of thyme make it a ■ Tired & aching muscles, p. 312.
■ Relieves muscle spasms useful tonic for the immune system in
■ Expectorant chronic, especially fungal, infections, as
■ Expels worms well as an effective remedy for throat
■ Antioxidant and chest infections.
■ Asthma & hay fever Thyme
is prescribed with other herbs for
asthma, especially in children. Its
invigorating qualities balance the
sedative effect of many herbs used
for asthma. Thyme is also helpful
in hay fever.

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Key medicinal plants Turnera diffusa Damiana
An aromatic shrub
Turnera diffusa syn. T. diffusa var. aphrodisiaca (Passifloraceae) growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m),
with smooth, pale
Damiana green leaves and small,
single yellow flowers.

Damiana is a traditional aphrodisiac of the Maya Parts Used
people in Central America. It continues to be
considered valuable as an aphrodisiac and general Leaves are harvested
tonic, and its stimulant, tonic action also makes it in summer. They make a
a valuable remedy for those suffering from mild pleasant-tasting tea and
depression. Damiana has a strongly aromatic, slightly are used for a wide range
bitter taste. The leaves are used to flavor liqueurs and of medicinal preparations.
are taken in Mexico as a substitute for tea.

Damiana is an excellent tonic herb for ■ Mild antidepressant Fresh leaves
physical weakness and nervous exhaustion. ■ Mild laxative and diuretic
Dried leaves
Habitat & Cultivation Research
Key Preparations
Damiana is native to the Gulf of ■ Initial research The first & Their Uses
Mexico, southern California, the study into the aphrodisiac activity
northern Caribbean Islands, and of damiana (published in 1999) Tablets usually also
Namibia. It is also cultivated in these found that male rats with low contain other herbs.
areas. Damiana is grown from seed sexual activity became more Take as a relaxing tonic.
in spring and prefers a hot, humid sexually active when given damiana
climate. The leaves are harvested extract. One cannot generalize Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a Infusion (to make, p. 291) is a
when the herb is in flower from animals to humans, but this nerve tonic and antidepressant. tonic and is useful for urinary
in summer. does correspond with traditional infections. Drink 3/4 cup (150 ml)
views of the herb. Other recent For mild depression, take 30
Related Species research suggests that damiana drops with water 4 times a day. daily as a general tonic.
helps to prevent raised blood-
T. opifera and T. ulmifolia are used sugar levels in diabetics. ■ Gynecological problems antiseptic, in the urinary tubules. This
as tonics in Brazil and Central Damiana is often given for painful constituent is also found in a number
America, respectively. Traditional & and delayed periods, and is used of other plants, notably uva-ursi
Current Uses specifically for headaches connected (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, p. 170).
Key Constituents to menstruation. ■ Laxative Damiana is a mild
■ Tonic Damiana is a tonic and ■ Urinary antiseptic Being a laxative, useful in the treatment of
■ Volatile oil (about 0.5–1%), restorative for the nervous system, diuretic and urinary antiseptic, damiana constipation due to poor bowel
including caryophylene, and has always been considered an is useful in the treatment of urinary muscle tone.
thymol, and cadinene aphrodisiac. Its tonic action is partly infections such as cystitis and urethritis.
due to the constituent thymol, which This action is partly due to the Self-help Use
■ Flavonoids is antiseptic and tonic. constituent arbutin, which is converted
■ Hydroquinones (arbutin) ■ Antidepressant Technically, into hydroquinone, a strong urinary ■ Anxiety, depression, &
■ Tannins damiana is a thymoleptic (having a tension, p. 308.
stimulating action on the body and
Key Actions mind). It is given to people suffering
from mild to moderate depression
■ Tonic or nervous exhaustion. Its stimulating
■ Nerve tonic and restorative properties make it
■ Aphrodisiac valuable when anxiety and depression
144 ■ Mild stimulant happen together.
■ Sexual restorative Due to its
reputed testosterogenic activity,
damiana has always been seen as
an herb for men, helpful in treating
premature ejaculation and
impotence. It is, however, beneficial
for both men and women, being
considered restorative to the
reproductive organs of both sexes.

UlmUs rUbra

Ulmus rubra (Ulmaceae) Slippery elm Key medicinal plants
A large tree growing
Slippery Elm to 59 ft (18 m) with
a brown trunk and
rough gray-white bark
on the branches.

This marvellous herb is a gentle and effective remedy Parts Used
for irritated states of the mucous membranes of
the chest, urinary tubules, stomach, and intestines. Inner bark of 10-year-old
It was used in many different ways by Native slippery elm trees is collected
Americans—as a poultice for wounds, boils, ulcers, in spring and powdered.
and inflamed eyes, and internally for fevers, colds, and
bowel complaints. Slippery elm has a strongly Bark contains mucilage that
mucilaginous “slippery” taste and texture. soothes irritated tissues

Research Fresh bark

Slippery elm produces red-brown fruit, ■ Mucilage There is limited Dried bark
each consisting of a single seed, research into slippery elm, but its
in summer. action as an herb with large quantities Key Preparations
of mucilage is well understood. When & Their Uses
Habitat & Cultivation the herb comes into direct contact
with inflamed surfaces such as the Infusion Mix 1 heaped tsp with Poultice For wounds, add several
Slippery elm is a native of the U.S. skin or the intestinal membranes, 3 cups (750 ml) of warm water. drops of calendula tincture to
and Canada, and is most commonly it soothes and coats the irritated
found growing in the Appalachian tissue, protects it from injury, and Infuse for 5 minutes. For 1 tsp of powder. Mix into a paste
Mountains. The tree thrives on high draws out toxins or irritants. diarrhea, drink a whole dose and apply (see p. 295).
ground and dry soil. The inner bark ■ Reflex action When slippery
of the trunk and branches is collected elm is taken internally, it is thought 1–2 times a day.
in spring. likely that it causes a reflex
stimulation of nerve endings in Capsules (to make, p. 292)
Related Species the stomach and intestines that For bronchitis, take a 200 mg
leads to secretion of mucus by the capsule 2–3 times a day.
White elm (U. americana) is used in membranes of the urinary tract.
a similar way to slippery elm, and was Powder For acid indigestion, take 1 tsp with water 2–3 times daily.
taken for coughs by the Mohicans. In Traditional &
Europe, the dried bark of elm (Ulmus Current Uses Tablets Take for diarrhea.
spp.) was used as a demulcent, and
was first mentioned by Dioscorides ■ Nourishing Taken regularly, ■ External uses Applied externally, Self-help Uses 145
in the 1st century ce. slippery elm is a nutritious and the herb softens and protects the
soothing food that acts as a prebiotic, skin. It also works very well as a ■ Acidity & indigestion, p. 307.
Key Constituents supporting beneficial bacterial growth “drawing” poultice for boils ■ Acne & boils, p. 305.
within the gut. It is excellent as a baby and splinters. ■ Constipation in children, p. 318.
■ Mucilage food and during convalescence. ■ Hemorrhoids, p. 302.
■ Starch ■ Digestive disorders Slippery elm
■ Tannins is a particularly soothing herb and can
bring instant relief to acidity, diarrhea,
Key Actions and gastroenteritis. It will also help
alleviate conditions such as colic,
■ Demulcent inflammation of the gut, constipation,
■ Emollient hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, and
■ Nutritive irritable bowel syndrome.
■ Laxative ■ Urinary problems This herb
is a useful remedy for urinary
problems such as chronic cystitis.
■ Respiratory conditions
Slippery elm has been used to treat
all manner of chest conditions and
has a soothing effect on everything
from coughs and bronchitis to pleurisy
and tuberculosis.

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Urtica dioica

Key medicinal plants Urtica dioica (Urticaceae) Nettle
A perennial growing
Nettle to 5 ft (1.5 m), with
lance-shaped leaves
Known for its sting, nettle has long been appreciated Parts Used and green flowers
for its medicinal uses. In the 1st century ce, the Greek with yellow stamens.
physician Dioscorides listed a range of uses—the fresh Aerial parts are eaten as a tonic vegetable
chopped leaves as a plaster for septic wounds, the juice and used to make medicinal preparations. High levels of
for nosebleeds, and the cooked leaves mixed with myrrh nutrients are
to stimulate menstruation. Today, nettle is used for hay concentrated
fever, arthritis, anemia, and, surprisingly, even for in the leaves
some skin conditions.

Key Actions
■ Diuretic
■ Tonic Dried aerial parts Fresh aerial parts
■ Astringent
■ Prevents hemorrhaging Root has important diuretic
■ Anti-allergenic properties that make it useful
for prostate problems.

■ Reduces prostate

enlargement (root)

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research Seeds are thought to
act to protect the liver.
■ Root Clinical trials over the past

Nettle can be cooked as a vegetable and 20 years have supported the root’s use Dried root Seeds
tastes like spinach. in treating an enlarged prostate and Fresh root
easing lower urinary tract symptoms,
Habitat & Cultivation though several tested it in combination
with saw palmetto (Serenoa repens,
Nettle grows in temperate regions

worldwide. The shoots are picked p. 136) rather than on its own. Key Preparations & Their Uses
in spring for use as a tonic and a ■ Antiarthritic Studies into nettle’s

vegetable. Aerial parts are picked in benefit in osteoarthritis have had

summer when the plant is in flower. mixed results, though a 2009 French

The root is harvested in autumn. trial found it reduced patients’

Related Species required daily intake of anti-
inflammatories when combined

The annual nettle (U. urens) is used in with Vitamin E, zinc, and fish oil. Decoction of root (see Ointment of leaves Soup with nettle leaves,
similar ways to U. dioica. Roman nettle ■ Seeds Results of a 2009 Iranian p. 291). For enlarged prostate, (to make, p. 295). For carrots and onions is rich
(U. pilulifera) was the species most laboratory study suggested that the eczema, rub liberally. in iron. Drink regularly.
drink 3/4 cup (150 ml) daily.

used by the Romans for “urtication” seeds are antioxidant and protect Capsules of leaf, (to make, p. 292). For enlarged prostate take a 300 mg capsule
(beating with nettles to encourage liver function. 2–4 times a day. For heavy periods, take a 100 mg capsule 3 times a day.
blood to the surface), which they
did to keep themselves warm. Traditional & Infusion of leaves (to make, p. 291). Drink 3⁄4 cup (200 ml) daily as a tonic.
Current Uses
Key Constituents Tincture of root (to make, p. 292) helps allergies and skin conditions.
■ Cleansing Nettle’s key traditional For hay fever, take 1 tsp diluted with 1/2 cup (100 ml) water twice a day.

Aerial parts: use is as a cleansing, detoxifying herb. Self-help Uses
■ Flavonoids (quercitin) It has a diuretic action, possibly due ■ Allergies Nettle is antiallergenic.

■ Amines (histamine, choline, to its flavonoids and high potassium It treats hay fever, asthma, itchy skin ■ Allergic rhinitis including

acetylcholine, serotonin) content, and increases urine conditions, and insect bites. The juice hay fever, p. 300.

■ Glucoquinone production and the elimination of can be used as a treatment for ■ Anemia due to heavy

■ Minerals (calcium, potassium, waste products. It helps many skin nettle stings. menstrual bleeding, p. 301.

silicic acid, iron) conditions and arthritic problems. ■ Enlarged prostate ■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

Root: ■ Astringent Nettle slows or Following research, nettle root has ■ Mild asthma, p. 301.

■ Plant sterols (stigmast-4-en-zone stops bleeding from wounds and now become a common treatment ■ Diaper rash, p. 318.

and stigmasterol) nosebleeds, and is good for heavy for symptoms linked to having an ■ Hives, p. 303.

146 ■ Phenols menstrual bleeding. enlarged prostate. ■ Nosebleeds, p. 310.

Vaccinium myrtillus

Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae) Bilberry Key medicinal plants
A deciduous shrub,
Bilberry, Blueberry growing to 16 in
(40 cm) tall, with white
Bilberry fruit first came to attention in the World War II or pink flowers and
(1939–45) when pilots found that their night vision purple-black berries.
improved on eating bilberry jam. Since then research has
shown that bilberries help the eyes to adjust to the dark, Parts Used
and stimulate the part of the retina most involved in
seeing clearly, especially in dim or dark conditions. Leaves make a useful urinary antiseptic
There is also the suggestion that bilberry fruit helps and astringent for urinary tract problems
to correct nearsightedness. such as cystitis and irritable bladder.

Berries have a strong healing
effect on capillaries, especially
on the micro-circulation within
the eye.

Key Actions

■ Circulatory tonic
■ Antioxidant
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Astringent
■ Urinary antiseptic

Research Fresh
berries
■ Circulation Clinical trials from
1964 onward have shown that Fresh leaves
bilberry fruits protect peripheral
circulation and capillaries. Symptoms Dried berries
that have been shown to improve
Bilberry fruit can be used as a natural with bilberry extracts include fluid Key Preparations
antioxidant supplement. retention, pain, pins and needles & Their Uses
(paresthesia), and cramps—all
Habitat & Cultivation resulting from impaired peripheral QCaution If taking anticoagulants or diagnosed with a bleeding disorder, take
blood flow. medicinal doses on professional advice only.
Bilberry thrives in moist undergrowth ■ Eyesight Different trials have
on moors, hillsides, and heathland, also shown improvement to eyesight Capsules Take up to 4 x 500 mg Tincture (to make, p. 292). Take
throughout temperate regions of in the nearsighted, in those with capsules a day to improve 1⁄2 tsp a day for poor circulation.
the northern hemisphere—Asia, retinal damage due to diabetes, and circulation within the eye.
Europe, and North America. Widely to high blood pressure in patients
cultivated around the world, bilberry taking bilberry extracts, beta- Decoction (to make, p. 291) is pleasant-tasting and useful for short-term
is propagated from seed in autumn, carotene, and retinol. Other treatment of diarrhea in children.
or from cuttings. The leaves are conditions such as period pain and
collected in summer, the fruit recovery from hemorrhoid Tablets, like capsules, are convenient for long-term use.
when ripe in late summer or operations may improve with bilberry.
early autumn. claudication, Raynaud’s disease, ■ Antiseptic The leaves have a 147
Traditional & varicose veins, hemorrhoids, easy marked antiseptic effect within the
Related Species Current Uses bruising, and all conditions impairing bladder and urinary tubules, and can
blood flow to the eyes, particularly be used to treat urinary infections
Other members of the Ericaceae, ■ Digestive problems Bilberry diabetes and high blood pressure. such as cystitis.
such as bearberry (Arctostaphyllos fruit has long been used as a mild ■ Antioxidant The fruit is used to ■ Antidiabetic The leaves and
uva-ursi, p. 170), cowberry (V. vitis- laxative (because of its sugars), protect against tissue damage (it may fruit have antidiabetic activity,
idaea), and cranberry (V. macrocarpon, and to relieve diarrhea (due to prevent cataract formation) and to helping especially in pre-diabetic
p. 280) are used principally as the tannins). It is also moderately promote tissue healing, for example states. There is growing evidence
urinary antiseptics. antibacterial and, since it tastes in the gastrointestinal tract or in that the fruit can help to promote
pleasant, is useful for treating rheumatoid or osteoarthritis. weight loss.
Key Constituents diarrhea and indigestion in children.
■ Circulatory disorders Many
■ Tannins (approximately 7%) circulatory disorders will benefit from
■ Proanthocyanins the fruit’s ability to improve capillary
■ Flavonoids function and heal inflammation.
■ Fruit acids These include intermittent
■ Phenolic acids
■ Pectin
■ Vitamin B2, C, and carotene

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Valeriana officinalis

Key medicinal plants Valeriana officinalis (Valerianaceae) Valerian
Erect perennial
Valerian growing to 4 ft
(1.2 m), with pinnate
Valerian has been used as a sedative and relaxant at divided leaves and
least since Roman times. It was known to Dioscorides pink flowers.
in the 1st century ce, who named it phu, the sound of
the word reflecting its unpleasant smell. Valerian helps Parts Used
relieve stress and has become an increasingly popular
remedy in recent decades. It is a safe, nonaddictive Root and rhizome are harvested in autumn when
relaxant that reduces nervous tension and anxiety and they contain the highest level of active ingredients.
promotes restful sleep.

Key Actions Dried root
and rhizome
■ Sedative
■ Relaxant
■ Relieves muscle spasms
■ Relieves anxiety
■ Lowers blood pressure

Research
■ Therapeutic properties

Extensive research in Germany and

Switzerland has endorsed the use of Valepotriates in
the rhizome and
valerian to aid sleep, improve sleep root induce sleep

Valerian helps reduce stress. Its name is quality, and lower blood pressure. Fresh root
thought to be derived from the Latin valere, A German trial carried out in 2002 and rhizome
“to be well.” that tested valerian and oxazepam

Habitat & Cultivation (a conventional sleep treatment) Key Preparations & Their Uses

found both to be effective—83% of QCautions Can cause drowsiness. Do not take valerian if already taking
sleep-inducing drugs.
Native to Europe and northern those taking valerian rated the

Asia, valerian grows wild in treatment as very good compared to

damp conditions. It is cultivated 73% of those taking oxazepam.

in central and eastern Europe.

The plant is grown from seed in Traditional &
spring, and the root and rhizome Current Uses

of 2-year-old plants are unearthed ■ Historical uses Known as “all- Tablets often also contain other
herbs. Take for stress or anxiety.
in autumn. heal” in the Middle Ages, valerian

Related Species was credited with many virtues, in

particular with healing epilepsy. Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For anxiety, take 20 drops in
V. capensis is given in South Africa In 1592, Fabius Calumna published Powder can be taken as hot water up to 5 times a day.
capsules (to make, p. 292).
for hysteria and epilepsy; V. hardwickii, a detailed work on herbal medicine For insomnia, take 1–2
doses of 500 mg at night.
found in China and Indonesia, is taken in which he claimed to have cured

as an antispasmodic; V. ulginosa was his epilepsy with the herb.

used for cramps and menopausal ■ Stress-related disorders Decoction (to make, p. 291). Take 1–5 tbsp as a sedative at night.

symptoms by the Menominee people Valerian reduces mental over-

in North America; and V. wallichi is activity and nervous excitability,

used in the Himalayas in almost helping people who find it hard valerian. It is a useful remedy for for high blood pressure caused
insomnia, whether caused by anxiety by stress and anxiety.
exactly the same way as valerian. to “switch off.” It is beneficial for or overexcitement.
■ Effective relaxant Valerian relaxes Self-help Uses
Key Constituents almost any stress-related condition, overcontracted muscles, and is helpful
for shoulder and neck tension, asthma, ■ Chronic anxiety, p. 308.
and, in general, has a calming, rather colic, irritable bowel syndrome, period ■ Insomnia, p. 309.
pain, and muscle spasms. ■ Nervous exhaustion, p. 309.
■ Volatile oil (up to 1.4%), than directly sedative, effect on ■ High blood pressure Valerian ■ Premenstrual syndrome, p. 315.
is used with other herbs in remedies ■ Sleeplessness due to
including bornyl acetate, the mind.
backache, p. 313.
beta-caryphyllene ■ Anxiety & insomnia Many

■ Iridoids (valepotriates)— symptoms of anxiety, including

valtrate, isovaltrate tremors, panic, palpitations, and

148 ■ Alkaloids sweating, can be relieved with