Conference Proceeding
KUALA LUMPUR INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON BUSINESS, EDUCATION,
SOCIAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
(KLIBEST 2020)
Premiera Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
14 MARCH 2020
Asian Scholar Network (002903215-H)
eISBN: 978-967-17837-4-0
Kuala Lumpur International Conference on Business, Education, Social Sciences & Technology
KLIBEST 2020 (eISBN: 978-967-17837-4-0)
Premiera Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
KUALA LUMPUR INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
BUSINESS, EDUCATION, SOCIAL SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY
(KLIBEST 2020)
Copyright © 2020
Asian Scholars Network
All rights reserved. No part of this proceeding may be reproduced in any form, except for the
inclusion of brief quotations in review, without permission in writing from the author/
publisher.
eISBN: 978-967-17837-4-0
Published By:
Asian Scholars Network (002903215-H)
Selangor, Malaysia
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Kuala Lumpur International Conference on Business, Education, Social Sciences & Technology
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF LEFT OVER COCONUT PULP GLUTEN FREE
FLOUR.................................................................................................................................. 1
2. DETERMINANTS OF INTENTION TO USE MOBILE BANKING
APPLICATIONS AMONG MUSLIM SENIOR CITIZENS IN SELANGOR............ 12
3. ELEMENTS IN MOVIE TRAILERS THAT MOTIVATES AUDIENCE TO
WATCH MOVIES IN MALAYSIA : A QUANTITATIVE APPROACH................... 20
4. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL
STRATEGIES IN HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTION ........................................... 27
5. LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER (LNA) OF 5 – 6 GHZ USING VARIOUS
ARCHITECTURE FOR LTE: A REVIEW.................................................................... 36
6. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: A CASE STUDY ON TRA VINH
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN VIETNAM..................................................................... 45
7. SOCIAL MEDIA CONTENT OF INSTAGRAM ON IMPULSE BUYING ............... 58
8. THE INFLUENCE OF TAX COLLECTION ON INCREASING THE TAX
REVENUE (A Case Study at the Directorate General of Taxes Headquarters) ......... 63
9. AMALAN KEPIMPINAN INSTRUKSIONAL GURU BESAR DI SEKOLAH
KEBANGSAAN DAERAH KUALA LANGAT.............................................................. 70
10. ANALISIS KESALAHAN TATABAHASA DALAM PENULISAN BAHASA
INGGERIS :SATU KAJIAN KES.................................................................................... 78
11. SUBJECT BASED CLASSROOM (SBC) / BILIK DARJAH BERASASKAN MATA
PELAJARAN...................................................................................................................... 85
12. FAKTOR-FAKTOR KESILAPAN TERHADAP BAHAGI NOMBOR BULAT
DALAM KALANGAN MURID SEKOLAH RENDAH ................................................ 93
13. GAYA PENGAJARAN GURU DALAM TOPIK OPERASI ASAS MATEMATIK
BAGI MURID SEKOLAH RENDAH............................................................................ 104
14. HUBUNGAN DI ANTARA KECERGASAN FIZIKAL DAN PRESTASI
AKADEMIK MURID TAHUN ENAM DI WILAYAH PERSEKUTUAN LABUAN
............................................................................................................................................ 112
15. KEPIMPINAN ISTRUKSIONAL PENGETUA DI DAERAH KUALA LANGAT . 131
16. PENEROKAAN KUALITATIF TERHADAP HALANGAN PENGLIBATAN
ORANG KURANG UPAYA DALAM SUKAN ............................................................ 138
17. PERSEPSI GURU ALIRAN PERDANA TERHADAP PELAKSANAAN PROGRAM
PENDIDIKAN INKLUSIF DI EMPAT BUAH SEKOLAH RENDAH DI DAERAH
SABAK BERNAM ........................................................................................................... 149
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF LEFT OVER COCONUT PULP
GLUTEN FREE FLOUR
Aziz Caliskan1, Dr. Norhidayah Abdullah2*, Dr. Noriza Ishak3
1,2,3 Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, University Technology Mara, Puncak Alam, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
Abstract: Gluten is generally an essential food property that can be found in cereals that give
pleasant elasticity and body structure to foods. These cereal based products that contain gluten
are rich in dietary fibre. Although gluten plays a vital role in food production, it happens to be
harmful to gluten intolerant people. Gluten intolerance is associated with digestive system
disorder, allergy and Non Gluten Celiac sensitivity (NGCS), hence, gluten intolerant people
are forced to a follow gluten-free diet for their lifetime which affects their dietary fibre intake,
which is essential against diarrhoea, constipation and colon cancer. Coconut (Cocos Nucifera)
ıs the largest local commodity after rice in Malaysia. Coconut meat which is usually processed
for its coconut water, coconut milk as well as coconut oil while the leafover pulp are thrown
away or collected to be used for livestock feeding. However, this leaf over coconut pulp is rich
ın dıetary fibre and protein but low in gluten, hence making it the best alternative for gluten-
free product seekers as well as being hıghly recommended for gluten related dıseased patıents.
Motivated by this, the study was focused on providing an alternative of gluten free flour from
Left Over Coconut Pulp (LOCP) that is high in dietary fibre. The LOCP was tested for
proximate value (Moisture Content, Ash, Crude Fibre, Protein, Total Fat, Carbohydrate,
energy and compared with the commercial wheat flour as the control sample. Furthermore, the
gluten level was also being explored. Results showed that LOCP flour had moisture content
(7.1g/100g), ash (1g/100g), crude fibre (60.3g/100g), protein (4.0g/100g), fat (20.6g/100g)
carbohydrate (67.3g /100g), energy (471kcal/100g) whilst wheat had moisture content
(11.92g/100g), ash (0.47g/100g), crude fibre (2.7g/100g), protein (10.33g/100g), fat (1g/100g)
carbohydrate (76.31g/100g) and energy (364kcal/100g). Results based on the proximate value
analysis showed that LOCP flour had crude fibre content that was 22 times higher than the
control sample. In term of gluten identification analysis results proved that LOCP flour was
gluten free (<2 ND). Finally, an evaluation was made with respect to the series of results
obtained, suggesting that LOCP could be considered as an alternative for gluten intolerant
people as well as minimizing the rate LOCP wastage due to the benefits it proffers. Also, due to
its easy accessibility, simplicity of production, and cost effectiveness, it is a pristine alternative
of a gluten free product.
Keywords: Left Over Coconut Pulp, proximate Value, Gluten Free
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Coconut (Cocos Nucifera) is a product which is known for its nutritional values (USDA, 2018).
Nowadays, they are generally used for the production of water, oil, and milk, extracted
primarily from their meat. While the leftovers are dumped or used as animal feed. Although
coconut residue is not considered important by the producers, it still has high dietary fibre and
it is gluten free (Barge & Divekar, 2018). Gluten is a protein present in cereals, for example,
barley, wheat and rye (Biesiekierski, 2017). Although cereal is essential in food technology, it
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has devastating influence on people who are intolerant to gluten (Wünsche, Lambert, Gola, &
Biesalski, 2018). However, the gluten found in cereal groups is necessary for the daily diet
intake (Biesiekierski, 2017; Hager, Axel, & Arendt, 2011). Dietary fibre is beneficial to the
intestinal life, and reduction in its consuption causes secondary diseases. Therefore, this study
was conducted to explore the potential of left over coconut pulp as a gluten free alternative for
the gluten intolerant people by identifying the proximate values and its gluten level in
comparison to the commercial control sample.
2.0 Literature Review
Gluten is a protein found in cereals (barley, wheat, and rye) and which composed of gliadin and
glutenin (Biesiekierski, 2017). It gives an elastic structure and is highly resistant to heat.
Therefore, it is generally used in bakery products in order to improve the texture, quality, and
structure of baked goods. It is also used as an additive in many ready-to-eat products due to
these functional properties (Biesiekierski, 2017; Jnawali, Kumar, & Tanwar, 2016). Although
cereal is importance in food technology, it however significantly contributes to negative health
impacts on gluten intolerant people (Wünsche et al., 2018). It has been reported that gluten
causes damage on small intestine in celiac patients (Wünsche et al., (2018), hence gluten is not
recommended for them, and consuming gluten free food is the best option. But the gluten
found in cereal groups is an important nutrient that meets people's daily dietary fibre intake
(Biesiekierski, 2017; Hager et al., 2011). As a result, the removal of gluten from the diet
indirectly removes the dietary fibre. This is in conjunction with Hager et al., (2011); Lee et al.,
(2009); Öhlund, Olsson, Hernell, & Öhlund, (2010); and Shepherd & Gibson, (2013) who
revealed that gluten-free diet has shown insufficient value of dietary fibre.
Dietary fibre is divided into two groups, digestible and non-digestible. The digestible dietary
fibre contains calories and is found in fruits and vegetables. The non-digestible dietary fibre
does not contain calories and is found in products such as coconuts and potatoes (Hager et al.,
2011). Dietary fibre is important to reduce intestinal transit time, prevent constipation, reduce
the risk of colorectal cancer, reduce blood cholesterol, and increase the production of short
chain fatty acids and beneficial intestinal microflora (Brennan & Cleary, 2005). Dietary fibre,
which is very important for intestinal life, causes secondary diseases if its intake is insufficient.
If the intake of dietary fibre is not met for a long time, it may even cause colon cancer and
diabetes (Brennan & Cleary, 2005; Hager et al., 2011).
Coconut (Cocos Nucifera) is a product that maintains its importance from past to present in
terms of nutritional values (USDA, 2018). Coconut has been used as (food, construction
material, clothing material, and fuel (Batugal, Oliver, & Editors, 2005; Gunn, Baudouin, &
Olsen, 2011). Coconut is rich in saturated fats, and has short chains of fatty acids due to its
lauric acid content. However, the fatty acids profiles of food products such as dairy products
and processed fatty meats contain significant amount of saturated fats as compared to coconut,
hence, they are said to have long chains of saturated fatty acids (Eirik, 2018). Coconut is
responsible for the production of various food products such as coconut oil, raw coconut and
coconut cake, coconut water, coconut milk, copra, and coconut biscuit and chips. Processing
industries such as virgin coconut oil processing industries, flavoured coconut milk industries,
and coconut milk powder manufacturing industries produce coconut milk residue as a by-
product. It is a rich dietary product but is usually thrown as a waste or kept as animal feed
(Barge & Divekar, 2018).
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3.0 Methodology
This section shows the materials and the steps used in this study as follows, flour preparation,
proximate analysis, gluten identification analysis, and statistical analysis of LOCPF.
3.1 Materials
Left-over coconut pulp (LOCP) was purchased from a local market in Shah Alam, Selangor.
The identified supplier was contacted a day before LOCP collection. Approximately 5 kg of
LOCP was collected early in the morning (around 6.30 am) immediately after coconut milk
was extracted. Clean LOCP with the least impurity was selected and weighed, before being
carried to the laboratory in air tight ice box, with temperature of 2 to 4 degree Celsius. 5 kg
commercial wheat flour was purchased from hyper market in Shah Alam as the control sample.
The chemicals used in this study are petroleum ether, concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
(98%), digestion mixture tablet, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), boric acid (H3BO3), hydrochloric
acid (HCl), alum (K2¬SO4) ammonia (NH3), ethanol, and R5 sandwich ELISA, which were
supplied from Sigma Integrated Chemical Shah Alam, Selangor.
3.2 Flour Preparation
The left over coconut pulp (LOCP) was separated into 70 grams and placed in the dehydrator,
Excalibur 3926TBX (USA). In the dehydrator trays, the LOCP were evenly distributed at a
height of 1 cm. The LOCP was dried at 40 °C for 3 hrs. These are the optimum drying
parameters to obtain LOCP flour as obtained by the preliminary studies. The dried LOCP was
removed and subjected to grinding process by using conventional food grinder (PANA-MX-
800) for 1 min. Finally, after the grinding process, the dried LOCP was sieved using
conventional sieve with 0.18-0.20 mm particle size. The obtained LOCP flour was then stored
in an airtight container at temperature of 4 °C prior to analysis.
3.3 Proximate Value and Gluten Identification Analyses
The left over coconut pulp flour (LOCPF) was tested for peroximate analysis (i.e. moisture
content, ash, crude fibre, protein, fat, total fat, carbohydrate, energy) and gluten level properties
identification analysis to determine the gluten level and nutrutiens of LOCPF.
3.3.1 Mouisture Content
The method described by AOAC (1995) and Dhankhar & Tech, (2013) was used to estimate
the moisture content of LOCP flour. About 2 g of the LOCPF sample was initially dried at 98
°C to 100 °C, which was then cooled in the dryer and accurately weighed on a scale
immediately after reaching room temperature. The lid was loosened and the sample was heated
in a hot air oven at 110 °C for 2 hrs. The lid on the bowl was immediately squeezed, transferred
to the dryer and weighed immediately after reaching room temperature. The resulting weight
loss was then calculated as a percentage of the moisture content on a dry basis.
[( ) ]
W = Weight of sample
w_1 = weight of sample + weight of petri dish.
w_2 = weight of dried sample + weight of petri dish.
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3.3.2 Ash
The method described by AOAC (1995) and Dhankhar & Tech, (2013) were used to estimate
the ash content. About 5 g of the flour sample was weighed, then moved to a pre-weighed
crucible. Then the sample was charred until the smoke stopped. The crucible was moved to a
muffle furnace kept at 550 °C and burned until light grey ash was produced (around 5 to 6 hrs).
Lastly, the crucible was cooled down in a dessicator and weighed. The value of ash percentage
was recorded in terms of dry weight.
[( ) ]
W = Weight of sample
w_1 = weight of sample + weight of petri dish.
w_2 = Weight of dried ash + weight of petri dish (after ashing).
3.3.3 Crude Fibre
The crude fibre was estimated according AOAC (1995) method. 3g of each non-fat LOCPF
sample was first digested with 1.25% H2SO4, then washed with distilled water and filtered,
then digested with 1.25% NaOH solution, washed with distilled water and filtered. Finally, the
digested samples were burned in a muffle furnace maintained at 550-650 °C for 3-5 hours until
a gray or white ash was obtained. The percentage of crude fibre was calculated after the
samples were ignited according to the following equation (Dhankhar and Tech, 2013).
3.3.4 Protein
The crude protein content of the sample was analysed using the Kjeltec auto analyser using
AACC (2000) method (Dhankhar and Tech, 2013). Initially, 1 g of LOCPF sample was placed
in the digestion tube and 2 tablets (3.5 g) of K2¬SO4 catalyst along with 12 ml of H2SO4 were
added in order to oxidized the nitrogen and produce ammonium sulphate. Then, digestion tube
was placed in the rack and digested at 420 °C for 45 mins until the mixture was clear. Finally,
digested sample was cooled down to an ambient temperature.
In second stage, the sample that contained digestion tube was connected to the distillation unit
which contained 75 ml water and 50 ml of 40% NaOH. Also the receiver flask of the
distillation was filled with 25 ml of H3BO3 solution. Eventually, automatic titration was
carried out. From the obtained data nitrogen %, protein % and mg N/kg were determined by the
following equations.
()
()
()
()
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()
()
3.3.5 Total Fat
Total fat was identified based on adopted method from Dhankhar & Tech (2013) by using
standard method of AOAC (1995). The fat content of the sample was determined by the
Soxhlet extraction with petroleum ether solvent method. Initially, sample was hydrolyzed
according to the Weibull-Stoldt method. Here 5 g of sample was reacted with 100 ml of 3M
HCl solution and resultant product was filtered followed by drying at 100 °C using oven. Then
the resultant samples along with the petroleum ether solvent were placed in the Soxhlet
extraction apparatus and heated in order to extract the fat. After extraction of fat, the resultant
spike samples were further heated at 100 °C for 30 mins and cooled down for another 30 mins
at room temperature. Eventually, the recovery percentage of the fat was calculated using the
following equation.
[]
3.3.6 Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates content of flour was calculated based on AOAC (1995). Total carbohydrates
were calculated using the following formula as described by Dhankhar & Tech (2013):
( () () ( ) ( ))
3.3.7 Energy
The total energy content of the sample was determined by calculation which was done by
Dhankhar & Tech, (2013). The factors that are used to measure the energy is given in
equation.
() () () ()
3.3.8 Gluten Level Identification
Approximately 0.25 g sample was added to 2.5 ml of the cocktail in closed vial tube and mixed
well until the two element dissolved. The mixture was centrifuged for 10 minutes / 2500 g at
room temperature. The supernatant was then filtered, of which the diluted sample of 1:12.5 was
diluted with the diluent. Then, the product was used, placing 100 µl per well in the assay.
Concerning the assay preparation for ELISA, 100 µl of each standard or prepared sample was
added to the wells, separated and incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes. The liquid was
poured from the wells and the microwell holder was tapped gently upside down against the
absorbent paper, allowing the liquid to come completely out of the wells. The entire well was
filled with 250 µl wash buffer and the liquid was poured out and then in again for 3 times. 100
µl of diluted conjugate was added to each well. The plate was shaken gently by hand and
incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature. The liquid was poured from the wells and the
microwell holder was tapped gently upside down against the absorbent paper, allowing the
liquid to come completely out of the wells. The entire well was filled with 250 µl wash buffer
and the liquid was poured again 3 times. 50 µl substrate and 50 µl Chromogen were added to
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each well, after which they were gently mixed by shaking the plate by hand and incubated for
30 mins at room temperature in the dark. 100 µl of stopping solution was added to each well. It
was gently mixed by shaking the plate by hand. The absorbance at 450 nm was measured. It
was recorded within 10 mins after the stop solution was added.
The gliadin concentration in ppb was read from a software calibration curve and also multiplied
by a dilution factor of at least 500. This result is then multiplied by 2 to obtain gluten
concentration (gliadin represents 50% of available proteins in gluten Cordex Definition) (R-
BiopharmAG, 2017).
3.4 Statistical Analysis
For all tests, the means and standard deviations have been determined. The significant
difference in mean values was measured at a significance point of (p < 0.05) with one-way
analysis variance (ANOVA) accompanied by Fisher's check using Excel Software version
2016.
4.0 Result and Discussion
This section describes the proximate analysis and various results obtained for all samples
related to LOCPF and wheat sample. This section also provides appropriate discussion,
analysis and comparisons.
Table 1: The Result of Proximate Analysis and Gluten Identification of LOCPF Proximate analysis
LOCPF Wheat Flour
Proximate analysis LOCPF Wheat Flour
Moisture Contain g/100 g 7.1 ± 0.37a 11.92 ± 0.24b
Ash g/100 g 1.0 ± 0.05a 0.47 ± 0.03b
Crude Fibre g/100 g 60.3 ± 0.54a 2.7 ± 0.73b
Protein g/100 g 4.0 ± 0.78a 10.33 ± 0.66b
Total Fat g/100 g 20.6 ± 0.42a 1 ± 0.15b
Carbohydrate g/100 g 67.3 ± 0.87a 76.31 ± 0.75b
Energy kcal/100 g 471 (1971kJ) 364 (1522kJ)
Gluten Level mg/kg ND (<2)
Wheat flour proximate result (NutritionValue, 2019)
4.1 Moisture Content
The moisture content of the flour is very important for two reasons. The first is that, the higher
the moisture content, the lower the number of dry solids in the flour. The second is that, flour
with the moisture of more than 14% is not stable at room temperature. Organisms naturally
present in flour begin to grow at high moistures and give off odour and taste. Naturally, this
affects shelf life (NDSU, 2018). The moisture content found to be significantly lower in LOCP
flour when the measurement was 7.1 g/100 g DW while 11.92 g/100 g DW was encountered in
control sample. The value of moisture content is 49.5% in LOCP which is significantly lower
(p<0.05) than wheat flour (control sample) indicates higher stability towards microbial growth.
The results obtained in current study is not much different to the one reported by other
researchers (NDSU, 2018). A study on nutritional properties of wheat and coconut flour blend
done by Makinde & Eyıtayo, (2019) showed that moisture content was 22% lower than LOCPF
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(5.52 g/100 g). Finally, another study on influence of coconut flour on texture of dough and
cookies made from wheat and coconut flours conducted by Dat, (2018) showed that moisture
content of coconut flour was 6.13 g/100 g DW which was 14% lower than LOCPF. Thus,
among these studies, in terms of moisture, LOCPF had the closest result to wheat flour with a
value of 7.1 g/100 g DW. LOCPF was less than 14%, indicating that it was suitable for storage.
Several studies that used various approaches have emerged for coconut flour composition (Dat,
2018; Gunathilake, Yalegama, & Kumara, 2009; Makinde & Eyitayo, 2019). The composition
of coconut flour depends on the retention of the components after the extraction of coconut
milk or oil from scrap/dried coconut. Therefore, the composition of the coconut residue will
also vary proportionally. Furthermore, these differences may be influenced by variability such
as drying degrees, drying time, pressing power, and pressing time.
4.2 Ash
Ash content is an indication of the total mineral content present. According to Portable Format
for Analytics (PFA) standards, the ash content of the flour should be less than 1% (Dhankhar &
Tech, 2013). According to Malaysian standards, the ash content of white wheat flour should be
less than 0.7 g (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2016). The ash content found in LOCP flour
was 1 gram/100 g DW and 0.47 g/100 g DW in wheat flour (control flour). According to a
study on gluten free cookies made from rice and coconut flour done by Paucean, Man, Muste,
& Pop, (2016), ash value of coconut flour was 5.06 g/100 g which means that it is 5 time higher
than LOCPF. Another study on cassava starch done by Oyeyinka, Adeloye, & Smith, S. A.,
(2019), reported that in terms of ash, cassava starch was 2.50 g/100 g which was 2.5 times
higher than LOCPF. The high ash content was considered as a result of the high minerals
content of coconut meat (sodium, magnesium, potassium, etc.) (Dhankhar & Tech, 2013). As a
result of these studies, LOCPF with the ash content of 1 g/100g was found to have the closest
value to the appropriate ash value of 1%.
4.3 Crude Fibre
LOCP flour contains a high proportion of crude fibres. Based on Table 1, there is a significant
difference (p < 0.05) between LOCPF and wheat flour as 22 times higher in terms of crude
fibre. Base on a study on gluten free cookies made with rice and coconut flours conducted by
Stoin, (2016), it showed that the crude fibre in coconut flour was 13.62 g/100 g DW. Another
study on gluten-free rice cookies made from alfafa flour and rice flour done by Giuberti et al.,
(2018) obtained 26.22 g/100 g of crude fibre in alfafa flour. In this study, the LOCPF has 60.3
g/100 g DW crude fibre. The LOCPF had a high crude fibre because of the thin brown layer
(Testa) that was between coconut shell and coconut meat which remains after the milk, water,
and oil are extracted from the coconut.
From a technological point of view, fibre addition can alter tissue and sensory properties due to
water binding capacity, gel-forming potential, fat mimicking properties, thickening effects, and
extend shelf life (California, Pseudomonas, Lipases, High, & Psychrotrophic, 1997; Hager et
al., 2011). In addition, high fibre content of coconut flour does not flush blood sugar as quickly
as cereal-based flours do. The viscous and fibrous nature of dietary fibres can control glucose
release over time in the blood, thereby assisting in proper control and management of diabetes
mellitus and obesity. Although raw grains are high in fibre, general food thinning processes
completely destroy this content, which leads to loss of fully refined flour. As a result of this
inconsistency, food manufacturers and pharmaceutical companies currently market ready fibre
additives for flour enrichment and reinforcement programmes (Makinde et al., 2019).
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Basically, left over coconut pulp flour can be a cheap and healthy source of fibre in the human
diet.
4.4 Protein
Although high protein flours are preferred for bread making, but low protein flours are
preferred for cake making. Therefore, protein plays an important role in determining the
intended use of flour (NDSU, 2018). In terms of protein value, wheat flour contained 10.33
g/100 g DW, whilst LOCPF contained 4.0 g. This showed that LOCPF had a protein value of
62.3% which was lower than control sample (wheat flour). A study on using quinoa flour to
make gluten free cake done by Bozdogan, Kumcuoglu, & Tavman, (2019) showed that protein
value of quinoa flour was 13.72 g/100 g which was higher than LOCPF. Another study on
water yam, pigeon pea, and carrot pomace flour blends done by Adeola et al., (2017)
mentioned that the mixture flour in term of protein was 19.53 g/100 g. LOCPF was found to
have lower values compared to other studies in terms of protein value. One of the reasons may
be the press time and duration that was used in milk production. It has values lower than the
minimum 9 g protein values determined for wheat flour. But the main purpose of high protein
value in wheat flour to be used in bread making is to keep gluten value high (Makinde et al.,
2019). This is because gluten was responsible for the flexibility of the dough by causing
elongation and capture of carbon dioxide produced by the yeast during fermentation. When
gluten coagulates under the influence of heat during cooking, it functions as the frame of the
nut, which becomes relatively solid (Ahmed, 2013).
4.5 Fat
The fat content of LOCPF is as high as 20.6 g/100 g DW and in wheat flour is 1 g/100 g DW.
This is because raw coconut has a high fat content of 34 times (USDA, 2018). According to a
study of united nations, the average amount of calories consumed by Malaysians is 2910
calories/day. However, the daily calorie intake recommended by the health ministry is 1,500
calories for women and 2,000 for men (Indra Balaratnam, 2018). Dietary reference intake
(DRI) for fat in adults is 20 to 35% of total calories obtained from fat. Coconut is rich in
saturated fat; however, fatty acid profiles are significantly different from high-fat dairy
products and processed fatty meats. Second, foods (i.e. those having saturated fats) are high in
long chain saturated fatty acids, however, coconut happens to contain mainly lauric acid, a
short chain fatty acid (Eirik, 2018). Healthy adult's intake of saturated fat should not exceed
10% of the total calories. For someone who eats a 2000 calorie diet, that is 22 grams of
saturated fat a day or less (Clevelan Clinic, 2019; Katherine Zeratsky, 2019). A study on the
influence of coconut flour on texture of dough and cookies made with coconut and wheat flour
(Dat, 2018) showed that, rate of fat in coconut flour was 19.82 g/100 g. This ratio is close to
that of LOCPF (20.6 g/100 g). Lastly, another study on snack crackers made with wheat and
defatted coconut flour (Mihiranie, Jayasundera, & Perera, 2017) showed that fat value of
defatted coconut flour was 8.04 g/100 g which was much lower than LOCPF. Changes in oil
rates in these studies vary depending on the force and duration of the press. Furthermore, the
reason why the LOCPF has a fat content of 20.6 g may be due to the fact that the company
from which the LOCP was purchased from extracted only milk and juice from the coconut.
4.6 Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates, which cover a large percentage of daily diet, are recommended by the Nutrition
Guidelines for Americans to make 45 to 65% of total calories per day (PCSFN, 2017).
Carbohydrates values were 67.3 g/100 g DW in LOCPF and 76.31 g/100 g DW in wheat flour.
Carbohydrates content for LOCPF was determined by adding the protein, moisture, fat, and ash
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percentages and then subtracting this amount from 100%. One of study on Chemical and
functional characterizations of chickpea protein concentrate (Adeola et al., 2017) showed that
chickpea flour was composed of 62.08 g/100 g DW carbohydrates. Another study on bread
made with rice and wheat flour mention that it contained 82.78 g/100 g DW carbohydrates. All
these different carbohydrates values are due to the amount of protein, ash, fibre, and fat
contained in the LOCPF.
4.7 Energy
LOCPF has 471 kcal/100g DW of energy while wheat flour has 364 kcal/100 g DW. According
to the formula used for energy calculation (Dhankhar & Tech, 2013), the energy of coconut
flour is higher than that of wheat flour because of the fat content it carries. A study on yam
bean flour conducted by Buckman, Oduro, Plahar, & Tortoe, (2018) showed that in terms of
energy, yam bean flour was 366.29 kcal/100 g DW which means it was 22% lower than
LOCPF. Another study carried out on the influences of coconut flour on texture of dough and
cookies made with wheat and coconut flour done by Dat, (2018), mentioned that coconut flour
was 440.75 kcal/100 g in energy which is close to the value to LOCPF. The formula used to
obtain the amount of energy is multiplied by protein (4), carbohydrate (4) and fat (9). However,
1 g of fat produces about 9 kilocalories of energy, suggesting that, a higher percentage of fat
results in a greater level of energy produced.
4.8 Gluten Identification
The Benchmark set for gluten-free food is (< 20 mg/1 kg), this standard was set by the Codex
Standard 118-1979 (Codex, 2015). Wheat contains gluten which is a mixture of gliadin and
glutenin protein. On the basis of commercial food products that are being sold, a food product
is tagged to be “gluten free” if the gluten content does not exceed 20 mg/kg. Based on the
result shown in Table 1, in terms of gluten, LOCPF was < 2 mg/kg. This finding proves that
indeed LOCPF is a gluten free flour. Several different studies support this findings (Barge &
Divekar, 2018; Jnawali et al., 2016).
5.0 Conclusion
Left over coconut pulp (LOCP) flour was evaluated for proximate analysis and compared with
wheat flour as a control sample. Overall, LOCPF had significantly higher amounts of crude
fibre (96.5 %), fat (95.15 %), ash (53%), and energy (22.7%) compared to the control, and it
had lower contents of moisture (40.6 %), protein (61.3%), and carbohydrate (11.8%) as
compared to the wheat flour. With the higher values of crude fibre and minimum amounts of
gluten detected (< 2 mg/kg), hence LOCPF can be considered as a good gluten free flour
alternative.
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DETERMINANTS OF INTENTION TO USE MOBILE
BANKING APPLICATIONS AMONG MUSLIM SENIOR
CITIZENS IN SELANGOR
Mohamad Azwan Md Isa1*, Muhammad Zulhelmi Mohamad Sabri2,
Ferri Nasrul3, Mohd Khairul Ariff Noh4, Zaibedah Zaharum5, Ruziah A Latif6
1,2,3,4,5,6 Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Segamat Johor, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
Abstract: In spite of rapid growth of mobile banking usage in some foreign countries, the
penetration rate of mobile banking services in Malaysia is still low particularly among the
senior citizens. Thus, this paper aims to study the determinants of intention to use mobile
banking applications (MBAs) among Muslim senior citizens (MSCs) in Selangor. There are
four determinants used in this study, namely perceived credibility, perceived risk, perceived
ease of use and perceived usefulness. The primary data was collected from 150 respondents
using a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire. This study uses several analyses such as the
descriptive analysis, reliability analysis, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis.
The results reveal that perceived credibility and perceived usefulness pose significant
relationships with and positively influence the intention to use MBAs among the MSCs in
Selangor. The findings are beneficial to the stakeholders specifically the banking or financial
institutions (BFIs), mobile service providers and policy maker in improving the services and
delivery of the MBAs.
Keywords: mobile banking, Muslim senior citizens, perceived credibility, perceived risk,
perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Mobile phones have become personal information processing option. The latest statistics show
that there are approximately 7.71 billion mobile phone users worldwide as reported in the
United Nation (UN) digital analyst estimates. The statistics also reveal that 66.53% of the
mobile phone users are smartphone users (Bankmycell, 2019). In conjunction with
development of the mobile telecommunication and remarkable increase in the number of
mobile phone users, mobile banking has been one of the important platforms for the banks in
Malaysia (Daud et al., 2011). Mobile banking is an access to banking services and facilities
provided by the BFIs using a digital mobile device (Munoz-Leiva et al., 2016). MBAs is
considered a new innovation offered by the banks and this service allows consumers to perform
banking transactions such as fund transfer, balance enquiries and payment of bills via
smartphones, tablets or personal digital assistants (PDAs) at all times. In addition, the Muslim
consumers could now use it to perform their religious obligations such as paying zakat, saving
for their pilgrimage, doing infaq and waqaf or sadaqah (charity). This innovation leads to
consumers’ convenience as they find it handy in using MBAs to conduct their daily financial
transactions (Maulana et al., 2019). Moreover, the MBAs enable the consumers to perform
banking transactions anytime and anywhere (Shaikh & Karjaluoto, 2015) without having to
visit the bank branches (Daud et al., 2011).
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In order to ensure the viability of mobile banking, the BFIs must provide a reliable and robust
mobile banking platform and effectively communicate the advantages or benefits of mobile
banking so that the consumers are convinced to use the mobile banking as an alternative to the
conventional or traditional banking (Munoz-Leiva et al., 2016; & Venkatesh et al., 2016).
However, there are many factors that hinder the consumers to use the MBAs including
perceived credibility of the system (Daud et al., 2011), reliability issues in terms of security and
privacy of their personal data and financial information (Amin et al., 2008). A senior citizen is
defined as a person, who is at the age of 60 and above (Awam, 2019). They are described as
group of people, who are slow to adopt and need more time to learn how to use new
technology. Senior citizens in Malaysia are considered as high financial influence groups (Lim
et al., 2011) and their number has increased from 6.3% in 2017 to 6.5% in 2019 (Malaysia,
2019). This means that they are one of the prominent targeted segments due to their
predominant number and income levels. Hence, it is utmost important to study the factors or
determinants influencing the use of MBAs particularly among the senior citizens as they are
one of the famous targeted segments due to their financial power and noticeable involvements
in savings, loans, and investments compared to other levels of citizens (Loo, 2010). Next
sections of this paper will discuss the literature review on the variables, the methodology of
study, the results and discussion and the conclusion.
2. Literature Review
The intention to use refers to an individual's degree of intention to use MBAs. The main goal of
companies is to increase the consumers’ acceptance of their products (Yu, 2012), but an
objective degree of measurement to which a person involves in actions is not always simple or
realistic to obtain (Vijayasarathy, 2004). Human performance such as in the use of software can
be anticipated and affected by their purpose (Yu, 2012). The individual’s purpose could
therefore be interpreted as a realistic way to measure actual use (Teo et al., 2008). MBAs are
among the latest in a series of recent mobile technological wonders. Although the automated
teller machine (ATM) and Internet banking offer effective delivery channels for traditional
banking products, but as the newest delivery channel established by retail and microfinance
banks in many developed and developing countries, mobile banking is likely to have significant
effects on the market (Safeena et al., 2012). The expanded uses of smartphones have increased
demand for mobile banking services, prompting many more banks, microfinance institutions,
software houses, and service providers to offer this innovative service together with new sets of
products and applications designed to extend their client reach, improve customer retention,
enhance operational efficiency, increase market share, and provide new employment
opportunities (Shaikh, 2013).
Perceived credibility is described as the desire of consumers to protect their transaction details
and personal data from unauthorized access. It is a matter of personal conviction that the
consumer has the right to safely carry out a financial transaction and to protect the privacy of
the system's personal information. Perceived credibility is a determinant of behavioral intention
to use an information system. The important element for perceived credibility is privacy and
security. Security is defined as the protection of information or systems from unauthorized
intrusions (Daud et al., 2011). Yu (2012) revealed that perceived credibility has positive
significant relationship with the intention to use mobile banking. Daud et al. (2011) also found
that perceived credibility has a direct impact on the intention to use mobile banking. Perceived
risk is the subjective expectation of the consumers to suffer loss in pursuit of the desired
outcome. If consumers are unsure or do not trust in product quality, brand and online services,
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they may be concerned about an unjustified pause in the distribution of the goods,
compensation without possession of the product, and other illegal activities and fraud. The
speed of adoption is negatively related to the perceived risk level (Frambach et al., 1998).
People are anxious about the various types of threats posed when engaging in online activities
or transactions. Daud et al. (2011) stated that perceived risk has negatively affected the
intention to use MBAs.
Perceived ease of use can be defined as the use of MBAs that is free of effort (Lule et al.,
2012). It can be described as very easy, convenient and it does not require much effort. Since
the MBAs are easy to use, it will increase the customers’ satisfaction while doing the banking
transactions instead of waiting in line at the banks’ counters. Safeena et al. (2011) stated that
perceived ease of use has positive significant influence on the intention to use mobile banking.
The consumers can determine the best services while using it, which will offer advantages and
comfort. The consumers can also access the system to do the banking transactions at any time.
This will save much of their time particularly during working hours and avoid going to the
bank personally. Chung and Kwon (2009) found that the perceived ease of use was positively
and significantly related to the behavioral intention to use mobile banking. Meanwhile,
Perceived usefulness is defined as the degree to which a person believes that using a particular
system would improve the performance of his or her job. Productivity is strongly associated
with perceived usefulness. This implies that using technology at workplace can increase the
productivity of employees, boost job performance, and maximize job efficiency and usefulness.
Pham and Ho (2015) and Munoz-Leiva et al. (2016) revealed that perceived usefulness has a
positive significant impact on consumers’ intention to use MBAs, whereas Li et al. (2014)
found that perceived usefulness is not a significant determinant.
3. Methodology
This study involves 150 Muslim senior citizens (MSCs) in Selangor particularly in the areas of
Kuala Selangor, Sabak Bernam, Rawang and Shah Alam. The primary data was collected via a
questionnaire with 5-point Likert scale ranges from “Strongly disagree” (1) to “Strongly agree”
(5). The self-administered questionnaire comprises three segments, namely demographic
information, dependent variable and independent variables. The dependent variable is the
intention of MSCs to use MBAs whilst the four determinants or independent variables consist
of perceived credibility, perceived risk, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. The
data collection process was conducted from the 2nd October to 1st November 2019. There are
four hypothesis statements developed for this study, which are as follows:
H1: There is positive significant relationship between perceived credibility and the intention to
use MBAs among MSCs in Selangor.
H2: There is negative significant relationship between perceived risk and the intention to use
MBAs among MSCs in Selangor.
H3: There is positive significant relationship between perceived ease of use and the intention to
use MBAs among MSCs in Selangor.
H4: There is positive significant relationship between perceived usefulness and the intention to
use MBAs among MSCs in Selangor.
We have used several tests to analyse the data. Descriptive analysis is the first analysis that
looks at the statistical data such as the mean, median, standard deviation, kurtosis and
skewness. Next, we conducted the reliability test to evaluate the level of consistency of the
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variables by looking at the Cronbach's alpha, which is the most commonly agreed estimation of
the performance of a multi-item scale to determine the structure quality. We also performed the
Pearson’s correlation test to see any positive or negative association between the dependent and
independent variables. In addition, from the correlation test, we could see if there is any multi-
collinearity issue among the independent variables.
Further, we conducted the multiple regression tests to examine the significant or insignificant
relationships between and positive or negative impacts of the independent variables on the
dependent variable. Such relationships and impacts could be demonstrated by a model of
regression, which is as follows:
ITU = α + β1PC + β2PR + β3PEU + β4PU + e
Where; Constant
α:
ITU: Intention to use MBAs
PC: Perceived credibility
PR: Perceived risk
PEU: Perceived ease of use
PU: Perceived usefulness
β1… β4: Beta coefficients for PC, PR, PEU, and PU
e: Error term
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Demographic Analysis
The total number of respondents is 150, where 102 are males (68%) and 48 are females (32%).
Out of the total respondents, 96 respondents (64%) aged between 60 to 65 years old, 43 of
them (29%) aged between 66 to 70 years old whilst only 11 respondents (7%) aged above 70.
The results further show that 76.70% (115 respondents) have used MBAs whilst the remaining
of them 23.30% or 35 respondents have not or never used MBAs.
4.2 Descriptive Analysis
Table 1: Summary of Descriptive Statistics
Variable N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
ITU 150 2 5 4.0830 0.7268
PC 150 1 5 3.9180 0.8472
PR 150 1 5 3.4333 0.8779
PEU 150 2 5 4.0133 0.6380
PU 150 2 5 4.1422 0.6400
Table 1 shows the summary of important descriptive statistics of the dependent and
independent variables. In term of central tendency, the dependent variable has indicated a mean
score above 4.0. Perceived usefulness has the highest mean of 4.1422 among all the
independent variables followed by perceived ease of use with the mean score of 4.0133.
Perceived risk has recorded the lowest mean with the score of 3.4333. Next, in term of data
spread or dispersion, which is measured by the standard deviation (SD), we found that all the
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variables have recorded an SD of less than 1.0, where perceived risk indicates the largest
dispersion at 0.8779 whilst the lowest SD was recorded by perceived ease of use at 0.6380.
Overall, we could say that all the data series are less dispersed from its mean, respectively.
4.3 Reliability Analysis
Variables Table 2: Results of Reliability Test N of Item
ITU Cronbach’s Alpha (α) 2
PC 0.844 4
PR 0.922 3
PEU 0.841 3
PU 0.685 3
0.795
Table 2 summarizes the results of reliability test for each variable. Perceived credibility shows
the highest Cronbach’s alpha (α) with 0.922 among all the variables. This means that the
variable has an ‘excellent’ internal consistency, where it implies that the respondents agree that
the MBAs have perceived credibility to be used. In other words, they believe that MBAs are
safe to be used and their information will be well kept. Next, perceived risk records the second
highest α with 0.841, which indicate a ‘good’ internal consistency. We could say that the
respondents believe and agree that when they use the MBAs, they will surely face some risks in
perfoming the transactions. Meanwhile, α for perceived usefulness of 0.795 indicates that the
internal consistency for this variable is ‘acceptable’. We could assume that some of the
respondents use the MBAs quite frequently or seriously in their daily life due to its usefulness,
whereas some of them might be using it if and when only necessary. Lastly, perceived ease of
use has the lowest α with 0.685, which is ‘questionable’ internal consistency. This means that
most of the respondents find the MBAs are new to them and it is not easy to be used or they are
still learning in using it. This also indicates that the respondents have lack of knowledge on
how to use the MBAs. The dependent variable, namely the intention to use MBAs has α of
0.844, which is ‘good’ and this means that the respondents have intention to use MBAs to
perform their daily financial transactions.
4.4 Correlation Analysis
Table 3: Results of Pearson’s Correlation Test
PC PR PEU PU ITU
PC Pearson Correlation 1 -.074 .570** .506** .641**
Sig. (2-tailed) .369 .000 .000 .000
PR Pearson Correlation -.074 1 .059 .020 -.060
.474 .811 .462
Sig. (2-tailed) .369
PEU Pearson Correlation .570** .059 1 .611** .572**
.474
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
PU Pearson Correlation .506** .020 .611** 1 .737**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .811 .000 .000
ITU Pearson Correlation .641** -.060 .572** .737** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .462 .000 .000
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**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Table 3 shows the results of Pearson’s correlation test. We found that perceived usefulness has
a strong correlation with intention to use, where the correlation coefficient (r) is 0.737. Both
ITU and PU are noted to be positively correlated. This means both variables move in the same
directions either positively or negatively. The higher perceived usefulness of the MBAs the
higher intention to use it or vice versa. Perceived credibility and perceived ease of use are
found to be moderately and positively correlated with the intention to use the MBAs. The r
values for both variables are 0.641 and 0.572, respectively. This implies that the higher
perceived credibility and perceived ease of use of the MBAs the higher intention to use it or
vice versa. Meanwhile, perceived risk is found to be negatively correlated with intention to use
and the correlation is very weak between both variables at -0.060. Further, based on the p-
values, we could conclude that the three determinants, namely PC, PEU and PU are significant
in determining the intention to use MBAs among the MSCs in Selangor, whereas PR is not a
significant determinant.
4.5 Multiple Regression Analysis
Table 4: Results of Multiple Regression
Variables Beta SE T-stats. Sig.
Constant 0.3250 0.2920 1.1120 0.2680
PC 0.2860 0.0540 5.3240 0.0000*
PR -0.0410 0.0410 -0.9920 0.3230
PEU 0.0660 0.0780 0.8530 0.3950
PU 0.6060 0.0730 8.2650 0.0000*
In Table 4, based on the p-values, the results indicate that perceived credibility and perceived
usefulness have significant relationships with the intention to use the MBAs. In other words,
both PC and PU are significant determinants to the intention to use the MBAs among the MSCs
in Selangor. Whereas, both perceived risk and perceived ease of use are found to have
insignificant relationships with the intention to use or both independent variables are not
significant determinants to the ITU. Further, when we look at the beta coefficients, we could
conclude that the PC, PEU and PU have positive impacts on the ITU, whereas the PR poses
negative impact on the ITU. PU has the largest impact on the ITU with the beta coefficient of
0.6060 and followed by the PC with the beta coefficient of 0.2860. Meanwhile, both PEU and
PR have very minimal impacts on the ITU with the beta coefficients of 0.0660 and 0.0410,
respectively. The multiple regression model based on the results of study is as below:
ITU = 0.325 + 0.286PC – 0.041PR + 0.066PEU + 0.606PU + e
5. Conclusion
This study focuses on the intention of use of MBAs among the MSCs in Kuala Selangor, Sabak
Bernam, Rawang and Shah Alam, Selangor. The four determinants or independent variables
are tested to see their relationships and impacts on the intention to use the MBAs. The
reliability test reveals that all the variables have the Cronbach’s alpha (α) above 0.6, which is
considered as acceptable and above. Further, the Pearson’s correlation test shows that
perceived credibility, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have positive correlations
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with the intention to use MBAs, whereas perceived risk shows negative correlation with the
intention to use MBAs. These findings are consistent with the hypothses set on the part of the
Methodolgy of Study. The findings are further supported by the multiple regression results,
where it reveals the similar results for the three independent variables (PC, PEU and PU) with
positive beta coefficients that imply positive impacts on the intention to use the MBAs among
the MSCs. Nevertheless, the multiple regression test shows that only two independent variables
or determinants (PC and PU) have significant relationships with the intention to use whilst the
other two (PR and PEU) are not significant. These findings are consistent with Daud et al.
(2011), (Yu, 2012), Pham and Ho (2015) and Munoz- Leiva et al., (2016). From these findings,
we can conclude that MSCs in Selangor put utmost concerns on the security and privacy issues
and the usefulness or advantages of the MBAs when they intend to use it. Despite the
insignificance of the perceived risk and perceived ease of use, the BFIs and mobile service
providers still need to ensure these two factors are not taken for granted and should be given
appropriate attention and improvement from time to time as added values in the delivery of the
services in the future. This study also notes that the lack of intention to use MBAs among the
MSCs is because of lack of their knowledge and exposure to use the applications. Hence, the
BFIs are urged to conduct sufficient campaigns, briefing sessions with the customers and
knowledge dissemination so that they are more aware and convinced to use the MBAs. Further
researches could be extended to other levels of citizens involving other areas or states or
ethnicities by using other types of tests. This will benefit the BFIs and mobile service providers
to understand and fulfil the needs and demands of the consumers.
.
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Frambach, R. T., Barkema, H. G., Nooteboom, B., & Wedel, M. (1998). Adoption of A Service
Innovation in the Business Market: An Empirical Test of Supply-Side Variables.
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Li, H., Liu, Y., & Heikkilä, J. (2014). Understanding the Factors Driving NFC-enabled Mobile
Payment Adoption: An Empirical Investigation. PACIS 2014 Proceedings, 231.
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Baby Boomers. African Journal of Business Management, 5(5), 1711-1717.
Loo, M. (2010). Attitudes and Perceptions towards Islamic Banking among Muslims and Non-
Muslims in Malaysia: Implications for Marketing to Baby Boomers and X-
Generation. International Journal of Arts and Sciences, 3(13), 453-485.
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Lule, I., Omwansa, T. K., & Waema, T. M. (2012). Application of Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM) in M-Banking Adoption in Kenya. International Journal of Computing
and ICT Research, 6(1), 31-43.
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Actual Usage of Mobile Phone Banking in the Shari’ah Banks: A Survey in
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7(1).
Munoz-Leiva, F., Climent-Climent, S., & Liébana-Cabanillas, F. (2016). Determinants of
Intention to Use the Mobile Banking Apps: An Extension of the Classic TAM
Model. Spanish Journal of Marketing ESIC, 21, 25-38.
Pham, T. T., & Ho, J. C. (2015). The Effects of Product-related, Personal-related Factors and
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Payments. Technology in Society, 43, 159-172.
Safeena, R., Hundewale, N., & Kamani, A. (2011). Customer’s Adoption of Mobile-
Commerce: A Study on Emerging Economy. International Journal of e-Education, e-
Business, e-Management and e-Learning, 1(3), 228-233.
Safeena, R., Date, H., Kammani, A., & Hundewale, N. (2012). Technology Adoption and
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ELEMENTS IN MOVIE TRAILERS THAT MOTIVATES
AUDIENCE TO WATCH MOVIES IN MALAYSIA : A
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
Mohd Syuhaidi Abu Bakar1*, Jusang Bolong2, Rosmiza Bidin3, Nur Syuhaidah Ayub4,
Siti Nor Fazira Jono5, Mohamad Syafiq Bin Mat Shuki6
1,4,5,6 Faculty of Film, Theatre and Animation, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
2,3 Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
Abstract: Movie trailers are known as tools for selling a movie. The success of a movie is
largely attributed to a good trailer presentation. What makes a good movie trailer? What
elements are needed to make a good trailer? This paper uncovers the necessary elements of a
movie trailer needed to motivate audiences to watch a movie in Malaysia. This quantitative
study constructed a survey of elements of movie trailers found in the literature. Google Form
was distributed to 250 respondents, purposively selected for this stud and data were analyzed
using descriptive analysis. The data collected in this study found 7 elements in trailers that
have influenced audiences to watch movies in Malaysia, which are – Color, Storylines, scene
sequence, three-act structure, director or the production company, cast (actors and actresses);
and cinematography. The data obtained can help filmmakers and film marketers in Malaysia to
see what element movie trailers can be utilized to help increase their movie sales.
Keywords: Movie Trailers, Movie, Malaysia, Quantitative
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Movie trailers nowadays are easily accessible via smartphones, laptops, and can be watched on
television (Timani, Shah and Joshi, 2019; Tolson, 2010). Tolson (2010) has covered the sub to
the movie trailers, which is the trailer teaser. According to Tolson, scientists have failed to
identify the existence of new sub-genres in the contemporary trailer and teaser trailers. Tolson
also touched on the issue of how traditional trailers give too much exposure to the storyline,
leading audiences to lose their interest to watch the said trailer. Although Tolson's research
touches on trailer teasers, there are many points in his research on movie trailers. The trailer is
supposed to create a sense of curiosity, capable to induce audiences to ask out loud ‘what?'
immediately after watching it and directly influence the audiences to go see the full-length
movies in cinemas. Movie trailers are also a tool for movie marketing (Singh and Goyal, 2019).
With simply a good movie trailer, audiences will then have the desire to watch and look
forward to the premiering date of the movie (Moghaddam, Elahi, Hosseini, Trattner and
Tkalčič, 2019). Christoforou, Papadopoulos, Constantinidou and Theodorou (2017) stated that
movie trailer viewing can affect the audience, especially in terms of their memory and can
further stimulate the audience’s brain curiosity about the movie. Therefore, this research has
taken the initiative to identify what elements of a movie trailer are needed from the audience’s
point of view. What is the most influential element to motivate a Malaysian audience to go
watch a movie and what elements do the audiences want in a movie trailer? This paper has
identified the necessary elements of movie trailers that can motivate audiences to watch movies
in Malaysia using a quantitative approach.
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2. Literature Review
According to Yaganisawa, Iida and Amasaka (2014), movie trailers were created based on the
concept of the movie, but the process is subjective as it depends on the producer who produced
it. They have studied the Japanese film industry where young adult film audiences are
classified as those in their early 20s to early 30s. Therefore, to understand what movie trailers
need to motivate its audiences, Yaganisawa et al., (2017) conducted a series of interviews.
They have also conducted a quantitative data collection to narrow down the trailer's focus on
specific areas of study. They decided to focus on action-packed movie trailers and young
audiences as they are the biggest market contributor for movies and due to a significant decline
in movie goers compared to 10 years ago.
The goal is to determine what kind of scenes are capable to bring out the biggest reaction from
the audience. The researcher has found that the lighting changes in the video (light / color), the
soundtrack changes, and the sound effects are among the elements that influence the emotions
of the audience after they make their comparison between the trailers. The research from
Yaganisawa et al., (2017) has also created a time-series model to see what enhances audiences'
curiosity based on experiments using electrodermal response. From there, they found that a 2-
minute movie trailer was able to influence the audiences’ feelings and enhance their curiosity
towards the movie by showing trailers with fast motion scenes, which can successfully create
an impact to the audiences from the beginning to the end of the trailer. The trailers also feature
scenes that illustrate the development of the movie storyline. This is a very important aspect to
emphasize that it is an essential element to have in a movie trailer.
They have also observed the movie trailer content where the author has identified the element
that audiences pay attention to while performing Automated Optical Inspection (AOI) analysis
by looking at the trailer. After doing so, they found that there were three major elements,
namely, the character and the item elements, the text and subtitle elements and the
background/others. The most important element according to the audience is the characters and
the items. The conclusion of their study was that by using scientific statistics, they were able to
identify the elements of the characters and items, to create a movie trailer that had a scene
composition model and to create a movie trailer that could increase audiences' curiosity. By
comparing existing trailers and new trailers, they have been able to prove that their models are
able to evaluate elements that can help movie makers, thus achieving what they want.
Yaganisawa et al., (2017) also intend to use their model for the Japanese film industry and
therefore make a contribution in motivating and attracting audiences to watch movies at the
cinema.
A study from Finsterwalder, Kuppelwieser and Villiers (2012) studied the effect of movie
trailers on shaping consumer’s expectations in the entertainment industry. Their paper
discusses consumer expectations in terms of film content and its quality. They have used
qualitative research methods and used movie trailers produced in New Zealand. Based on the
interviews that Finsterwalder et al., (2012) conducted, it showed that the participants had a
good knowledge of the cast, so the cast previous works proved to be very important. But they
do not have a good knowledge of the director and writer. At the same time, assessing their
response to the trailer was a major concern as well. Apart from the actors, in this study, it has
also been found that the genre also plays a part in a trailer’s success. After viewing the trailer
the audience will have a chance to predict the genre featured in the trailer. But if the audiences
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were to watch something that is different from what they see in the trailer, most audiences will
end up disappointed.
Dialogue is also one of the factors that the viewers claimed as one of the contributing factors
that can affect the quality of a movie. The participants of Finsterwalder et al., (2012) study
agreed that apart from genres, the dialogue plays a very important role in giving them an
impression on the quality of the movie that they are going to watch. If too much dialogue is
revealed, then the storyline of the movie can be guessed easily and this is something to avoid.
Dialogue should be included moderately according to their research. The trailer should,
therefore, control its element of style, namely plot, dialogue, and how much storytelling it plans
to reveal. In addition, music is also an important element of the genre, as well as the people
involved in the film; namely the director and the actor. There are two things that are
illuminated or discovered as the key to the success of a movie trailer, which is the genre, as
well as the cast and the director. With only twelve informants whose profession was students
made their findings rather limited and did not represent the audience as a whole. Thus, it is
evident from the study of Finsterwalder et al., (2012) that the necessary elements of the movie
trailer are the genre and the cast and director. Johnston, Vollons and Greene (2016) studied the
diverse audience perspectives and their responses to trailers. Their research aims to develop the
relations in the movie trailer audiences’ conception with activities based on the trailers that
they had seen and to understand the relationship between these two things. They also pay
attention to the audience's memories after they had seen the trailer. Some of the most
memorable elements according to them are the cast, storyline, visual element, soundtrack,
music, songs, dialogue, voiceover, comedy, action and more.
Johnston, Vollons and Greene (2016) included aspects of emotions, cultural values and
expectations to understand the movie trailer audiences’ response. It’s obvious that the trailer
has informative value, and the trailer audiences also have some knowledge of the movie and so
on. Although the respondents were dissatisfied with the trailer, there were many emotional and
affective responses from them that relied on personal relationships; depending on the trailer’s
content and plot. The study have also opened the site to understand the trailer audiences,
although their answers are in the form of text, but they have answered many of the questions in
this study. The elements of the movie trailer in this study serve as something that the audience
will remember and thus leading to the ability to sell the movie that preceded the trailers
Therefore, their study is similar to the earlier study. Some of the similarities are the importance
of actors, storylines and so on. Although their approach to their respective research is different,
the context is still similar in how they approached the trailer audience to discover what their
reaction to the movie trailer.
Lopera (2014) has also studied movie trailers. Young people are the biggest audience in the
industry, according to his research. Lopera studies have discovered why people ended up
watching the movies after watching its trailers. Two of the reasons stated are that the movie
trailer affects the audience and the cinematic value of the movie trailer itself. His research
found that the key elements of the movie trailer are the storytelling, music and cinematic value
that the movie trailer contained. With these elements, movie trailers can motivate audiences
and are the reason why audiences go to the movies. Meanwhile, Suliza (2019) has studied the
musical element in movie trailers. Music, she said, is one of the most effective elements in
motivating audiences. Music is something that is used to distract and entice audiences to keep
watching the trailer until it's gone. Consistent music sound in the movie trailer were vital.
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Examples of sound effects such as incident sounds, or punctuation sounds are the same music
that is often used in movie trailers.
By making use of music in the movie trailer can often help audiences capture the situation in
the movie trailer. Every sound used in the comedy, horror, romantic genre is different.
Audiences can identify a genre by simply listening to the sounds played in the trailer. As a
result of Suliza's study, trailer ratings have a strong relationship with the reason they watch the
trailer. Music plays a role in positively impacting the trailer of the movie trailer. In the end, her
research found that music can influence audiences for movie trailers. Her research found that
conservative music has a much better effect than the music used in everyday life. From this
study it can be seen that music is an important element that should be utilized in the production
of movie trailers. Suitably placed music can influence the audience to watch movies on stage.
A study from Barnett, White and Cerf (2016) also discussed element movie trailers that could
increase ticket sales. By using humans as the subject of the study, the authors presented a trailer
to their subjects and used electroencephalography (EEG) tools to view the subject's brain
waves. After collecting data, their research looked at various elements of movie trailers that
encouraged audiences to buy tickets. According to their research, the film industry should have
kept minimalism in their movie trailers. Because the participants is not impressed with the
movie trailer that is too complex and headaches. They said the less exposure they had in
watching the trailer the greater the impact it will have on the audiences.
The final data of their study stated that movie trailers are full of stimulation and among the
factors of the audience are the trailer's familiarity with the trailer, music, cinematic way of
entering, story comprehension, narrative sequences, stimulus dynamics, cast popularity,
harmony elements, and artistic values. By retaining all of the elements, but showing the
combination of each of these elements could ensure that the movie trailer has a greater chance
of motivating audiences to buy movie tickets. These Barnett, White and Cerf studies are similar
to the literature studies at the beginning of this paper. The movie trailer has its element of
captivating audiences to see the story. Tolson (2010) also states that three-act structure is
something that is often overlooked in traditional movie trailers compared to modern.
3. Methodology
This study uses a quantitative research design. An online survey of 20 questions using
Google Docs was purposively done to 250 Malaysian who have watched movies, lived in
Malaysia and watched a selection of movie trailers chosen by the researchers. A total of 250
respondents answered the questionnaire provided by the researchers. Items in the questionnaire
were adopted from literatures (Christoforou, Papadopoulos, Constantinidou, and Theodorou,
2017; Yanagisawa, Iida, and Amasaka, 2014). An online survey is the easiest and fastest
instrument for collecting data. DeFranzo and Zetina (2012) said, an online survey is a low cost
research instrument, has no limits on demographic linkages and so on, were easy to use and
reliable. de la Fuente Valentín, Pardo and Kloos (2009)said Google Form is a great way to
collect data, especially for users who want to collect data online. All web browsers can open
Google Forms and make it easy for researchers. All data collected can be viewed using Excel
or spreadsheets with each question in a column and the answers can be viewed easily and
easily. The research instrument in this study comprises of 2 sections, namely demographics and
elements in a movie trailer that motivates them to watch movies. Sec 2 used 5 point Likert
Scale ranging from 1 = “Strongly Disagree” to 5 = “Strongly Agree”. Data from 250
respondents were analysed using descriptive statistics.
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4. Result
The demographic characteristics of respondents indicated that 117 respondents (46.8%) are
male, and 133 respondents (50%) of female. A large majority of respondents were 19 years-25
years old (51.6%). A number of 204 respondents (81.6%) are Malay, 8.4% of them are
Chinese, and the rest were Indians. A number 42 respondents (16.8%) were from the public
sector workforce, 69 respondents (27.6%) were from the private sector and 121 respondents
(48.4%) were students in higher learning institutions. This study found that 7 elements in
movie trailers have influenced audiences to watch movies in Malaysia which are are colours,
storyline, scene sequence, three-act structure (introduction, rising action, climax and falling
action), director or production house, camera angle or cuts, actors, character displays,
cinematic element, sound effect, sound track, dialogue, genres, action scene and; climax scene.
A total of 44% (111) respondents agreed that the color selection was important in the movie
trailer, and were supported by 57 respondents who strongly agreed with the color element in
motivating audiences. However, 11 respondents strongly disagreed, and 17 respondents also
disagreed that color elements play an important role in the movie trailer. Motivating colors
such as bright and vibrant colors, such as cartoon movie trailers play an important role in
motivating audiences.
A number of 51% (129) respondents agreed that the storyline in movie trailers motivates them
to watch the movie in cinema. 95 respondents also strongly agreed that a storyline is a very
important element in the trailer of a movie. This is because, the storyline and plot of the story
are compelling to the viewer and the audience can also understand the storytelling displayed.
This suggests that they are more likely to go to the movies after watching an understandable
trailer. A total of 30% (74) respondents agreed that scene sequence also play an important role
in a movie trailer. It is also one of the techniques for motivating audiences to watch. The
existence of a three-act structure (introduction, rising action, climax and falling action) in
movie trailers will also motivates respondents to watch the movie in cinema. It was found that
65% (162) respondents agreed that a three-act structure must be featured in a movie trailer.
Respondents in this study also claims that the director or the production company was also as a
topic of interests that should be in a movie trailer. A number of 152 respondents (60%) agrees
that they will be keen to watch a movie if the trailer display informations about the director or
the production company.
A total of 198 respondents (79%) claims the cast (actors and actresses) was an important
element in a movie trailer. Based on the data obtained from the respondents, it is clear that
actors and actresses shown in the movie trailer is an important component in motivating
audiences to watch the movie. A number of 210 respondents (84%) also agrees that
cinematography plays a significant role in motivating audiences to watch a particular movie.
5. Conclusion
Filmmakers have used various methods of segmenting audiences to designate target audiences.
Demographics, psychographics, behaviour, attitudes, needs and benefits received have been
used alone or in combination as a method of segmentation. Now, filmmakers can consider
these 7 elements in movie trailers that has been proven to influence audiences to watch movies
in Malaysia. The data collected in this study– Color, Storylines, scene sequence, three-act
structure, director or the production company, cast (actors and actresses); and cinematography
have influenced audiences to watch movies. The results show that moviegoers in Malaysia has
different expectations and needs that needs to be fulfilled by filmmakers in this country. We
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would like to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia for their support. This
paper was funded by Geran Inisiatif Penyelidikan - RMI File No: 600-IRMI 5/3/GIP
(011/2019)5/3 (056/2017) awarded by Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM).
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KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND INTELLECTUAL
CAPITAL STRATEGIES IN HIGHER LEARNING
INSTITUTION
Kalsom Salleh1*, Dewi Izzwi Abdul Manan2
1,2 Faculty of Business, Accountancy and Social Science, Kolej University Poly-Tech MARA, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
Abstract: Both knowledge management (KM) and intellectual capital (IC) have been
recognised as significant resources, when properly managed should enhance competitiveness,
sustainability and performance of the knowledge based organisation. KM is about the process
of the ‘flow of knowledge’ from individual learning to organisational learning. IC is a
representation of the stocks of intangible assets comprising of human, organisational and
relational capital or resources. As such, KM is seen as the process of managing IC or
knowledge based intangible assets. Since greater emphasis is placed on intangible assets, thus,
resources such as knowledge and intellectual capital need to be properly monitored, managed
and developed to enhance performance. Thus, this empirical research is therefore aimed to
address the lacking of studies in examing both KM and IC strategies to improve knowledge
performance and innovation in the Higher Learning Institution (HLI). The main objective of
this paper is to explore and to determine the significant influence of KM and IC strategies on
the organisational performance of HLI for its knowledge performance and innovation. A
questionnaire survey was used as the main instrument to collect data from the academicians in
the selected higher learning institution. The empirical findings from this research can provide
advancement in the literature on the proposed conceptual model of both KM and IC strategies
on the organisational performance of Higher Learning Institution. Through Factor Analysis
and Multiple Regression Analysis, the statistical result of regression model does provide the
positive and significant support for this conceptual model of KM and IC strategies in the
Higher Learning Institution.
Keywords: Knowledge Management, Intellectual Capital, Organisational Performance, Higher
Learning Institution, Malaysia
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
1. Introduction
Both knowledge management (KM) and intellectual capital (IC) have been recognized as
significant resources, when properly managed should enhance competitiveness, sustainability
and performance of the organization. In a knowledge based economy, the integrative
management of knowledge and intellectual capital can help to improve organizational
performance and future value creation. IC comprises the human, structural, innovation and
relational capital/resources that can be put to use to create value creation or wealth in the
organizational performance. KM which is about the process of the ‘flow of knowledge’ from
individual learning to organizational learning through KM processes to enhance organizational
performance. As greater emphasis is placed on intangibles, resources such as knowledge and
IC need to be properly monitored, managed and developed to enhance organizational
performance and its future value creation. Therefore, the main purpose of this research paper is
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to propose the conceptual model of KM and IC in the selected private Higher Learning
Institution (HLI) to ensure future continuous improvement and value creation for its
knowledge performance and innovation.
A number of studies concerning KM and IC (Salleh, 2008; Huang, Tayles & Luther, 2010;
Salleh, Syed Ahmad & Syed Ikhsan, 2011; Salleh, 2013) have been conducted in Malaysia.
However, these studies had focused only either on KM or IC. There is lack of studies
examining both the concept of KM and IC together especially in the research context of higher
learning institutions. Therefore, this research paper attempts to address the lacking of studies in
examining both IC and KM strategies to improve the knowledge performance and innovation
in the selected higher learning institution.
Thus, the main purpose of this paper is to explore the integrative concept of KM and IC on the
organizational performance of the selected private higher learning institution in Malaysia. The
specific objective of this paper is to determine the significant influence of both KM and IC
strategies on the selected higher learning institution’s organizational performance for its
knowledge performance and innovation.
The contribution of this paper through the perceived data obtained from survey questionnaires
may provide knowledge advancement on the literature review of both KM and IC concept and
their strategic influence on organizational performance.
2. Literature Review
IC is defined by Steward (1999) is “the sum of everything in a company knows that gives it a
competitive advantage i.e. intellectual material – information, knowledge, experience,
intellectual property that can be used to create wealth”. In other words, IC deals with the
valuation of the knowledge in a corporation that is fundamentally different than the creation
and use of knowledge which is the focus of KM. KM evolves towards the creation of the
company’s IC. IC includes knowledge, skills, experiences and abilities of the employees, its
research and development (R & D) activities, organizational routines, procedures, systems,
databases and its intellectual property rights as well as all the resources linked to external
relationships such as customers, suppliers and R & D partners. The most commonly accepted
components of IC are human capital, organizational or structural capital, innovation capital and
customer or relational capital. Human capital is referred to as the employee capability,
employee development and retention and employee behavior. Structural capital is the
embodiment, empowerment and supportive structure of human capital. Innovation capital is the
development and innovation of new ideas and products/services. Relational capital is
concerning the relationships of the business organization with its customers, suppliers and
others (Huang, Luther & Tayles, 2007; Huang, Tayles & Luther, 2010; Kamaluddin & Abdul
Rahman, 2013).
In this study KM is defined as the process of managing, leveraging and articulating knowledge,
skills and expertise of employees to gain the value of knowledge and KM investment through
knowledge transfer and sharing process with the support of information technology (Salleh,
2008; Salleh, 2013; Salleh et al., & Chong et al., 2011). KM Process is about ensuring that
what is learned by individuals within the organization is shared and utilized and to prevent
knowledge from being lost because of individuals retiring or leaving the organization (Edwards
et al., 2005). KM Enablers include organizational mechanisms such as leadership, technology,
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organizational structure and culture to stimulate knowledge processes (Stonehouse and
Pemberton, 1999; Van Buren, 1999).
Both KM through its value creating KM Enablers and IC components are strategic and tactical
resources to bring about synergy potential in the value creation of organizational capabilities
(Salleh, 2008).
Integrating both KM and IC was initiated by Wiig (1997a). This integration concept was later
followed up by Van buren (1999). Both of these authors state that there is a need to manage
intangible assets actively in order to optimise the performance of organizations. The stocks of
these intangible assets comprising of human capital, structural capital, innovation capital and
relational capital are related and they grow as exchanges of knowledge take place amongst
individuals/employees in the organization. Hence, it is proposed that in KM implementation,
knowledge strategy should focus on the building of these intangible assets’ capabilities and
relationships between individuals in the organization. The growth of these intangibles in turn
shall determine the economic performance of the organization. In short, IC is a representation
of the stocks of intangible assets whilst “knowledge flow” in KM referred to as the electric
current that runs between the stocks of intangible assets which cause the organic growth to IC
i.e. human, structural, innovation and customer capital (Wiig, 1997a and Wiig, 1997b). As
such, KM is seen as the process of managing IC or knowledge based intangible assets.
The following conceptual model in Figure 1 is proposed for the hypothesis development and
testing the conceptual relationship between KM and IC strategies in terms of the impacts of
the three (3) components of KM and four (4) components of IC on the organizational
performance of the selected private HLI in Malaysia.
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4. Method
4.1 Questionnaire Design
A questionnaire was designed for this empirical study. Besides demographic data, a seven-
point scale from 1 to 7 was used for all questions concerning respondents’ perceptions on the
three components of KM (36 items), four components of IC (30 items) and the organizational
performance in terms of the knowledge performance and innovation (7 items). The Likert-point
scale used ranges from 1 to 3 for the degree of “no importance”, 4 is for “not sure” and from 5
to 7 for the degree of “crucial importance”.
The multiple question items in the questionnaire were adapted from the studies on KM
Enablers, KM Process and Organizational Performance (Salleh, 2008; and Salleh et al., 2012)
and IC and KM strategies on Performance (Salleh, 2014a). The three (3) components of KM
adopted and incorporated in the questionnaire are learning (13 question items), leadership (14
question items) and technology (9 question items). The four (4) components of IC were
adopted and incorporated in the questionnaire including human capital (10 question items),
structural capital (4 question items), relational capital (12 question items) and innovation
capital (4 question items) which were developed by Huang, Luther & Tayles, 2007 and
supported by Salleh, 2014a; Hussinki, Ritala, Vanhala & Kianto, 2017.
The organizational performance measures (Salleh 2014a & 2014b) consist of knowledge
performance (4 items) and innovations (3 items) are quantifiable in terms of improving the
percentage of skilled workers/expertise, the individual’s learning new skills, greater levels of
innovation for the improved processes and increasing number of research products and
patents.
4.2 Data Collection
4.2.1 Survey Questionnaires and Respondents’ Profile
In this study, a survey questionnaire was used as the main instrument to collect data from all
academicians employed by the selected private HLI in Malaysia. This selected private HLI was
established in October 2015 and offers high quality home - grown degree programmes in the
area of human resources, communication, accountancy, information security, english and post
graduate programmes in business administration and information technology. With this
progress, this selected private college university has also produced more graduates from its
professional programmes conducted for CAT & ACCA and ICSA qualification.
With its mission to nurture professionalism and entrepreneurship through innovative education,
this full university college status of private HLI is ever ready to produce more quality and
professional graduates who are able to function resiliently and effectively at the global stage.
Questionnaires were posted to total of 200 academicians and only 101 questionnaires were
received and usable for data analysis purposes. The social science software (SPSS version 23)
is used to test the positive and significant relationship between components of KM, IC and the
organizational performance.
The demographic questions for this study consist of the gender of the respondents and the
levels of academic qualification. As for the gender of the respondents, about 77% of the
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respondents are females (n= 78), 20% of the respondents are males (n= 20) and 3% of missing
data.
Table 1 reveals the academic qualification of the respondents. The majority (69%) of the
respondents holds a Master degree and 13% have a Doctoral degree. Most of the respondents
(82%) are highly educated and thus, their responses are useful and relevant to the study.
Table 1: Academic Qualification of Respondents
Current Position Number Percentage (%)
Doctorate Degree (PhD) 13 13
Master Degree 70 69
Professional 22
Degree 55
Unknown 11 11
Total 101 100
4.2.2 Validity and Reliability
The Cronbach's Alpha is computed to verify the reliability of the data collected and the study
variables of this empirical research. According to Sekaran (2000), the closer the Cronbach's
Alpha to 1, the higher the internal consistency reliability. The Cronbach′s Alpha coefficient for
each research variable of this study is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Coefficient of Cronbach′s Alpha
Variables Number of Items Cronbach’s
Alpha Coefficients
Knowledge Management Enablers (KME) 36
Intellectual Capital Components (ICC) 30 0.984
Organizational Performance 7 0.983
0.967
5. Results and Discussion
The following statistical analysis such as factor analysis and multiple regression analysis
(Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001) are used to extract the valid factors and to investigate the
relationships between KM components on learning, leadership and technology (3 independent
variables) and IC components on human capital, structural capital, innovation capital and
relational capital (4 independent variables) and the organizational performance of the selected
private HLI in terms of knowledge performance and innovation (2 dependent variables).
Factor Analysis was used to confirm that the relevant components of KM and IC and
Organizational Performance are in conformity to the literature review and are valid for this
study of a selected private HLI in Malaysia. This is due to the fact that factor analysis for this
study has combined or grouped the four (4) components of KM enablers which are i.e. a) ICT
knowhow and skills, b) teamwork & empowerment c) leadership and d) KM Technology. In
addition, the factor analysis has also combined or grouped IC components into three (3)
components only which are i.e. a) human capital, b) structural capital and c) relational capital.
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The factor analysis has combined or grouped organizational performance measures into one
(1) component only. Table 3 shows the summary of factor analysis results and identified
factors to justify the study variables developed in this study were found reliable for
hypotheses testing using the standard multiple regression analysis.
Results and Findings
Table 3: Summary of Factor Analysis Results for KM and IC Strategies in the Selected Private HLI
Factors Items Factor Loadings Eigenvalue (%)
KM Strategies KMO = 0.927, Sig. = 0.000, Eigenvalue= 79.213%
Leadership
KM Technology 11 0.572 – 0.840 64.656
ICT Knowhow & Skills
Teamwork & Empowerment 5 0.517 – 0.956 6.009
4 0.614 – 0.884 4.968
5 0.520 – 0.851 3.581
IC Strategies KMO = 0.901, Sig. = 0.000, Eigenvalue= 77.763%
Human Capital 8 0.512 -0.760 28.479
Structural Capital 4 0.521 – 0.765 26.423
Relational Capital 9 0.515 – 0.854 22.861
Organization Performance KMO = 0.880, Sig. = 0.000, Eigenvalue= 83.648%
Knowledge Performance and Innovation 7 0.847 - 0.935 83.648
Multiple Regression Analysis was used for finding the relationship model between the
integrative concept of KM and IC strategies on the organizational performance. This
statistcial technique also helps to identify the significant predictors between the three (3)
components of KM enablers and the three (3) components of IC that could contribute to the
knowledge performance improvement and innovation of the selected private HLI. Table 4
shows the summary of regression results for the conceptual model between KM enablers
(independent variable) and IC related components (independent variable) on the organizational
performance (dependent variable) in the selected private HLI.
The regression model in Table 4 is used for the hypotheses testing of the research objective of
this study i.e. to examine the effect of the KM and IC related components on the organizational
performance of the selected private HLI in Malaysia.
Table 4: Multiple Regression Model for KM and IC Components for Organizational Performance
MODEL SUMMARY Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
Model 1 R R Square
0.582 0.339 0.288 0.97646
ANNOVA
Model 1 Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Regression 44.903 7 6.415 6.728 0.000
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Coefficients Unstandardised Standardised Collinearity
Coefficients Coefficients Statistics
Model 1
Tolerance VIF
B Std Error Beta t Sig.
(Constant) 1.115 0.700 -0.284 1.593 0.115 0.334 2.994
-0.327 0.169 0.321 -1.938 0.056*
KM – ICT knowhow 0.028 0.337 2.965
& skills 0.353 0.161 2.196 0.031** 0.237 4.222
KM – Teamwork & 0.026 0.164 0.160 0.873 0.227 4.152
Empowerment 0.669 4.398
0.265 3.772
KM - Leadership
KM - Technology 0.254 0.178 0.247 1.428 0.157
IC – Human Capital 0.436 0.220 0.353 1.985 0.050**
IC – Structural 0.143 0.175 0.134 0.816 0.417
Capital
IC – Relational -0.173 0.191 -0.149 -0.910 0.365 0.267 3.749
Capital
Note: * Significant at 10%, ** Significant at less than 5%, *** Significant at less than 1%
Dependent Variable: Organizational Performance
The summary statistical results in Table 4 revealed the positive and significant relationship
model between the integrative concept of KM and IC strategies on the organizational
performance. The results showed that 34% of the variances in this selected private HLI’s
organizational performance for its knowledge performance and innovation is significantly
influenced by this standard multiple regression model.
The learning process through teamwork and empowerment (at 5 % significance level) and ICT
know-how and skills (at 10% significant level) had a strong and moderate influence
respectively on the selected private HLI’s organization performance for its KM strategies in the
learning organization environment. The other influencing factor contributed (at 5 %
significance level) to this selected private HLI’s future success of KM and IC strategies is
from IC component i.e. human capital (employee capability, employee development &
retention and employee creativity & innovativeness). Thus, the statistical results via standard
multiple regression model indicated that the level of IC alone could not predict the knowledge
performance and innovation of the selected private HLI, the necessity for more dynamic
process of KM is required to leverage the IC and to capitalise the knowledge potential.
6. Conclusion
Academics, practitioners and policy makers broadly agree that knowledge is a crucial driver for
firm performance and value creation (Grant, 1996). The integration concept of KM and IC was
later followed to address the effect of intangibles on value creation and organization
performance (Wiig, 1997a; Van Buren, 199; Hussinki, et al. 2017, Kianto, Ritala, Vanhala. and
Hussinki, 2018). These authors stated that there is a need to manage intangible assets or
knowledge actively in order to optimise the performance of organisation. In addition, McElyea
(2002) argued that KM is the basic level of sustaining a competitive advantage due to its focus
on the knowledge flow through the process of creation, sharing and distributing knowledge
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towards the creation and valuation of the organization’s stocks of IC or intangible assets
comprising of human capital, structural capital, innovation capital and relational capital.
In this empirical study, the respondents of the selected private HLI have perceived that KM and
IC strategies do influence the organizational performance. It was also found that there are
significant relationship between KM and IC strategies for the selected HLI’s future knowledge
performance and innovation activities. The learning concept of KM strategies through
teamwork & empowerment (at 5 % significance level) and ICT know-how and skills (at 10%
significant level) together with IC strategic focus on human capital component (at 5%
significant level) are identified as the knowledge based resources and intangible asset for the
selected HLI’s potential value creation. Hence, it is important for top management of this
selected HLI to incorporate KM and IC strategies for its initial programs on KM
implementation and intangible assets of value creation. Further studies on the challenges faced
by this selected HLI in managing knowledge and intellectual capital and linking value creation
to corporate strategies can also be conducted.
7. Contribution
To propose this conceptual model in conceptualizing KM and IC strategies in the Higher
Learning Institutions (HLI) to ensure continuous improvement in the future for its knowledge
performance and innovation.
8. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the selected Private Higher Learning Institute in Malaysia for
funding this research project.
References
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a public sector accounting organization: an empirical evidence. Journal of
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sound measurement of intellectual capital: A knowledge-based perspective. Critical
Perspectives on Accounting, Open Access Article 2019 published by Elsevier Ltd
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McElyea, B.E. (2002). Knowledge Management, Intellectual Capital and Learning
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(2),103-122
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LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER (LNA) OF 5 – 6 GHZ USING
VARIOUS ARCHITECTURE FOR LTE: A REVIEW
Nurul Husna Kahar1*, Abu Bakar Ibrahim2, Che Ghani Che Kob3, Abdul Rani Othman4
1, 3 Faculty of Technical and Vocational, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjung Malim Perak,
Malaysia
2 Faculty of Art, Computing and Creative Industry, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjung Malim
Perak, Malaysia
4 Faculty of Electronic and Computer Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UteM), 76100 Durian
Tunggal Melaka, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
Abstract: Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is a key components in the receiving end of the
communication system. The evolution of front-end LNA receiver become preferable to give
better performance that covered variety of wireless standard application such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, WIMAX and LTE. LNA is an integral part of wireless communication system that
essential to minimize additional noise that influence block in the receiver of communication
system. Correspondingly, the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) in Release 8
discovered the long term evolution (LTE) and defines it as evolving mobile communication that
can provide user with high data rates, high in capacity and accumulates more user. This paper
presents a compilation of important reviews of a previous works for 5 – 6 GHz range of
frequency with various architecture significant suitable in designing LNA for LTE. To
summarize, this paper gives an idea of architecture of LNA will be of great accessibility for RF
wireless communication.
Keywords: Low Noise Amplifier (LNA), LTE, communication system
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
1. Introduction
Over the past decade, surprisingly communication technology grows from time to time
especially in wireless industry in need of internet access without boundary and urging for high
data rates. Wireless communication plays a significant role in current transformation
development. By the same token, there are variety of wireless communication devices such as
Long Term Evolution (LTE), wireless local area network (WLAN), Wi-Fi and WIMAX [1].
LTE that is a brand new technology intend to perform in the unlicensed spectrum of 5 GHz
because there are 21 non-overlying channel of 40 MHz in contrast with 2.4 GHz with only 14
channel available [2]. The range of LTE is between 100 mm – 10 mm to connect with the user
besides targeting wider coverage area due to high spectral efficiency. It is called as an
unlicensed spectrum as an alternative without needed to ask permission to use besides low cost
to meet communication prospect. According to [3] based on International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) held a World Telecommunication Conference (WTC) in 2003 the allocation of
radio frequency (RF) spectrum in 5 – 6 GHz range for unlicensed used and predicted the
demand of mobile data traffic in 2020 would be increase dramatically to four times more than
in 2015. In this case, the design of the front-end low noise amplifier (LNA) is one of the
challenges in Radio Frequency (RF) receiver. A good LNA needs to contribute good input
impedance match, high power gain and low noise figure (NF) within the required band.
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LTE is introduce to provide faster and more secured mobile services by increasing the
bandwidth and provide better coverage. Therefore, in order to address this issues, with
coverage of areas ranging up to 100 kilometres radius, LTE enable delivery to a variety of
customers which includes residential home, small and medium sized enterprises (SME) and
large corporations in urban, suburban and rural areas with expectation of possible increase
in population in the future. However, LTE is not introduced to replace but as an alternative for
wireless communication. The purpose of LTE is to extent the high data speed with minimum
noise interference but may be inaccessible for non-existent coverage with several parameter
such as hills, tunnels and underground parking [4]. According to [5] during downlink and
uplink when data rates are boast with LTE system manage to provides user with 300 Mbps of
peak data rate downlink and 75 Mbps in uplink and designed to operate in 5 – 6 GHz range
called as unlicensed spectrum.
Progression of wireless communication system become one of the fastest section in
communication industry. Together with escalation data rates, broaden coverage area it pressing
encouragement occurring in wireless communication system. Radio frequency (RF)
transmission become a demanding challenge in modern era communication due to daily usages
especially mobiles users has experience new grown into a new features such as online gaming,
streamed video and instant financial services that grow from time to time to connect people
with one and another. Likewise, large number of services are needed in order to maximize the
featured offered to be more practical. Thus, RF system device have one of the most vital parts
which is receiver architecture where’s low noise amplifier portray desired performance in
communication system.
LTE with interference of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) for
downlink (DL) and Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) for uplink
(UL) works for frequency range 1 – 100 GHz [6]. RF receiver in LTE act in converting signal
from the transmitter for the wireless communication occur. By all mean, RF front-end receiver
designed to minimize the noise level or distortions affecting performance of the LTE in the
system. According to ITU, by the end of 2019, 53.6 per cent of the global population, or 4.1
billion people, are using the Internet [7]. The astonishing growth of Internet rise for high speed
Internet access lead to rapid mass-market adoption. Technology manage to provide user with
high data speed from megabits to several tens megabits within per seconds. As shown in Figure
1 is a global number of individuals using the Internet from (2005 – 2019).
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Figure 1: Global numbers of individuals using internet user in years 2005 – 2019.
2. Literature Review
2.1 LTE Review:
With market competition, new technologies were developed, lowering costs, and making
wireless communications more and more affordable. By referring to the demands in our daily
life, mobiles users has experience new grown into a new features such as online gaming,
streamed video and instant financial services is a prove that communication grow from time to
time to connect people with one and another [8]. Wireless communication have an impact on
people’s life with enable of data, image and video to be transferred to anywhere
instantaneously make radio frequency (RF) become remarkable.
Long Term Evolution (LTE) is the next generation of 4G mobile wireless broadband
communication system. Many consider that LTE should be labelled as 3.9G and according to
the first “true 4G” is LTE advanced defined in Release 10 and LTE advanced systems have a
lot of advantages for both end users and mobile operator. [9], stated that LTE act as solution for
services such as gaming, streaming, web browsing and live video in increasing the data rates
from Mbit/s to Gbit/s. The frequency of 5 – 6 GHz are underlying under unlicensed spectrum
to boast data rates where is the user are given power limit places on transmitter which is the
small cell that applicable for any application including industrial, scientific and medical [10].
Forthwith, LTE unlicensed fit in wireless communication due to expanding user in a spectrum
that have more traffic and network capacity and it is open for everybody to use [11]. On the
other hand, the 5 GHz band does not have to put up with over cramped user allowing better
spectrum capability employing operate in 5, 10 and 20 MHz channel bandwidth of LTE
supporting by Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) and Time Division Duplexing (TDD).
Henceforth, the LTE system can affirm that one particular channel can be shared between
multiple users adequate to use spectrum for overall grid performance with the needs up to the
thousand user bands that benefits for performance.
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In contrast, WLAN are using 2.4 GHz ISM band that manage to over cramp with billions of
user with 500 MHz of bandwidth besides using carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) to access
channel with 11 – 55 Mbps with the range of between 10m – 100m of coverage radius for
connecting [12]. The number of user for WLAN (IEEE 802.11) can support about a dozen
users presumed to affect the communication system of a [13]. Table 1 illustrates brief
comparison between LTE and WLAN (IEEE 802.11).
Table 1: Comparison between LTE and WLAN
Parameters LTE WLAN (IEEE 802.11)
Frequency band 5 – 6 GHz 2.4 GHz
100 mm – 10 mm
Range 10m – 100m
Data transfer rates
300 Mbps (downlink) 11 – 55 Mbps
Number of users 75 Mbps (uplink)
Thousands Dozens
2.2 Radio Frequency (RF) Front-end Receiver
To cope with the latest challenges there is endless demand of Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) that
continue to keep driving the innovation for the high rate data of communication system.
Technology today’s requires high speed transmission efficiency with less power consumption
and LNA is one of the product that can satisfy several parameters required such as high gain,
low noise figure and acceptable input and output impedance matching. RF front-end receiver
act as a key components used in communications system to amplify very weak signals that
captured by an antenna playing an important position to recover data in communication system
with minimal noise figure plays as important role in the architecture [14]. LNA circuit design
use variety of architectures proposed by the researcher prior to use on the wireless applications.
Thus, this paper presents brief review of research done in the area of designing of LNA for 5 –
6 GHz range of frequency with several of architecture used in designing LNA. Figure 2
illustrate typical basic building blocks of front-end receiver.
Figure 2: Front-end receiver block diagram
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Minimal noise is introduce with gain amplifier to meet Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) before
processing to the base that affecting overall receiver in LNA. Usually RF front-end receiver
includes an LNA, image filter, local oscillator (LO), Intermediate Frequency Amplifier (IFA)
and a mixer [15]. Intermodulation distortion are proposed to check strong interference with the
function of LNA by providing sufficient gain to overcome subsequent stage of noise occur in
the circuit. This is due to the possibility to accept the signal of communication system.
Besides, the receiver are relying on the circuit design where noise and distortion is influence in
minimum specification of SNR and signal-to-noise and distortion ratio (SNDR) of signal. The
pros and cons of amplifier type used in LNA design could be practical to find applications in
different transmission requirements [16]. Under those circumstance, LNA is crucial component
in the RF receiver for proper designing of the circuit by matched with range frequency.
2.3 Low Noise Amplifier Review :
By analyse and study the previous work done by researcher, the architecture of recent
techniques would become more understandable. A brief review on 5 – 6 GHz range frequency
with several architecture of low noise amplifier (LNA) can determine overall performance of
the communication system. Overall, LNA supposed to contribute with high gain, low noise,
large wideband and high input and output.
Several researches on low noise amplifier of 5 – 6 GHz range frequency using various
architecture for LTE have been investigated. Most of the design of the low noise amplifier uses
0.18 µm CMOS process. For author [17], the design of low noise amplifier consist of source
inductive degeneration topology of 5.5 GHz frequency to optimize noise figure (NF) and S_11
at high frequency. The simulation is based on 0.18µm standard RF CMOS process. The uses of
Forward Body Biasing Technique was implemented to reduce power consumption and improve
the input third intercept point (IIP3) of low noise amplifier. This technique used a diode
connected with MOSFET as IMD sinker done in cadence tool. To accomplish high IIP3, two
transistor which main and auxiliary had been proposed by the author. LNA obtained input third
intercept point (IIP3) of 9.20 dBm while consumed 10.8 mW from a power supply of 1.8 V. It
displayed measured gain of 11.34 dB and NF of 2.33 dB.
[18], managed to design a Low Noise Amplifier at 5.2 GHz band by using a feedback circuit,
and operating in the baseband signal frequency. Authors implement two-stage LNA based on
cascade topology with TSMC CMOS 0.18µm technology. Authors designed the feedback
circuit consists of seven functional blocks with minimum power consumption. The use of
storage circuit in the feedback circuit is to store previous magnitude and dodge unnecessary
power consumption in LNA. Authors stimulated the performance of LNA includes gain, IIP3,
noise figure (NF), stability and power consumption. Under 1.8 V power supply the DC power
of variable gain LNA consumed 5.68–6.75 mW. In that case, front-end LNA with feedback
circuit managed to attain variable gain from 11.39 dB to 22.74 dB with excellent noise
performance even at a high gain mode with 3 dB.
In [19], the authors introduced a fully integrated TSMC 0.18 µm CMOS of two stage CS-CS
Low Noise Amplifier circuit topology centred at 5.4 GHz. The current reuse technique is used
to construct the main amplifier and LNA is tuned to that particular frequency using the
resonant circuit. The matching used is parallel combination of two stage LC components acts
as filter in order to achieve good input matching and low noise figure. Authors construct the
LNA design using common source (CS) due to low cost power but providing high gain, low
noise and high stability for targeted frequency range. The maximum gain achieved of 5.4 GHz
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is 12.554 dB with minimum Noise Figure (NF) 0.423 dB over a band width of 100 MHz. The
input reflection coefficient (S_11) of -23.847 dB, output reflection coefficient (S_22) of –
17.479 dB, reverse isolation (S_12) of –20.458 dB and stability factor of 1.425. The power
consumption is less with voltage supply of 1.2 V and proposed LNA used in wireless and
satellite communication application.
A Low Noise Amplifier based on substrate integrated suspended line (SISL) platform is
demonstrated by [20]. The authors used a Pseudomorphic high electron mobility transistor
(pHEMT) ATF-36163 from Avago Technologies to realize the LNA prototype. The circuit
LNA of SISL justify the low noise, self-packaging, with compact size and low cost. It is
different with conventional microstrip line where’s the self- packaged structure with air cavities
cut the circuit size and fabrication cost while considering field dispersion. However, two
microstrip LNA required bulky mechanical housing as encapsulation, which increases the
fabrication cost size and weight. Thus, to diminish noise figure and remove the cumbersome
mechanical housing, SISL is introduced either to design filters, couplers, voltage- controlled
oscillators (VCO) and antennas. Authors stated that the proposed LNA display high gain,
input/output matching and the lowest noise figure. The amplifier operated at 5.15 – 5.85 GHz
with 23 dB gain and noise figure (NF) of 0.8 dB with low power consumption of 34 mW. The
input reflection coefficient (S_11) of -16 dB, output reflection coefficient (S_22) of –25 dB and
the self-packaged SISL circuit is easy to manufacture with PCB process and doesn’t need bulky
mechanical house.
[21], designed a 2.4/ 5.2 GHz low noise amplifier with concurrent dual-band which can be used
for wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) application by using RF-TSMC 0.18µm CMOS
technology by Advanced Designed System (ADS). Authors decided to implement wideband
LNA and notch filters in order to have employs current-reused technique to reduce power
consumption and provide flat gain over wide bandwidth. The authors use notch filters at the
first stage output to have the lowest impact at the targeted frequency band and the second stage
input of the wideband LNA which formed the dual-band frequency response. By using a
voltage supply of 1.8 V have power consumption of 2.25 mW. Proposed LNA taking
consideration of gain, input matching impedance and noise figure (NF) of both bands. At 2.4
GHz, LNA achieved noise figure (NF) of 1.8 dB, a power gain (S_21) of 15.9 dB and an input
return loss (S_11) of -14 dB. Meanwhile, at 5.2 GHz it features a noise figure (NF) of 2.7 dB,
a power gain (S_21) of 14.3 dB and an input return loss (S_11) of -12.8 dB. As a result, the
proposed dual-band LNA is suitable for low power applications in multi-band WLAN
receivers.
[22], proposed a 5 GHz 0.18µm CMOS LNA engaged with cascode topology combined with
floating-body transistors and high-Q passives on an SOI substrate to record noise figure and
superior linearity performance between receiver and antenna. The author used inductive
matching element which a combination of bondwires and on-chip inductor. This LNA achieves
gain (S_21) of 11.0 dB, an input return loss (S_11) -33 dB, a noise figure (NF) of 0.95 dB, and
a third order input interception point (IIP3) of 5 dBm at 5 GHz with power consumption of 12
mW. This research is capable of supporting 802.11a WLAN applications. The impact of SOI
body-contact on the LNA RF performance is described and linked to improved intermodulation
performance in the circuit.
[23], proposed Low Noise Amplifier for LTE Application that will work at 6 GHz using high-
performance low noise Pseudomorphic High Electron Mobility Transistor (PHEMT)
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ATF36163 manufactured by Avago Technologies. Author proposed amplifier topology with
resistive shunt-feedback onto a LNA based on S-parameter by using Advance Design System
(ADS). This LNA is designed based on microstrip circuit. The measured results of the
proposed LNA shows gain (S_21) of 15.16 dB with input return loss (S_11) at -15.183 dB.
Meanwhile, output return loss (S_22) at -21.688 dB and isolation loss (S_12) at -18.143 dB.
The noise figure (NF) at 0.801 dB is achieve the targeted value of 6 GHz range frequency. The
microstrip matching network resolve the difficulty to obtain high gain and low noise figure for
LTE application.
[24], proposed Low Noise Amplifier for Long Term Evolution (LTE) application works at 5.8
GHz by using high-performance low noise superHEMT transistor FHX76LP manufactured by
Eudyna Technologies stimulate with Advance Design System (ADS). The circuits exhibits a
gain (S_21) of 17.2 dB and noise figure (NF) of 0.914 dB. The input reflection (S_11) and
output return loss (S_22) are -17.8 dB and -19.6 dB respectively. The bandwidth of the
amplifier recorded is 1.2 GHz. The input sensitivity is compliant with the Long Term Evolution
(LTE) standards.
3. Discussion and Conclusion
Table 2.1 summarizes the design and architecture of LNA for recent published techniques
discussed before for 5 – 6 GHz frequency. It shows the operating frequency, overall gain,
overall noise figure, and bandwidth of the LNA designs. For LNA design, the highest gain
achieved is 17.2 dB by [24] and the best noise figure obtained is 0.423 dB by [19]. Most of the
gains displayed in the table are way below the targeted value of 20 dB. Due to this reason, the
cascode with feedback or cascaded LNA techniques should be introduced and implemented for
better performance.
Table 2.1: Summary of low noise amplifiers review for 5 - 6 GHz frequency
Reference Frequency Technology Topology NF Gain BW
[17] (GHz) (dB) (dB) (MHz)
0.18m Source inductive 2.33
5.5 CMOS degeneration topology 11.34 NS
0.18m 3
[18] 5.2 CMOS Two-stage LNA cascade 11.39 - NS
0.18m 0.423 22.74
CMOS Two-stage CS-CS 0.8
[19] 5.4 SISL 1.8 12.544 NS
[20] 5.15 – 5.85 Common Source 2.7
[21] 2.4/ 5.2 NS Dual band LNA of 0.95 23 NS
current-reuse technique
0.18 SOI Inductive degenerated 15.9 NS
CMOS 14.3
cascode
[22] 5 NS Resistive shunt-feedback 11 NS
[23] 6 NS LNA 0.801 15.16 NS
High-performance low
[24] 5.8 0.914 17.2 1.2
noise superHEMT
transistor
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4. Conclusion
LTE also known as Long Term Evolution have lots of benefit for end user and mobile operator
by implement faster data speeds defines by Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) in
Release 8. This modern communication system based on radio frequency (RF) gain interest and
becomes one of the demands. Meanwhile, low noise amplifier (LNA) is a crucial component in
overall receiver system by supplying maximum gain with minimal noise to achieve better
performance. Review on various architecture has been done in this paper. One of the major
challenge is circuit implementation that affecting the performance of LNA. This is because,
LNA must meet several parameter such as high gain, low noise, wideband and high
input/output isolation to enhance receiver sensitivity. Therefore, multiple trade-offs’ topology
between targeted range frequencies should be considered for successful in designing LNA.
5. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their appreciation for the support and contributions of those
who assisted in this research, especially Malaysia Ministry of Education for funding this
research under Grants FRGS (2019-0015-104-02).
References
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Chakkor Saad, Baghouri Mostafa, El Ahmadi Cheikh, & Hajraoui Abderrahmane. (2014).
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: A CASE STUDY ON
TRA VINH UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN VIETNAM
Nguyen Minh Nhut*
International Collaboration and Project Promotion Department, Tra Vinh University, Tra Vinh City, Vietnam
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
Abstract: This paper examines the potential reasons of interlingual errors committed by
Vietnamese learners of English (Vietnamese English) from the paper-based survey on forty Tra
Vinh University students in Vietnam by comparing two languages’ differences in grammar and
how the errors have possibly occurred owing to the Vietnamese interference onto English. The
error analysis focuses upon four categories: inflectional morphosyntax, article, word order,
and copula ‘to be’. The findings have indicated that in inflectional morphosyntax, the errors
were found in tense and aspect (100%), subject-verb agreement (100%) and noun plural
inflection (97.5%), where the suffixal morphemes ‘-s’ and the tense and aspect features were
omitted. In a similar way, copulas ‘to be’ were omitted before adjective with 30%. The next
category is article whose errors (100%) occurred owing to confusion. Finally, the errors of
three subcategories in word order were found including noun modifier position within a noun
phrase (100%), adjective position within a noun phrase (97.5%), and adverb position within a
verb phrase (100%). This research study provides not only Vietnamese but also foreign
teachers of English with theoretical and practical sources that may help students improve their
English use as they are able to compare the grammatical systems in English and their mother
tongues.
Keywords: interlingual errors, Vietnamese English, inflectional morphosyntax, word order,
article, copula ‘to be’
______________________________________________________________________________________ ______
1. Introduction
Learning a foreign language is important today since it facilitates international communication,
achieve mutual understandings, and exchange cultural and academic activities with other
countries. In educational settings in Vietnam, English has played significant role in education
since the Vietnamese national policy was introduced. Evidently, English is taught as a
compulsory subject from Grade 3 and is used as a medium of instruction in higher education
(Nguyen, 2011; Ly & Nguyen, 2018). Additionally, it is not only a major foreign language, but
also an international language through which people can pursue their dreams outside their
home country.
However, one of the big problems is the low competence use of English by Vietnamese
learners. Some main reasons strengthen this fact. Firstly, for learners’ attitude, Vietnamese
students’ knowledge is assessed based on their examination results (Pham, 1999). Ellis (1995)
also stresses that Vietnamese learners may not show much interest in communicative activities
owing to the main influence from their oriental values. Consequently, learners’ motivation and
style are affected by exams rather than real communicative tests. Le (1999) also confirms that
communicative activities are unrealistic and impracticable in the Vietnamese context. With
regard to teachers’ attitude, Wenden (1997) expresses the idea that the teacher plays role as the
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producer who imparts knowledge to students as completion of their professional responsibility.
Hoang (2010) further explains that many teachers do not often use English to communicate in
class. While skills in communication are encouraged and new methodology of pedagogy is
applied, they have not been attracted much notice in English classroom. Consequently,
teachers have no more options but are forced themselves to use their traditional methods in
teaching and learning.
One aspect related to the low-quality competence in English use by Vietnamese learners is
grammar. Nguyen (2002) indicates that while students deal with exercise in grammar well, they
fail to make grammatical application in writing or speaking. Nguyen further emphasizes that
the traditional methods have negative influence on teaching when lectures and exercise do not
improve grammar use. In addition, according to the report on A Ranking of 100 Countries and
Regions by English skills based on EF EPI EF English Proficiency Index in 2019, Vietnam
ranked 52/ 100 of Global Ranking of Countries and Regions in English competence use, which
was lower than that of the previous years. Thus, on the positive side, the analysis of errors in
grammar committed by Vietnamese learners of English is significant. In particular, the
examination to interlingual errors is worth in this study. Clearly, Vietnamese and English
typologies have different characteristics in grammatical structure; therefore, the possibility of
making interlingual errors is unavoidable while it is a necessary part of English learning
process of Vietnamese learners and may help them to improve their English competence.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Error Analysis
Many scholars in the field of error analysis have stressed the significance of second language
learners’ errors. Indeed, while errors are unavoidable, these are necessary part of learning as
visible proof (Keshavarz, 1994; Chomsky, 1998; Aras, 2017). Besides, learners’ error making
is considered a helpful device or tool in learning process (Weireech, 1991; Londono, 2008;
Candling, 2001). In other words, errors give learners feedbacks as strategies to language
acquisition (Richards, 1974; Dulay & Burt, 1982).
2.2. Error
There are several definitions of error. According to James (1998), error is failure of
competence owing to leaners’ systematic violation from rules, or Cunningworth (1987) points
out that errors are systematic deviations from the norms of the language being learned.
Although errors are defined in different ways, other authors such as Dulay and Burt (1982),
Norrish (1987), Lennon (1991) also agree at three common features in the definition of ‘error’;
those are ‘systematic’, ‘deviation’, and ‘competence’. In other words, the definitions meet at
one point that errors are systematic deviations reflecting learners’ competence.
2.3. Error vs. Mistake
Although some research papers have used two terms ‘error’ and ‘mistake’ interchangeably,
their distinction is quite clear. Whereas errors are systematic deviations that reflect learners’
competence (as explained above), mistakes are unsystematic deviations by learners’
performance (Crystal, 1985; Corder, 1967; Norrish, 1983). Furthermore, the errors of
performance or mistake occur due to numerous factors such as lack of memory lapses, physical
states, psychological conditions, etc. (Corder, 1981; Richards, 1985; Gass & Selinker, 2008).
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2.4. Types of Error
Many scholars have different approaches to types of error in their own way. While Corder
(1973) categorised errors into four types (omission, addition, incorrect and mis-ordering of
element), Burt and Kiparsky (1974) suggested two types of error (local error and global error).
However, based on the causes of error, Richards (1974) classified them into interlingual errors,
intralingual and developmental errors. Similarly, Brown (1980) and James (1988) pointed out
four types of errors: interlingual transfer (the negative influence of the mother tongue of
learner), intralingual transfer, context of learning, and communication strategies the learners
use; and Norrish (1983) grouped errors into three types consisting of carelessness, first
language interference and translation from the first language.
2.5. Interlingual Errors
Definitions about interlingual errors are also given in different ways. Corder (1981) explained
that errors occurred owing to the interference of the learners’ habits that negatively affected
their acquisition to the L2 patterns and rules. According to Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991),
interlingual errors occurred due to L1 interference (negative transfer), similarly defined by
other authors (Chelli, 2013; Touchie, 1986). In a broader sense, interlingual errors are caused
owing to language transfer. Similarities and differences between the L2 and the L1 decide that
transfer is positive and negative, respectively. In terms of differences, interference (negative
transfer) is negative influence of the mother tongue on the performance of the target language;
consequently, errors occur (Lado, 1964; Odlin, 1989).
2.6. Previous Research Studies on Interlingual Errors
The findings of interlingual errors are substantiated by specific figure. Richards (1974) found
that one-third of the errors at sentential level from L2 learners was possibly due to language
transfer. The results by Kafipour and Khojasteh (2012) also indicated that seven categories of
errors in the data were of interlingual errors (16.19%). Similarly, students made these such
errors in the use of ‘of’ preposition and article with 79.15% and 72.85% respectively (Chelli,
2013).
In addition, this type of errors occurs as a common problem on which many researchers in
some countries investigated. In Iran, Falhasiri (2011) indicated that the most errors were
interlingual category (71%), while in Spanish, Solano (2014) pointed out that the most
common Spanish interference errors into English were misuse of verbs, preposition and
omission of pronouns.
Eny (2016) investigated the interference of L1 (Indonesian) into L2 (English) when the
interlingual errors occurred in junior high school, senior high school and university with
36.26%, 36.77% and 10.98%, respectively. In Thailand, the research paper (Somchai &
Siriluck, 2013) revealed that the English-majored students committed the errors in writings
owing to their mother tongue interference such as verb tense, article, singular/plural form,
subject-verb agreement, etc.
Two other studies on the interference of Arabic learners of English are also examined. One by
Hemabati (2016) showed syntactic errors and the other by Thyab (2016) indicated difficulties
in use of the English articles.
47
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