HMEF5083 Instructional Technology Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
HMEF5083 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY Prof Dr Zoraini Wati Abas Prof Dr Abtar Kaur Tengku Putri Norishah Tengku Shariman Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
First Edition, January 2006 Second Edition, December 2011 Third Edition, December 2012 (rs) Fourth Edition, December 2017 Fifth Edition, April 2020 (MREP) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2020, HMEF5083 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM). Project Directors: Prof Dr Widad Othman Dr Aliza Ali Open University Malaysia Module Writers: Prof Dr Zoraini Wati Abas Prof Dr Abtar Kaur Open University Malaysia Tengku Putri Norishah Tengku Shariman Multimedia University Moderator: Dr Zahari Hamidon Open University Malaysia Enhancer: Dr Dorothy Dewitt Universiti Malaya Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Course Guide ixăxiii Topic 1 History of Educational Technology (Pre-Internet) 1 1.1 What is Educational Technology? 3 1.2 What is Instructional Technology? 7 1.3 What do Educational and Instructional Technologists Do? 13 1.4 Educational Technology Developments in Malaysia 17 Summary 25 Key Terms 25 References 26 Topic 2 Current Trends in Educational Technology (Post-Internet) 29 2.1 The Internet and Its Impact on Education 31 2.1.1 Internet Resources for Schools 32 2.1.2 Internet Resources for Higher Education 35 2.2 E-Learning 38 2.2.1 The Learning Management System 40 2.2.2 Stages of E-Learning 42 2.3 Online Discussions 44 2.4 Collaborative Learning 47 2.5 Pitfalls of E-Learning 49 Summary 50 Key Terms 51 References 51 Topic 3 Educational Technology in Schools 53 3.1 Current Trends in Schools 55 3.2 The Malaysian Smart School Concept 58 3.2.1 The Smart School Concept 60 3.3 The Use of Technologies in Classrooms 64 3.4 Best Practices 66 3.4.1 Case Study in Korea 66 3.4.2 Case Study in Australia 68 3.4.3 Case Study in England 73 3.4.4 Case Study in Singapore 77 Summary 83 Key Terms 83 References 84 Table of Contents Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic 4 Educational Technology in Higher Education 86 4.1 Current Technological Trends in Higher Education 88 4.2 Reinventing the Roles of Instructors and Students 96 4.2.1 What is Active Learning? 98 4.2.2 What Counts as Active Learning? 99 4.3 Reinventing the Role of the Institution 100 4.4 Blended Learning Model 102 4.5 Design of Technology-based Learning 107 4.6 Standards in Technology-mediated Learning 109 (E-Learning) for Higher Education 4.6.1 Financial Issues 110 4.6.2 Regulatory Issues 110 4.6.3 Evaluation Issues 112 4.7 Technology-mediated Learning (E-Learning) in 113 MalaysiaÊs Higher Education Institutions Summary 118 Key Terms 119 References 119 Topic 5 Educational Technology in Distance Learning 122 5.1 Distance Learning 123 5.1.1 Brief History of Distance Learning in Malaysia 124 5.1.2 Definitions of Distance Education 130 5.1.3 Advantages of Distance Learning 133 5.1.4 Types of Distance Learning Providers 133 5.1.5 Distance Learning Theory 135 5.2 Educational Technology 138 5.3 Learning Management Systems (LMS) 139 5.3.1 Definitions of LMS 140 5.3.2 Types of LMS 141 5.3.3 Selecting a LMS 142 Summary 144 Key Terms 145 References 146 Topic 6 Educational Technology in Training 149 6.1 Overview of Technology-based Training 150 6.2 Emerging Technologies 154 6.2.1 Emerging Technologies Assimilated into Work 156 Culture 6.2.2 Instructional Technologies in Training 158 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TABLE OF CONTENTS v 6.3 Emerging Tools for Training Efficiency 161 6.3.1 Virtual Worlds 162 6.4 Emerging Tools for Knowledge Management 164 6.5 Guidelines in the Implementation of Emerging Tools 166 Summary 167 Key Terms 168 References 168 Topic 7 Instructional Design (ID) for Effective Learning 171 7.1 An Overview of Instructional Design (ID) 172 7.1.1 Principles or Conditions of Learning 172 7.1.2 History of ID 174 7.1.3 Understanding ID 180 7.2 Instructional Design (ID) Theories 184 7.2.1 GagneÊs ID Theory 184 7.2.2 Shifts in ID Theory 189 7.3 Instructional Design (ID) Models 191 7.3.1 Selecting Models 192 7.3.2 Specific ID Models 194 Summary 201 Key Terms 201 References 202 Topic 8 Building the Learning Environment 205 8.1 Building a Learning Environment: Designing the 207 Learning Experience 8.1.1 Begin with the End in Mind 207 8.1.2 The ASSURE Model 209 8.2 Learner Differences: Cognitive, Psychosocial and 211 Physiological 8.3 Formulating Measurable Objectives 212 8.4 Identifying, Modifying and Creating Technology-based 213 Learning Materials 8.4.1 Modifying Existing Materials 215 8.4.2 Designing New Materials 216 8.4.3 Showmanship 217 8.5 Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Learning Experience 220 Summary 221 Key Terms 222 References 222 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic 9 Technologies of the Future 223 9.1 Learning Technologies 224 9.1.1 Application of Mobile Technologies in Education 225 9.1.2 A New Model for Learning: Mobigogy 228 9.2 Search Technologies 232 9.2.1 Specialised Search Tools 233 9.2.2 Application of Search Technologies in the Future 234 9.3 Blog and Vlogging 235 9.3.1 Characteristics of a Blog 236 9.3.2 Characteristics of a Vlog 238 9.3.3 Blogging and Vlogging Benefits for Students 239 9.3.4 Blogging and Vlogging Benefits for Educators 241 9.4 Podcasting and Vodcasting 244 9.4.1 Factors for the Explosive Growth of Podcasting 244 9.4.2 Compelling Uses for Podcasting in an Educational 245 Setting 9.5 Virtual Worlds 246 9.5.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI): Virtual Learning 246 Companions 9.5.2 Virtual Reality 248 9.6 The Next Wave of E-Learning: Connectivism and Web 2.0 249 Summary 252 Key Terms 253 References 253 Topic 10 Issues, Challenges and Professional Development 259 10.1 Issues and Challenges 261 10.2 State of E-Readiness in Malaysia 264 10.3 Critical Success Factors 267 10.4 Professional Development 270 Summary 273 Key Terms 273 References 273 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE ix COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook. INTRODUCTION HMEF5083 Instructional Technology is one of the courses offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks. COURSE AUDIENCE This course is offered to all learners taking the Master of Education (MEd) programme. The main aim of the course is to give you an understanding of educational technology, particularly on issues and challenges related to instructional design and utilisation of learning technologies. At the end of the course, it is hoped that you will be able to decide on how some of these learning technologies can be adopted for your own situation. As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how the course is conducted. STUDY SCHEDULE It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be accumulated. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
x COURSE GUIDE Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours Study Activities Study Hours Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 5 Study the module 60 Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 15 Online participation 10 Revision 10 Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20 TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the development and application of current technologies; 2. Apply instructional design models when developing and implementing new teaching technologies; 3. Analyse the challenges in educational technology; and 4. Critically evaluate the various issues in the field of educational technology. COURSE SYNOPSIS This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as follows: Topic 1 provides an overview of the earlier developments of educational technology and defines the scope of educational and instructional technology as well as the jobs available in the field and the tasks performed by professionals specialising in educational technology. Topic 2 examines the current developments in technology use at the various levels of education, particularly since the advent of the Internet for e-learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xi Topic 3 highlights some of the latest developments in schools today since the implementation of the Smart School project by the Ministry of Education. This topic also examines the implementation of technology in schools in different countries. Topic 4 explores current technological trends in higher education and how learning technologies have been employed with a focus on e-learning and blended learning. Topic 5 describes how distance learning has been applied in higher institutions of learning and has leveraged on educational technology. Topic 6 examines the various ways technology has enhanced training and how technology has made a difference in the training scene. Topic 7 highlights the purpose of instructional design, models and related processes and the role of instructional designers today. Topic 8 examines learner characteristics and how these relate to the development of learning environments. Topic 9 examines some of the more recent technologies that are emerging and are used in todayÊs education. This topic also looks at possible learning situations for the future. Topic 10 discusses some key issues and challenges. This topic then identifies key resources in educational technology, which would be useful for further exploration. TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your understanding of the topic. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xii COURSE GUIDE Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations throughout the module. It may be inserted after one subtopic or a few subtopics. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly from the module itself. Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define. Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module. Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms in the module. References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course. PRIOR KNOWLEDGE No prior knowledge needed. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xiii ASSESSMENT METHOD Please refer to myINSPIRE. REFERENCES Ardito, C., & Lanzilotti, R. (2011). An EUD approach to the design of educational games. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 9(4), 25ă40. DeWitt, D., Siraj, S., & Alias, N. (2014). Collaborative mLearning: A module for learning secondary school science. Educational Technology & Society, 17(1), 89ă101. Harris, P., & Walling, D. R. (2013). The learning designer: Merging art and science with educational technology. TechTrends, 57(5), 35ă41. Roblyer, M. D. (2006). Integrating technology into teaching (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Smaldino, S. E., Russell, J. D., Heinich, R., & Molenda, M. (2005). Instructional technology and media for learning (8th ed.). Columbus, OH: Pearson. TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL LIBRARY The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books, Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xiv COURSE GUIDE Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Think back to your first day in school. Did blackboards help you learn? In recent years, teachers have been using white boards, overhead projectors, computers and electronic smart boards (see Figure 1.1). What do we use for learning in the computer era? Topic 1 History of Educational Technology (Pre-Internet) LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define educational technology and instructional technology; 2. Differentiate between educational technology and instructional technology; 3. Compare and contrast between traditional and new learning environments; 4. Describe what educational technologists and instructional technologists do; and 5. Describe some of the latest developments of educational technology in Malaysia. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
2 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Figure 1.1: Blackboard in a classroom In the Web 1.0 era, web resources were meant for disseminating information but there was limited interaction. Feedback and comments could be given, but it was more of a one-way interaction. In the Web 2.0 era, there was more interaction and collaboration. Users could discuss problems and attempt to solve them as well as collaborate on online projects. In the era of Web 3.0, or the Semantic Web, computers can interpret information like humans, and then generate and distribute content specifically for the needs and interests of the users. Interestingly, the effective use of technology has become an important issue in the realm of educational technology. Media was used as educational technology in the early part of the last century. Between the late 1920s and 1940s, advances in media enabled radio broadcasts and motion pictures with sound to be produced and led to the use of television, teaching machines and programmed learning in the 1950s and 1960s. Before the 1970s, educational technology was synonymous with audiovisual communication and instruction. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 3 WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY? According to Saettler (1990), the first person to introduce educational technology was the radio instruction pioneer, W. W. Charters in 1948. However, instructional technology gained importance during the Second World War, when mass training of thousands of military personnel was urgently required. The primary question then was how these war personnel could be quickly and effectively trained. The primary media at that time were film, slides, photographs, audio tapes and printed materials. At around this time, research was focused on the learning process and following this, a new profession, Educational Technologist, was born (Jones, 1999 as cited in Christopher, 2004). Among others, the use of audiovisual aid and information communication technologies (ICT) as a means to enhance the teaching and learning process is what educational technology is all about. If you look at the definitions given for educational or instructional technology, you will find that they vary from one another. According to Roblyer (2006), some definitions refer to equipment while others refer to the process of applying equipment or tools and materials for educational purposes. Look at some of these definitions in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: Definitions of Educational Technology Definition Source Audiovisual communication is that branch of educational theory and practice primarily concerned with the design and use of messages, which control the learning process. Ely (1963) Educational technology is a systematic, iterative process for designing instruction or training used to improve performance. Hoffman (2017) Educational Technology involves the disciplined application of knowledge for the purpose of improving learning, instruction and/or performance. Spector (2015) Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. Januszewski, Molenda, and Association for Educational Communications and Technology (2008) 1.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
4 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Educational technology is not to be confused with electronic gadgetry. Essentially, it is a rational, problemsolving approach to education, a way of thinking sceptically and systematically about learning and teaching. Rowntree (1982) Educational technology is: 1. The media that are products of the application of sciences to educational problems. 2. A systematic approach to solving the problems of instruction that includes the development of instructional systems, identification of resources, and the delivery of those resources to students. Shafritz, Koeppe and Soper (1988) Educational technology „is the application of research, learning theory, emergent technologies, and child and adult psychology to solving instructional and performance problems‰. University of North Carolina Media Services (1997) Before we go any further, let us look at another interesting quotation. Any technology which increases the rate of learning would enable (as Comenius put it centuries ago) the teacher to teach less and the learner to learn more. (Sir Eric Ashby, as cited in Singh, Sharma, & Upadhya, 2008) What do you think? Do you believe that the use of technology in teaching and learning is effective? Why? Next, look at Figure 1.2. It illustrates the concept of educational technology by Seels and Richey (1994), which provides an overview of educational technology, both in theory and practice. There are five domains of educational technology: (a) Design; (b) Development; (c) Evaluation; (d) Utilisation; and (e) Management. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 5 Each domain represents a major activity and each activity includes items to be considered or activities to be carried out as part of the main activity. Study Figure 1.2 and try to understand the various elements involved in each of the five domains. Figure 1.2: The domains of educational technology Source: Seels & Richey (1994) Although the definitions for educational technology are simple, they comprehensively describe the tasks of a qualified professional educational technologist. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
6 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Let us now compare these with McGriffÊs more comprehensive conceptual model of instructional technology presented in Figure 1.3. Seels and RicheyÊs domains are only part of McGriffÊs model. It is interesting to see how much the field has progressed in less than a decade. Perhaps Nworie and McGriff (2001) appropriately summed it up as seen in Figure 1.3. He addressed the various components included in oneÊs preparation to become an instructional technologist. Study the figure and discuss McGriffÊs conceptual model in the online forum. Figure 1.3: Concept of the instructional technology field Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 7 WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY? Instructional technology is said to have first come into the picture when James Finn used the term in 1963. It seeks to: (a) Teach how to plan, design, develop, implement, evaluate and manage instructional processes effectively to ensure improved performance by learners; and (b) Understand how people learn and design instructional delivery systems and materials. 1.2 1. Based on your Internet search, add at least one more definition of educational technology to Table 1.1. 2. What is your overall perception of educational technology? Write this as your own definition. Share your definitions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.1 1. What are the five domains of educational technology, as proposed by Seels and Richley? What does each domain entail? 2. Study McGriffÊs conceptual model for instructional technology. What are the various components and how do they relate to each other? SELF-CHECK 1.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
8 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) A question that may now come to your mind is, how different is instructional technology from educational technology? Let us look at the definitions presented in Table 1.2. Table 1.2: Definitions of Instructional Technology Definition Source Instructional technology is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research. Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilisation, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. Seels and Richey (1994) Instructional technology is a body of theory about a field of technology that has various characteristics including applied intellectual techniques, established disciplines and academic value. Technopedia (2017) Instructional technology is the art and science of designing, producing, and using ă with economy and elegance ă solutions to institutional problems; these solutions may combine verbal or audiovisual media and may be experienced with or without human mediation and may take the form of learners, courses or whole systems that facilitate learning efficiently, effectively and humanely. Molenda (2004) Instructional technology is the use of a variety of teaching tools to improve student learning. We usually think of computers and computer software when we think of instructional technology, but instructional technologies are not limited to computers in the classroom. Instructional technology describes all tools that are used for teaching and learning such as cameras, CD players, PDAÊs, GPS devices, computer-based probes, calculators and electronic tools we have yet to discover. Chowdhury (2015) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 9 Now that you have gone through the definitions in Tables 1.1 and 1.2, how do you think educational or instructional technology can be best defined? Do you see any similarities or differences in the definitions provided? Do you think we could use the terms educational technology and instructional technology interchangeably? If we look closely at how each of the two terms have been defined, we will realise that perhaps it depends on when it was defined or who defined it. Could it be, at its simplest, the effective application of technology (hardware, software and courseware) in teaching or education? A study conducted by the Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) on the role of educational technologists, suggests that more professionals now use „educational technology‰ in a general sense to describe any use of technology in an educational endeavour while „instructional technology‰ has more to do with direct application of technology in the acts of teaching and learning. In other words, instructional technology is a subcategory of educational technology. In business and industry, as well as the military the term performance technology has come into recent use as a synonym for instructional technology. However, Lowenthal and Wilson (2010) criticise the use of this definition by AECT and has since reviewed the definitions used in the field. They consider defining the field of instructional design and technology to focus on the learning process. Hence, the term learning design has arisen in the field. The profession of „learning designer‰ has been used by Harris and Walling (2013) to describe work in this field. In the near future, the term learning design may be used to replace the term „instructional technology‰. On the other hand, there are others in the field that feel the importance does not lie with just designing learning environments, but for innovating and leading change (Kowch, 2013). Hence, another group of instructional technologist have come out to stress the importance of being able to innovate and lead changes in this field. Spector (2010), the President of AECT at that time, agreed with this notion as he said that „our profession takes the notion of change seriously; we are typically trying to establish that a particular instructional approach or use of a particular technology will result in improved learning‰. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
10 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) As a note, the debate on instructional technology versus educational technology has died down. Instead, trends in research indicate that innovative technologies are being used in the classrooms and new designs for instruction are being developed. What does the future hold for instructional technologists? As mentioned by Lowenthal and Wilson (2010), this field is continuously evolving and we should listen to the professionals in order to conceptualise the definitions. We conclude with the words of Ely and Plomp (2001), who have encouraged dialogue such as that found in this paper: Where are the voices today? What are they saying? How has the field changed? How does it need to change? Professionals should continue to seek answers to such questions if the profession is to grow and prosper. (Lowenthal & Wilson, 2010) Hence, at the moment we should not focus on the differences between instructional and educational technology. Lowenthal and Wilson (2010) recognise that instructional technology has a design component. They do not believe that there needs to be a difference between the terms instructional technology and educational technology. However, they do recognise that there are two main definitions of the field, one which focuses on technology and media, and the second which focuses on systematic design. Perhaps after reading more, you will be able to decide whether we should refer to this field as educational technology, instructional technology or learning design. As technology evolves, our pedagogy needs to change. Hence, the focus of educational technologists and instructional designers are to facilitate and improve „learning and performance‰ (Spector, 2010). Spector (2010) continues, „As a consequence, our profession takes the notion of change seriously; we are typically trying to establish that a particular instructional approach or use of a particular technology will result in improved learning‰. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 11 Teaching and learning are related. It is with this concept that some scholars use to focus on the management of learning when they investigate instruction (Kowch, 2013). Kwoch (2013) says that we cannot separate people from the processes of teaching and learning. Instead, teaching and learning is a complex and interconnected process which involves people, the processes of teaching, learning and management as well as the environment. Hence, instruction cannot be investigated alone, and one needs to consider different aspects of the learning environment in order to design for effective learning. How far do you agree with this? What is more important are the roles or contributions of professionals from these fields in todayÊs learning as well as in the training environment. Let us discuss this next. The roles include but are not limited to: (a) Designing instruction; (b) Developing instructional materials; (c) Implementing delivery of instruction to learners; and (d) Building teams and managing projects. Since the early 1980s, especially since microcomputers were born, the field has changed tremendously. The International Society of Technology in Education (ISTE) is an organisation that has helped advance the use of technology in classrooms in the US. Its „New Learning Environments‰ model, in response to recent research, shows that student-centred, constructivist and collaborative learning is more effective than the traditional top-down, lecture-based, text-driven model (refer to Table 1.3). 1. The field of instructional technology is well-conceptualised in a position paper by Nworie and McGriff (2001). Make some time to read it. It is available at https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED470149 2. Read the paper by Reeves and Oh (2016) on the goals and methods of educational technology research over a quarter century (1989ă 2014). Has the definition of instructional technology evolved? Discuss the trends in research in this field in the online forum. ACTIVITY 1.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
12 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Table 1.3: ISTEÊs New Learning Environments Traditional Learning Environments New Learning Environments Teacher-centred instruction Student-centred learning Single-sense stimulation Multisensory stimulation Single-path progression Multipath progression Single media Multimedia Isolated work Collaborative work Information delivery Information exchange Passive learning Active/exploratory/inquiry-based learning Factual, knowledge-based learning Critical thinking and informed decision-making Reactive response Proactive/planned action Isolated, artificial context Authentic, real-world context Source: Bitter et al. (1997) It appears that the field of educational or instructional technology was not as exciting as we are experiencing it now as a result of the fast-paced developments in information and communication technology. The field started out comprising visual aids, audiovisual education, educational communications media, instructional materials and educational communications before moving on to resource-based learning, technology-based instruction and multimedia. Now, it encompasses digital media and collaborative learning environments. Indeed, the field of educational or instructional technology has continued to evolve. 1. Analyse Table 1.3 to see the transformation from traditional to new learning environments as proposed by ISTE. How much of these have you seen or experienced for yourself? What are your thoughts on each of them? Of all the above, which do you think is the most relevant transformation for adult learners like yourself? 2. Browse the ISTE website to review the Educational Technology Standards for Students and Teachers 2007. Discuss whether we have achieved these standards in our schools or higher education institutions. Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 13 WHAT DO EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGISTS DO? Educational and instructional technologists are employed in both the private and public sector as well as in the education and training industry. One of the more common jobs is instructional design (see Figure 1.4). Figure 1.4: Instructional designers ensure the development of effective materials Let us think, what is instructional design? You will learn more about instructional design in Topic 7 but for now, let us focus on the above definition. The person who carries out the responsibility is called an instructional designer. The job looks simple and straightforward. After all, how difficult can the process of „designing learning experiences to maximise learning effectiveness‰ be? To find out more about what an instructional designer does, read the sample instructional designer job advertisements (see Figures 1.5 and 1.6). 1.3 Very simply, instructional design is the process of designing learning experiences to maximise learning effectiveness. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
14 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Figure 1.5: Advertisement for an Instructional Designer (Sample 1) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 15 Figure 1.6: Advertisement for an Instructional Designer (Sample 2) In addition, there are other jobs that qualified educational or instructional technologists are hired to do. The range of job includes instructor, media specialist, distance educational specialist and multimedia producer. Competency is defined by Richey, Fields and Foxton (2001) as „the knowledge, skill, or attitude that enables one to effectively perform the activities of a given occupation or function to the standards expected in employment‰. This definition is loose and the advantage is that it enables the competencies to be updated continuously based on the evolving technological environments. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
16 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) In the field of instructional design, instructors and educators need to revise the programmes and courses constantly to be qualified instructional designers. There may be many people involved in the design of instruction. A description taken from Sims and Koszalka (2008), states that „the analyst specialises in performance analysis and training needs assessment; the evaluator specialises in various forms of evaluation and assessment; the e-learning specialist specialises in development of multimedia and electronic learning products; and the project manager specialises in managing internal or external designers on one or several projects‰. How many people are involved in this description? Chen, Dong, Tomita, and Eunkyung (2016) have recorded a discussion among several experts in East Asia. In their discussion with these experts, they identified competencies that instructional designers should have. Firstly, instructional designers need to have communication skills to communicate in visual, oral and written form. The rapid development of e-learning and online learning today requires instructional designers to be able to encourage and maintain interactions in both asynchronous and synchronous communications, in online environments. This is also a communication skill. Instructional designers should be able to conduct needs assessment and be able to determine what and who to involve in the need assessment. This ability is essential for helping instructional designers revise courses and programmes. Instructional designers should have lifelong learning skills and be able to continuously update and improve knowledge, skills, and attitudes pertaining to instructional design and related fields. They require the knowledge and skill in applying the latest advancements in the instructional systems field and be able to prepare students to face the changing society. Other competencies are to be able to identify and describe the target population especially in online environments; designing and developing learning environments; and contributing to the implementation and management of current programmes and courses. Lastly, instructional designers need to be aware of the needs of the market as the reassessment and redesign of instructional design programmes and courses are strongly influenced by the marketÊs needs, and hence they require the knowledge and skills to meet the market needs Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 17 Do you have these skills to be an instructional designer? How different do you think the job of an instructional design in Malaysia is? In recent years, the term learning designer has been used to describe the job of an instructional designer. A learning designer connotes change and adapts to changes. According to Harris and Walling (2013), „The term learning designer is apt because professionals who design learning contexts, environments, and activities also must be designers who are constantly learning. Static skills are inadequate in an ever-changing world. Technology propels and is propelled by change and learning design in such an environment must be fluid.‰ Do you feel that the instructional designer is a learning designer? How different would the job descriptions for an instructional designer and learning designer be? EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS IN MALAYSIA Some of us (if you are old enough that is) may remember the time in primary school when we had singing lessons in the school hall with the class teacher turning on the radio. I thought these were interesting moments. Most, if not all of us, enjoyed the lessons. If I was born later, I would have thought this as being a bit odd, listening to the „teacher‰ on the radio who taught us how to sing line by line before finally singing the whole song together. I also vaguely remember doing physical education (PE) lessons while listening to the exercise instructor on the radio. 1.4 Look for more recent job advertisements for qualified educational or instructional technologists. You should now have a better idea of what they do. Now think of how these qualified professionals can contribute to your situation at work. Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 1.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
18 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) At home, I recall listening attentively to Malay lessons on the radio. I was attracted to listening to them and found them entertaining as well. I think these lessons were also effective as I grew to be interested in the Malay language and became the best student in the subject in school. These were during after school hours when I turned on the radio for leisure. There were no television broadcasts until 6pm or so then and the radio was one of the few items that brought the world into the home. In secondary school, I can recall the few times when the teacher ushered us to the television room next to the library to watch some educational TV programmes. It was not too often, but what I remembered was how dull these viewing sessions were, watching the teacher on television conduct science experiments. Imagine being in a classroom of 40 students trying to watch one small screen in black and white. Today, I believe teachers use Educational Television Service (ETV) to babysit their students. It is still not effective. Alas, TV production skills were still lacking then. Even now, the ETV lesson was simply a taping of the teacher who conducted the experiment well, but failed to captivate the audienceÊs attention. Ibrahim Bajunid (2001), a prominent educator and keen observer, commented that between 1967 and 1976, teaching and learning materials in Malaysia were primarily print-based with various kinds of teaching aids such as charts, models, educational radio and educational television. This was followed by a period (1976ă1986) that saw the overlapping of traditional and new technology in the form of microcomputers. There was an increase in establishing computer clubs in schools as well as an increase in computer use in higher education institutions for teaching and learning. These were: (a) Computers-in-Education programmes; (b) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI); (c) Computer Aided Language Learning (CALL); and (d) Computer Managed Instruction (CMI). Since the mid-1980s, computers began playing a major role in higher education. When the Internet gained popularity in the mid-1990s, web-based instruction, education portals and electronic discussions became a cliché among academic circles. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 19 As we moved into the 21st century, the Malaysian government was so concerned about the countryÊs readiness for e-learning that a study on the readiness of policymakers, providers, enablers (teachers) and learners to utilise e-learning was conducted in 2004. You will read more about the countryÊs progress in educational technology after the proliferation of Internet usage in Topic 2. To appreciate the local scene, perhaps knowing some of the milestones relating to the development of educational technology in Malaysia will be of interest to you (refer to Table 1.4). Table 1.4: Educational Technology Related Developments in Malaysia Event Date Establishment of Radio Malaya 1 April 1946 Setting up of the Audio-Visual Aids Section, Ministry of Education 1949 Radio Malaya renamed Radio Malaysia 16 September 1963 Setting up of the Division of Educational Media Services (EMS), later renamed Division of Educational Technology 1972 Launch of Educational TV (ETV) 1972 Formation of the Malaysian Council for Computers-in-Education 1986 Formation of Malaysian Educational Technology Association (Persatuan Teknologi Pendidikan dan Media) 1987 Launch of the Smart School Flagship as part of the Multimedia Super Corridor 1997 Formation of the Malaysian Association for Distance Education 2000 National E-Learning Readiness Study 2004 Launch of Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology August 2004 Policy for teaching of Maths and Science in English (PPSMI) launched, laptops and courseware for science and maths teachers 2003 SchoolNet Project 2008 Digital content in EduWebTV portal 2007 Smart School Qualification Standards (SSQS) Implemented 2008 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
20 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Launch of Malaysia ICT in Education Policy 2010 Dasar e-Pembelajaran Negara 2011 Implementation of 1BestariNet and Frog VLE for all schools 2012 Skill sets for ICT in education for teachers and students 2012 Portal Radio Pendidikan 2013 Launching of the Educational Technology Roadmap (Shift 7) under the Malaysia Education Blueprint, 2013ă2025 2013 Standard Kompetensi Digital (Digital Competency Standards ă DCS) 2015 Of special note is the Educational Technology Division (or Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan [BTP]) of the Ministry of Education (MOE). This division plays a very crucial role in ensuring that technology is appropriately used and is effective. Its main role is to publish teaching and learning materials of various media such as print, audio (radio), video (TV) and multimedia courseware. They were among the key players who prepared the Smart School blueprint and in the implementation of the Smart School pilot project launched in 1997 as well as SchoolNet, the 1BestariNet, Frog VLE and other technology initiatives. Visit the divisionÊs website for more details of its activities at http://btp.moe.gov.my/btp/ Hedberg (1990) made the following remark in his observation of the educational technology scene in Malaysia: My first contact with Malaysia was a professional education conference held in Kuala Lumpur in January 1970, where the language of communication was English but the methods of presentation were largely talk with little presentation technology. At that time, I had only just arrived in Asia and the sounds and smells were so exciting and different, that I hardly noticed the lack of resources. Recently, I was invited to return to present the Keynote paper to the Second Malaysian Educational Technology Society Convention. After twenty years, I noticed a definite maturity about the way in which people were approaching educational technology. The sophistication was not only in the technology employed but in the concepts held about its appropriate use. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 21 Today, more than 25 years after HedbergÊs comment, learning technologies in various forms of hardware and software have been widely supplied to schools, colleges and universities. Teachers have been sent for training by the ministry. The 1BestariNet project, under the Ministry of Education, ensured training for all teachers in the 10,000 primary and secondary public schools in Malaysia. However, their level of usage is far from desirable. While all Science, Mathematics and English Language teachers are equipped with notebooks and computer projectors, not everyone uses them regularly. Why? I have been made to understand that in some schools, principals have them under lock and key for fear that they will be spoilt. Do you know of any other concerns or issues related to technology use in school? Topic 3 will cover more on technology supplied and their use in smart schools. Starting in the mid-1990s, all Malaysian universities embraced the use of technology in instruction. Lecturers are usually equipped with either a desktop or notebook computer as part of the enculturation of technology. Every lecturer has an e-mail address and many have created personal web pages or use resources from the Internet to teach. Some will upload their course materials on to the Web to enable student access to learning materials. In addition, some lecturers will include the use of web-based discussion forums as part of their learning activities. Open distance learning institutions such as University Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) and Open University Malaysia (OUM) offer part of the learning activities via their Learning Management Systems (LMS). At OUM, discussions conducted online used to contribute up to five per cent of the course grade in the undergraduate programmes. Some of the recent developments in universities will be highlighted in Topic 4. Two of MalaysiaÊs largest establishments of educational technology facilities are in two of the countryÊs premier universities (see Figures 1.7 and 1.8). The first is the Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia at Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) in Penang (http://www.ptpm.usm.my). The other is the Centre for Instructional Design and Technology (http://www.oum.edu.my/pages/centres/centres/CIDT.php) located at the main campus of OUM in Kuala Lumpur. While the former awards degrees as well as acts as a service centre, the latter develops both print and non-print materials for its learners. There is so much left unsaid about the growth of educational technology in Malaysia. It has grown by leaps and bounds, particularly after the launch of the Multimedia Super Corridor. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
22 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Figure 1.7: Webpage for the Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia at USM Source: http://www.ptpm.usm.my/index.php Figure 1.8: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology (CiDT) at OUM Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 23 Now, we have policies for ICT integration in teaching and learning, and for e-learning. All Malaysian schools are equipped to be Smart Schools, and all higher education institutes have the capability to implement e-learning. A survey of the usage of ICT in schools according to the Smart School Qualification Standard (SSQS) in 2010 showed that 89.6 per cent of schools have achieved a minimum of 3 stars, from a scale of 5 stars (BTP, 2011). Do you think the standard has increased now? The future development of educational technology in Malaysia was outlined under Shift 7: ICT for Education of the Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013ă2025 (see Figure 1.9). This Blueprint outlined the phases of development and future direction of the educational technology scene as an integrated development plan with the other education initiatives by the Ministry. Figure 1.9: Shift 7: ICT for Education of the Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013ă2025 Source: Ministry of Education Malaysia (2013) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
24 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) To successfully ensure the four development strategies (stated in Figure 1.9), ICT in Education was delineated into three waves: (a) Wave 1 (2013ă2015): Enhancing the foundation; (b) Wave 2 (2016ă2020): Introducing ICT innovations; and (c) Wave 3 (2021ă2025): Maintaining innovative, system-wide usage. At present, all schools have connectivity to 1BestariNet, a 4G broadband Internet access, and the access to a virtual learning environment, which is a Learning Management system, called VLE Frog. StudentsÊ competency in ICT can now be measured using Standard Kompetensi Digital (Digital Competency Standards ă DCS). It is a tool that will determine studentsÊ digital competencies in the cognitive, technological and ethical domains. At present, the DCS is still being piloted since 2015 (BTP, 2016). In addition, the Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan (BTP) has a variety of resources available for e-learning in schools which include digital materials such as e-materials or e-bahan which are learning objects hosted on a LMS, videos on EduWebTV and a recent revamping of Radio Pendidikan in 2013 to include a portal for digital audios and podcasts to support distance learning (BTP, 2016). There have been so many changes and innovations in technology for education. Has this changed the way we teach? If we were to visit some of the schools today, we are bound to hear that there is so much ICT equipment. Are they well-utilised? Why? Discuss further on how the utilisation of technology in schools can further be improved. We seem to have gone from the lack of technology to an over-abundance of technology, yet both have presented a unique set of challenges! Perhaps this is worth a discussion in your next tutorial meeting. What do you think can be done to change so that technology is not wasted? Discuss the challenges and how these can be overcome with your coursemates in the myINSPIREp online forum. ACTIVITY 1.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 25 Educational technology has had a rather long history, evolving from audiovisual communications. Educational technology has been defined differently at different times. Educational technology has been used interchangeably with instructional technology. Instructional technology is a subset of educational technology. Originally comprising five domains (educational technology), the field has grown to incorporate several elements as outlined by Nworie and McGriff. Education has evolved, moving from traditional learning environments to new learning environments that could best leverage on technology. Educational and instructional technologists play an important role in ensuring that learning is more effective by designing, developing, implementing, evaluating and managing the learning environments. Educational technology developments in Malaysia can be traced back to 1946 when Radio Malaya transmitted educational programmes. Educational technology has advanced to incorporate e-learning in MalaysiaÊs smart schools and in its higher education institutions. Educational technologist Educational technology Instructional technologists Instructional technology Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
26 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan (BTP). (2011). Laporan tahunan 2011. Retrieved from https://www.yumpu.com/id/document/view/36880086/laporantahunan-btp-2011-bahagian-teknologi-pendidikan Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan (BTP). (2016). Portal rasmi Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan. Retrieved http://btp.moe.gov.my/btp/ Bitter, G., Thomas, L., Knezek, D. G., Friske, J., Taylor, H., Wiebe, J., & Kelly, M. G. (1997). National educational technology standards: Developing new learning environments for todayÊs classrooms. NASSP Bulletin, 81(592), 52ă58. Chen, H., & Dong, L., Tomita, K., & Eunkyung, M. (2016). Educational technology and instructional design in East Asia: Program curricula and career opportunities. TechTrends, 60(6), 525ă527. Chowdhury, F. P. (2015). A comparison of instructional technology adoption at two campuses: A case study of a private University of Bangladesh. Australian Journal of Business and Economic Studies, 1(2), 1ă15. Christopher, P. (2004). What is instructional technology? A personal reflection. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.620.5398&rep= rep1&type=pdf Commission on Instructional Technology. (1970). To improve learning. A report to the President and the Congress of the United States. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Ely, D. P. (1963). The changing role of the audiovisual process in education: A definition and a glossary of related terms. Washington, DC: Department of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED016409.pdf Harris, P., & Walling, D. R. (2013). The learning designer: Merging art and science with educational technology. TechTrends, 57(5), 35ă41. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 27 Hedberg, J. G. (1990). Educational technology in Malaysia: The resource centre as a unifying concept. Retrieved from http://ascilite.org/archivedjournals/aset/confs/edtech90/hedberg.html Hoffman, B. (2017). What is educational technology? Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved from http://www.etc.edu.cn/eet/eet/articles/edtech/index.htm Ibrahim Bajunid. (2001). The transformation of Malaysian society through technological advantage: ICT and education in Malaysia. Journal of Southeast Asian Education, 2(1), 104ă146. Januszewski, A., Molenda, M., & Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). (2008). Educational technology: A definition with commentary. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kowch, E. G. (2013). Whither thee, educational technology? Suggesting a critical expansion of our epistemology for emerging leaders. TechTrends, 57(5), 25ă34. Lowenthal, P., & Wilson, B. G. (2010). Labels do matter! A critique of AECTÊs redefinition of the field. TechTrends, 54(1), 38ă48. Major Owens. (n.d.). Major Owens quotes. BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved from https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/m/majorowens235809.html Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). (2013). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013ă2025 (Preschool to post-secondary education). Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.my/images/dasar-kpm/articlefile_file_003108.pdf Molenda, M. (2004). Instructional technology. In A. Kovalchick, & K. Dawson, Education and technology: An encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. Nworie, J., & McGriff, S. J. (2001). Towards the transformation of higher education: Educational technology leadership. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED470149.pdf Reeves, T. C., & Oh, E. G. (2016). The goals and methods of educational technology research over a quarter century (1989ă2014). Education Technology Research Development, 1ă15. DOI 10.1007/s11423-016-9474-1 Richey, R. C., Fields, D. C., & Foxon, M. (2001). Instructional design competencies: The standards (3rd ed.). Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
28 TOPIC 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) Roblyer, M. D. (2006). Integrating technology into teaching (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Rowntree, D. (1982). Educational technology in curriculum development. London, England: Harper & Row. Saettler, L. P. (2005). The evolution of American educational technology. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. Seels, B., & Richey, R. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Shafritz, J. M., Koeppe, R. P., & Soper, E. W. (1988). The Facts on File dictionary of education. New York, NY: Facts on File. Sims, R. C., & Koszalka, T. A. (2008). Competencies for the new-age instructional designer. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. J. G. van Merriënboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. Singh, Y. K., Sharma, T. K., & Upadhya, B. (2008). Education technology: Teaching learning. New Delhi, India: APH Books. Spector, J. M. (2010). Educational technology and change. TechTrends, 54(5), 6ă7. Spector, J. M. (2015). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives. London, England: Routledge. Technopedia. (2017). Instructional technology. Retrieved from https://www.techopedia.com/definition/20045/instructional-technology University of North Carolina Media Services. (1997). Defining educational technology. In T. W. Cavanaugh, The need for assistive technology in educational technology. Retrieved from https://www.unf.edu/~tcavanau/publications/need_for_assistive_techno logy_in.htm Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION The Internet has changed the way people communicate and teach. From the time of the first microcomputers in the 1980s, which used green monochrome monitors, 16MB RAM and huge 5.25 inch floppies, we have advanced so much. Figure 2.1 shows Apple II, which is the second Apple computer invented in 1977. Topic 2 Current Trends in Educational Technology (Post-Internet) LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the impact of the Internet on education in general; 2. Explain some of the uses of Internet resources in schools and higher education; 3. Define e-learning; 4. Explain the use of a learning management system (LMS); 5. Describe the stages of e-learning; and 6. Describe some e-learning myths. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
30 TOPIC 2 CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (POST-INTERNET) Figure 2.1: Apple II, the second Apple computer Source: http://www.webgranth.com/apple-computer-co-to-apple-inc-an-illustratedevolution Initially, computer-mediated communications on the Internet in the 1990s was newsgroups and list servers, and there were search engines like Gopher, Archie and Veronica. Although the Internet users of the time were helpful, netiquette had to be observed or you would get a friendly warning (at first) from another user. There were only about 10 million Internet users then, not quite the more than 3.77 billion we have today. The Internet is, indeed, astounding. E-mailing, discovering websites, access to online newspapers, magazine articles and journal articles is just the tip of the iceberg. As more and more teachers utilise the Internet, more and more Internetbased activities were created. There were tools on the Internet for teachers to use such as puzzle-makers to creating crosswords or word search puzzles, colouring books and personalised books for children. The Internet has, in fact, made more people computer-literate as almost everyone can communicate, make friends and get information online. Access to the Internet has become fast, easy and more affordable. Today, most homes would have access to a wireless high-speed broadband Internet. The smart television can connect to the Internet, or be „paired‰ with a mobile device, to view videos or listen to TEDtalks on a larger screen with the family, or a larger group of audience. Today, wireless devices such as a notebook computer, a tablet and a mobile phone can connect to work anywhere as long as there is „WiFi‰ (wireless Internet). My mobile phone and tablet have SIM cards which enable connectivity to my Internet service provider, and I sometimes use a „dongle‰, which is a wireless adapter, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (POST-INTERNET) 31 plugged into the USB of my notebook computer, to subscribe and connect to my Internet service provider when WiFi is unavailable. Loss of connectivity to the Internet for even a day is unimaginable as I need Whatsapp to communicate and share media with friends and work colleagues, and Facebook to share my status, and view what family, friends and colleagues are up to. THE INTERNET AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION The Internet is not new but it has been only in the last decade that it has become ubiquitous. We now need the Internet in almost every aspect of life. In 1993, there were only 10 million Internet users. This quickly grew to more than 300 million in 2000 and in January 2017, more than 3.77 billion or a 50 per cent of Internet penetration rate! Such a staggering growth for such a simple concept as building an international network of networks which is what the Internet is all about. Millions of networks make up the Internet. Each network is linked to one another using high-speed connections. The Internet has made such a huge impact on the way we do things, the way we live, our lifestyle and the way we learn. Internet users are constantly exchanging information and ideas, communicating with family and friends from around the world, as well as sharing photographs and documents. This also includes a number of online activities such us doing our banking, taxes, payment of bills, and even shopping online! Being on the Internet means a person is able to access millions of resources on topics ranging from A to Z. Search for a topic of your interest and you will see dozens if not thousands of listings of resources related to the topic. Incredible isnÊt it? I envy how students today are able to browse for journal articles, connect to experts around the world and download journal articles on their computers. In the past, students had to visit the library to look for what they needed, borrow these books and journals, and if the journals were in another library, request for an interlibrary loan. It usually took a week or two unlike today where with just a few seconds on the Internet, you will have had access to large numbers of electronic journals and books from a variety of databases, all from the comfort of your home. 2.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
32 TOPIC 2 CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (POST-INTERNET) Before the Internet era, experts were not easily accessible. When students had to contact an expert, they would have to write a letter and wait for their reply. Today, a quick e-mail will typically bring a response within minutes or at most, a day or two. Meetings can also be conducted virtually through Skype or other videoconferencing tools. Previously, one had to go to seminars to hear experts in the field share their research and their thoughts. Presently, we could now attend virtual seminars, or webinars. Slides can be presented by the expert, along with questions and answer through text messaging or face-to-face conferencing. How exciting! In this topic, let us discover how the Internet has changed the way we learn and educate students. I believe the Internet has made learning more fun and interesting. DonÊt you? Malaysian higher education institutions have also leveraged on technology, in particular, the Internet. Public universities have adopted blended learning using Learning Management Systems, and some universities such as Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) offer Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) for the public to enrol in. UNITAR and Open University Malaysia (OUM) have also widely adopted the use of the Internet as part of their hybrid and blended modes of learning, respectively. In some ways, the Internet has benefited learners even though they are at risk of information overload. The Internet also offers more people, irrespective of who they are, the opportunity to learn. Knowledge used to be for the privileged few who could afford it, whether in the form of books or access to the library. Not anymore. Today, anyone with a mobile device can access the Internet and „google‰ meanings of words, or find out more about the history of a place. One can learn how to manage money better, become a better parent, try out new recipes, and discuss where to get the best price for the latest Samsung „phablet‰. The list is endless. 2.1.1 Internet Resources for Schools Teachers, especially in the more developed countries, are constantly exchanging lesson plans and ideas, having discussions with other teachers, sharing best practices on blogs and microblogs (Twitter and Facebook), and setting up virtual learning environments. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (POST-INTERNET) 33 For students, the Internet is a very useful tool in finding information on almost anything. How fortunate for students today as information is accessible with just a few mouse clicks. Even without knowing the exact location of the information needed, search engines enable students to quickly search for information that would not have been easily accessible before the Internet age. Imagine finding information on diseases, personalities, issues and so forth that would normally take a week or two of library search. All this can be done within a few minutes or a few hours on the Internet. If you were to surf the Internet, you would discover that the Internet is a treasure trove of educational resources (refer to Table 2.1 and see Figures 2.2 through 2.4). There are online activities for pre-schoolers and older school children. Imagine finding colouring pages, games, poems, e-books, puzzles and so on. You can download them, print and keep the young ones busy. Many of them are available free of charge. Table 2.1: Examples of Resources on the Internet for Schools Title of Web Site URL Internet for Classrooms http://www.internet4classrooms.com Super Teacher Worksheets http://www.superteacherworkssheets.com/ Kathy SchrockÊs Guide for Educators http://school.discoveryeducation.com/schrockguide Cyber Bee http://www.cyberbee.com History Timelines http://www.searchbeat.com/history.htm Chem4Kids http://www.chem4kids.com/ Biology for Kids http://www.biologyforkids.com Bartleby Library http://www.bartleby.com/ Puzzlemaker http://puzzlemaker.school.discovery.com/ T.H.E. Journal http://www.thejournal.com/ International Society for Technology in Education http://www.iste.org TED-Ed Videos https://www.ted.com/watch/ted-ed Khan Academy www.khanacademy.org CK-12 http://www.ck12.org/ Academic Earth http://academicearth.org/ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
34 TOPIC 2 CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (POST-INTERNET) Figure 2.2: Crossword puzzles can be easily created using the Puzzlemaker tool Source: http://puzzlemaker.school.discovery.com/ Figure 2.3: Biology4Kids provides information on a variety of topics for secondary school children Source: http://www.biology4kids.com/ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (POST-INTERNET) 35 Figure 2.4: Sesame Street on the World Wide Web Source: http://www.sesameplace.com/ Educators have also encouraged the use of the Internet not only as a resource but also as a collaborative tool to work on school-based projects or to collaborate with other schools within or outside the country on common projects. It is amazing how the Internet enables and encourages such collaborations. Some possibilities of projects which can be used for collaborative projects among schools are found at http://www.connectallschools.org/node/132295 and http://www.k12science.org/materials/k12/technology/online-collaboration/ 2.1.2 Internet Resources for Higher Education At the college or university level, you will be equally overwhelmed by the amount of learning resources available online. Some of these resources are open resources available to anyone interested in learning. The resources include interactive multimedia materials, as well as videos for both teaching and learning on a variety of topics from anthropology to zoology. If you are a lecturer and wish to compare course outlines, you may decide to determine how others are teaching similar courses. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)