186 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING (iii) Verbal Information or Knowledge Verbal information or knowledge refers to the learnerÊs ability to verbalise the acquired knowledge or information, such as: Common information: for example, names of months, cities and countries. Highly organised information: scientific processes, economies of scales and events of Malaysian history. (iv) Attitudes An attitude amplifies an individualÊs positive or negative reactions towards different things, persons and situations. Educational institutions are often expected to establish socially approved attitudes such as respect for other people, cooperativeness and personal responsibility. (v) Motor Skills The movement of skeletal muscles that is organised to accomplish purposeful actions. (b) Internal and External Conditions A learning event involves several internal processes, each of which may be influenced by external factors of instruction (see Figure 7.7). Figure 7.7: External and internal factors affecting the learning event Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 187 (c) Nine Events of Instruction According to Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1992), the events of instruction should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (see Figure 7.8). Figure 7.8: Nine events of instruction Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
188 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING Figure 7.9 illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective: Recognise an equilateral triangle. Figure 7.9: Teaching sequence based on GagneÊs nine events of instruction Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 189 7.2.2 Shifts in ID Theory Knowledge is a complex phenomenon and involves the learnersÊ schema, mental models, symbol manipulation, knowledge construction, and conceptual change (Lowyck, 2014). In order to organise knowledge, different cognitive tools, such as simulations, concept mapping, and semantic networking embedded in computer tools can be used to visually represent a cognitive structure with nodes and links (Jonassen & Reeves, 1996). Hence, knowledge construction is a generative learning process where knowledge is not conceptualised as a body of information based on verified facts, but rather, as individually constructed by observation and experimentation (Lowyck, 2014). This would mean that knowledge acquisition is a dynamic rather than a static process, multidimensional rather than linear, and systemic rather than unsystematic (Winn, 1993). According to Jonassen, Mayes and McAleese (1993), the active interaction between an individual and the environment is mediated through cognitive structures of the individual. This means that the knowledge each student constructs cannot be determined from separate individual pieces of information in the environment or curriculum, but emerges from the interactions and relations between the learners within the knowledge domain (Lowyck, 2014). 1. What are the three elements of GagneÊs instructional design theory? 2. Briefly explain the five capabilities in the human learner. 3. State the nine events of instruction that provide the necessary conditions for learning. SELF-CHECK 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
190 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING There is now a change in focus in the field of ID, from designing instructional materials to developing learning environments, where the control of learning shifts from the instructional system to the learner (Lowyck, 2014). Learner control allows learners to make instructional decisions on support needed and content to be covered, choosing the estimated optimal level of difficulty, sequencing a learning path, regulating both the kind and speed of presentation, and defining the amount of information they want to process (Lowyck, 2104). Discovery learning, problem-based learning, inquiry learning, experiential learning and constructivist learning are versions of open learning that gives the learner control. In learning environments where learners are partners in distributed intelligence to enhance cognitive and metacognitive knowledge and strategies, there can be a moderate conception of control (Salomon, Perkins & Globerson, 1991). In constructivist learning environments, there is explicit learner support in cognitive apprenticeship and situated cognition (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989), anchored instruction (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1993), and simulation learning environments (De Jong, 1991). Support is given in the form of advanced help, hints, modelling, coaching, fading, articulation, reflection, and exploration to support the process of increasing learner control (Lowyck, 2014). In multimedia environments, support is given through the standard pop-up help systems, animated guides or intelligent agents that monitor browsing patterns of learners. In computer-based learning, learner support has been given in using of computer tools which originated outside education such as wiki, forums and even data analytic tools; and dedicated tools embedded in the environment, such as pedagogical agents and mind maps. These tools are called „mind tools‰ by Jonassen as they help to organise the cognitive and metacognitive processes during learning. The changes in learning theory have influenced the way ID is done, from a behaviourist concept to a concept of shared cognition as is popular at present. The ID models developed now would be based on the theories that have been developed beforehand. However, there may be transitions between theory, findings, principles, and concrete implementations which may pose problems (Lowyck, 2014). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 191 Different research findings lack the documentation of the transition steps between descriptive and prescriptive knowledge, which also caused problems in building tools for automated instructional design (Spector, Polson, & Muraida, 1993). Hence, the expertise of the ID will come into play to decide the best use of theory for his learners, and learner communities for effective and efficient learning. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) MODELS What is the difference between instructional design theory and an instructional design model? How do you define an instructional design model? An instructional design model provides a mental image of the theoretical foundations and also gives structure and meaning to an instructional designer in visualising the best approach to take for effective learning. The core elements in ADDIE ă analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation ă provide a framework which may be used to create their own specific models. Generally, there has been no shortage of models. Andrews and Goodson (1980) reviewed 40 models of ID. Since then, there have been many works and different models developed. The critical analysis of the models showed that three major activities were shared: (a) Analysis; (b) Strategy development; and (c) Evaluation. 7.3 If you were to design an instructional product (print module, multimedia courseware, learning object, web-based course, or audio-tape), which instructional theory/theories will inform your decision? Discuss this in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
192 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 7.3.1 Selecting Models Pappas (2015) suggests tips in selecting the appropriate ID model for your next project. There are eight areas to consider: (a) Personal Cognition Your own personal beliefs, opinions and experiences influence the way you work. You may believe in one important component, for example, motivation. This may influence your choice of models positively. However, this may adversely affect you as you may be biased against models which do not have these criteria. Consider if your own personal bias is hindering you in the selection of a model. (b) The Learning Objectives The selection of the model would be based on the learning objectives, goals and outcomes of the instruction. Hence, it is essential to determine the outcomes of the course: the behaviours, principles and methodologies. In addition to this, it is also important to select the model based on what needs to be produced. (c) Evaluate Every Aspect of the ID Model Each ID model is based on different principles, theories and ideologies. Some are based on behaviourist theories and others on constructivist. Hence, it is important to consider if the elements in a model are aligned with the strategy that you have selected. (d) Team Input Each member of the team will have their own personal beliefs and cognition on the design of instruction. Therefore, it is important to ensure all members have similar beliefs before commencing on any project. In addition, it is also important to determine the skills and abilities of the team members so as to best assign tasks according to their abilities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 193 (e) Needs and Preferences of Online Learner This is important in order to design instructions that are suitable for your learners. Surveys, pre-assessments and workplace observations may be done to determine the background, knowledge, preferences, as well as abilities and skills of the learner. (f) Resources Resources should be gathered in advance before the selection of the ID model. This is to ensure that the resources, tools and materials available match the selected models. Another alternative is to design tools and materials specifically for the selected model. (g) Relook Each Model for Active Learning The ID model should be able to provide your learner with an active, interactive and engaging learning experience. Hence, how can the ID model allow for human interaction and does it cater to the needs of the learners? (h) Plan for the Future The ID model you have selected should be „tech-forward‰ and flexible. It should be futuristic in nature which will allow it to be used in the future. Do you consider your future audiences in the design? Is the model you selected easily outdated and hinder learning? Select a particular learning outcome for instruction. Next, select an instructional design model suitable for this outcome from the list provided by Pappas (2015). Discuss why the model is suitable. ACTIVITY 7.3 Describe the eight tips in selecting the appropriate ID model. SELF-CHECK 7.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
194 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 7.3.2 Specific ID Models There are various ID models that can be used; however, we will now look into four specific ID models: (a) ARCS Model of Motivational Design One model that can be used alone or in combination with other models for the design of instruction is the ARCS Model of Motivational Design. It is a well-known design and widely applied model of instructional design. Simple, yet powerful, the ARCS Model is rooted in a number of motivational theories and concepts. The ARCS Model of Motivational Design is a well-known and widely applied model. It identifies four essential strategy components for motivating instruction (Keller, 1987): (i) [A]ttention strategies for arousing and sustaining curiosity and interest; (ii) [R]elevance strategies that link to learnersÊ needs, interests and motives; (iii) [C]onfidence strategies that help students develop a positive expectation for successful achievement; and (iv) [S]atisfaction strategies that provide extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement for effort. Table 7.4 outlines the motivational strategies to gain attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 195 Table 7.4: Motivational Concepts and Motivational Strategies Motivational Concept Motivational Strategies Attention Incongruity or conflict Concreteness Variability Humour Inquiry Participation Relevance Experience Present worth Future usefulness Need matching Modelling Choice Confidence Learning requirements Difficulty Expectations Attributions Self-confidence Satisfaction Natural consequences Unexpected rewards Positive outcomes Negative influences Scheduling Source: Keller (1987) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
196 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING (b) Dick and Carey Model The Dick and Carey model comprises the components shown in Figure 7.10. This model has also been used for constructivist learning environments (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014) Figure 7.10: Dick and Carey model Table 7.5 provides a description of the various elements in the Dick and Carey Model. Table 7.5: Components of the Dick and Carey Model Component Description Determine instructional goal What do you want learners to be able to do when they have completed the instruction? Analyse the instructional goal A step-by-step determination of what people are doing when they perform the goal and what entry behaviours are needed. Analyse learners and contexts Context in which the skills will be learned and the context in which the skills will be used. Write performance objectives Specific behaviour skills to be learned, the conditions under which they must be performed and the criteria for successful performance. Develop assessment instruments Based on the objectives. Develop instructional strategy Identify strategy to achieve the terminal objective; emphasis on presentation of information, practice and feedback, and testing. Develop and select instruction Using the stated strategy to produce instructional materials. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 197 Design and conduct formative evaluation Testing of instructional materials in one-to-one, small groups or field evaluations so that the materials can be evaluated with learners and revised prior to distribution. Revise instruction Data from the formative evaluation are summarised and interpreted to attempt to identify difficulties experienced by learners in achieving the objectives and to relate these difficulties to specific deficiencies in the materials. Summative evaluation Independent evaluation to judge the worth of the instruction. Source: Purnamasari (2015) (c) KempÊs Model KempÊs model is most useful for large-scale programmes involving groups of people and multiple resources (see Figure 7.11). It is a comprehensive model. Figure 7.11: KempÊs model Source: Morrison, Ross, Kalman, & Kemp (2011) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
198 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING The model is systemic and non-linear and seems to encourage designers to work in all areas as appropriate. For ease of explanation, the description of the model will start in the innermost sphere at „twelve oÊclock‰ and proceed clockwise. The following are the elements of this ID model: (i) Identify instructional problems and specify goals for designing an instructional programme; (ii) Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning; (iii) Identify subject content and analyse task components related to stated goals and purposes; (iv) State instructional objectives for the learner; (v) Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning; (vi) Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives; (vii) Plan the instructional message and delivery; (viii) Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives; and (ix) Select resources to support instruction and learning activities. (d) Smith and Ragan Model Figure 7.12 shows a visual representation of the process of Smith and RaganÊs ID model. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 199 Figure 7.12: The process of Smith and Ragan ID model Source: Smith & Ragan (1993) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
200 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING Smith and Ragan (1993) created an ID model that is becoming increasingly popular with students and professionals in the field of instructional technology who are interested in the cognitive psychology base of the ID process. Almost half the procedures address design of instructional strategies. This ID model has three phases; (i) Analysing the learning context; (ii) Generating instructional strategies; and (iii) Evaluation: formative and summative. In conclusion, there are hundreds of instructional design models but most of them have similar principles for instruction. Instructional design models are the conceptual tools which enable us to visualise, direct and manage processes for creating high-quality teaching and learning materials (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). The selection of the most appropriate instructional design model which matches the right processes can assist in appropriately developing the right learning environment. The instructional design models would then be an effective framework for conducting instructional design research (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). Based on the course materials provided to you in this module, do you think that the instructional design model used is based on any particular model? If yes, which model can you relate this module to? Give reasons when you discuss this online. ACTIVITY 7.4 1. What are the four essential strategy components of the ARCS Model of Motivational Design? 2. Describe the ten components of the Dick and Carey model. 3. Briefly explain the Kemp's ID model as well as the Smith and Ragan ID model. SELF-CHECK 7.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 201 Instructional design can enhance learning. Design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. All instructional designs have the five major activities as in the ADDIE framework: analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. Instructional design is an intellectual process requiring higher-level thinking skills. The role of instructional designers may evolve into what is known as knowledge architects. There are five capabilities in the human learner: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitudes and psychomotor skills. The nine events of instruction can provide the necessary conditions for learning and acts as the basis of instructional design. There are several models of ID. The ARCS Model of Motivational Design, Dick and Carey, KempÊs ID model and Smith and RaganÊs model are only a few. Attitudes Cognitive strategies Computer-based learning Conditions of learning Contiguity Criterion-referenced test Intellectual skills Knowledge architects Learning objectives Motor skills Norm-referenced test Personal cognition Prior learning Reinforcement Repetition Verbal information Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
202 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING Andrews, D. H., & Goodson, L. A. (1980). A comparative analysis of models of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 3(4), 2ă16. Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2002). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Branch, R. M., & Kopcha, T. J. (2014). Instructional design models. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), (4th ed.). Handbook of research on educational communications and technology. New York, NY: Springer. Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1993). Designing learning environments that support thinking: The Jasper series as a case study. In T. M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning. Berlin, Germany: Springer. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. De Jong, T. (1991). Learning and instruction with computer simulations. Education and Computing, 6(3-4), 217ă229. Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2014). The systematic design of instruction (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Francom, G. M., & Reeves, T. C. (2010). John M. Keller: A significant contributor to the field of educational technology. Educational Technology: The Magazine for Managers of Change in Education, 50(3), 55ă58. Gagne, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. (1979). Principles of instructional design. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College. Jonassen, D. H., & Reeves, T. C. (1996). Learning with technology: Using computers as cognitive tools. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology. New York, NY: Macmillan. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 203 Jonassen, D., Mayes, T., & McAleese, R. (1993). A manifesto for a constructivist approach to uses of technology in higher education. In T. M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning. Berlin, Germany: Springer. Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2ă10. Lasnik, V. E. (2003). Architects of knowledge: An emerging hybrid profession for educational communications. In Proceedings of Society for Technical Communication 50th Annual Conference, 132ă136. Lowyck, J. (2014). Bridging learning theories and technology-enhanced environments: A critical appraisal of its history. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology. New York, NY: Springer. Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kalman, H. K., & Kemp, J. E., (2011). Designing effective instruction: Applications of instructional design (6th ed.) New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Pappas, C. (2015). 8 tips to choose the best instructional design model for your next elearning course. eLearning Industry. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/tips-choose-best-instructional-designmodel-elearning-course Purnamasari, Y. D. R. (2015). Developing English learning materials for grade X students of beauty study program. State University of Yogyakarta. Retrieved from http://eprints.uny.ac.id/23083/1/Thesis%20Yohana%20- %2010202244056.pdf Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Reiser, R. A. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology: Part II: A history of instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(2), 57ă67. Salomon, G., Perkins, D. N., & Globerson, T. (1991). Partners in cognition: Extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies. Educational Researcher, 20(3), 2ă9. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
204 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING Seels, B., & Richey, R. (1994). Instructional technology: The definitions and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (1993). Instructional design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Spector, J. M., Polson, M. C., & Muraida, D. J. (Eds.). (1993). Automating instructional design: Concepts and issues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology. Washburn, K. D. (2010). The architecture of learning: Designing instruction for the learning brain. Pelham, AL: Clerestory Press. Wallington, C. J. (1981). Generic skills of an instructional developer. Journal of Instructional Development, 4(3), 28ă32. Winn, W. (1993). A constructivist critique of the assumptions of instructional design. In T. M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning. Berlin, Germany: Springer. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Think. In all your years of learning, have you enjoyed any of your learning experiences or do you remember any interesting ones? What made the learning experience so enjoyable or interesting? WouldnÊt you now like to be able to create such an enjoyable or interesting learning experience for your learners? The lasting measure of good teaching is what the individual student learns and carries away. (Barbara Harrell Carson, as cited in Bellanca, Fogarty, Pete, & Stinson, 2013) Topic 8 Building the Learning Environment LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define learning environment and learning objective; 2. Describe the ASSURE model; 3. Identify the three areas that contribute to learner differences; 4. Describe visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learners; 5. Discuss the considerations to be taken when designing new instructional material; 6. Elaborate the techniques for delivering a good presentation; and 7. Explain how to evaluate the effectiveness of the new learning experience. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
206 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT As an instructor (that is, teacher or trainer), I am sure you will want to know the best possible way to ensure learning. You will first need to know how to create an effective learning experience that will guide learning. You will also need to understand whether your learners are ready to learn or how to make them ready. You will also need to know what your learnerÊs preferred learning style is and determine, at the end, whether you have helped produce the desired learning outcome or not (see Figure 8.1). Figure 8.1: Learners remembering what they have learned In creating an experience conducive to learning, you will need to understand some of the fundamentals. This is what this topic will cover. It will not repeat the theories of learning as you would have learnt these from an Educational Psychology or Psychology of Learning course. However, you will need to be able to apply these theories. We will cover some of the fundamentals, primarily on how to go about building a suitable learning environment and how to use the principles of instructional design to design and develop appropriate learning activities and/or materials. Are you ready? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 207 BUILDING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: DESIGNING THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE What is a learning environment? For our purpose here, let us define learning environment as instruction that comprises one or more learning experiences that support learning while we have learners work towards the desired learning outcome. Learning environments can next be described in terms of whether they are collaborative, constructive, interactive, self-paced and so on. Learning environments will typically include learning approaches which will then determine the design of the learning experience which in turn includes what is provided in terms of activities and/or the use of learning materials. Creating a learning experience starts with planning a lesson. For example, if we were asked to teach a lesson on the history of the Malaccan Sultanate, how would we start? First, we should visualise what the learners should know at the end of the lesson. Next, we decide how to teach it, what activities to present and what learning materials to create or use. In addition, we need to ensure that the materials we have designed, developed and used are effective. For this, we need to evaluate the learning in terms of the various components of the learning experience. 8.1.1 Begin with the End in Mind What comes to your mind when you hear of objectives and outcomes? Would you agree that these are what learners should achieve at the end of the learning event? The learning event would have thus incorporated a set of learning experiences. Learning objectives can be expressed in cognitive or psychomotor terms. It can also be expressed in the form of attitudinal (affective) change. Learning is a result of a change in any one of them. The main question to ask is: How do you ensure that the right kind of learning occurs by the time the learning event is over? Would you agree that knowing what we want learners to achieve will help? A common example is teaching children their ABCs. One objective or learning outcome would typically be to have them recognise the alphabets. How would you do it? Would you plan the lessons in such a way that you instil learning by recognition? The teacher or mother would usually show a letter, tell a child what it is, ask him to repeat, reinforce by pronouncing it again and then have the child repeat the process. 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
208 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT After a while, the adult can show the letter and ask the child to state what the letter is. Once the child has mastered the alphabet, you will find the child rattling off the letters in quick succession. The child should also be able to say the alphabet even if it is shown in reverse or random order. At this stage, we know that learning has occurred (see Figure 8.2). Figure 8.2: Learning the alphabet What we have just described is about creating the right kind of learning experience(s). It is about deciding on the content, instructional approach, learning activities and learning materials as well as how to evaluate the effectiveness of the whole learning experience and its various components. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 209 8.1.2 The ASSURE Model In Topic 7, you would have learnt about instructional design, its processes and in particular some of the more popular instructional design models that are in use. These models are used to guide the entire process of designing instructional systems. Usually, an instructional designer is the key person who will design instructional systems. If you are an individual teacher or trainer who has been asked to teach or to train a particular subject, course or lesson, what could you do to ensure that the desired learning is produced? In short, how would you plan for effective instruction? DoesnÊt this require careful planning? Now let us say that you will need to incorporate the use of instructional media and technology. Is there a model that can be used to help with the process of creating a learning experience or in other words, planning a lesson to that effect? Let us consider the ASSURE model (see Figure 8.3). Popularised by Smaldino, Russell, Heinich and Molenda (2005), this model has been in use for more than 20 years. Figure 8.3: The ASSURE model for creating learning experiences Remember GagneÊs nine events of instruction? The ASSURE model incorporates the GagneÊs nine events. The ASSURE model is a systematic process aimed at helping the instructor focus on incorporating the use of media and technology within the classroom environment (virtual or real). Think of the ASSURE model as a model to assure learning. Study it and see if you agree. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
210 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT When applying the ASSURE model, the following are the typical questions asked: (a) Who is your audience or learner? (b) What are your objectives? (c) Which methods, media and materials will you and your learners use? (d) How can you and your learners make best use of the materials? (e) How will you get your learners involved in learning? (f) How will you evaluate both the learners and your instruction? (g) What should you revise if you do the presentation again? Imagine you have been asked to create a new lesson or workshop (using some form of technology-based learning). Let us now create a plan for a lesson or workshop of your choice using the ASSURE model. Can you do it? What are your challenges, if any? Share this with your coursemates in the online myINSPIRE fourm. Go to the following websites for a more detailed explanation of the six steps of the ASSURE model: (a) ASSURE: Instructional Design Model by Forest: http://educationaltechnology.net/assure-instructional-designmodel/ (b) 6 Tips to Apply the ASSURE Model in Blended Learning by Spencer: https://elearningindustry.com/6-tips-apply-assure-modelblended-learning ACTIVITY 8.1 1. Define learning environment and learning objectives. 2. Describe the ASSURE model. SELF-CHECK 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 211 LEARNER DIFFERENCES: COGNITIVE, PSYCHOSOCIAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL Understanding the differences between learners is the key to designing an effective learning experience. If we succeed in knowing who our learners are, we will be able to do the rest properly. Learner differences include those associated with cognitive characteristics such as prior knowledge, competencies and preferred learning style(s). Other learner differences include those associated with psychosocial characteristics such as motivation, attitude and socioeconomics. Also, contributing to learner differences are physiological characteristics such as age, location, cultural and linguistic background. In distance learning for example, mature learners come from a variety of backgrounds and hence, have had different work or career-related experiences. Depending on where they are from, they may also be culturally different and speak a different language. Hence, they are diverse in their prior knowledge and language competencies before starting a new lesson. When designing content, these differences have to be considered. Similarly, learning styles vary from learner to learner. They can be defined as different approaches or ways of learning. While some are visual learners (learn through seeing), others are auditory learners (learn through hearing) and there are still others who learn best through a kinaesthetical approach. The latter are known as kinaesthetic learners (learning through moving, doing and touching). Felder and Soloman (2002) classified learning styles in four dimensions: sensingintuitive, active-reflective, visual-verbal and sequential-global. If you have been teaching, you have probably observed a few learner differences. What else do you think contributed to the differences you have seen before? 8.2 What is your preferred learning style? Go to the following website on Index of Learning Styles (ILS) and answer the 44-item questionnaire to find out your learning style. Having determined your learning style, do you now understand why you learn best in a certain way? Index of Learning Styles (ILS) http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public//ILSpa ge.html ACTIVITY 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
212 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FORMULATING MEASURABLE OBJECTIVES As discussed earlier, we should have the end in mind. What do we want learners to achieve? We usually state this in terms of objectives or outcomes of the lesson. The objectives should provide a minimum level of expected achievement. To be able to evaluate their achievement of the objectives, we need to be able to see the learnerÊs new behaviour and to be able to measure the extent of learning. Hence, it is crucial that a learning objective is clear, concise and provides an objective description of what learners will be able to do at the end of the instruction. Examples of well-stated measurable objectives are: (a) At the end of the lesson, learners will be able to change a tyre within 15 minutes. (b) At the end of the lesson, learners will be able to describe the process of photosynthesis with a diagram included. (c) At the end of the lesson, learners will be able to write a 1,000-word essay on the Malaccan Sultanate. Note that when objectives are well-written, content, learning activities and assessment items such as projects, quizzes or examinations are easily conceived. A match between every one of them is fundamental to good instruction. 8.3 1. Explain the learner differences associated with cognitive, psychosocial and physiological characteristics. 2. Describe visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learners. SELF-CHECK 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 213 IDENTIFYING, MODIFYING AND CREATING TECHNOLOGY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS If you have carried out the activities suggested in previous topics, you would have found resources on the Internet. There are many to choose from or to model after. In developing your own instructional situation, these resources can be used to help deliver information, reinforce learning or help construct the learning experience. The first thing to do before identifying the learning resource to be used is to decide on the method of instruction such as simulation, demonstration, drill-and-practice or collaborative discussions. In other words, we need to be able to anticipate whether the instruction is for classroom-based learning or self-learning, whether the learners have the pre-requisite knowledge and whether they will have access to the necessary facilities, especially if computers or Internet access are required. Also, we need to consider who the learners are, their characteristics, group size, available equipment and facilities. In planning for the method of instruction, use GagneÊs nine events of instruction to develop an instructional lesson (refer to Table 8.1). Table 8.1 lists the nine events in the model and the questions to ask when planning an instructional segment (such as a lesson, lecture or workshop). Table 8.1: GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction Event Question to Ask Gain attention How can you gain learnersÊ attention? How can you establish the relevance of your material and pique their curiosity? Inform learners of objectives Upfront, tell learners what the objective is. Establish expectancy. Stimulate recall of prior learning How can you convey the relevance of your material? How can you link your instructional material to learnersÊ prior experiences or knowledge? 8.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
214 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Present the content How can you accommodate for different learning styles? How can you engage different presentation methods (video, graphics, audio)? Provide learner guidance How can you engage learners? Elicit learning/practice How will you get learners to demonstrate what they have learnt? Provide feedback How can you provide helpful, constructive feedback on learner activities? Assess learning How will you assess whether the learner has achieved the learning outcomes? How can you assess whether learners are ready to proceed? What kinds of formative and summative assessment will you employ? Enhance retention and transfer How can you review, summarise, and connect your instructional material to learnersÊ life experience and prior knowledge? Source: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (2017) You may use GagneÊs nine events of instruction when developing your instruction or instructional materials. You should also consider developing your assessment tools, especially now that you know your learning objectives or outcomes. Most people do this at the end. Consider doing this earlier and see if it makes more sense to do that. Next, we need to choose the media format. How do you deliver your instruction and what media are you using. Hence, this material could be an audio, video, a Web-based resource, a mobile application or an interactive simulation. It could also have resources such as slide presentations, spread sheets or databases. Once we have selected the media format, we could consider utilising available materials or if none are suitable, consider customising or re-purposing them, or if time permits, develop new materials and resources. The decision will depend on several factors. According to Smaldino et al. (2005), the questions to ask about a specific piece of media are: (a) Does it match the curriculum? (b) Is it accurate and current? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 215 (c) Does it contain clear and concise language? (d) Will it motivate and maintain interest? (e) Does it provide for learner participation? (f) Is it of good technical quality? (g) Is there evidence of its effectiveness (for example, field-test results)? (h) Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising? (i) Is a user guide or other documentation included? 8.4.1 Modifying Existing Materials The good news is that often, we can find existing materials to use and if they are not 100 per cent relevant, we can modify them accordingly to suit our instructional requirements. Of course, we have considered learner differences and determined our instructional strategies to make the instruction effective. How do we go about modifying materials we have identified? Let us say we found a video that is suitable but whose audio track is not in line with our instructional requirements. We could turn off the sound while showing the video and provide our own narration in class. Or, in another case, what if only part of the video is suitable? Then, we could just show that particular segment instead of the whole video programme. Another example could be slide presentations that we have found to be almost relevant. Let us say another teacher or trainer in the same organisation has created a set of slides. Perhaps, some slides can be re-used, while others with new content will need to be added to complete the desired instruction; therefore we would only need to add the rest. 1. What are the steps to be taken before identifying the learning resource to be used? 2. How do we use the GagneÊs nine events of instruction to develop an instructional lesson? SELF-CHECK 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
216 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Today, with the abundance of Web-based resources, we should be able to identify resources that can be used as part of the instruction. If these are available, why not? We could have learners visit the website, interact with content or activities made available and report his or her learning experiences after that. There are more than enough English grammar exercises or simulations for Physics lessons that we can find and use for free online. We must however, caution ourselves to make sure that we do not infringe on copyright by copying the resources and presenting them as our own. Credit must be given where due and consent must obtained from the original authors to use their materials. 8.4.2 Designing New Materials It is usually a challenge for some instructors to design or create their own instructional materials. It is not only time-consuming but at times, our choice is limited. Creating slide presentations may be easy for us to do but creating more sophisticated multimedia materials may pose a challenge. It will require some programming or the use of specialised skills which may not be within our capabilities. However, in some organisations, there may be a department or a team who can help instructors develop such materials. Take advantage of this. What you will need to do as the instructor is to provide the content and spend time discussing with the in-house instructional designer on your requirements, particularly the objectives or learning outcomes. You may share your instructional strategies with them but always be willing to listen to their suggestions as some of these could help enhance your planning. To summarise, when designing new materials (Smaldino et al., 2005), consider the following: (a) Objectives What do you want your learners to learn? (b) Audience What are the characteristics of your learners? Do they have the prerequisite knowledge and skills to use or learn from the materials? (c) Cost Is sufficient money available in your budget to meet the cost of supplies (videotapes, audiotapes) you will need to prepare the material? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 217 (d) Technical Expertise Do you have the necessary expertise to design and produce the kind of materials you wish to use? If not, will the necessary technical assistance be available to you? Try to keep your design within the range of your own capabilities. Do not waste time and money trying to produce slick professional materials when simple inexpensive products will get the job done. (e) Equipment Do you have the necessary equipment to produce or use the materials you intend to design? (f) Facilities If your design requires special facilities for preparation or use of your materials, are such facilities available? (g) Time Can you afford to spend whatever time necessary to design and produce the kind of materials you have in mind? 8.4.3 Showmanship What is showmanship? IsnÊt showmanship about how well entertainers perform in a stage show? Think again. Now, let me ask you this: Have you ever been impressed by a teacher, trainer or facilitator who was able to keep his learners glued to his presentation? If he used technology, would you agree that part of the success of this person is due to by how well he or she handled the technology? Have you ever come across someone who could not operate the computer or fumbled with the projector halfway through the presentation? Remember how irritated or anxious you were? Well, showmanship is about getting things to work the way you want them to work right from the minute you start. Think of your favourite singer on stage whose microphone failed or the band whose guitarist you could not hear when he was playing. I do not have to ask what you thought. It is clear that showmanship is an important aspect of presentations whether it is to teach, train or entertain. What are the considerations to be taken when designing new instructional material? SELF-CHECK 8.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
218 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT There are two stages of showmanship: Getting Ready and Presenting. What do you think each of these require? (a) Getting Ready for the Presentation Getting ready includes three stages, namely, planning, rehearsing and setting up (refer to Table 8.2). Table 8.2: Components of Getting Ready for the Presentation Component Explanation Planning We need to carefully plan for our presentation if we want to do a good job. We should try to visualise how we will get the information presented, carry out the activities and so on. It is best to know what kind of room the presentation will be in, the physical arrangement, whether the room can be darkened when we project an image onto the screen, whether there will be enough computers for hands-on activities and so on. We should also find out how many people will be present, how they will be seated and so forth. Rehearsing Rehearsal is a good idea if you want to eliminate distractions or minimise disruptions. We should try to rehearse before the actual presentation. Mentally run through the presentation to achieve smoothness in delivery. Go to the actual classroom or the room where the instruction will be carried out and try to use the same equipment that will be used during the presentation. Make sure everything works. Keep a mental note of what to do if things do not work as they should. Anticipate questions. You can also practise answers to the most likely questions from your audience. Setting Up It is a good idea to set up your equipment the day before to make sure that everything works. Test the distance between the equipment and the screen to ensure that the projected image will be the correct size. If you are using the computer laboratory, find out where the main switches are, how to turn on the air-conditioner if there is one and whether there is someone you can count on for technical assistance. If you need a microphone, try it out to ensure that it produces sound of the right quality. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 219 (b) Presenting Would you agree that presentation skills will make or break the presentation? Unfortunately, some of us suffer from performance anxiety or stage fright. However, we can overcome these challenges. There are many tips or guides to help us continuously improve our presentation skills. Presentation skills are indeed a good set of skills to have. First of all, please remember that different people prefer different ways of receiving information. While some prefer visuals, some are auditory learners. Some learn best by doing while others by reading. Some will pick up clues from facial or physical cues. Hence, you will agree that the best presentations are a combination of visual, verbal, look out of place, hands-on and facial/physical clues. Let us next look at the tips for presenters in Table 8.3. Table 8.3: Tips for Presenters Element Tips Voice Remain natural and relaxed. Speak in a normal conversational tone of voice. Try to vary vocal pitch, volume and flow of delivery to eliminate monotony. Eye contact Maintain eye contact with the audience. There should be a minimum of a three-second eye-to-eye contact between the presenter and the audience. Make eye contact with different members of the audience. Delivery Maintain interest of the audience, for example through storytelling, interesting visuals. Stay focused on the audience, do not let your ego get ahead of you. Pace your presentation for effectiveness ă decide why, when and where to be specific. Keep to the allotted time and allow a two-way interaction between yourself and the audience. Keep bells and whistles to a minimum. Do not overuse sound or visual effects. Visuals Use suitable visuals (not just any). Ensure the visuals will contribute to the understanding of the topic (and not become a distraction). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
220 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE Once you have conducted the learning session, you will want to evaluate your own work and get feedback from learners so that you can improve your course or programme. Feedback on a new or innovative learning experience will be most necessary to make sure the learners meet the learning objectives and if not, determine how and where we should improve. Both ongoing or formative and summative evaluations will need to be carried out either through observation or through surveys online or in print. When evaluating, the following items may be considered as part of the survey items: (a) List three strengths of the session; (b) List three weaknesses of the session; (c) If the session was conducted again, what would you have done differently? (d) What did you think should be covered in this session that was not? 8.5 1. Why is it important to evaluate a learning session? 2. How can we evaluate a learning session? SELF-CHECK 8.6 1. What is showmanship? 2. Describe the stages involved in getting ready for a presentation. 3. What are the key elements in giving a good presentation? SELF-CHECK 8.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 221 Learning environment is the instruction that comprises one or more learning experiences that support learning while we have learners work towards the desired learning outcome. Learning environments can next be described as being collaborative, constructive, interactive or self-paced. Learning objectives can be expressed in cognitive or psychomotor terms. It can also be expressed in the form of attitudinal (affective) change. The ASSURE model provides a systematic approach to planning for a learning experience. Learner differences are attributed by cognitive, psychosocial and physiological characteristics. All learners learn in different ways, visual learners learn through seeing, auditory learners learn through hearing and kinaesthetic learners learn through moving, doing and touching. Before identifying the learning resource to be used, we need to decide on the method of instruction. We also need to consider who the learners are, their characteristics, group size, available equipment and facilities. Objectives that are measurable are the key to evaluating instruction for effectiveness. Evaluation is important in measuring the effectiveness of a learning experience. Both formative and summative evaluations need to be carried out. What is the difference between the two? Which one do you think is important? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE forum. ACTIVITY 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
222 TOPIC 8 BUILDING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT When planning for a learning experience, instructors should be able to identify, create, modify and utilise technology-based learning materials. Good showmanship techniques are important when delivering an instruction or presentation. After conducting the learning session, we have to evaluate our work and get feedback from learners so that we can improve our course or programme. ASSURE model Cognitive characteristics Learner differences Learning environment Learning styles Physiological characteristics Psychosocial characteristics Showmanship Bellanca, J. A., Fogarty, R., Pete, B. M., & Stinson, R. L. (2013). School leaderÊs guide to the common core: Achieving results through rigor and relevance. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree. Felder, R. M., & Soloman, B. A. (2002). Learning styles and strategies. North Carolina State University. Retrieved from http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public//ILSdir/sty les.htm Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). (2017). GagneÊs nine events. IEEE Publications. Retrieved from https://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/subscriptions /prod/mdl/gagnes_nine_events.html Smaldino, S. E., Russell, J. D., Heinich, R., & Molenda, M. (2005). Instructional technology and media for learning (8th ed.). Columbus, OH: Pearson. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION In order to create an engaging learning experience, the role of instructor is optional, but the role of learner is essential. (Bernard Bull as cited in Pappas, 2014) eLearning doesnÊt just „happen‰! It requires careful planning and implementation. (Anonymous as cited in Pappas, 2014) Topic 9 Technologies of the Future LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe pedagogy and andragogy; 2. Compare mobigogy as a new model of learning, with pedagogy and andragogy; 3. Identify the different forms of search technologies and specialised search tools in use; 4. Differentiate between blogs and vlogs and their use in education; 5. Suggest ways to use blogging, vlogging and podcasting for education; and 6. Rationalise the need for connectivism as a source for developing knowledge in new learning environments. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
224 TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE When it comes to eLearning, content means everything. If eLearning content is not masterfully designed, all the rest will just go down the drain. (Pappas, 2014) The quotes above are from instructional designers and they indicate the importance of designing the learning experience (Pappas, 2014). Technology alone cannot be introduced to guarantee a beneficial learning experience. In fact, much planning needs to be put in to ensure sound instructional principles are included. According to Chickering and Ehrmann (1996), „Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much by just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorising pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write reflectively about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves‰. In this topic, a few latest technologies and their use in instruction is discussed to show its relevance in learning. In many of these technologies, we use the technology in everyday life, before we consider them for learning. One of these is mobile technology for our mobile phones, tablets and devices. LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES In the Horizon Report 2016, the importance of designing learning experiences for the learner in using emerging technologies has gained more importance than just using the new technology (Johnson, Becker, Cummins, Estrada, Freeman, & Hall, 2016). The instructor is expected to be proficient in a variety of technology-based and other approaches for content delivery, learner support and assessment (Johnson et al., 2016). The role of the teacher has now changed in the technology-enabled classroom. The teacher is now shifting from being an expert providing knowledge, to a facilitator to design learning environments to help their learners construct their learning experiences. These learning environments should help learners build 21st century skills such as creative inquiry and digital literacy (Johnson et al., 2016). As teachers guide and mentor their learners, they become responsible global citizens by motivating their learners to adopt lifelong learning habits as they engage with online tools, social media and other resources (Johnson et al., 2016). This also promotes engagement and collaboration with other communities of learners (Johnson et al., 2016). 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 225 The emerging technologies which are coming to the forefront of education are technologies that focus on mobility, flexibility and multiple device usage. Learning environments that support project-based learning seem to be suitable for these technologies. In addition, personalised learning which provides learning experiences to address the specific learning needs, interests, aspirations, or cultural backgrounds of individual learners is growing in demand. However, current technology or practices do not seem to support personalised learning (Johnson et al., 2016). Hence, designing learning environments for instruction has to be customised according to learnersÊ unique needs so that the development of new technologies can provide more learner choice and support differentiated instruction. Advances in online learning environments and adaptive learning technologies now make it possible to support a learnerÊs individual needs (Johnson et al., 2016). Interactive digital learning environments (IDLEs) are now ubiquitous in formal and lifelong learning contexts, where the emotional states of learners are being considered to develop learning tasks. IDLEs are being considered as systems which are adaptive to emotional responses of learners, for example in measuring the level of confusion of an individual from facial electromyogram (EMG) (Arguel, Lockyer, Lipp, Lodge, & Kennedy, 2016). An EMG measures the electrical activity of contracting muscles with electrodes placed on the surface of the skin. By using facial expressions from activation of groups of muscles specific to each emotion, a facial EMG can be used to reflect expressions which may not even be visible on the learnerÊs face (Arguel et al., 2016). However, before we go into facial recognition and advanced technologies, let us consider the learning environments that we are designing for our learners. Are we giving them ample opportunities to interact and build their knowledge? As we consider the emerging technologies in this topic, do not forget to consider the learning environment that you as the instructor will be designing. 9.1.1 Application of Mobile Technologies in Education Mobile technologies have a great potential to be used in education. Statistics in 2016 showed that 20.6 million (out of 30.5 million or 68 per cent of the total population) of the Malaysian population are active Internet users. In addition, 18 million (59 per cent) are active mobile Internet users (Khalifeh, 2016). However, when the usage of mobile technologies is investigated, it can be seen that it does not seem to be used for formal education in Malaysia. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
226 TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE According to Kalifeh (2016), the frequently used mobile activities in Malaysia are: (a) Social media apps (56%); (b) Watching online videos (43%); (c) Playing online games (34%); (d) Location based search (47%); and (e) Online banking (37%). Mobile learning is considered an important development that is currently being applied (Johnson et al., 2016). The report claims that the pervasiveness of the mobile devices, such as smart phones, tablets and smart watches are changing the way humans interact with information and their surroundings. Hence, there is a large potential in designing for learning environments using the mobile platform because of this pervasiveness of the mobile device. Mobile learning is not a new thing in the Malaysian education system. Since 2009, Open University Malaysia (OUM) was already experimenting with SMS-based learning (Yahaya, 2017). Isolated projects on using text message (SMS) in schools for language learning and science were implemented in the early days (Sim, 2005; DeWitt, 2010). Today, there are numerous applications on both Android and iPhones. Content from the Internet is also accessed easily as web pages, interactive simulations and videos are accessed. Hence, mobile learning, or m-learning, which uses mobile technologies to provide access to materials virtually anywhere, can be defined to emphasise the ownership of the mobile device, the context of the learning and the mobility of the learner (Traxler, 2009). It can be considered as the process of acquiring and constructing knowledge through interactions with content and other learners, where the content is delivered in smaller chunks (DeWitt, Alias & Siraj, 2015). M-learning differs from e-learning because of the ownership of the personalised device and the form of learning for the mobility of the learner, the process of learning, as well as the organisation of content materials (DeWitt et al., 2015). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 227 Mobile learning can be delivered through a number of different designs which includes: (a) Text messages; (b) Mobile apps; (c) Employing location-based applications; and (d) Using mobile Learning Management Systems (LMS). In the early days, text messages were pushed to learners who were enrolled in the course in the form of SMS or MMS alerts (Naismith, Lonsdale, Vavoula, & Sharples, 2004). Later, text messages became more interactive and have since been attached to content. In a project for driving, sports, health education, messages, dialogues and quizzes, mobile content using Flash animation have been used to deliver content to the learner (Colley & Stead, 2003 as cited in Naismith et al., 2004). The current trend is the use of mobile apps to deliver content and simulate learning environments. Educational apps such as Ready4 SAT, Photomath, My Study Life, Math Motion: Cupcake! and edX are some of the popular iPhone and Android apps which can be downloaded from iTunes and Google Play Store. Some of these apps have content attached to them while others such as Dropbox and Evernote are for content curation and compilation. Location-based mobile apps are also used to deliver content. Mobile technologies use global positioning system (GPS) to detect the location and deliver activities and content in the authentic environment. Subjects such as biology, geophysics and geography could use the location in the real environment to deliver additional information and activities (Pintus, Carboni, Paddeu, Piras & Sanna, 2004). The Mobile Virtual Campus has also assisted in virtual field trips for distance education in physical geography and science (Tan, Liu & Burkle, 2013). Apps for tourists such as „Detour‰, provides guided walking tours around a cityÊs famous neighbourhoods and landmarks. As you approach the location of the landmark, the apps trigger audio clips to describe the landmark with background music provided. In the National Parks ServiceÊs „National Mall‰ app, you get to explore Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
228 TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE historical buildings and monuments in the city, detailed map that tracks landmarks and points of interest, and a „Park Lens‰ augmented reality view that tags the surrounding buildings. Moreover, another popular addictive app is „Pokémon Go‰ which combines augmented reality technology for the player to discover and collect Pokémons. The player can even purchase items in their virtual shop, Pokéstops. PokéStop and Gyms are tied to real world locations that you need to physically travel, encouraging players to explore their neighbourhood. In some of the apps, content is pushed to the learner. However, content can also be accessed by the learner. Just as e-learning requires a learning management system (LMS) as a platform for learning and organising content and activities, mobile learning requires an mLMS. Modules could be delivered in a structured manner to support formal learning and can be accessed through desktop computers and mobile devices. According to the Horizon Report 2016, the first wave of mobile learning came in the form of small, low-cost apps which were extensions to the mobile device (Johnson et al., 2016). As a result, numerous educational apps have been created for language learning, maths, science and other subjects. However, the recent trend in m-learning is for more online learning opportunities to learn and experience new concepts anywhere, and sometimes across multiple devices; hence, may not be tied to specific apps for content delivery. 9.1.2 A New Model for Learning: Mobigogy There are several challenges when implementing mobile learning in education. Some challenges include the limitation of the device, its technological limitation and whether it is an Android or iOS platform; issues related to security and maintenance, to ensure the privacy of the learner is not compromised, and the cost of implementation as cost of equipment and access needs to be included (Faizah Abd Majid, 2013). In addition to the challenges related to hardware, instructors may lack the knowledge of mobile pedagogy or „mobigogy‰. How has mobile learning been used in instruction? Recall the features in the types of mobile applications you may have used for learning. ACTIVITY 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 229 The term mobigogy arose as a need for a unifying pedagogy, which is the science and art of teaching children or university-age youth and andragogy, the science and art of teaching adults (Keough, 2005). In a mobile learning environment, the instructorsÊ role is different as the learner has autonomy and is able to access knowledge anywhere and anytime. Hence, new instructional pedagogies that encourage personalised learning, situated learning and authentic learning are required. In addition, some teachers do not seem to have the skill and pedagogies for this purpose (Faizah Abd Majid, 2013). Table 9.1 provides a comparison between pedagogy, andragogy and mobigogy. Table 9.1: Comparison Between Pedagogy, Andragogy and Mobigogy Pedagogy Andragogy Mobigogy Compulsory Teacher-centred Voluntary Learner-orientated Continuous Learner-directed Minimal control by the learner Education as freedom Education as democracy Training for life Assimilation of learning with life experience Life experience is learning Encourages convergent thinking Encourages divergent thinking Enables network thinking Rote learning Active learning Dynamic learning Dependency on educatorÊs learning Learning and teaching roles are blurred Supported in learning communities Imparting of information Opens vistas for continuing learning and peer learning Uncertainty about the outcome, whatever the curriculum content Seeking knowledge from shared life events acknowledging living as learning Object-oriented recognition Source: Keough (2005) A comparison of mobigogy with pedagogy shows that mobigogy is continuously required all the time in a mobile learning environment and it is an experience in learning for democracy. The learner has control and autonomy on what he needs to learn. Hence, it is a dynamic learning, supported by learning communities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
230 TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE A model for mobigogy needs to take into account the following aspects (DeWitt et al., 2015): (a) LearnersÊ skills and access; (b) Devices which will be used including its usability; (c) Social interaction; (d) Learning that takes place; (e) Technologies and tools for social interaction; and (f) Mobile learning process. Knowing the learners, the skills they have, and the devices they can access can help the instructor in planning the learning experience that they require. It would also be beneficial to have a survey of the learnersÊ needs and readiness for the mobile learning process, learners perception and expectations of their learning environment, as well as the strategies for employing the learning tools. In this aspect, the devices which the learner will be using are important. We must determine whether the devices used will be mobile or static and also whether the platforms and capabilities of the device are compatible with the technologies to be used. In mobigogy, the social interaction is important. Hence, instructors need to have the skills for using technology tools for engaging active and interactive learning. In learning for interaction, the instructor needs to be a facilitator for developing new knowledge. The group of learners develops a „shared cognition‰ which is knowledge that they shared as they collaborated during discussions or group works. Hence, learning communities will have the same goal and will work together to achieve it. Therefore, the instructorsÊ role is to maintain this culture of collaboration and encourage more interactions. In building the learning community, teachers should encourage the community building process by first introducing activities for ice-breaking sessions and providing opportunities to collaborate in interesting situations and tasks (DeWitt et al., 2015). Hence, teachers should be able to moderate the online discussions to ensure that all members are a contributor to the development of knowledge. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 231 The principles which can be applied for mobigogy include the following: (a) Collaborative learning; (b) Advanced organisers; and (c) Chunking of content. Firstly, the application of the principles of collaborative learning can assist learning in mobile learning environments. This means that tasks given should be engaging, meaningful and encourage social interactions. In the collaboration principle, learning in collaborative groups can be formal or informal, but group processes in learning is mediated and scaffolded through „discourse‰, which are conversations and interactions in learning (Jonnasen, Lee, Yang & Laffey, 2005). This means that a facilitator is required for building and supporting a community of learners. However, for the collaborative principle to be applied, learners need to collaborate and be willing to participate in the activities. This means that there should be „positive interdependence‰ as each individual in the group is responsible and accountable, and be supportive of the efforts of the group members to complete the tasks and for reflection on the groupÊs processes (Johnson & Johnson, 2004). This principle also assumes that knowledge is socially constructed and that human intelligence originates in our society, whereas individual knowledge arises from our interactions in a social environment (Vygotsky, 1978). Finally, interactions between components in learning, which are the tools, subject, objects, community and rules, form the basis of the Activity Theory (Jonnasen, Lee, Yang & Laffey, 2005). Hence, the principle of collaboration requires every group member to be committed so that knowledge can be constructed through the interactions in the community of learners. In addition to the principle of collaboration, when teaching using mobile learning, advanced organisers should be used to present the content knowledge in advance so that the learners are aware of the objectives of the course as well as the expectations on completion of the course (DeWitt et al., 2015). In addition, in mobile learning, the principle of chunking should be used. Chunking means that information and content knowledge should be provided in small chunks, so that it is manageable for the learner and so that he is not overwhelmed by the information. This enables the process of organising thought and displaying information for it to be meaningful to the learner (DeWitt et al., 2015). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
232 TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE Hence, for mobigogy, the principles of collaboration and certain instructional design principles need to be applied for effective building of knowledge communities. SEARCH TECHNOLOGIES There are vast amounts of information on the Internet. I only need to access a search engine such as Google, Yahoo or Bing and type a keyword or phrase to get the information that I need. Subsequently, the search engine would collect and organise information to generate a whole list of hits of related sites. Search engines are large software programmes or web crawlers which indexes by associating words and other definable tokens from titles, page content, headings or metadata to create databases of web pages on specific information on a given subject. Many search engines have filters that can anticipate the userÊs requirements based on the userÊs current history. In this way, the search engine anticipates your need for information. 9.2 Based on the principles of mobigogy, design a lesson to be delivered on m-learning platform. Discuss how you would deliver and design the content, support and guide learning. ACTIVITY 9.2 What is pedagogy and andragogy? How similar or different is mobigogy from pedagogy and andragogy? SELF-CHECK 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 233 9.2.1 Specialised Search Tools The information that search engines provide is sometimes not relevant, trustworthy or specific enough. This is because search engines interpret the relevance of the search differently. There are many different search engines and some of the more well-used ones are shared here. If you are looking for specific media, you may want to have a specific search engine for the media you are looking for. TED-X and YouTube have search engines for the videos in their repositories. Other than web engines, subject directories may be used to search the web. Subject directories are smaller and more selective than search engines. They not only search by keywords, but also make use of „categories‰ to further focus your area of search. The main purpose of subject directories is informational and less likely commercial. Yahoo is a search directory which combines search engine, directory and search portal. Another type of specialised search tools are metasearch engines. Metasearch engines compile the search results from several search engines to represent the best hits to their keywords from each search engine. Metasearch tools may be useful for broad results but may not have quality results as compared to individual search engines and directory. Web tools help users to explore the web in an instant. However there are even more specialised web search tools that you may use to carry your search on to a higher level. There are alternative search engines for specialised search and social bookmarking sites. In addition, there are some online resources which are on the invisible web. These resources may not be available through search engines and are hence invisible. Most of the resources on the invisible web are maintained by academics. For more examples of specialised search tools, you can refer to the article by Haynal (n.d.) at http://navigators.com/search_tool_specialized.html Access the basics on Google search: https://www.lifewire.com/what-isgoogle-3482041. Identify how many of these tips you are familiar with. Share and discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum, how you can do a more intensive and time saving search. ACTIVITY 9.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
234 TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 9.2.2 Application of Search Technologies in the Future Search engines have become more complex and specialised as there has been more developments in mobile technology and voice search. Hence, search technologies in the future may evolve in a different manner. Search engines would penetrate the „walled gardens‰ which prevent users from accessing the invisible web. Search engines such as Google, makes use of Knowledge Graph to pull and deliver information from different sites without the user having to leave the Google site (Sentance, 2016). However, now there are some social media sites which embed media within the site so that users need to view the media, such as videos. Hence, new technologies will find new means and ways to have their „walled gardens‰ and technology again will attempt to trespass into these gardens to get information (Sentance, 2016). Mobile technology has changed the way people search for information. We are constantly searching for information during our meeting, as we read newspapers, magazines, and books and when we are on tour. Search engines are different on mobile devices as they are app-based. Presently, the Google app, Wikipedia app, and DuckDuckGo are some examples of these technology (Sentance, 2016). Another invasion of mobile technology is the Voice search and voice commands on the mobile device. Digital assistants on mobile phones like Siri on iPhone and MicrosoftÊs Cortana perform search queries and carry out tasks. Siri and Cortana do not need to route their searches through Google to return results (Sentance, 2016). A reaction to this is GoogleÊs voice-controlled digital assistant, Google Now. However, Google Now is not as nearly synonymous with iPhoneÊs voice-activated digital assistance, Siri. As technology becomes more humanised, search queries need to change. Users are starting to phrase their search queries differently making it more specific and longer as part of a conversation (see https://searchenginewatch.com/sew/ opinion/2411478/longer-search-queries-are-becoming-the-norm-what-it-meansfor-seo). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 235 Search engines are also becoming more contextual in nature. A contextual app discovery engine uses algorithms to recommend relevant apps to the user based on the behaviour, location and other factors (Friedman, 2015). Google has been doing this by personalising search results using search history and social activity. In addition, Goggle scans our emails for information like flight details and suggests when to leave for the airport or notifies of a flight delay. Similarly, when I turn Waze on, it understands me and predicts my routes, based on traffic and my most favoured travel route. As wearable technologies are used, and the digital device become smarter and can predict relationships and forecast the weather, there may even be a time when the device will suggest what we search. Is this possible? BLOG AND VLOGGING Blog is the abbreviation of weblog, which is a diary of events or a personal journal published on a web page on the World Wide Web. Blogs may be written by experts on a range of topics of interest and may have followers from a community of practitioners (DeWitt et al., 2015). These blogs mainly use text and some graphics to deliver content but may have embedded links to videos as well. When written for education, they are sometimes referred to as edublogs. A vlog is a video blog, and is normally published on the Internet on any social or interactive platform. While a blog enables content, normally in the written form, to be published online, videos are recorded footage or clip. However, publishing a vlog means that there will be a platform where you would be able to talk, discuss and share. 9.3 Discuss how search technologies will possibly change in the future. How would this affect research in education? ACTIVITY 9.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)