136 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING Furthermore, he argues that there is greater transactional distance when the course is more structured and there is less teacher-student dialogue. This is to say, to minimise the distance, there should be more interpersonal dialogue and less design by the „instructor‰. Distance is not measured by physical separation. We can say that it is more of a measurement of the „cognitive distance‰. The phrase „reaching the unreached‰ has similar implications. (b) Interaction Theory Quite similar to „transactional distance‰ theory, Moore (1989) while discussing on interaction theory, added two extra dimensions apart from the learner-instructor interaction, namely ă learner-content interaction and learner-learner interaction (as cited in McIsaac & Gunawardena, 2001). Another dimension, learner-interface interaction was later added by Hillman, Willis and Gunawardena (as cited in McIsaac & Gunawardena, 2001). All these interactions have a specific role in ensuring success of distance learning: (i) Learner-instructor interaction provides motivation, feedback and dialogue between the teacher and student. (ii) Learner-content interaction is the method by which students obtain intellectual information and is specific to their level of understanding before sharing it with their peers. (iii) Learner-learner interaction is the exchange of information, ideas and dialogue about the course that occurred between students. (iv) Learner-interface interaction otherwise commonly known as Human Computer Interface (HCI) was added in later to the model by Hillman et al. (as cited in McIsaac & Gunawardena, 2001). As interaction between the learner and technology is important for successful learning, a good understanding of the interface is crucial. Time lost in understanding the technology should be minimised so that motivation to learn is not affected. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 137 (c) Social Context In a distance learning environment where learners meet each other and their instructors less often, the creation of social presence whenever they „meet‰ is important. This is because it affects student motivation, enthusiasm, energy and attitude towards learning. For example, in an asynchronous learning environment using the discussion board, it is crucial for the instructor to acknowledge the contributions made by students as that is one way for them to feel inclusive. Apart from creating a high degree of social presence, it is also important that the social dialogue be suited to learnersÊ needs. Instructors must be able to gauge their learnersÊ level of social discourse: writing, speaking and motivating them accordingly. (d) Control Another important theoretical aspect underlying the success of a distance learning programme is control. The more internal control a student has, the better he or she performs. Thus, for a distance learning institution, it is important that the locus of control is shifted to the student to ensure a successful completion rate. Distance learning institutions must have modules built into existing programmes which will increase the locus of control of students. At Open University Malaysia, a complete course is offered to learners to build up their skills and competence in technology as well as skills in managing themselves. For more information on distance education, refer to the article titled Distance Education by McIsaac and Gunawardena (2001). 1. Discuss the concept of transactional distance. 2. Explain the four types of interactions in distance learning. SELF-CHECK 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
138 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY According to Seels and Richey (1994), instructional technology is „the theory and practice of design, development, utilisation, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.‰ The University of North Carolina Media Services (as cited in Cavanaugh, 2002) states that educational technology is „the application of research, learning theory, emergent technologies, and child and adult psychology to solve instructional and performance problems.‰ Heinich, Molenda, and Russell (1993) also connect instructional technology to learning and define it as „applying scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning‰. Spector (2012) defines educational technology as „the disciplined application of technology for the purpose of improving learning, instruction and/or performance‰ while instructional design as the „planning, selection, sequencing, and development of activities and resources to supported targeted learning outcomes‰. Reiser and Dempsy (2007) use the term instructional design and technology (also known as instructional technology) as „encompassing the analysis of learning and performance problems, and the design, development, implementation, evaluation and management of instructional and non-instructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of settings, particularly educational institutions and at the workplace‰. 5.2 Based on your practical experiences with distance education, where will you place those experiences with respect to the theory of distance education? Show your experience in the online forum. ACTIVITY 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 139 Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp (2011) define instructional design as the ‰systematic planning of instruction in which attention is given to nine related elements: instructional problems, learner characteristics, task analysis, instructional objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, designing the message, development of instruction, and evaluation instruments‰. How can we plan, select, sequence and develop activities and resources to support targeted learning outcomes in distance learning for effective learning, instruction and performance? This may pose challenges in distance learning. The technologies employed must reduce the transactional distance and employ the social context for interactivity. In order to determine whether the forms or levels of technology are adopted in a particular situation, one may need to consider a number of factors: (a) Availability of resources; (b) Wealth of country; (c) Level of education; (d) Growth of educational technology in the country; (e) Acceptance of educational technology by providers and receivers; and (f) Vision. Learning management systems (LMS) and mobile learning provide a platform for the delivery of resources and for interaction to occur. LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (LMS) What is a learning management system (LMS)? Simply stated, it is a system that manages a learnerÊs learning by providing a platform for the delivery of resources and for interactions for learning. If you have enrolled in any programme at OUM, then you would have used the universityÊs myINSPIRE, a virtual learning environment. Let us read through the various definitions of LMS. 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
140 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 5.3.1 Definitions of LMS According to Paulsen (2002), LMS is defined as follows: Whereas, Michigan Department of Education (2006) defined LMS as: According to the Commissionerate of Collegiate Education (2017), LMS is: Content management system (CMS) may be said to be related but CMS are computer software systems for organising and facilitating collaborative creation of documents and other content. A CMS is frequently a web application used for managing websites and web content, though in many cases, CMS requires special client software for editing and constructing articles. The market for CMS remains fragmented, with many open-source and proprietary solutions available. Learning content should be compliant to the Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) if the content is to be reused and shared across different standardised LMS. The SCORM is a collection of specifications adapted from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive suite of e-learning capabilities that enable interoperability, accessibility and reusability of web-based learning content among different LMS. A Learning Management System is a broad term used for a wide range of systems that organise and provide access to online learning services for students, teachers and administrators. These services usually include access control, provision of learning content, communication tools and organisation of user groups. A learning management system is a software application or Web-based technology used to plan, implement and access a specific learning process. Provides an instructor with a way to create and deliver content, monitor student participation and assess student performance. May also provide students with the ability to use interactive features such as threaded discussions, video conferencing and discussion forums. Software designed to manage, track and quantify all of the training, continuing education, employee development, certification and other learning activities in a company. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 141 5.3.2 Types of LMS There are many types of LMS available in the market. Basically, most LMS have a suite of tools to help you organise your courses to support distance learning. The difference between one LMS and the other will be in the extent of use of the tools. Some LMS are extremely refined: courses can be created and made personal to each and every learner. On the other hand, some have the ability to integrate many other enterprise-wide components to the LMS so that it becomes one whole system. Study carefully some of the following LMS: (a) 247 LearnTrak According to e-Learning India (2014), „247 LearnTrak from 247 Learning is an Enterprise Intellectual Capital Management Platform. Besides managing formal, informal, offline and online learning, it is designed to manage and enhance organisational competence, retain knowledge and increase productivity. Fully customisable and modular, 247 LearnTrak features a fully web-based administration system, competency, assessment and certification modules, a digital library and a live virtual class among others. 247 LearnTrak complies with industry standards like AICC and SCORM.‰ (b) Acumen Enterprise Learning Arena Acumen Technology (2017) describes this LMS as „a fully integrated, robust and powerful learning and knowledge management system. The Acumen Enterprise Learning Arena comprises three complementary applications ă the Learning Portal, LMS and Content ă which provide a totally scalable and flexible system for managing every aspect of enterprise education. Created using the latest technology, the system can be rapidly implemented, easily maintained and it offers outstanding value for money.‰ Explain the differences between the three definitions of LMS by Paulsen (2002), Michigan Department of Education (2006) and Commissionerate of Collegiate Education (2017). ACTIVITY 5.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
142 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING (c) Enterprise Knowledge Platform (EKP) According to NetDimensions (2017), „The Enterprise Knowledge Platform (EKP) is a Learning Management System that is scalable, flexible and represents good value for price. A powerful family of multilingual learning management systems, the Enterprise Knowledge Platform (EKP) has been chosen by Cathay Pacific Airways, HSBC, Visa International and other leading multinational companies. Comprising EKP Bronze, EKP Silver and EKP Gold, the EKP family combines user-friendly designs and missioncritical reliability with seamless upgrade paths.‰ (d) EZ LCMS „EZ LCMS is an easy to use Learning Management System that enables you to build, import, assemble, deliver, and track training content and events, all in one easy to use system‰ (EZ LCMS, 2017). 5.3.3 Selecting a LMS How do you select a more powerful LMS system to better manage distance learning? Selecting the appropriate LMS and/or learning content management system (LCMS) for an organisation starts with identifying the learning strategy and requirements. Purchasing a learning management environment is a major investment, so it is important to clearly define and prioritise requirements in order to find the right LMS that will meet core requirements initially and grow to meet subsequent requirements in the future. Once a purchase is made, it is nearly impossible to replace it without significant additional costs, so it is crucial to understand the full scope of what an LMS should do for an organisation. OUM has provided you with a set of course materials and a recommended set of learning activities. What do you like best about them? What do you like least? What would you recommend to improve the course material or learning activities? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 143 Consider the following seven-step process by Alvarado (2004). It may not work for every situation, but consider it as a guideline. (a) Step 1: Determine the Learning Strategy Having a learning strategy firmly in place is important as it enables you to determine the extent of LMS features that you need. At OUM, the learning mode is distance learning and the learning strategy is a blend of selfmanaged learning, face-to-face learning and online learning. The evolvement of a learning strategy considers the target audience: who they are, where they are located and what their constraints are. (b) Step 2: Document Requirements This is like creating a road map of where you want to be and how you will get there. Relating this to the selection of LMS, first it is important to document the plans at least for the next 10 years: where do you see the role of the LMS in your organisation in the next 10 years? From there, you may build stages in incorporating the required tools within the LMS, specifics for each and every tool must be detailed out. A team of people who are wellversed should be in the think-tank group to brainstorm ideas and map the required interactions. (c) Step 3: Research LMS Companies Once the details are mapped out, it is time to search for companies that may come close to your requirements. Check out their authenticity, years of experience in this area and their other customers. (d) Step 4: Prepare the Request for Proposal (RFP) According to Alvarado (2004), „The RFP should be prepared based upon the requirements. In the RFP, it is not necessary to indicate priorities of requirements, nor list them in any specific order, so that each requirement is responded to equally. Each requirement should be as specific as possible so that the LMS vendor can respond directly to the requirement rather than provide a general response.‰ (e) Step 5: Review the Proposals In reviewing the proposals, there should be specific guidelines, questions to be answered (quantitative and qualitative) and comments to be made for each and every section of criteria documented in (b) previously. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
144 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING (f) Step 6: Schedule Meetings and Demos Once the vendors have been shortlisted, meetings must be scheduled for demonstrations and hands-on participation. It is always better if the vendors allow you to have access to their product and try it for at least a week so that you can try it out on your own. Demonstrations are fine as they give the vendor a chance to quickly take you through the software. However, there is always a tendency to highlight only what they are good at. (g) Step 7: Make the Selection „Finally, a selection can be made after carefully reviewing and internally discussing the impressions made by each vendor during each meeting. This is a serious and long-term investment, so it is important to have complete cooperation among the members of the review team. It is also important to have contingency plans in case certain features that are expected in the initial implementation are not done in time, or other unexpected delays or problems arise‰ (Alvarado, 2004). Distance education is instructional delivery where the student need not be physically present in the same location as the instructor. The delivery of materials can be through audio, video, and computer technologies. Distance learning falls along two continua, namely, the continuum of place and the continuum of time. The place continuum has at one end all learners and their instructors gathered at the same place, and at the other end all learners and their instructors in different places. Prepare a road map for adoption of LMS for your institution using the seven steps mentioned. ACTIVITY 5.7 What are the steps to be taken for selecting the right LMS? SELF-CHECK 5.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 145 The time continuum has at one end all learners and their tutor or instructor interacting in „real time‰, that is, at the same time (synchronously) and at the other end all learners and their tutor or instructor interacting at different time (asynchronously). Some of the main advantages of distance learning are providing more access to those that are disadvantaged due to various circumstances; providing more flexibility to those who are committed to work schedules, family affairs and social obligations; and providing better learning resources. The distance education course providers may be organisations which provide a single mode, or are virtual learning institutions which offer various different courses. Some of the different types of distance learning providers are credit-bearing providers, focused providers and non-credit bearing providers. The distance learning literature states that there is no one theory that defines distance learning, but is a combination of transactional distance, interaction theory, social context and control. Instructional technology is the application of research, learning theory, emergent technologies, and child and adult psychology to solve instructional and performance problems. Learning Management Systems (LMS) are often used in distance learning. It is a software application or web-based technology used to plan, implement and access a specific learning process. In order to purchase the most suitable LMS, it is important to clearly define and prioritise requirements that will meet core requirements initially and grow to meet subsequent requirements in the future. Content management system (CMS) Distance learning Distance learning provider Distance learning theory Learning management system (LMS) Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
146 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING Abas, Z. W. (2009). E-learning in Malaysia: Moving forward in open distance learning. A Special Passage Through E-Learning, 97ă107. Acumen Technologies. (2017). Tools and products. Retrieved from http://www.acumennet.com/Products.aspx Ali, A., Fadzil, M., & Kaur, A. (2006). Open distance education in Malaysia. Retrieved from http://library.oum.edu.my/repository/204/1/Open_distance_education_i n_Malaysia.pdf Alvarado, P. (2004). Seven steps to selecting a learning management system. CLO Media. Retrieved from http://www.clomedia.com/2004/01/02/sevensteps-to-selecting-a-learning-management-system/ Ardito, C., & Lanzilotti, R. (2011). An EUD approach to the design of educational games. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 9(4), 25ă40. Bothel, R. (2001). Bringing it all together. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 4(1), 1ă8. California Distance Learning Project. (2011). What is distance learning? Retrieved from http://www.cdlponline.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=whatis Cavanaugh, T. (2002). The need for assistive technology in educational technology. Educational Technology Review, 10(1), 27ă31. Commissionerate of Collegiate Education. (2017). Knowledge management. Retrieved from http://www.apcce.gov.in/newwebsite30122010/elearnmoreinform.aspx E-Learning India. (2014). 247 Learning. Retrieved from http://elearning-india.com/Learning-Management-System/247- learning.html EZ LCMS. (2017). EZ LCMS: Home. Retrieved from http://www.ezlcms.com/ Heinich, R., Molenda, M., & Russell, J. D. (1993). Instructional media and the new technologies of instruction. New York, NY: Macmillan. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 147 Lateh, H., & Raman, A. (2009). Distance learning and educational technology in Malaysia. In P. Rogers, G. Berg, J. Boettcher, C. Howard, L. Justice, & K. Schenk, Encyclopedia of distance learning (2nd ed.). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. McIsaac, M. S., & Gunawardena, C. N. (2001). Distance education. In D. H. Jonassen, Handbook of research for educational communications and technology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Retrieved from http://www.aect.org/edtech/ed1/pdf/13.pdf Michigan Department of Education. (2006). Michigan merit curriculum guidelines: Online experience. Retrieved from https://www.michigan.gov/documents/mde/Online10.06_final_175750_7 .pdf Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kalman, H. K., & Kemp, J. E. (2011). Designing effective instruction (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. NetDimensions. (2017). The enterprise knowledge platform: E-learning made easy. Retrieved from http://www.max-consult.net/LMS/doc/EKP%20Silver%20Gold.pdf Nordin, N., Norman, H., & Embi, M. A. (2015). Technology acceptance of massive open online courses in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Distance Education, 17(2), 116. Retrieved from http://mjde.usm.my/vol17_2_2015/MJDE%201721.pdf Paulsen, M. F. (2002). Online education systems: Discussion and definition of terms. Retrieved from https://www.edutubebd.com/file_resource/1368197236online%20educati on%20system.pdf Phipps, R. A., Wellman, J. V., & Merisotis, J. P. (1998). Assuring quality in distance learning: A preliminary review. A report prepared for the Council for Higher Education Accreditation. Washington, DC: Council for Higher Education Accreditation. Reiser, R. A., & Dempsy, J. V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
148 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Bloomington, IN: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Sowell, S. A. S., & Hassan, W. (2016). Distance education: Complement or replacement. International Centre for Education in Islamic Finance (INCEIF). Retrieved from http://www.inceif.org/research-bulletin/bulletin-volume9/distanceeducation-complement-or-replacement/ Spector, J. M. (2012). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. The Commonwealth of Learning. (2000). An introduction to open and distance learning. Retrieved from http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/138/ODLIntro.pdf?sequenc e=1&isAllowed=y Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Training is useless unless you have a purpose. (Anonymous) Technology has not only revolutionised learning in schools but also training in the public and business sectors. At school and higher learning institutions, technology is used to enhance learning, while in the public and business sectors, technology is used to enhance training. What is training? Topic 6 Educational Technology in Training LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define technology-based training; 2. State the use of networked readiness index; 3. Discuss how to assimilate technologies into the work culture; 4. Identify the characteristics of learning-on-demand; 5. Differentiate between needs analysis and front-end analysis; and 6. Explain how we can use virtual worlds at workplace environment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
150 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING Training is part of human resource development. It involves an organised learning experience that is conducted in a definite time period to enhance job performance. Training may be a traditional form of instruction conducted in a formal nine to five classroom-based environment. However, Spector (2016) differentiates training to include two components, which are andragogy and the complex form of learning. This means that training, which is reserved for adult learners, should be personalised to the needs and learning styles of the learner. In addition, complex learning tasks such as problem-solving should be addressed during training. Can you see the difference between training and learning? In the past, training approaches included paper documentation and was instructor-led; however these may not be suitable with todayÊs rapid changes in technology and market requirements. In skills training, trainees may be apprenticed to a particular trade or industry and obtain hands-on-training as he performs the required tasks. Hence, does the training fit the demands of the trainee by giving just-in-time, justăfor-me and learning-on-demand? How can training be made personalised, blended and adaptive to the learning demands of present times and the learning styles of individual employees? OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY-BASED TRAINING Which is more effective: traditional classroom-based training or technology-based training? Do you think technology-based training gives more benefits as compared to attending classes? If you are a manager, what is the best way of implementing innovative training? How can technology improve individual and organisational performance? Let us look at how technology can enhance performance. Training is an act of developing the human resource of an organisation so that the skills, competencies, knowledge and attitudes are constantly improved with the advent of time. Nadler (1984) defines training as learning that is provided in order to improve performance on the present job. 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 151 In training todayÊs employees, the use of web-based technologies is becoming the norm. Nowadays, almost every employee who has access to the Internet can obtain information regarding online staff development as compared to the traditional classroom-based training previously. Traditional classroom training at the workplace can disrupt employeeÊs work flow, reduce productivity and sometimes frustrates employees. This is because there will be interruption to the staffÊs working patterns, as well as differing organisational and personal demands on the employee. Globalisation and rapid technological advancements have put organisations in a quandary as they need to provide up-to-date training for their staff to be competitive at the global level. Organisations may need to review current practices and use technology to enhance job performance. New practices of training at the workplace may be deployed with new and emerging technologies. Delivery of work-related knowledge which is constantly changing due to new developments in the field can be easily done with technology. Thus, new forms of training, which are more flexible, are needed. In this respect, Malaysians are very lucky to be well-equipped with an adequate technological infrastructure. According to the report by the World Economic Forum, Malaysia was ranked at the 32nd position and is the only emerging and developing country in Asia which is in the top 60 position for network-readiness (Dutta, Geiger, & Lanvin, 2015). Two-thirds of countries from the region are in the bottom half of the rankings according to the report by the World Economic Forum. The networked readiness index is based on a framework which will measure: (a) The environment, both political and regulatory, as well as for business and innovation; (b) The readiness aspect which looks at the technology infrastructure, the affordability of technology, and skills; (c) Usage aspect which covers individual usage, business usage and government usage; and (d) The impact aspect: economic impact and social impact. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
152 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING The ranking of the country for the networked readiness index also mirrors the development and income of the country, and this indicates that Malaysia is doing very well in the region. Table 6.1 shows MalaysiaÊs position in comparison with some of the advanced countries and countries in the region. Table 6.1: The Top 35 Countries in the Networked Readiness Index 2015 Rank Country/Economy Value 2014 Rank (Out of 148) Income Level* Group† 1 Singapore 6.2 2 HI ADV 2 Finland 6.0 1 HI-OECD ADV 3 Sweden 5.8 3 HI-OECD ADV 4 Netherlands 5.8 4 HI-OECD ADV 5 Norway 5.8 5 HI-OECD ADV 6 Switzerland 5.7 6 HI-OECD ADV 7 United States 5.6 7 HI-OECD ADV 8 United Kingdom 5.6 9 HI-OECD ADV 9 Luxembourg 5.6 11 HI-OECD ADV 10 Japan 5.6 16 HI-OECD ADV 11 Canada 5.5 17 HI-OECD ADV 12 Korea, Rep. 5.5 10 HI-OECD ADV 13 Germany 5.5 12 HI-OECD ADV 14 Hong Kong SAR 5.5 8 HI ADV 15 Denmark 5.5 13 HI-OECD ADV 16 Australia 5.5 18 HI-OECD ADV 17 New Zealand 5.5 20 HI-OECD ADV 18 Taiwan, China 5.5 14 HI ADV 19 Iceland 5.4 19 HI-OECD ADV 20 Austria 5.4 22 HI-OECD ADV 21 Israel 5.4 15 HI-OECD ADV 22 Estonia 5.3 21 HI-OECD ADV Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 153 23 United Arab Emirates 5.3 24 HI MENAP 24 Belgium 5.3 27 HI-OECD ADV 25 Ireland 5.2 26 HI-OECD ADV 26 France 5.2 25 HI-OECD ADV 27 Qatar 5.1 23 HI MENAP 28 Portugal 4.9 33 HI-OECD ADV 29 Malta 4.9 28 HI ADV 30 Bahrain 4.9 29 HI MENAP 31 Lithuania 4.9 31 HI EDE 32 Malaysia 4.9 30 UM EDA 33 Latvia 4.7 39 HI ADV 34 Spain 4.7 34 HI-OECD ADV 35 Saudi Arabia 4.7 32 HI MENAP Note: Income level classification follows the World Bank classification by income (as of July 2014). Group classification follows the International Monetary FundÊs classification (situation as of October 2014). * Income groups: HI = high-income economies that are not members of the OECD; HI-OECD = high-income OECD members; UM = upper-middle-income economies; LM = lower-middle-income economies; LI = low-income economies. † Groups: ADV = Advanced economies; EDA = Emerging and developing Asia; EDE = Emerging and developing Europe; MENAP = Middle East, North Africa, and Pakistan Source: Dutta et al. (2015) With these concerns in mind, we need to be aware of the concepts related to emerging technologies that can lead to effective employee training, development and tracking which may contribute to increased productivity, knowledge, loyalty and contribution. In light of the above, emerging technologies for human resource development can be used effectively as a tool to: (a) Enhance work efficiency; (b) Improve performance; and (c) Capture and share learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
154 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES In training for development of human resources, companies will normally want to consider providing education for their staff using instructional principles as businesses are grounded in practicality (Gomez & Igado, 2008). Human resource development (HRD) is an emergent field that builds upon multiple disciplines including psychology, business and education (Bartlett, 2008). In human resource development, learning is considered different from performance although the overall goal is to improve the individual and/or organisation in a specific area (Bartlett, 2008). Hence, to differentiate between the learning that takes place in classrooms, and the performance that is required, the term „training‰ is used. Training needs to be flexible in time and space (the moment and the place) according to the individual circumstances. The Internet and new emerging technologies can provide access to rich resources and virtual training rooms which will affect the manner in which we work in, and our professional development. Hence, it is important to use educational technology to plan for effective training. As stated by Seels and Richey (1994), the purpose of instructional technology is to affect learning both in the educational settings and in the workplace. The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (2004) also defines instructional technology in terms of learning and performance as it is defined as „the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources‰. The definition, which includes performance, is translated to learning that takes place to meet the standards for jobs and improve performance of employees at the workplace (Bartlett, 2008). 6.2 Study the rankings in Table 6.1. What could be the reasons for the differences in the networked readiness index in different countries? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.1 1. What is technology-based training? 2. What can we measure using the networked readiness index? SELF-CHECK 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 155 Technology that is used in training and learning is typically identified as instructional technology. The fields of instructional technology and human resource development are distinct in nature but have overlapping goals of learning and improving performance (Bartlett, 2008). Rosenberg (1982) notes that the field of instructional technology and human resource development began with the developments and extensive use of instructional media. As Bartlett (2008) puts it, instructional technology is one of the tools to create solutions for human resource development to improve performance at the workplace. Gomez and Igado (2008) believe that blended and open learning allows for diversification, personalisation and differentiation of the various services, which is required in a training environment for professional development. Their case study of a training company, Master-D, used different media channels for their own virtual campus television, MP3, learning platforms, CD-ROMS and environments using chats, forums, multi-videoconferences, which allow for financial savings, as well as better and faster customer service. Web 2.0 tools such as Blogs, Wikis, Podcast, YouTube, Flickr and Del.icio.us are instrumental in ensuring collaborative learning for learning autonomy. More importantly, it will cultivate the internal philosophy and culture of the organisation in order to sustain, and encourage the workforce to achieve the mission of the business (Gomez & Igado, 2008). In any business, innovation is the key to being competitive; hence research and activities for technical innovation, social innovation and innovation in managerial methods should be encouraged (Gomez & Igado, 2008). Other equally challenging emerging technologies include usage of desktop videoconferencing, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), biometric data (fingerprints, voice, retina scans), availability of instantaneous international translation and the creation of systems based on intelligence and neural networks. Emerging technologies such as wireless mobile devices, virtual worlds and collaborative workspaces are destined to replace wired Internet technologies. These wireless technologies boast of the following: (a) Rich interactivity; (b) Total connectivity; (c) Powerful processing; (d) Accessible resources wherever you are; (e) Strong search capabilities; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
156 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING (f) Rich interaction; (g) Powerful support for effective learning; and (h) Performance-based assessment. 6.2.1 Emerging Technologies Assimilated into Work Culture While new and emerging technologies might support us in many ways, how can organisations ensure that these technologies are well assimilated into the work culture and at the same time create the impact to suit the demands of the modern world? Suggested initiatives include the following: (a) Rethinking the Whole Nature of Learning Present-day employees are aware of the knowledge challenges that lie ahead of them. Most, if not all present-day employees want to embrace this challenge. Organisations should take note of this fact and re-look their Human Resource Development programmes to see if the training services that are provided meet employee expectations. If such initiatives are not taken, old training practices will be employed, which may result in loss of revenue in terms of employee absence (physically and mentally) and also money invested. According to Day, Peters and Race (1999), rethinking can be done in a variety of ways, namely by: (i) Identifying present learning needs by providing a detailed account of social, cultural, work-based and knowledge-based processes; (ii) Identifying future learning needs based on changes in commercial, competitive and operating environments; (iii) Addressing the gap between present and future learning needs through structured learning opportunities; (iv) Harnessing the day-to-day work experiences in a programmed way and learning from it; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 157 (v) Capturing and classifying knowledge in a systematic fashion; (vi) Distributing the captured knowledge; (vii) Using different approaches to learning and changing accordingly when required to do so; and (viii) Remaining focused on the end as well as the means. (b) Developing the OrganisationÊs Total Learning Power Developing a new learning culture is important so that we can constantly and quickly renew our products and services. For this to happen, the organisationÊs total learning power has to be developed. Promoting learning and developing competence will require a change in management style at all levels. E-learning and knowledge management strategies have to be innovatively implemented within organisations to increase the learning power of every individual within the organisation. Learning power can be further maximised if there is high learning tension and access to information. To increase learning tension, a new management culture has to be imposed. Management should also see training as a capital investment item, not as an expense. This is because the more we use the human capital, the more it appreciates and adds value. (c) Making Learning-on-demand Part of Organisational Culture This is forwarded by IBM and based on the concept of just-for-me (personalised and blended). Four major characteristics of learning-ondemand are being: (i) Responsive; (ii) Variable; (iii) Resilient; and (iv) Focused. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
158 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING A new pedagogy, a sense of community and professional development, and how institutions have to change to provide these new learning needs have to be formulated. As such, in light of the above, the emerging technologies can act as tools for: (a) Work efficiency; (b) Training efficiency; and (c) Sharing knowledge. In instructional technology, the focus will be on the latter two aspects. 6.2.2 Instructional Technologies in Training Human resource development encompasses many areas: performance improvement, organisational analysis, employee relationship management, evaluation, leadership and organisational change management (Bartlett, 2008). A large component of HRD is training and employee development and this is related to instructional technologies. Training can be done with instructional technologies both formally and informally (Bartlett, 2008). Formal learning is highly structured classroom-based and can be supported with technologies. A learning management system (LMS) can be used as a platform for delivery of training using synchronous and asynchronous learning tools for formal training and employee development. Video conferencing with text and chat can be used for synchronous interactions with the trainer. Discussion forums, blogs, wikis and file sharing features to share videos and other media can be used for asynchronous communication. In addition, there are possibilities for online simulations of the business environment where teams may need to make decisions and solve problems for situations created virtually. This enables participants to explore the cause and effect of their actions. 1. Discuss how we can assimilate technologies into the work culture. 2. What are the four major characteristics of learning-on-demand? SELF-CHECK 6.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 159 Informal learning is intentional but not highly structured and learning may be taken for granted and is unconscious. It includes self-directed learning, networking, coaching, mentoring and performance planning. Technology can be used to design an informal course without a course instructor. In informal training, blogs and LMS can be used for the delivery of training. Coaching techniques can be supplemented with instant messaging, discussion forums and emails. In addition, different forms of media can be used. In the development of human resource (HRD), the analysis phase is divided into the needs assessment and the front-end analysis. The needs analysis examines the current business situation and the desired business situation. The front-end analysis examines how to eliminate the gap between the desired workplace performance and the actual workplace performance. While the front-end analysis suggested by Lee and Owens (as cited in Bartlett, 2008) relates directly to the multimedia instructional design process, others overlap with the more traditional analysis phase in HRD. For example, the audience analysis to examine the target population, task analysis determining the requirements for the job, and situation analysis are all similar to the steps in HRD (Bartlett, 2008). The following are other forms of analysis which are part of the front-end analysis (Bartlett, 2008): (a) Situational analysis determines the environmental factors that can impact learning while delivering a solution; (b) The media analysis determines the best medium for delivering the solution; (c) The extant data analysis determines the materials currently available; and (d) The audience analysis determines the readiness of the target population. In the HRD framework, there are three main phases which comes before the implementation and evaluation phases. These are: (a) Analysis phase; (b) Design phase; and (c) Creation phase. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
160 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING In the analysis phase, data needs to be collected on the relevant technology issues. The areas that impact instructional technology are determining the technology available, technology considerations, and constraints for delivering training with technology. The data and findings of this phase may be used to support a certain instructional technology effective for training in a certain topic. The front-end analysis of the proposed solution would assist in explaining how the audience, the technology, tasks, critical incidents, objectives, media, extant data, and cost align with the current instructional technology solution. In addition, it would assist in determining how the solution aligns strategically in the organisation. The design phase is similar to the „creation‰ phase in the HRD process, where the solution begins to be developed. In the creation phase, the focus is on the design and development to base the design on a sound theoretical approach and the instructional technologies used support the design theory (Bartlett, 2008). For example, for a constructivist approach in design, the principles of andragogy combined with technology are required to create solutions for the workplace. When the solution for training has been developed, it would be implemented for evaluation. The evaluation process can be done by the trainees, and the trainers for the usability of the solution as well as the effectiveness and efficiency of the solution. Hence, HRD process is similar to the process of instructional design, to design a solution for the workplace. Select one of the technologies used for training. Research on how this technology is used for training and present how this technology can benefit training. Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.2 1. Describe formal and informal learning. 2. Differentiate between the needs analysis and the front-end analysis. SELF-CHECK 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 161 EMERGING TOOLS FOR TRAINING EFFICIENCY There are many new technologies which seem to be in the market. Digital devices and equipment as well as new tools for communication, collaboration, and learning are being developed. While instructional technologists must avoid the temptation to allow any technology to drive pedagogical decision-making, there is little question in whether emerging technologies bring along with them new opportunities and affordances upon which we can capitalise on (Bishop & Elen, 2014). In instructional technology, these emerging technologies can be investigated further to determine how they can be used most effectively for training. Firstly, personal devices such as tablets and smartphones have enabled resources and other materials to be accessible to the learner at any time through mobile learning. Training can be adapted to make use of the affordability of these devices to deliver information anywhere and anytime during training. Emerging technologies that are effective for training are devices and virtual worlds. For knowledge management processes, Web 2.0 is an emerging technology for collaboration. There are some emerging technologies which are effective for training. In the field of science, technology and engineering, designing equipment and objects are important for innovation. However, it is sometimes not cost-effective to develop the prototype designs as it sometimes involves building huge moulds for the equipment and objects. Hence, learners are not able to visualise and test their abilities in design and manufacturing. However, advances in manufacturing technologies have enabled 2D and 3D objects designed on screen to be printed as real objects in plastic and cheaper materials, using 3D printers. This is a huge saving as trainees can explore and test designs of objects and „print‰ them to further test their suitability. Interactive surfaces are another emerging technology. Interactive surfaces on whiteboards, tabletops, tablets and smartphones have enabled learners to manipulate information with their fingers and provide the learner with kinaesthetic learning experiences (Bishop & Elen, 2014). The interactivity in tablets has been extended in the commercial and training sectors. Tablets are now used to take orders and communicate with the kitchen in restaurants, as well as to display interactive catalogues for sales of products. 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
162 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING This concept of interactivity has been extended with interactive spaces in smart rooms which can enable manipulation with fingers, feet and other body movements which when detected, provides interaction and enables collaboration. For example, an interactive room which simulated an earthquake was done in the RoomQuake project. Natural interfaces in such rooms with multiple access points for groups of learners to collaborate provide a unique experience for collaboration and kinaesthetic learning (Bishop & Elen, 2014). 6.3.1 Virtual Worlds Virtual worlds make use of immersive technologies to provide alternative environments for situated learning by providing a variety of virtual contexts to give the users a sense of „being there‰ (Bishop & Elen, 2014). The usersÊ avatar is a representation of the self in some form which interacts with digital agents, artefacts and contexts. According to Bishop and Elen (2014), the immersive sensation is achieved through: (a) The use of sensory inputs through (graphics, sounds, visual perceptions of moving through the environment, the ability to touch objects, maps providing geo-location clues); (b) A variety of social communication layers; (c) Avatar personalisation; (d) Choice and autonomy to advance the storyline; (e) The ability to design and build aspects of the environment itself; and (f) By providing feedback mechanisms to help learners visualise their own progress in the environment. In a virtual world, the learner is immersed in a situation and can test out situations which may not be possible in the real world. Virtual worlds and immersive simulations are designed to create a compelling, collaborative and participatory experience for the user (Dawley & Dede, 2014). Thus, the learner is engaged in the learning experiences as he solves problems, and applies learning in his own social, physical and cultural context, in the specific environment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 163 Learning is situated. For example, a student who manages a store will gain knowledge and skills in business operations, customer relations and marketing in an authentic way when he or she manipulates operations in an online virtual world with virtual customers, supervisor, stock and money. This experience is not the same as reading a textbook and writing a paper. The work in this virtual world is an important contribution to the success of the store. Virtual worlds may also cater for multiplayers (Dawley & Dede, 2014). In this case, there might be many stores with many players mending the stores. Communication options such as chat and messaging are normally offered and there may be role-playing elements. The interactivity between stores and different organisations to simulate the real world may be possible to contribute to the success of the whole virtual community. Wheelock and Merrick (2015) claim that virtual worlds such as „Minecraft‰, „Second Life‰, „OpenSim‰, „World of Warcraft‰ and „Unity‰ engage learners. These applications have also been used for the workplace. IBM has used „SecondLife‰ in their virtual meetings and corporate training sessions (Frontline, 2010). Virtual worlds can be used for learning at the workplace. Virtual reality can simulate the real workplace environment, prepare you for the real environment and allow you to empathise with the users in the environment (Tracey, 2016). The Learning Provocateur (Tracey, 2016) has given examples of how it has been used for these purposes: for training real estate agents, for getting a patientÊs perspective on a medical procedure and being immersed in a Syrian town ravaged by bombs. General MotorsÊ „VisualEyes‰ system enables designers to collaborate to inspect and review 3D CAD models of the products, while Accenture Technology Labs had developed two system prototypes using virtual world for sales training and the leadership training (Nebolsky, Yee, Petrushin, & Gershman, 2016). Hence, there is a huge potential of using virtual world in workplace training. 1. What is virtual workplace? 2. Discuss how immersive sensation can be achieved. 3. How can we use virtual worlds at workplace environment? SELF-CHECK 6.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
164 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING EMERGING TOOLS FOR KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT An organisationÊs total knowledge can be divided into personal, organisational, tacit and explicit knowledge. Knowledge is a powerful asset for an organisation which can make it more efficient in terms of operations, processing time, time for innovations and quality products and services and ensure long-term profit growths (Nonaka, 1991). Without managing the explicit and tacit knowledge in the organisation, the company is not recognising the full potential of its capabilities, or harnessing the brainpower within. As aptly put by Durrant (2001), enterprises are realising how important it is to „know what they know‰ and to be able to make maximum use of the knowledge. Knowledge resides in databases, knowledge bases, filing cabinets and peopleÊs heads and is distributed across the organisation (Durrant, 2001). In order for employees not to repeat and be redundant in their tasks, work processes must be captured and shared as knowledge in the organisation. Knowledge management processes for the transformation of knowledge include the following (DeWitt, Alias, Siraj & Hutagalung, 2014): (a) Knowledge acquisition; (b) Knowledge internalisation; (c) Knowledge creation; (d) Knowledge sharing; and (e) Knowledge application. Knowledge acquisition skills are required in order for the information to be made accessible to the organisation as knowing where to access reliable and credible information is important. Search engines and data mining tools are used for the acquisition and discovery of knowledge. Collaboration when sharing information and databases through emails, bulletin boards, knowledge forums and content management systems may assist the worker in capturing the appropriate content. Knowledge acquired needs to be internalised in the next step. 6.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 165 Knowledge internalisation takes place when the knowledge acquired is transferred and represented in the minds of the learner. Tacit knowledge is present at this stage which may be highly informal, personal, unverbalised and derived from experience. This can be made explicit (which is more of formal knowledge) and can be expressed through writing, mental maps and externalised to be shared in the community. Internalisation to make the tacit knowledge explicit requires the worker to discuss, argue, reclassify and synthesise the knowledge. Socialisation enables the tacit knowledge to be made explicit as social interaction enables the application and transfer of knowledge through the sharing of experiences among the members of the community. Hence the process of knowledge sharing can occur using online platforms. Knowledge creation is when the personal explicit knowledge of the members is combined into the explicit knowledge of the community and organisation by means of categorising, reclassifying and synthesis of existing knowledge (DeWitt et al., 2014). Collaboration can assist the learning process at the workplace and will contribute to the knowledge economy. Telecollaboration can be done and include the pedagogy where a democratic view of teacher and learner interaction exists, as well as the culture of the community (Lamy & Goodfellow, 2006). After the process of negotiation in the community of practice, new knowledge would have been created (Hsu, Ching, & Grabowski, 2014). This knowledge which was co-constructed with the community of practice in the organisation should be captured by the organisation and made available to the community (Hsu, Ching, & Grabowski, 2014). The knowledge created should be published. This can be done on websites, wikis, blogs, vlogs and videos, and stored in repositories or content management systems for other members of the organisation to access. The final knowledge management process is knowledge application. The new knowledge created can now be applied to innovative situations and designs. The affordance of using Web 2.0 tools is that there is an added feature of interactivity. When users interact with the content, there might be new alternatives to consider which may bring about new innovative ideas. Hence, Web 2.0 technologies have a possibility of generating new knowledge for continuous improvement. Digital literacy can enable the knowledge management processes to be made efficient. Mastery of technology tools can ensure the success of learning communities (DeWitt et al., 2014). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
166 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING GUIDELINES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EMERGING TOOLS In implementing emerging technologies, the following can provide guidance: (a) Ensure that this is not an ad-hoc effort, simply viewed as an IT project. Permanent resources, departments should be created. Creation of portfolio: Chief Learning Officer. Suggested job specifications include: (i) Diagnose organisational learning needs; (ii) Support learning deficiencies; (iii) Define internal learning strategies; (iv) Identify and leverage resources already available in the organisation; (v) Identify standards and processes for the development, purchase and delivery of emerging technologies; (vi) Evaluate how training activities are maximised in realising visions of emerging technologies; and (vii) Come up with comprehensive planning, execution and verification instruments to create the knowledgeable worker. 6.5 In your opinion, what are the best Web 2.0 tools to encourage knowledge workers in your organisation? How can these tools encourage the knowledge management processes? Search for different emerging Web 2.0 tools which can be used in training and discuss how you can use these tools in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.3 Explain the knowledge management processes. SELF-CHECK 6.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 167 (b) Build a curriculum. A curriculum is the scope, sequence and content of what is to be learnt. In a learning organisation, setting a curriculum is one way of prioritising your efforts. (c) Decide who owns the curriculum. The poorest solution is to vest it in the HR department, as if planning is their business and no one elseÊs. The HR professional is an invaluable resource in helping to design and deliver learning events, but the sense of ownership ideally is shared throughout the organisation. Learning is therefore everyoneÊs business, everyoneÊs opportunity and everyoneÊs responsibility (Day et al., 1999). (d) Develop internal learning advisors. The chief librarian, chief financial controller and chief of security should act as internal „professors‰. (e) Conduct action research. Embed research into the system so that initial bugs can be identified early, results analysed and action taken. Training can be seen as learning that is provided in order to improve performance on the present job. In training, applying the tenets of technology wisely is of greater concern than knowing the characteristics of available technology. 1. Search for several emerging technologies suitable for training, in your organisation. You may consider a Moodle-based LMS with a variety of tools, or specific emerging technologies such as Pbwiki, SecondLife, and use the above guidelines to plan and decide whether your organisation would purchase the selected emerging technology tool to be used in your organisation. 2. If you were the Chief Learning Officer of a company, and you were asked to come up with solutions to improve the Human Resources Development programmes, how would you go about doing it using an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model? Share your thoughts and plans with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
168 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING The Internet and its related technologies are seen as the emerging technologies that will affect the manner we work and upgrade our knowledge. Organisations should take note of this fact and relook their HRD programmes to see if the training services that are provided meet employeesÊ expectations. Learning-on-demand should be made part of an organisational culture. In the development of human resources (HRD), the analysis phase is divided into the needs assessment and the front-end analysis. The needs analysis examines the current business situation and the desired business situation. The front-end analysis examines how to eliminate the gap between the desired workplace performance and the actual workplace performance. Knowledge management should start with the premise that an organisation has „intellectual capital‰ which can be used to recreate more capital. Knowledge management processes include knowledge acquisition, knowledge internalisation, knowledge creation, knowledge sharing, and knowledge application. Explicit knowledge Human resource development Knowledge acquisition Knowledge application Knowledge creation Knowledge internalisation Knowledge sharing Learning-on-demand Tacit knowledge Virtual reality Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING 169 Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). (2004). The definition of educational technology. Retrieved from http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/file.php/118/molenda_definition.pdf Bartlett, J. E. (2008). Instructional technologies in human resource development: Impact, models, and changes. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 5(3), 51ă65. Retrieved from http://www.itdl.org/journal/mar_08/article04.htm Bishop, M. J., & Elen, J. (2014). Emerging Technologies. In J. M. Spector, J. Elen, M. D. Merrill & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (4th ed.). New York, NY: Springer. Dawley, L., & Dede, C. (2014). Situated learning in virtual worlds and immersive simulations. In J. M. Spector, J. Elen, M. D. Merrill & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (4th ed.) (pp 723-734). New York, NY: Springer. Day, A., Peters, J., & Race, P. (1999). 500 tips for developing a learning organisation. London, England: Kogan Page. DeWitt, D., Alias, N., Siraj, S., & Hutagalung, T. (2014). Designing instruction for knowledge management processes using a wiki. In F. L. Gaol, W. Mars, & H. Saragih (Eds.), Management and technology in knowledge, service, tourism & hospitality. Netherlands: CRC Press. Durrant, F. (2001). Knowledge management in the context of government. Retrieved from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/caricad/unpa n002480.pdf Dutta, S., Geiger, T., & Lanvin, B. (2015). The global information technology report 2015: ICTs for inclusive growth. World Economic Forum. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_IT_Report_2015.pdf Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
170 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TRAINING Frontline. (2010). Interview: Francoise LeGoues. Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/digitalnation/interviews/leg oues.html#4 Gomez, J. I. A., & Igado, M. F. (2008). Blended learning: The key to success in a training company. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 5(8), 33ă42. Retrieved from http://itdl.org/Journal/Aug_08/article04.htm Hsu, Y. -C., Ching, Y. H., & Grabowski, B. L. (2014). Web 2.0 applications and practices for learning through collaboration. In J. M. Spector, J. Elen, M. D. Merrill, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (4th ed.). New York, NY: Springer. Nadler, L. (1984). The handbook of human resource development (glossary). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Nonaka, I. (1991). The knowledge-creating company. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2007/07/the-knowledge-creating-company Nebolsky, C., Yee, N. K., Petrushin, V. A., & Gershman, A. V. (2016). Corporate training in virtual worlds. Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, 2(6), 31ă36. Rosenberg, M. (1982). Our instructional media roots. Performance and Instruction, 21(3), 12ă3315. Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Spector, J. M. (2016). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Tracey, R. (2016). 3 uses of virtual reality in workplace education. Retrieved from http://learnnovators.com/blog/3-uses-of-virtual-reality-in-workplaceeducation/ Wheelock, A., & Merrick, S. (2015). 5 virtual worlds for engaged learning. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). Retrieved from https://www.iste.org/explore/articledetail?articleid=395 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Learning should be an active process for the learner to explore and build his own experiences and knowledge. Hence it is important to involve the learner in the experiences to build his knowledge. Designing the learning process and the learning environment is the field of instructional design (ID). As more and more technologies are being used in education, it has become important to be able to design suitable learning environments for the development and delivery of digital resources. Hence, there is a need for instructional designers to develop effective learning environments for teaching and training. Topic 7 Instructional Design (ID) for Effective Learning LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the seven principles or conditions of learning; 2. Discuss how the ADDIE model is used for instructional design; 3. List the elements of GagneÊs instructional design theory; 4. Explain the five capabilities in the human learner; 5. Identify the nine events of instruction; and 6. Explain the strategy components of ARCS Model of Motivational Design. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
172 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING The systematic design of instruction requires sound instructional models and principles. There are various ID models for different contexts based on learning theories, as well as technology and communications theories, some of which are discussed in this topic. ID models are the framework for the design of instruction so that the instructional planning process can be improved upon. In addition, the ID model should allow opportunities for applying and integrating knowledge learnt in making learning active. In this topic, the history of the development of ID and some major ID theories and models are discussed. AN OVERVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) Gagne and Briggs (1979) claim that learning can happen without any instruction; however, the effects of instruction on learning are easily observable. On the same note, he also cautions that instruction may or may not be successful. Thus a good question to ponder upon at this juncture is „how can one ensure that instruction will lead to effective learning‰? One of the more tested ways is to use sound instructional design processes. As Kurt Lewin states „learning is more effective when it is active‰; in order to ensure successful instruction, one must understand how a person learns. Learning encompasses a wide area, knowing about learning is important. For a start, let us deal with some very basic principles or conditions of learning. 7.1.1 Principles or Conditions of Learning The following are some learning principles or conditions forwarded by Gagne and Briggs (1979): (a) Contiguity: „The stimulus situation to which one wants the learner to respond must be presented contiguously in time with the desired response.‰ (b) Repetition: „The stimulus situation and its response need to be repeated, or practised, in order for learning to be improved and retention more certain.‰ He cautioned that modern learning theory casts doubts on the idea that repetition improves learning. He advises to view repetition in a broader sense: „practise.‰ 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 173 (c) Reinforcement: Quoting Thorndike (1913), reinforcement is stated as the learning of a new act that is strengthened when the occurrence of that act is followed by a satisfying state of affairs (reward). (d) Prior learning: State of mind that the learner brings to the task. (e) Motivation/attitudes/self-concept: Should be dealt with appropriately as these are essential for effective learning. (f) Ability to retrieve previously learned facts, concepts, rules and principles (memory). (g) Ability to carve out a repertoire of learning strategies. Gagne and Briggs (1979) further advised: The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs ă conditions which are both external and internal to the learner. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. The planning of instruction is done in a highly systematic manner, with attention to the consistency and compatibility of technical knowledge at each point of decision. This is usually termed the „systems approach‰. This kind of approach uses various forms of information, data and theoretical principles as input at each planning stage. It is within this systemÊs framework that we seek to apply what is known about the conditions of human learning to instructional design. What do we need to know in order to design our instruction? Figure 7.1 illustrates the steps (summarised and adapted from Gagne and Briggs, 1979) that could be undertaken to plan instruction systematically to achieve the desired results. Figure 7.1: Steps that could be undertaken to systematically plan instruction Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
174 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 7.1.2 History of ID How did instructional design evolve? The history of instructional design may be traced to as far back as the philosophical thought propagated by Aristotle, Socrates and Plato. According to literature, these philosophers were actively involved in cognitive processes and made an impact on the education of mankind. John Locke (17th century) looked into their notions and proposed that almost all reason and knowledge must be gained from experience. Instructional design has changed over the years to take its present shape: (a) 1910 John Dewey promoted the idea that learning occurs best by doing rather than rote memorisation of facts. (b) 1920s to 1940s In the 1920s, the beginning of the behaviourist approach to education was developed with ThorndikeÊs theory of connectionism based on the stimulusresponse (S-R) constructs. Learning occurred when the content was refined, sequenced and reinforced. The teacher established procedures and the students were expected to follow them. There seemed to have been little room for inventiveness or creativity. When World War II began, the US had to conduct intensive military training for their personnel for „concrete and sequential‰ tasks such as assembling an M-1 rifle. In order to train novice soldiers quickly, efficiently and with minimum intervention, the military developed training films, which could be reused at different bases. A team of experts was employed to develop effective training modules. This was the first time the idea of an instructional development team was instituted. Discuss the seven principles or conditions of learning stated by Gagne and Briggs (1979). SELF-CHECK 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 175 (c) 1950s In 1954, Skinner elaborated on the principles of stimulus-feedback, and reinforcement for human learning. Hence, learning resources, called programmed instructional materials, should present instruction in small steps, require overt responses to frequent questions, provide immediate feedback and allow learners to pace themselves. This was the beginning of the ID revolution. BloomÊs Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) provided instructors with a means to decide how to effectively impart instructional content to learners. Advocating a mastery approach to learning, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learnerÊs requirements. (d) 1960s Robert Mager (1962 as cited in Reiser, 2001) stressed on the importance of writing objectives and said that in order for learning objectives to be effective, they must be measurable, specific and be based on a criteria (see Figure 7.2): Figure 7.2: Effective learning objectives In 1962, Robert Glaser introduced the concept of „instructional design‰ in a model which linked learner analysis to the design and development of instruction (Reiser, 2001). He used placement tests for learner-specific instruction in Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
176 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING In the early 1960s, the emergence of criterion-referenced testing influenced the field of ID. Tests previously were norm-referenced tests, designed to rank learnersÊ performance according to a portion of high-achievers and low achievers at any one time. In contrast, a criterion-referenced test intends to measure how well an individual can perform a particular behaviour or set of behaviours, irrespective of how well others perform. The criterionreferenced test became a central feature of ID procedures. In 1962, Robert Gagné demonstrated the different levels of learning. His differentiation of psychomotor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes provides a companion to BloomÊs six cognitive domains of learning. Later, Gagné extended his thinking to include nine instructional events that detail the conditions necessary for learning to occur. These events are important and are still being used today. (e) 1970s When computer technology flourished in the 1970s, organisations had to quickly retrain employees. Public and private organisations began to establish education and training departments using different models for instructional systems designs. Tennyson (as cited in Taylor, 1995) provided a model of cognitive system which relates the main areas of cognition (sensory receptors, executive control, working memory and long-term memory) to instructional needs. Cognitivist ID was born and related quite strongly to the impact of computers and computer science in educational technology. With more powerful programming and computer hardware, cognitivist ID was realised when intelligent tutoring, expert systems, hypertext and hypermedia allowed for branching of learning interactions and sensing of learner needs to accommodate higher level interactions. (f) 1980s to 1990s With the advent of technology, educators saw that early learning theories propagated by Locke and Dewey and later expanded by Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky (constructivist) were easily realisable. As such, constructivist notions began to emerge in the forefront. Constructivist ID could be realised by the use of „mind tools‰ such as databases, learning spaces and global resources for construction of knowledge. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 177 (g) 2000s Although the specific combination of procedures often varies from one instructional design model to the next, most of the models include design, development, implementation and evaluation of instructional procedures and materials intended to solve those problems (Reiser, 2001). There were many different terminologies used in instructional design in the 21st century, but Reiser (2001) noted that all the instructional design processes had five major activities: (i) Analysis of the setting and learner needs; (ii) Design of a set of specifications for an effective, efficient and relevant learner environment; (iii) Development of all learner and management materials; (iv) Implementation of instructional strategies; and (v) Evaluation of results of the development, both formatively and summatively (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). The addition of details related to specific applications led to the creation of different instructional design models. Conceptual tools and operational tools assist in identifying contexts within which an instructional design model might be utilised (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). Hence, the five core elements, Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate (or also known as ADDIE), are interrelated during the development process. The elements bring information related to the previous element during the instructional design process (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). ADDIE is regarded more as a generic instructional design concept than a model by many instructional designers. ADDIE provides a useful tool for measuring whether the design is inclusive of the entire instructional design process or only one or more of its essential elements (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). Hence, the instructional design process can be a single linear process or a set of concurrent and recursive procedures. The linear ADDIE process has been used to teach novice designers the design Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
178 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING process because it is simple, generic and applicable across many different contexts. However, critics of instructional design models believe that the ADDIE process is too simple and stifling (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). Figure 7.3 shows the core elements in ID. Figure 7.3: Conceptual core elements of instructional design Source: Branch & Kopcha (2014) However, there are many ways of portraying the ADDIE processes, either as a rectilinear, curvilinear or a combination. In a real design situation, a designer will begin to develop instructional goals and objectives as part of conducting the initial analysis. This is an effort to improve the efficiency and efficacy of the design process. By embedding the design of instructional goals and objectives within the analysis phase, the designer is able to produce a prototype, and assess the clarity and accuracy of those goals and objectives at an early and critical stage. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 179 As various forms of prototyping began to be used in instructional design, two main forms of rapid prototyping emerged. Some recent models have a concurrent portrayal of the design process (see Figure 7.4) and others a spiral design (see Figure 7.5) to indicate the recursive and highly iterative nature of the instructional design process (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). Figure 7.4: Concurrent portrayal of the instructional design process Source: Branch & Kopcha (2014) Figure 7.5: Recursive portrayal of the instructional design process Source: Branch & Kopcha (2014) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
180 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING Rapid prototyping became common around the time when online learning gained popularity. The rise of the internet allowed for e-learning and the provision of distance learning to anyone in the world. Rapid prototyping was required as a means to produce web-based instructional materials at a faster rate in line with the demand for e-learning. Technology advances allowed for interesting means of learning experiences in the online environment. In the last decade, tools have become mobile and wireless, and learning has become personalised to the learner, while collaborative learning has become the norm. How has instructional design remained constant through the years and how has it changed? 7.1.3 Understanding ID Now that we have a slightly better understanding of instructional design, let us venture a little more into the taxonomy used, some definitions and the profession itself. (a) Taxonomy for Instructional Design Models A taxonomy is intended to help designers consider the characteristics of a design situation and decide which model or aspects of specific models may be appropriate based on those characteristics. For example, instructional designers may benefit from incorporating the evaluative elements of rectilinear models in situations where the content is somewhat stable or the intended audience is large in size. By considering the characteristics noted in the taxonomy, designers may make more informed decisions about the models they employ and the reasons for doing so. 1. Describe norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. 2. Is ADDIE model an instructional design model? How can it be used for instructional design? SELF-CHECK 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 181 Table 7.1 presents a taxonomy for contemporary instructional delivery formats and selected characteristics. Table 7.1: A Taxonomy for Instructional Design Models Delivery Format Online Synchronous = any place but same time, Asynchronous = any place and any time Face-to-face Same place and same time Blended Any combination of online and face-to-face Selected Characteristics Opportunity for analysis None, limited, unlimited Opportunity for formative evaluation or assess objectives None, limited, unlimited Level of ID expertise required Novice, intermediate, expert Planned course length Hours, days, weeks, months, years Level of human resources needed Individual, small group, large team Amount of technology resources needed Less than average, average, more than average Degree of distribution Local, throughout the system, beyond the system Need for usability testing throughout development Low, moderate, high Nature of objectives and content Stable, changes infrequently, changes frequently Source: Branch & Kopcha (2014) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
182 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING (b) Definitions Many definitions exist for instructional design. All of them are an expression of the underlying philosophies and viewpoints of what is involved in the learning process. Let us look at some of these definitions presented in Table 7.2. Table 7.2: Definitions of Instructional Design Definition Source The process of deciding which methods of instruction are best for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and skills for a specific student population. Reigeluth (1983) Instructional systems design (ISD) is „an organised procedure that includes the steps of analysing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating instruction‰. Seels and Richey (1994) The theory and practice of design, development, utilisation, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. Reiser and Dempsey (2002) Instructional design is intended to be an iterative process of planning outcomes, selecting effective strategies for teaching and learning, choosing relevant technologies, identifying educational media, and measuring performance. Branch and Kopcha (2014) After going through the definitions in Table 7.2, how do you think educational design can be best defined? From the definitions provided, how do you summarise the term „instructional design‰? (c) The Instructional Design (ID) Profession Many people say that the instructional designerÊs job is to help everyone to learn and be successful. Do you think this is true? What are the criteria that an ID should have? Instructional design is an intellectual process requiring higher-level thinking skills. To perform this activity, an ID will need entering skills and aptitudes plus training and education. Wallington (1981) lists the generic skills necessary to perform ID as: (i) Interpersonal skills; (ii) Communication skills; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 183 (iii) Problem-solving skills; (iv) Skills in extracting and assimilating chunks of information; and (v) Skills in working with information in a logical framework. According to Seels and Glasgow (1990), the job of an instructional designer is to bring objectivity and orderliness to the process of planning instruction so that the quality of instruction is assured. An ID takes knowledge from many fields and applies this knowledge to the steps in a systematic process for the development of instruction (Seels & Glasgow, 1990). As such, an instructional designerÊs role can change depending on whether the subject to be presented is technical or non-technical and depending on the composition of the design team. Recent developments in information technology and its effects on learning have prompted some educationists to reanalyse the role of instructional designers. The role of IDs may evolve into what is known as knowledge architects. According to Lasnik (2003), scholars and practitioners interested in fostering the development of knowledge architecture as a legitimate and evolving profession are at the forefront in defining the essential performance skills and academic training needed in the core subfields of information design, interactivity design, media design and instructional design. This term „architect‰ became more popular when Washburn (2010) introduced the term „learning architects‰. As he claims, instructional design is different from planning a lesson. In order to construct building blocks of learning, the architectural blueprint is required. The concept of learning architects has also showed that the trend in the field of ID has moved towards designing learning environments, rather than just on design of instruction alone. Instructional designers, like others employed in the 21st century, are faced with the prospect of continual re-tooling to meet their new job demands. Two organisations have proposed certification for instructional design practitioners; The National Society for Performance and Instruction (NSPI), and the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
184 TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) THEORIES Reflect on the following statement by Reigeluth (1997). Instruction is „anything that is done to help someone learn‰ and ID theory is „anything that offers guidance for improving the quality of that help‰. So we can safely say that ID theory is based mainly on learning theories. 7.2.1 Gagne’s ID Theory GagneÊs instructional design theory has three major elements. What are the elements? Look at Figure 7.6 to see the major elements of GagneÊs ID theory. Figure 7.6: Three elements of GagneÊs instructional design theory 7.2 1. Reflect on all the definitions discussed in this subtopic and construct one that is based on your teaching experience. 2. What do you think will be the skills and knowledge of future instructional designers? Do you have the skills and knowledge to be an instructional designer? What skills would you like to develop? ACTIVITY 7.1 1. What are the skills necessary to perform ID? 2. Discuss why IDs are known as knowledge architects and learning architects. SELF-CHECK 7.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING 185 Now, let us learn more about the three elements of GagneÊs ID theory: (a) Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes According to Gagne, „learning, supported by instruction, may result in the establishment of five kinds of capabilities in the human learner‰ (Gagne & Briggs, 1979). A question that may now come to your mind is, what are the five capabilities? Let us look at Table 7.3. Table 7.3: Five Types of Capabilities in the Human Learner Capabilities Description Intellectual skills Permit the learner to carry out symbol-based procedures. Cognitive strategies Inventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem or accomplish a task. Verbal information The facts and organised „knowledge of the world‰ stored in the learnerÊs memory. Attitudes Internal states that influence the personal action choices a learner makes. Motor skills Performing a physical task to some specified standard. Now, let us focus on the characteristics of the five capabilities: (i) Intellectual Skills (Gagne & Briggs, 1979) The intellectual skills can be described as: Learning how to do something of an intellectual sort (contrast with learning that something exists or has certain properties); Capabilities that make the human individual competent; Make up the most basic and pervasive structure of formal education; and Range from elementary language skills (composing a sentence) to advanced technical skills of science engineering (finding the stresses in a bridge). (ii) Cognitive Strategies The cognitive strategies are: Special and very important kinds of skills; and Capabilities that govern the individualÊs own learning, remembering and thinking behaviour. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)