INTRODUCTION In the world of technology-based training, there has been an almost universal attempt to bend learning to the will of technology, instead of putting technology into the service of the natural learning process. E-learning should be pedagogically driven, not technology driven. (Laurillard, 2002) Topic 4 Educational Technology in Higher Education LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain the current technological trends in higher education; 2. Describe the role of instructors and students in higher education; 3. Identify the role of the higher education institutions; 4. Clarify the application of the blended learning model in higher education; 5. Discuss the learning designs of technology mediated learning in higher education; 6. Discuss the domains of standards needed to implement e-learning initiatives in higher education institutions; and 7. Analyse the e-learning initiatives deployed by higher education institutions in Malaysia. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 87 Technology is changing the way faculties teach and students learn. As technological advances are introduced into university campuses, many are attracted by the promise and potential of technology for enhancing access and learning (see Figure 4.1). Many times, as we begin to develop courses in universities, we seek the latest technology to use. The content has to be flashier, more exciting and more entertaining! The latest technological gadgets are required for a powerful new online course, right? ... Wrong! Figure 4.1: Education taking a ride on technology It is really important in the age of information technology „leaps‰ to take a step back and be sure that you are not creating „visual gimmicks‰, where content looks great, but does not add value to your course. Faculty, staff and administrators of universities need to understand what technology should and should not do. Therefore, it is crucial for us to outline some of the issues, challenges and questions faced by universities and colleges as they consider the use of technology to support teaching and learning such as: (a) What types of technology improve learning outcomes? (b) What are the changing roles of students, faculty members, and the institution itself owing to the adoption of technologies? (c) Which technologies can we afford? What are the hidden costs? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
88 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION CURRENT TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS IN HIGHER EDUCATION Probably the greatest challenge that universities and colleges face today is the need to maintain and even improve the quality of teaching and learning, given the changing circumstances in which they find themselves. Can technology help? Hiltz (1998) suggested the importance of encouraging student participation, making material relevant and the role of instructors in weaving student communication. Colleges and universities ought to be concerned not with how fast they can „put their courses up on the Web,‰ but with finding out how this technology can be used to build and sustain learning communities. (Hiltz, 1998) This suggestion is well-supported by theories of learning that highlight the importance of social interactions in the construction of knowledge (such as those from Bruner, 2001; Dewey, 1929; Kafai & Resnick, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978 as cited in Brook & Oliver, 2003). Besides this important point, the following questions also highlight other aspects that you should consider when assessing the use of technology in teaching and learning: (a) Did using instructional technology help students use resources more efficiently? (b) What skills or knowledge have students gained as a result of the instructional activity? (c) How have students benefited from the skills/knowledge gained from the instructional activity? 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 89 (d) Did the instructional activity or approach help to attain learning objectives? (e) What were the outcomes of the instructional activity or approach? (f) Did the instructional activity or approach meet established instructional expectations? Did the technology help students master a concept that is hard to learn? (g) Did students develop new kinds of skills or knowledge by using technology? 1. What are the trends in the use of technology for learning in higher education? 2. Review the following articles on trends in higher education. Do you believe these trends are being implemented in Malaysian universities? Share and discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. (a) The NMC Horizon Report: 2017 Higher Education Edition. Retrieved from http://cdn.nmc.org/media/2017-nmc-horizon-report-heEN.pdf (b) eLearning Trends and Predictions for 2017. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/elearning-trends-andpredictions-2017 (c) 15 Futuristic eLearning Trends Evolving in 2016 & Beyond. Retrieved from https://www.w3.org/community/learnonline/2016/08/04 /elearning-trends/ (d) StudentsÊ Mobile Learning practices in Higher Education: A Multi-Year Study. Retrieved from http://er.educause.edu/articles/2015/6/students-mobilelearning-practices-in-higher-education-a-multiyear-study ACTIVITY 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
90 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION Compared to other types of technologies, educators have witnessed the rapid development of computer networks, dramatic improvements in the processing power of personal computers and striking advances in magnetic storage technology. These developments have made the computer a dynamic force in higher education, providing a new and interactive means of overcoming time and distance to reach learners. From mainframes in the 1960s to microcomputers in the 1980s, to the Web that has extended to Web 2.0, Web 3.0 and Web 4.0 today, higher education hoped to use computer technology to improve educational outcomes on a large scale. Outcomes refer to what learners can do by the time they are finished with the academic programme. The term „large scale‰ refers to improvements in outcomes for graduates of an entire degree programme, institution or nation. Computer applications for higher education fall into the following categories: (a) Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI): Uses the computer as a self-contained teaching machine to present discrete lessons to achieve specific but limited educational objectives. There are several CAI modes, including drill and practice, tutorial, simulations and games, and problem-solving. (b) Computer-managed Instruction (CMI): Uses the computerÊs branching, storage and retrieval capabilities to organise instruction and track student records and progress. The instruction need not be delivered via computer, although often CAI (the instructional component) is often combined with CMI. (c) Computer-mediated Communication (CMC): Describes computer applications that facilitate communication. Examples include electronic mail, computer conferencing and electronic bulletin boards. (d) Computer-based Multimedia (CBMP): HyperCard, hypermedia and a stilldeveloping generation of powerful, sophisticated and flexible computing tools have gained the attention of distance educators in recent years. The goal of computer-based multimedia is to integrate various voice, video and computer technologies into a single, easily accessible delivery system. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 91 (e) Computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL): Computer applications that can enhance collaborative learning using peer interaction for sharing, working in groups, supporting and creating new knowledge and expertise in a community of learners. (f) Mobile learning applications: Mobile learning uses mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets for delivery of instructional materials through the web or through mobile application software (mobile apps). These mobile apps may be pre-installed in the device or can be downloaded from distribution platforms or apps stores. Mobile learning is learning anytime anywhere and can be both formal and informal learning with the device being personalised to the learner. A higher education institution should have a model for selecting and applying appropriate and relevant technology. There are many models for the technology selection but Bates (1995) has developed a simple model to follow known as the ACTIONS model. It is intended as a set of questions to be asked by distance educators when making decisions about investment in technology, and when choosing specific media and technology applications for a course. This model has been found to be equally practical and useful for campus-based teaching with technology (refer to Table 4.1). „ACTIONS‰ is the acronym for the seven main criteria that Bates (1995) proposed for selecting a learning technology: (a) Access; (b) Costs; (c) Teaching and learning; (d) Interactivity and user-friendliness; (e) Organisational issues; (f) Novelty; and (g) Speed. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
92 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION The ACTIONS model consists of several questions for each evaluation criteria as outlined in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: ACTIONS Model Criteria Questions Access How accessible is a particular technology for learners? How flexible is it for a particular target group? Costs What is the cost structure for each technology? What is the unit cost per learner? Teaching and learning What kinds of learning are needed? What instructional approaches will best meet these needs? What are the best technologies for supporting this teaching and learning? Interactivity and user-friendliness What kind of interaction does this technology enable? How easy is it to use? Organisational issues What are the organisational requirements, and the barriers to be removed, before this technology can be used successfully? What changes in organisation need to be made? Novelty How new is this technology? Speed How quickly can courses be mounted with this technology? How quickly can materials be changed? Source: Bates & Poole (2003) Bates then expanded on the ACTIONS model to develop the SECTIONS model which incorporated ease of use with interaction and access to the technology for the students (Bates & Poole, 2003; Bates, 2016). The categories for Student and Ease of use and reliability were added (refer to Table 4.2). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 93 Table 4.2: SECTIONS Model Criteria Questions Students What is known about the students ă or potential students ă and the appropriateness of the technology for this particular group or range of students? Ease of use and reliability How easy is it for both teachers and students to use? How reliable and well tested is the technology? Costs What is the cost structure for each technology? What is the unit cost per learner? Teaching and Learning What kinds of learning are needed? What instructional approaches will best meet these needs? What are the best technologies for supporting this teaching and learning? Interactivity and User-friendliness What kind of interaction does this technology enable? Organisational Issues What are the organisational requirements, and the barriers to be removed, before this technology can be used successfully? What changes in organisation need to be made? Novelty How new is this technology? Speed How quickly can courses be mounted with this technology? How quickly can materials be changed? Bates (2016) feels that other models of media selection only focused on instructional aspects and may only consider for one session of instruction. However, his model considers costs and organisational requirements. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
94 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION Study the different types of technology tools used in higher education and identify the purpose of the eight technology tools by filling the blank spaces in Table 4.3 (which have been intentionally left blank). Table 4.3: Types and Purposes of Technology Tools Type of Technology Tool Example Purpose (What is it used for?) Drill and Practice https://esl.brainpop.com/ https://xtramath.org/#/h ome/index To reinforce previously learned knowledge/skill. Web-based Tutorial https://www.w3schools.com/ To deliver an entire instructional sequence. Simulation http://www.sciencecoursewa re.com/eecindex.php A model of a real or imagined system designed to teach how a certain system or a similar one works. Educational Games http://pbskids.org/arthur/g ames/unmatching/index.html Schoology: Learning Management System https://www.schoology.com/ ACTIVITY 4.2 1. Describe the different computer and technology applications used in higher education. 2. Compare the ACTIONS model to the SECTIONS model. Which model would you use when selecting a technology to implement for your organisation? SELF-CHECK 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 95 Edu Blog http://edublogs.org/ Provides learners with a place to collect their thoughts and reflections on their work and on their own thinking (metacognition). Allows learners to work in a shared digital space in order to collect resources, write collaboratively and provide critique on their peersÊ contributions. Whiteboard http://ecampus.oregonstate.e du/services/studentservices/onlinetutoring/whiteboardtutoring.htm Webcasts https://webcast.ucsc.edu/ http://www.pwc.com/us /en/cfodirect/multimedia /webcasts.html Google Drive and its applications https://www.google.com/dri ve/ iTunes U http://www.apple.com/educ ation/itunes-u/ Khan Academy https://www.khanacademy.o rg/ Virtual Laboratories http://virtuallabs.nmsu.edu/ Next, indicate your decision on the use of each tool in the spaces below. Please explain your choices to your tutor and coursemates. Use the „SECTIONS Model‰ to guide your decision. (a) Definitely will use: __________________________________________ (b) May try to use: _____________________________________________ (c) Will not use: _______________________________________________ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
96 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION REINVENTING THE ROLES OF INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS Technology has impacted our traditional campuses and students. Almost all universities have ongoing requirements to have the latest technologies available. Professors will increasingly require students to use the Internet for research and supplemental information and sometimes for communication and collaboration. Some universities will develop a „brick and click approach‰ by offering a combination of classroom courses, online courses and hybrid courses that combine online teaching with classroom discussions, as well as offering online courses through their distance learning departments to reach out to other learners. However, the use of technology does not change the fundamental distinctions between our traditional educational system and the new models of online learning. Those distinctions are in the roles of instructors, students and the role of the institution. We know that electronic-based learning (e-learning) for computer-mediated communications has enormous potential for making learning faster, deeper, more thorough, while making it less tedious and more challenging for the learner. It can be less expensive and more fun. However, e-learning without the facilitator or the expert to support the process of knowledge acquisition, will be another failed experiment. I think most of us believe that learning is social. People learn from one another and build knowledge from the interactions with one another. The Internet turbocharges learning because it brings people together. As an e-learner, you will interact in many ways. You „attend‰ virtual presentations, seminars and classes. You participate in online discussions, both real-time and anytime. You connect with fellow learners, learning coaches, mentors, facilitators and others by e-mail, video conference, telephone, messaging and voice chat. You get together when you and your coursemates hit a bump in the road (help desk) or at a scheduled time (office hours). Do you agree then, that to make the most of a virtual learning environment, most e-learners need a guide? And, the instructor has to make the transition from a „sage on the stage‰ to become a „guide by the side‰? 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 97 There are a significant number of skills which will be required to fulfil the roles mentioned in Activity 4.3. Salmon provides a clear indication of such skills in her article, Reclaiming the Territory for the Natives (as cited in Brabazon, 2016), citing flexibility and adaptability to the audience as the first two role of the teacher. Wake, Dysthe and Mjelstad (2007) claimed that the teacher is an orchestrator as they are fulfilling the roles of teacher, administrator, consultant, negotiator and moderator. This is because they claim the teacher needs to deal with „the diverse tasks of teaching, administrating, moderating, and the negotiating of meaning with external units‰. The teacher has to assemble seemingly unrelated tasks sometimes which may be tied to technology and teaching, to make it meaningful to the learner. Given that the necessary skills for e-learning vary from those in face-to-face teaching, staff development and training are clearly a major factor for any institution wishing to pursue e-learning. Any significant initiative aimed at changing teaching methods or the introduction of technology into teaching and learning should include effective e-moderator support and training, otherwise its outcomes are likely to be meagre and unsuccessful. (Salmon, 2011) Brainstorm and draw a mind map that provides details on the roles of an instructor. (a) Technical: Do students have the basics? Does their equipment work? Do their passwords work? (b) Managerial: Do students understand the assignments and course structure? (c) Pedagogical: How are students interacting, summarising, debating and thinking? (d) Social: What is the general tone? Is there a human side to this course? Is joking allowed? Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
98 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION Furthermore, it is important that an institution can fully engage its staff in such a development, in spite of the increase in workload, for example. However, do you think obtaining such a commitment is a simple task, given the number of other duties and responsibilities that a staff member may have? Hence, some university staff may be reluctant to adopt this new way of teaching. What about students? Do they become more active learners? Technology is supposed to enable education that is learner-centric, individualised and interactive, making education far more relevant to the needs of individuals. But are our students active learners? In technology-mediated learning, students are responsible for their own learning. 4.2.1 What is Active Learning? Active learning places the responsibility of organising what is to be learned in the hands of you, the learner. Learning is an active process involving you in situations which compel you to read, speak, listen, think deeply and write. There is a common thread in the development of our understanding of learning (see Figure 4.2). Figure 4.2: The learner as an active agent in the learning process Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 99 4.2.2 What Counts as Active Learning? Boud and Prosser (2002) advocate active learning as a rethinking of learning activities and interactions which incorporate: (a) Learner engagement; (b) A meaningful and authentic context for learning; (c) A setting that challenges learners; (d) A provision for practice; and (e) Choice of the right tool for the pedagogical task. Fink (2007) adapted Bonwell and EisonÊs (1991) principles of active learning into his „Model of Holistic Active Learning.‰ In his model, students need to acquire necessary information and ideas through out-of-class readings or in-class lectures. Next, they need to have an observing or doing experience, which may be a case study, problem-solving or decision-making exercises, role play, hearing othersÊ stories or experiences. Then, students reflect on the meaning of the information in one-minute papers, weekly journals, or learning portfolios. Figure 4.3 shows the activities of traditional and active learners. Figure 4.3: The activities of the traditional and active learners Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
100 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION REINVENTING THE ROLE OF THE INSTITUTION If an institution is taking the continuous development and implementation of e-learning seriously, then it must pay particular attention to the model of learning required, in addition to staff training and development needs, in order to facilitate the production of successful e-learning projects. Is our definition of learning changing? What now constitutes the learning we are seeking? For example, is it mastery of a body of knowledge, critical thinking ability, communications skill, preparation for a career or useful life, the ability to find needed information, or the ability to interact with others? Are our learners changing? It seems to me that our definition of learning is changing in a number of ways. We are beginning to have different ideas about what students need to learn. Driven by the information or the knowledge explosion, our expectations about what a college student should learn are changing. Increasingly, viewing a college education as mastery of a body of knowledge or a complete preparation for a lifetime career is becoming outdated. Instead, we recognise that graduates need to have acquired skills, such as critical thinking, quantitative reasoning and effective communication, and be able to find needed information and work well with others. For further understanding, read the article on the changing mindset of the Net Generation, titled Is it Age or IT: First Steps Toward Understanding the Net Generation by Oblinger and Oblinger (2005). 4.3 In the myINSPIRE online forum, (a) Discuss Figure 4.3 in groups and explain the definition and implications of active learning from the perspective of learners. (b) Use Boud and Prosser (2002) model or FinkÊs (2007) model to discuss the activities you can do to make learning active. ACTIVITY 4.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 101 On the other hand, there has been some debate on whether the Net Generation are really competent users of technology. Read the following articles for further understanding: (a) Digital Learners in Higher Education: Generation is Not the Issue by Bullen, Morgan and Qayyum (2011); and (b) The Net Generation and Digital Natives: Implications for Higher Education by Jones and Shao (2011). Are our colleges and universities changing in response to the current view of learning and the needs of Net Generation learners? What does the Net Generation need? Does our current teaching infrastructure, with its emphasis on the traditional classroom, provide an effective mechanism to serve a newly defined view of learning and learners? Has technology empowered instructors to be creative and innovative in their approach to pedagogy? Disappointingly, most institutions assume that technology-mediated learning is mainly suitable for single learner and self-paced learning. Hence, the implied pedagogy is still the content-centric, transmission model of education. Course materials are often little more than textbooks online and many instructors have missed the opportunities of interactivity that an online medium can provide. So, how do we fuel this newly defined view of learning through technology? There are three Models of Technology in Teaching and Learning (Bonk, 2001): (a) Enhancing the Curriculum Computers for extra or supplementary activities; drill and practice CD. (b) Extending the Curriculum Transcend the classroom with cross-cultural collaboration, expert feedback, virtual field trips and online collaborative teams. (c) Transforming the Curriculum Allowing learners to construct knowledge bases and resources from multiple dynamic resources regardless of physical location or time. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
102 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION Professor Curtis Bonk of Indiana University believes change in the educational spectrum is inevitable whether you jump on the rapidly travelling technological vehicle or not. According to Bonk (2001; 2004), the educational system must adjust its protocol to accommodate this on-going shift and fast evolving high-tech society. The educational sphere is heading towards e-learning as its method of postsecondary education. We need to create virtual institutes that engage the student and instructor. Effective monitoring and structuring of the virtual learning environment is imperative for impactful learning. (Bonk, 2001) However, Bonk (2001) stresses that instructors and educational institutions must maintain full involvement in the learning process of post-secondary students, technology and online learning. BLENDED LEARNING MODEL Did you know that one of the most persuasive factors for technology-mediated learning is the shrinking half-life of knowledge? The „half-life of knowledge‰ is the time span from when knowledge is gained to when it becomes obsolete. Half of what is known today was not known 10 years ago. According to the American Society of Training and Documentation (ASTD), the amount of knowledge in the world has doubled in the past 10 years and is doubling every 18 months. 4.4 Write a description for each type of course in the following table. Which type of course do you think will encourage active learning among students? Circle your response. Proportion of Content Delivered Online (%) Type of Course Typical Description 0 Traditional 1 to 29 Web-facilitated 30 to 79 Blended/Hybrid 80+ Online ACTIVITY 4.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 103 To combat the shrinking half-life of knowledge, universities and colleges have been forced to develop new methods of deploying instruction. They found that the blended learning model is an effective option because it utilises e-learning and instructor-led training to address the diverse learning needs of all its trainees on a 24/7 basis. This choice is based on extensive research. One survey indicated that Net Generation students consider it an essential to have a balanced use of technology in the learning environment. For example, a group of 25 University of PittsburghJohnstown students (all Net Generation learners) were asked to rate their preference for the level of interactivity in the learning environment, with various forms of technology understood as key enablers of interactivity. Their options were: (a) 100% lecturing; (b) 75% lecturing and 25% interactive; (c) 50% lecturing and 50% interactive; and (d) 100% interactive. The vote was not even close. All 25 students gave the highest rating to a balanced, 50ă50 environment. Other eye-opening information about blended learning included the following facts: (a) About 80% of all American higher education institutions and 93% of doctoral institutions offer hybrid or blended learning courses (Arabasz & Baker, 2003). (b) About 85% of faculty surveyed in British higher education institutions believe learning technologies are improving access to education and 94% think that a mix of online and classroom-based teaching is more effective than classroom teaching alone (Marquis, 2004). To view some resources and case studies of blended learning, visit the following sites: (a) https://www.edutopia.org/blended-learning-resources, (b) http://learningaccelerator.org/resources (c) http://www.blendmylearning.com/blended-learning/ (d) https://ajet.org.au/index.php/AJET/article/viewFile/6/21 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
104 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION What are some of the advantages of the blended learning model for maximising resources and studentsÊ learning? Toolkit for blended learning can be obtained at https://blended.online.ucf.edu/ What about the disadvantages of blended learning? Are there any challenges when organisations plan to develop blended or hybrid courses? Some of the challenges can be categorised as instructor challenges and student challenges. The instructor challenges are as follows: (a) The blended course required more time to develop as compared to developing traditional courses, primarily because of time and effort required to redesign the course, learn new teaching techniques and acquire new technology skills. Several models of blended learning are (Clayton Christensen Institute, 2017): (i) Station Rotation model where students rotate through stations on a fixed schedule and at least one station is an online station. (ii) Lab Rotation model which is similar to a station rotation, students rotate on a fixed schedule. However, the rotation is done in a computer lab. (iii) Individual Rotation model allows students to rotate through stations but on their individual schedules set by the teacher or software algorithm. Rotation is done to the activities. (iv) A Flipped classroom model flips the traditional classroom time to do homework and the time at home for online coursework and lectures. (v) The Flex model allows students to have more flexible schedules to adjust learning activities according to their needs. Online learning is the backbone of student learning while teachers provide support and instruction on a flexible, as-needed basis while students work through course curriculum and content. (vi) The A La Carte model enables students to take an online course in addition to other face-to-face courses. This also provides students flexible schedules. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 105 (vii) The enriched virtual model is an alternative to full-time online school. The student can complete most of the coursework online at home or outside of school, but needs to attend school for required face-to-face learning sessions with a teacher. Attendance does not need to be recorded daily. (b) Resistance to change. Some of the student challenges are (Clayton Christensen Institute, 2017): (a) Poor time management skills, thus may find the work overwhelming. (b) Difficulty in accepting responsibility for learning. (c) Difficulty with more sophisticated technologies. (d) Lack of time, money and support. Read the case study of institution by Theng, Wong, Tang, Chunyan, & Min-Yen (2008), titled Investigating studentÊs perceptions of the NTUÊs edveNTUre: Implications for design patterns in e-learning systems. Analyse whether these institutions thought about the five critical factors of implementing blended learning, which are: (a) Prepare students (and their parents) and the campus for changes in the course. (b) Train instructors and undergraduate peer tutors. (c) Ensure an adequate technological infrastructure to support the implementation. (d) Achieve initial and ongoing faculty consensus about the implementation. (e) Avoid backsliding by building ongoing institutional commitment to the design. Discuss your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
106 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION Whether they offer totally online or blended (that is blending face-to-face with online instruction) courses, institutions must also provide students with information, assistance and assessment of student capability in the following areas (see Figure 4.4): (a) Students must have access to information about the curriculum, the course and degree programme and the baseline technology needed for success; (b) Students must have access to assistance with academics, career, admissions, financial aid and technology; and (c) Students must have access to academic assessment in the form of placement testing and clearly stated prerequisites, as well as technical assessment to determine whether they are prepared to engage in e-learning. Figure 4.4: A three-part model for developing a robust e-learning support system Source: http://technologysource.org/extra/6/figure/1/ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 107 To get an idea of how some institutions have succeeded in providing the necessary student support, visit the following websites. They have been designated „Best Practices in Student Services‰: (a) http://www.utoledo.edu/dl/ (b) https://www.ohio.edu/ecampus/ (c) http://www.lakelandcc.edu/web/about/student-support-departments (d) http://www.lakelandcc.edu/web/about/mobile-apps DESIGN OF TECHNOLOGY-BASED LEARNING The design of technology-based learning in higher education should focus on making learning interactive, creative and productive. Instructors are considered creative designers who will transform learning: (a) From presentational designs which under-exploit technology to interactive, independent learning with formative feedback; and (b) From aggregated form and content which restrict teacher innovation to disaggregated tools and assets which they can improve, innovate and exchange. The design model for technology-based learning has three main elements (Oliver & Herrington, 2001): (a) Learning Tasks Provide the context and determine how the learners will engage with course materials and the forms of knowledge construction that will take place. (b) Learning Resources Include the course materials or content that provides learners with perspectives from a multitude of sources. The content provided is often authentic in nature. Besides electronic sources like learning objects, the content may also include conventional materials. 4.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
108 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION (c) Learning Support Provide the support necessary to guide learners and a feedback mechanism which is responsive and sensitive to individual needs of learners. In technology-based learning, there is usually a strong argument made for an active and involved instructor. Figure 4.5: Framework describing critical elements of technology-based learning design Source: Oliver & Herrington (2001) Now, imagine yourself as a chef! You know that all recipes have a list of ingredients. However, a list of ingredients (no matter how amazing or expensive the individual ingredients) is no guarantee of an edible meal. This is because a recipe is also made up of another fundamental component besides a list of ingredients; which is a set of steps/ processes to create the meal. If you are a creative chef, you usually like to change recipes and ingredients, and you avoid a rigid and complex list of ingredients. Compare this scenario with technology-mediated learning. Technology-mediated lessons combine learning activities or tasks with learning resources ă which are essentially like „learning objects‰ or „digital assets‰. Technology-mediated learning should enable educator to: (a) Search for a learning object and then view pointers to good activity sequences as „wrappers‰; or Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 109 (b) Search for activity sequences and then view pointers to good learning objects to incorporate into the sequence. STANDARDS IN TECHNOLOGY-MEDIATED LEARNING (E-LEARNING) FOR HIGHER EDUCATION Blackmon (2015) and Bianco, Marsico and Temperini (2005) give an in-depth explanation of the required standards in e-learning. The standards domain includes nine areas which are: (a) Institutional commitment; (b) Technology; (c) Student services; (d) Instructional design and content development; (e) Instruction and instructors; (f) Delivery; (g) Finances; (h) Regulatory and legal compliance; and (i) Evaluation. We have already analysed most of the domains, except for finance, regulatory and legal compliance and evaluation issues. 4.6 Describe the three critical elements of technology-based learning. SELF-CHECK 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
110 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 4.6.1 Financial Issues First, let us study the costs of implementing e-learning. E-learning can be expensive to implement, difficult to manage and slow to show results. Furthermore, when students start clamouring for more online classes, will you be ready to roll out new programmes quickly and easily? Grappling with e-learning is a common challenge. Although you may already have launched your e-learning initiative, you probably face a rash of questions, such as: (a) How does e-learning change the way teachers teach, for better or for worse? (b) How do I fund, create and manage the myriad of digital assets required for an effective e-learning programme? (c) What is the best, most secure way to give students, professors and administrators access to e-learning resources? (d) How do I make a business case for new e-learning programmes? 4.6.2 Regulatory Issues Besides financial issues, there is a growing concern over regulations governing e-learning, especially issues pertaining to intellectual property and copyright laws, accreditation of e-learning courses and compliance with standards. Traditional notions of ownership, control and use of educational materials are being challenged by the revolution in information and communications technology. The authority and responsibilities of faculty members in this digital era with regard to how courses are developed, taught and revised are related to intellectual property as well as copyright issues. For example, faculty members involved in e-learning courses are creators and users of intellectual property. Thus, complicated questions involving „fair use‰ of intellectual property arise in the e-learning context; particularly in light of the increased ease of gaining access to and reproducing information in a variety of formats using computers. Questions arise not just in the development and dissemination of materials for online teaching purposes, but also in the development of course content and web pages. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 111 For further insight on intellect property and copyright issues, read the following articles: (a) Distance Education and Intellectual property: A-075. Retrieved from https://policies.tbr.edu/guidelines/distance-education-and-intellectualproperty (b) Intellectual property, Copyright, and Distance Learning. Retrieved from http://horizon.unc.edu/projects/resources/intellectual_property.asp (c) Copyright Implications for Online Distance Education. Retrieved from https://www.nyu.edu/frn/publications/millennial.student/Copyright.html The next important issue is accreditation. The purpose of accreditation is to: (a) Use standards of evaluation to ensure quality education; (b) Encourage institutions to improve quality of education; (c) Ensure the accountability of educational institutions; and (d) Provide public confidence in educational institutions. Accreditation ensures a basic level of quality in the education you receive from an institution. It also ensures your degrees will be recognised for the true achievements. When assessing the quality of an educational institution, students should know the institutionÊs accreditation status. In Malaysia, educational institutions are nationally regulated by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA). Refer to the following link for further information regarding this: http://www.mqa.gov.my/PortalMQAv3/red/en/soc_heeact_msia.cfm Finally, in order to remain competitive, MalaysiaÊs e-learning software developers and content provider should conform to international e-learning standards. E-learning standards refer to a system of common rules for content, authoring software and Learning Management Systems (LMS) ă rules that specify how courses can be created and delivered over multiple platforms so that they all operate seamlessly together. Accredited standards ensure that the investment in time and intellectual capital could move from one system to the next. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
112 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION The following are the prominent international e-learning standards that we should comply with: (a) Aviation Industry CBT Committee (AICC): Oldest e-learning standard originating from the creation of computer-based training in the aviation industry. Now it encompasses web-based training. (b) Information Management Standard (IMS): Standard focused on metadata. Has specifications defining how the LMS communicates with back-end applications. (c) Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM): Specifications adapted from best practices of various e-learning standards. Provides a comprehensive suite of capabilities facilitating interoperability, accessibility and reusability of web-based learning content. For more information on e-learning standards, read e-Learning Standards ă What They Are and Why They Matter. Retrieved from http://trivantis.com/blog/elearning-standards-matter 4.6.3 Evaluation Issues Evaluation is a domain that is often neglected by higher education institutions that are either developing or delivering technology-mediated courses, or doing both. However, since the major goal of evaluation is to influence decision-making through the provision of feedback, it is a very crucial process that may determine the success of e-learning programmes. The process of evaluation is essentially the process of determining to what extent the educational outcomes are actually being realised. The most basic distinctions between the various types of evaluation are often drawn between formative, summative and monitoring or integrative evaluation. Formative evaluation provides data to inform decisions made during the design of the technology-based learning programme, while summative evaluation examines the worth of the technology-based learning programme in the context of its use. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 113 To understand these approaches in evaluation better, read the following articles: (a) Formative Assessment in elearning: What eLearning Professionals Should Know. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/formative-assessment-in-elearning-whatelearning-professionals-should-know (b) Evaluating Your Online Courses. Retrieved from http://theelearningcoach.com/elearning_design/evaluating-your-onlinecourses/ (c) Formative Evaluation: A Practical Guide. Retrieved from http://elearnmag.acm.org/featured.cfm?aid=1190066 (d) Introduction to Evaluation in eLearning. Retrieved from https://www.efrontlearning.com/blog/2011/01/introduction-toevaluation-in-elearning.html (e) Summative and Formative Assessments in E-Learning. Retrieved from http://blog.commlabindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/info.png TECHNOLOGY-MEDIATED LEARNING (E-LEARNING) IN MALAYSIA’S HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Did you know that academicians in Malaysian universities were among the early users of e-mails and the World Wide Web in Malaysia? Initially, they used these technologies to support their research, access information, communicate with colleagues, and later to supplement their teaching. As a consequence, many of the diverse strategies in traditional universities can be traced to early, often modest, pilot projects and initiatives by individual academics. 4.7 You will be divided into groups of four to five persons per group. Each group is expected to do research and make a presentation, using PowerPoint slides, on one of the domains of standards for e-learning. Share your findings in the online forum. ACTIVITY 4.7 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
114 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION As access to the required facilities became increasingly ubiquitous and experience of using the technologies grew, e-learning expanded to embrace a wider range of programmes and institutional staff. With expansion came awareness. As universities became increasingly conscious of the potential of e-learning, more and more universities moved to develop institutional strategies for the deployment of e-learning. So, we can conclude that a majority of universities and colleges in Malaysia have their own e-learning deployment strategy in place, whether it is through e-learning in a mixed-mode environment whereby a combination of e-learning and face-to-face learning are used together (although the focus is still on face-to-face learning), or by delivering the programmes via e-learning mode where almost 90 per cent of their courses are available online, with minimal face-to-face meetings. Moreover, public universities do offer distance learning programmes using multimedia applications, although up until 1983, all the teaching materials were in the form of printed notes produced and provided by course lecturers. However, by the 1990s, new pedagogic elements were introduced. Multimedia materials, such as audio and cassettes, slides, computer-based learning and other interactive multimedia had been integrated into the course materials. The leading players in distance learning were Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). You will also notice that when compared to public universities, private universities have been spearheading the e-learning teaching and learning movement in institutions of higher education. Since their inception, these universities have incorporated e-learning initiatives, including the development of in-house e-learning technologies, in the universityÊs master plan. For example, private universities like Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) was the first in South-East Asia to pioneer programmes via the e-learning mode, in September 1998 with 162 students enrolled for the Business Administration and Bachelor of Information Technology. Following this initiative, Open University Malaysia (OUM) was established on 10 August, 2000, as the seventh private university in Malaysia. Although incorporated as a private university and established under the Private Higher Education Institutions Act 1996, OUM leverages on the quality, prestige and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 115 capabilities of its owners ă a consortium of 11 Malaysian public universities. Today, there are more than 30,000 students enrolled in OUM academic programmes which consist of self-managed learning, online learning and face-toface interaction. Another forward-looking private institution is Multimedia University, believed to be one of the first universities in Malaysia to implement an e-learning solution for its students. The system, which is known as Multimedia Learning System (MMLS), was implemented in 1999 and today the system receives more than 250,000 hits per month. The system is also one of the few learning management systems in Malaysia that comply with internationally recognised standards like Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM). In the Malaysia Educational Blueprint (Higher Education) 2015ă2025, one of the shifts is to provide Globalised Online learning. This is in order to provide access to quality education for all at a lower cost, in addition to sharing the expertise of our experts at a global arena. Online learning is an important aspect of this shift and the provision of MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) on platforms like Coursera and EdX will enable Malaysia to sell its expertise. The National E-learning policy or DePaN (Dasar E-Pembelajaran Negara) plans that by 2025, all academics will have technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) and basic e-learning skills with 25 per cent having advanced e-learning skills. In order to achieve this, the Ministry of Higher Education has set the Key Performance Indicator (KPI) for this aspect for all higher education institutions, where currently 30 per cent of courses offered in the institution should be blended. The criteria for blended means that a certain number of resources, activities and assessments should be conducted online on a Learning Management System (LMS). Currently several universities have embarked in offering MOOCS. Read more at http://library.oum.edu.my/repository/1022/1/library-document-1022.pdf. For a whole list of universities and their MOOCS, see https://www.openlearning.com/malaysiamoocs Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
116 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION We have learned that a majority of higher education institutions adopt e-learning strategies and MOOCs to achieve three common objectives; (a) Widen access to educational opportunities; (b) Enhance the quality of learning; and (c) Reduce the cost of higher education. Technology in higher education affords the opportunity to create a learning environment that is learner-centric, individualised and interactive. Specifically, e-learning technologies enable us for the first time to put knowledge and learning within the reach of all those who have access, at the time and place where such knowledge is needed. Additionally, high-quality instructional modules will enable individuals to access the knowledge they need when it is needed, moving to „justin-time‰ education rather than „just-in-case‰ education. Questions for discussion in the myINSPIRE online forum: (a) What are the e-learning initiatives deployed in these universities: Multimedia University (MMU) and Open University Malaysia (OUM)? (b) What are the objectives (mission or vision) of the e-learning deployment for the universities? (c) How does e-learning help in the process of teaching and learning? (d) What are the differences in e-learning deployment, between the two institutions studied? (e) How has MOOCs changed the e-learning environment? ACTIVITY 4.8 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 117 The potential for effective technology use in higher education, particularly in e-learning, cannot be realised without addressing some significant challenges like the quality of instruction, sharing of courses and new roles for students, faculty and institutions. This topic has discussed all of the above challenges, and it is hoped that all stakeholders, whether they are policy-makers, lecturers, students or developers will actively support the new learning paradigms for them to take root and flourish. This is because we have to recognise that the pace of change in the workplace is requiring employees to be constantly retrained. Higher education will increasingly be required on an on-going basis, as our workplace evolves and technology, based on strong pedagogical guidelines, will be fulfilling the demand. Read the list of reasons for offering blended learning courses at: (a) https://etug.ca/2012/03/28/more-resources-on-blended-andhybrid-learning/ (b) http://www.worldwidelearn.com/education-articles/hybrideducation.html (c) http://www.personal.psu.edu/jmc14/HN/elearnbrownbag.pdf Categorise the points according to the following advantages: More flexible course format ă opens up new possibilities. More student- and learner-centred ă less listening and more activities. More interaction and discussion ă greater engagement with students. Reduction in physical class or space needs, commuting and parking. Discuss these advantages using the myINSPIRE discussion forum. ACTIVITY 4.9 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
118 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION The current trend in higher education is to use technology to improve the quality of teaching and learning in line with the requirements of the 21st century. Ć The six broad categories of computer applications for instruction in higher education are computer-assisted instruction, computer-managed instruction, computer-mediated communication, computer-based multimedia, computersupported collaborative learning and mobile learning applications. Ć The SECTIONS model is suitable for selecting and applying appropriate and relevant technology in higher education. There are various types of technology tools (for example: drill and practice, web-based tutorial, simulation). Ć There is a need to re-invent the role of instructors and students to support active learning. Ć Active learning is characterised as learning that is learner-centric, individualised and interactive. Ć Blended learning is increasingly popular today because it is more effective in addressing diverse learning needs. Ć Challenges exist as we implant technology, particularly in supporting faculty and students. Ć There are three critical elements in technology-based learning, namely, learning tasks, learning resources and learning support. Ć Financial, regulatory and evaluation issues are a factor when implementing e-learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 119 Active learning Blended learning Computer-assisted instruction Computer-managed instruction Computer-mediated communication Formative evaluation Learning object Regulatory issues Summative evaluation Technology tools Arabasz, P., & Baker, M. B. (2003). Evolving campus support models for e-learning courses. Educause Center for Applied Research. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ecar_so/ers/ERS0303/EKF030 3.pdf Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning, and distance education. London, England: Routledge. Bates, A. W., & Pool, G. (2003). Effective teaching with technology in higher education. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Bates, A. W. (2016). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. British Columbia, Canada: BC Open Textbooks. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/ Bianco, A. M., Marsico, M. De., & Temperini, M. (2005). Standards for e-learning. Retrieved from http://www2.tisip.no/quis/public_files/wp5-standardsfor-elearning.pdf Blackmon, J. (2015). E-learning standards: What they are and why they matter? Retrieved from http://trivantis.com/blog/elearning-standards-matter/ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
120 TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 1. Washington, DC: George Washington University. Bonk, C. J. (2001). Online teaching in an online world. Bloomington, IN: CourseShare.com. Bonk, C. J. (2004). The perfect e-storm emerging technology, enormous learner demand, enhanced pedagogy, and erased budgets. London, England: The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.publicationshare.com/part1.pdf Boud, D., & Prosser, M. (2002). Appraising new technologies for learning: A framework for development. Educational Media International, 39(3ă4), 237ă245. Brabazon, T. (2016). The University of Google: Education in the (post) information age. London, England: Routledge. Brook, C., & Oliver, R. (2003). Designing for online learning communities. In D. Lassner, & C. McNaught (Eds.), Proceedings of Ed-Media. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.837.2957&rep= rep1&type=pdf Bullen, M., Morgan, T., & Qayyum, A. (2011). Digital learners in higher education: Generation is not the issue. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 37(1). Retrieved from http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/26364 Clayton Christensen Institute. (2017). Blended learning models. Retrieved from http://www.blendedlearning.org/models/ Fink, L. D. (2007). The power of course design to increase student engagement and learning. Peer Review, 9(1), 13ă17. Retrieved from http://www.csun.edu/~krowlands/Content/PolicyDocuments/Engagem ent/Fink-Power%20of%20Course%20Design.pdf Hiltz, S. R. (1998). Collaborative learning in asynchronous learning environments: building learning communities. Paper presented at the WebNet 98 World Conference of the WWW, Internet and Intranet Proceedings, Orlando, FL. Jones, C., & Shao, B. (2011). The net generation and digital natives: Implications for higher education. Open Research Online. Retrieved from http://oro.open.ac.uk/30014/1/Jones_and_Shao-Final.pdf Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 121 Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching: A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies. London, England: Routledge Falmer. Marquis, C. (2004). WebCT survey discovers a blend of online learning and classroom-based teaching is the most effective form of learning today. In D. R. Garrison, & N. D. Vaughan (2008), Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Oblinger, D., & Oblinger, J. (2005). Is it age or IT: First steps toward understanding the Net Generation. In D. Oblinger, & J. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the Net Generation, Boulder, CO: Educause. Retrieved from http://judicialaffairs.tamucc.edu/assets/IsItAge.pdf Oliver, R., & Herrington, J. (2001). Teaching and learning online: A beginnerÊs guide to e-learning and e-teaching in higher education. Mount Lawley, Australia: Centre for Research in Information Technology and Communications, Edith Cowan University. Retrieved from http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7832&context=ecuworks Salmon, G. (2011). E-moderating: The key to online teaching and learning. New York, NY: Routledge. Wake, J. D., Dysthe, O., & Mjelstad, S. (2007). New and changing teacher roles in higher education in a digital age. Educational Technology & Society, 10(1), 40ă51. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Faculty are moving forward, technologies are improving, and student demand is increasing ă but few changes are taking place in the university structure as a whole to accommodate the special needs of the distance-learning student. (Bothel, 2001) Topic 5 Educational Technology in Distance Learning LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define distance learning; 2. Identify the characteristics of distance learning; 3. Discuss the advantages of distance learning; 4. Explain the concept of transactional distance; 5. Describe the four types of interactions in distance learning; and 6. Explain the seven steps in selecting a learning management system (LMS). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 123 The overall aim of this topic is for you to identify ideas related to educational technology incorporated in distance learning and to appropriately select the use of these technologies when applied to your educational context. In previous topics, you would have come across the terms educational technology and instructional technology. How can you use educational technology and instructional technology in distance learning? What happens at a distance? Are the teacher and student at a distance from each other? Or is distance learning the use of audio-visual resources to aid learning? There are many other terminologies used in distance learning: correspondence education, home study, independent study, external studies, continuing education, distance teaching, self-instruction, adult education, technology-based or mediated education, learner-centred education, open learning, open access, lifelong learning, flexible learning and distributed learning. How are these terms different? Educational technology may assist in designing distance learning situations. But, how can this be done? Well, we will see how it can be done soon. DISTANCE LEARNING Distance learning has evolved from correspondence education at the beginning of the 19th century to e-learning in the present time. Distance education is instructional delivery where the student does not need to be physically present in the same location as the instructor. The delivery of materials can be through audio, video and computer technologies. Developments in technology for computer-mediated instruction and interactive video has made distance education courses rich in media. In addition, telephone and videoconferencing has created new communication channels for interactions at a distance between tutors and learners. 5.1 Surf the Internet and read more about the terminologies used in distance learning. Compare and contrast some basic characteristics. Write them down and share with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
124 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 5.1.1 Brief History of Distance Learning in Malaysia Distance learning in Malaysia started with correspondence schools in the 1960s and 1970s, such as Stamford College, Raffles College and Adabi College. These learning institutions catered to students who needed to pass their public examinations, but were unable to get into government-funded schools (Lateh & Raman, 2009). At tertiary level, Malaysia started offering distance learning courses since 1971, but not all universities were using educational technologies to deliver their courses. Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) and Multimedia University (MMU) were the main universities using educational technology (Lateh & Raman, 2009). Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) started the distance learning mode in 1971 with correspondence courses with notes, and later printed modules in the 1980s, followed by audio tele-conferencing in 1988 (Lateh & Raman, 2009). This was then upgraded to audio-graphic teleconferencing or TAG, in 1991, which enabled twoway communication using audio systems and electronic writing boards, between the main campus and regional centres (Lateh & Raman, 2009). This was replaced with video conferencing in 1995 and expanded to 15 regional centres. The virtual library, launched in 1997, transformed the distance learning programme into a virtual library system which could be accessed by students (Lateh & Raman, 2009). In 1998 and 1999, the part-time tutors at the regional centres were replaced with teleconferencing, through its VideoNet system which was connected using a physical link with fibre optics. This system provided an interactive portal known as the Interactive Distance Education Applications (IDEA) and was used to access lecture notes in the mid-2000s (Lateh & Raman, 2009). Institut Teknologi MARA (ITM) was another prominent institution in distance learning. The Centre for External Education was established in 1973 for face-toface education, and then in 1990, for the distance mode (Lateh & Raman, 2009). In 2003, UiTM (previously ITM) established electronic distance education (e-DE), called Maya Faculty (Virtual Faculty) that uses the Internet to deliver online courses. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 125 In 1997, the Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) emerged as MalaysiaÊs first e-learning university and proved that the Internet was a reliable source to deliver online courses (Lateh & Raman, 2009). Unlike classes conducted in a traditional lecture environment, classes conducted at UNITAR were replaced with interactive multimedia CDs or Web-based courseware that included multimedia, simulation, and games that were always accessible to students, while maintaining the quality of delivery at all times (Lateh & Raman, 2009). The Virtual Online Instructional Support System (VOISS) is the web-based course-management system for students and instructors. Multimedia University (MMU) developed its own e-learning engine called the Multimedia Learning System (MMLS) in 1999 (Lateh & Raman, 2009). The wireless Internet access allowed students to access the learning materials anywhere on the campus, even at the hostels, making their notes accessible at any time. MMLS enables content to be delivered digitally using texts, graphics, animations, sound and videos. MMLS was designed with the underlying concept of a „virtual teacher within a virtual classroom environment,‰ having the ability to „teach‰ the students rather than just simply delivering the learning materials to a learner. These initiatives to implement technology in distance education arose from the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) launched by the government in August 1995. The MSC revolutionised the way business was conducted by offering its services to technology developers in order to deliver high-value multimedia services and products to customers both across Asia and worldwide (Lateh & Raman, 2009). It has also opened the doors to new technologies to be used in education (Lateh & Raman, 2009). Arising from this, two higher education institutions were established following the MSC commitment to higher education universities by offering diploma and degree courses online: (a) The Multimedia University, built by Malaysian Telekom; and (b) Universiti Tenaga Nasional by Tenaga Nasional Berhad, MalaysiaÊs largest power utility company (Lateh & Raman, 2009). However, one of the earliest campus-wide initiatives in e-learning was the development of the Online Learning Interactive System (OLIS) in 1999 for medical students at International Medical University in Malaysia (Abas, 2009). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
126 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING Presently, all higher education institutions (HEIs) in Malaysia have a LMS that enable students to access information and learning materials online (Abas, 2009). It is important to implement the compulsory use of LMS for universities using dual modes of instruction: full-time and part-time distance. The LMS is an important delivery component. For example, USM and UiTM uses the dual mode (Abas, 2009), while in Wawasan Open University and OUM, MalaysiaÊs open and distance learning institutions, e-learning plays a significant role (Abas, 2009). OUM started in 2001 with 753 students; however by 2009, its student number rose to 78,000. The original objective was to address the needs of the adult working population who wished to pursue a university degree. The pedagogy it applied was to support adult learning (Abas, 2009). In the years that followed, OUM has shifted its base to support its learners by training tutors to support its online presence (Abas, 2009). In addition to this, they have also moved towards mobile learning by establishing a mobile learning research group in 2008 where a mobile learning initiative was piloted (Abas, 2009). Print modules were also being provided as primary resources with support on the web and materials such as podcasts and multimedia elements being produced. Following the success of the distance learning programme at UiTM, many more universities started to follow suit. The Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) in 1993, the Universiti Malaya (UM) and in 1994, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), the Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM) in 1995, Universiti Telekom (UNITELE) in 1997, and finally Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) in 1998 (Ali, Fadzil, & Kaur, 2006). All the above mentioned universities started their distance learning programmes by extending the on-campus programmes, except for UNITAR which created its programmes purely for the distance or virtual learning mode. Figure 5.1 shows when various universities in Malaysia started offering distance learning by extending their on-campus programmes, except for UNITAR, OUM and WOU (which created their programmes purely for the distance, open or virtual learning mode). Figure 5.2 lists the purposes of providing distance education in Malaysia. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 127 Figure 5.1: Brief history of distance learning in Malaysia Source: Adapted from Ali, Fadzil & Kaur (2006) Figure 5.2: Purposes of providing distance education Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
128 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING Dedicated units or centres are set up to coordinate the programmes within the universities. Such centres include the: (a) School of Distance Education at USM (http://www.pppjj.usm.my/index.php/ms/). (b) UPM Education and Training (UPMET) at UPM (http://www.etawau.com/edu/DistanceLearning/UPMET.htm). (c) Professional and Continuing Education Centre (PACE) at UUM (http://pace.uum.edu.my/index.php). (d) Centre of Distance Education (CiE) with a Distance Learning Unit at MMU. (e) Institute of NEO Education (iNED) at University Teknologi MARA (http://www.ined.uitm.edu.my/). (f) Centre of Teaching and Learning Technologies at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (http://www.ukm.my/ctlt/). The types of programmes vary from certificates to post-graduate degrees. However, the present focus is on keeping up with the needs for a globalised education system, to focus on innovative educational approach to working adults, such as at the Institute of NEO Education (iNED) in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). Some universities have changed their format of distance education courses and are now focused on delivering online through „massive open online learning‰ (MOOCs) and blended modes of learning. At present, distance learning in Malaysia is provided by using MOOCs. An initiative by the Ministry of Higher Education in collaboration with public universities, found that MOOCs were developed with four public universities which were Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) and Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS). The respective universities developed four MOOCs for courses on ethnic relations, Asia and Islamic civilisation, introduction to computer, and introduction to entrepreneurship (Nordin, Norman & Embi, 2015). These courses are compulsory for undergraduate students in Malaysian universities; however it uses a blended mode of learning with 30 per cent of the course conducted in MOOCs, while the remaining percentage was carried out according to course instructors in their respective universities (Nordin et al., 2015). The Open Learning platform is being used at https://www.openlearning.com/ malaysiamoocs Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 129 The modes of distance learning currently being conducted are as follows: (a) Blended learning, where online learning supports face-to-face conducted in classrooms; (b) Hybrid form, where printed materials is supported with online learning resources; (c) Online learning, where the course is delivered totally online; and (d) MOOCs, where courses are open and massive as they are accessible to the public at large. Distance learning seems to be an area of rapid development not only in the public universities but in the private learning institutions as well. This is partly due to the following factors: (a) Increase in the number of students needing opportunities to study within the 18 to 26 age group; (b) The changing scenario of the Malaysian economy which needs existing Malaysian workers to upgrade their vocation with fine skills in management, communication, science and technology; (c) Stiff competition in normal acceptance of prospective university candidates, thus leaving a large number of eligible candidates without an entry into the public universities; (d) The increasing cost of establishing new universities make distance learning a more preferable choice; and (e) The availability of telecommunication facilities such as the Internet and more powerful computers make it relatively easier to deliver programmes at a distance. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
130 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING However, distance education is not without its own unique set of challenges. Sowell and Hassan (2016) mentioned the pros and cons of distance education in their article titled Distance Education: Complement or Replacement (refer to Table 5.1). Benefits Challenges Learner-determined location for learning: Learners are able to choose their own place of study. Learner-determined time of learning: Learners are able to organise their own individual learning schedule, rather than having to study on a specific day at a specific time. Learner-determined pace of study: Learners are able to set their own individual pace of study without being held up by slower learners or vice-versa. Risk of isolation: Loss of traditional classroom face-to-face interaction and the potential feelings of isolation Technology implication: Lack of access to the online learning environment. This is a significant issue in rural and lower socioeconomic neighbourhood. Computer literacy: It is important for both learners and instructors to possess a minimum level of computer knowledge in order to function successfully in an online environment. Figure 5.1: Benefits and Challenges of Distance Education Source: Adapted from Sowell & Hassan (2016) 5.1.2 Definitions of Distance Education Distance learning has been variedly defined by different experts. The following are some definitions: (a) California Distance Learning Project (2011) „Distance Learning (DL) is an instructional delivery system which connects learners with educational resources. DL provides educational access to learners not enrolled in educational institutions and can augment the learning opportunities of current students. The implementation of DL is a process which uses available resources and will evolve to incorporate emerging technologies.‰ Review the distance learning programmes offered in HEIs at present. What are the forms of distance learning programmes being offered? Discuss the benefits and challenges of these programmes in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 131 (b) Moore and Kearsley (1996) According to Moore and Kearsley (1996), „Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a different place from teaching and as a result requires special techniques of course design, special instructional techniques, special methods of communication by electronic and other technology, as well as special organisational and administrative arrangements‰. (c) Instructional Technology Council (as cited in Ardito & Lanzilotti, 2011) „Distance education is the process of extending learning, or delivering instructional resource-sharing opportunities, to locations away from a classroom, building or site, to another classroom, building or site by using video, audio, computer, multimedia communications, or some combination of these with other traditional delivery methods.‰ According to Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2000), distance learning is characterised by: (a) Separation of teacher and learner in time or place, or in both time and place; (b) Institutional accreditation, when learning is accredited or certified by some institution or agency; (c) Use of mixed-media components, including print, radio and television broadcasts, video and audio cassettes, computer-based learning and telecommunications; (d) Two-way communication, allows learners and teachers to interact; and (e) Possibility of face-to-face meetings for tutorials, learner-learner interaction, library study and laboratory or practice sessions. Generally, we can see that distance learning falls somewhere along two continua: the continuum of place and the continuum of time. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
132 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING The place continuum has at one end all learners and their instructors gathered at the same place, and at the other end all learners and their instructors in different places. The time continuum has at one end all learners and their tutor or instructor interacting in „real time‰, that is, at the same time (synchronously) and at the other end all learners and their tutor or instructor interacting at different time (asynchronously). Table 5.2 demonstrates how these two continua intersect. Table 5.2: The Two Continua of Distance Learning Same Time Different Time Same place Classroom teaching, face-to-face tutorials and seminars, workshops and residential schools Learning resource centres which learners visit at their leisure Different place Audio conferences and video conferences; television with oneway video, two-way audio; radio with listener-response capability; and telephone tutorials Home study, computer conferencing, tutorial support by email and fax Source: The Commonwealth of Learning (2000) Read the article titled Distance Education by McIsaac and Gunawardena (2001). Consider the various ways one can view distance learning. In your own words, state what you understand by distance learning. How does it compare with the definitions provided in this topic? Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.3 1. Define distance learning. 2. Discuss the characteristics of distance learning. 3. Explain the continuum of place and the continuum of time. SELF-CHECK 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 133 5.1.3 Advantages of Distance Learning Learning at a distance enables learners who are separated by distance to continue learning. There are many advantages for both providers and learners. Many conventional institutions are setting up alternatives to blended learning and are providing distance learning using e-learning. The following are some of the main advantages of distance learning: (a) Providing more access especially to those that are disadvantaged due to physical geography, cultural affinities, limited places in conventional universities and entry criteria. (b) Providing more flexibility especially to those who are time-bound due to work schedules, family affairs and social obligations. (c) Providing better learning resources especially as distance learning methods need the instructors to pre-plan their teaching and learning resources. This eventually gets indexed in the system and is shared. Periodical updating of resources also enhances the overall effectiveness. 5.1.4 Types of Distance Learning Providers As distance learning matures, online courses are being offered to thousands of students enrolled throughout the world. As mentioned before, MOOCs are massive open online courses designed to offer distance education in a variety of subjects. The providers of these distance education courses may be organisations which provide a single mode or virtual learning institutions which offer many different courses. Some of the courses may have credits allotted or are creditbearing for the institution, leading to certification at the diploma, degree or postdegree level, while others may focus on training for a particular programme, and other non-credit bearing lifelong learning programmes to enhance the quality of the learner. What are the advantages of distance learning? SELF-CHECK 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
134 TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING The types of distance learning providers are: (a) Credit-bearing Credit-bearing institutions normally provide similar programmes in both the traditional and distance mode. Some common terminologies used are single-mode universities, dual-mode universities, multimode universities and virtual universities. Single-mode universities like Open University Malaysia (OUM) offer programmes only in the distance mode. Dual-mode universities, such as USM, offer programmes for both „on-campus‰ and „offcampus‰ students. Virtual universities, like UNITAR, provide learning via pure „e‰. (b) Focused Focused providers normally have large numbers of participants with similar characteristics who need to be trained in all corners of the globe. One example is the training provided by the US Army. „The US Army is embarking on the most ambitious undertaking of all of the armed services, dedicating $840 million over a 13 year period to provide global access to training through distance learning. The goal is to use distance learning methods to improve efficiency and effectiveness of military training. Using the full range of technology options, the Army intends to design 35 courses during FY 1998 and develop a total of 535 courses by FY 2003, in addition to building 204 facilities and 745 classrooms‰ (Phipps, Wellman, & Merisotis, 1998). Apart from that, large corporations like IBM and Oracle also use distance-learning methods to train their personnel. (c) Non-credit Bearing They offer short training programmes which are open to anyone keen on lifelong learning. Examples of such institutions are plenty in Malaysia: METEOR Learning Sdn Bhd is an example. To find out more about its series, visit http://www.oum.edu.my/ Describe the different types of distance learning providers. SELF-CHECK 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN DISTANCE LEARNING 135 5.1.5 Distance Learning Theory What are components in distance education theory? The theory would encompass a set of beliefs that will guide the implementation of distance learning to achieve the stated aims of learning. The theoretical assumptions of distance learning started off via way of comparing it with traditional learning and later developments expanded on it. Read the article by McIsaac and Gunawardena (2001) for more information on theory of distance education. According to McIsaac and Gunawardena (2001), key theoreticians in distance learning include Holmberg (1986), Keegan (1988) and Rumble (1986). McIsaac and Gunawardena (2001) stated that Holmberg, Keegan, and Rumble explored the underlying assumptions of what it is that makes distance education different from traditional education. With an early vision of what it meant to be a non-traditional learner, these pioneers in distance education defined the distance learner as one who is physically separated from the teacher (Rumble, 1986), has a planned and guided learning experience (Holmberg, 1986), and participates in a two-way structured form of distance education which is distinct from the traditional form of classroom instruction (Keegan, 1988). As cited in McIsaac and Gunawardena (2001) The distance learning literature states that there is no one theory that defines distance learning, but is a combination of the following: (a) Transactional Distance MooreÊs (1990) concept of „transactional distance‰ is based on two constructs (as cited in McIsaac & Gunawardena, 2001): (i) That which is determined by the amount of dialogue between the learner and the instructor; and (ii) That which is related to the amount of structure in the design of the course. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)