HMEF5143 Sociology of Education Faculty of Education and Languages Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
HMEF5143 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION Dr Jennifer Wee Beng Neo Dr Sheela Nair Gopala Nair Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
First Edition, April 2016 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2016, HMEF5143 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM). Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tak Open University Malaysia Module Writers: Dr Jennifer Wee Beng Neo Dr Sheela Nair Gopala Nair Moderator: Assoc Prof Dr Woo Tai Kuan Open University Malaysia Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Course Guide ixăxiv Topic 1 What is Sociology of Education? 1 1.1 Definition of Sociology of Education 2 1.2 Theoretical Approaches in the Sociology of Education 4 1.2.1 Functionalist Theory 6 1.2.2 Conflict Theory 8 1.2.3 Symbolic Interactionist and Interpretive Theories 11 1.3 The Open Systems Approach 12 1.4 Research Methods in Sociology of Education 15 Summary 18 Key Terms 18 References 19 Compulsory Readings 20 Topic 2 Functions and Processes in Education: What Makes the System Work? 21 2.1 The Importance of Processes and Structures in Educational Systems 22 2.2 The Functions of Education 23 2.2.1 The Function of Socialisation: Learning to be Productive Members of Society 25 2.2.2 The Function of Cultural Transmission and the Process of Passing on Culture 30 2.2.3 The Function of Social Control and Personal Development 32 2.2.4 Function of Selection and Allocation: The Sorting Process 33 2.2.5 The Function of Change and Innovation 34 Summary 34 Key Terms 35 References 35 Compulsory Readings 36 Table of Contents Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic 3 Education and the Process of Stratification 37 3.1 The Definition of Stratification 38 3.2 The Process of Stratification: Is Inequality Inevitable? 40 3.2.1 Determinants of Social Class 42 3.2.2 Types of Social Status 44 3.2.3 Major Explanation of Social Stratification 44 3.3 Equality of Educational Opportunity: Does It Happen in Schools? 46 3.3.1 Meaning of „Equality of Educational Opportunity‰ 47 3.3.2 Social Class Reproduction 49 3.3.3 Private Versus Public Schools 50 3.3.4 Theoretical Perspectives 51 3.3.5 Ability Grouping 52 3.3.6 Teacher Expectations 54 Summary 55 Key Terms 55 References 56 Compulsory Readings 57 Topic 4 Race, Class and Gender: Achieving Equality in Education 58 4.1 Gender and Equality of Educational Opportunity 59 4.1.1 Sex-role Socialisation 61 4.1.2 Development of Sex Roles in Education 64 4.1.3 Gender Equality in the Education System 66 4.1.4 Sex Differences in Achievement and Ability: Fact or Myth? 68 4.1.5 Combating Gender Differences 69 4.2 Class, Race and Attempts to Rectify Inequalities in Educational Opportunity 70 4.2.1 Social Class 71 4.2.2 Race and Ethnicity 72 4.2.3 Social Class, Race and School Success 72 4.2.4 Do Schools Provide Equal Educational Opportunities? 74 4.2.5 Breaking the Equality Barriers 75 4.3 Equal Educational Opportunities for All Children: How Far Have We Really Come? 76 Summary 78 Key Terms 80 References 80 Compulsory Readings 81 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TABLE OF CONTENTS v Topic 5 Students: The Core of the School 82 5.1 Student Characteristics 83 5.1.1 Student Role: What Do We Expect from Them? 84 5.1.2 Student Culture and Its Influence on the Student Role 85 5.1.3 The School-Student Relationship: Is It in a Constant State of Conflict? 86 5.1.4 Learning the Student Role 87 5.1.5 Student Coping Mechanism 88 5.2 School Failures and Dropouts 90 5.2.1 School Dropouts: Understanding the Phenomenon 91 5.2.2 Why Do Students Drop Out? 92 5.2.3 How Can We Prevent Students from Dropping Out? 94 5.3 Students and the Informal System 95 5.3.1 Factors that Influence StudentsÊ Academic Performance 95 5.3.2 Student Coping Strategies 98 5.4 Students and their Environments 101 Summary 104 Key Terms 105 References 105 Compulsory Readings 107 Topic 6 The Informal System and the Hidden Curriculum 108 6.1 The Open Systems Approach and the Informal Curriculum 109 6.1.1 The Hidden Curriculum 111 6.1.2 Reproduction Theory and the Informal System 113 6.2 Educational Climate and School Effectiveness 114 6.2.1 The School Climate and Effective School 115 6.2.2 Classroom Learning Climate 116 6.2.3 Student Friendship and Interaction Patterns in the Classroom 119 6.3 Power Dynamics and Roles in the Informal System 121 6.3.1 Theoretical Explanations of Power Dynamics in the Classroom 122 6.3.2 Teacher Strategies and the Informal System 122 Summary 124 Key Terms 125 References 126 Compulsory Readings 127 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic 7 The School as an Organisation 128 7.1 The Social System of the School 130 7.2 Goals of the School System 133 7.2.1 Societal, Community and EducatorsÊ Goals 134 7.2.2 School Goals 136 7.2.3 Individual Goals 137 7.3 The School as an Organisation 138 7.3.1 The School as a Bureaucracy 138 7.3.2 What is a Bureaucracy? 139 7.3.3 Development of Schools as Bureaucracies 142 7.3.4 Problems in Educational Bureaucracies 143 7.3.5 Loosely Coupled School Structures 143 Summary 145 Key Terms 146 References 147 Compulsory Readings 147 Topic 8 Teachers in Society 148 8.1 Changing Role of the Teacher 149 8.2 Socialisation of Teachers 153 8.3 Teacher Burnout 155 8.4 Teacher Expectation 157 8.5 Is Teaching Considered a Full Professional? 158 Summary 164 Key Terms 165 References 165 Compulsory Readings 166 Topic 9 Transition from School to Work 167 9.1 Role of School in Transition from School to Work 168 9.2 Does Socialisation Happen at the Workplace? 169 9.3 Does School Curriculum Provide Students with the Required Knowledge and Skills for Work? 170 9.3.1 The Formal Curriculum 170 9.3.2 The Vocational Curriculum 171 9.4 Young People, Schooling and Jobs 172 Summary 175 Key Terms 175 References 175 Compulsory Readings 176 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
x PANDUAN KURSUS Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE ix COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook. INTRODUCTION HMEF5143 Sociology of Education is one of the courses offered by Faculty of Education and Language at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered in 15 weeks. COURSE AUDIENCE This course is offered to learners pursuing the Masters of Education programme. As an open and distance learner, you should be able to study independently and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how the course is conducted. STUDY SCHEDULE It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Table 1 provides an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be accumulated. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
x COURSE GUIDE Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours Study Activities Study Hours Reading the course content and studying the module 55 Attend 5 seminars sessions (3 hours for each session) 15 Online participation 15 Revision 15 Completing assignments 20 TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120 COURSE OUTCOMES By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1. Explain the different theoretical approaches used in the study of sociology of education; 2. Apply relevant sociological concepts to understand and explain key educational issues particularly the relationship to social inequalities; 3. Use appropriate research methodologies in designing and conducting research on issues related to the relationship between students/youth, teachers, education and schools; 4. Explain how schools socialise its learners and education is both a provider of opportunity and reinforcer of inequality in contemporary society; 5. Examine the implications of the changing sociological structure of schools such as pluralism; 6. Evaluate the different initiatives taken by the government to enhance the Malaysian school system; 7. Assess critically the relationships between schools and other institutions in a society; 8. Participate in discourses on current social issues and problems related to education, schooling and youth in Malaysia; and 9. Appraise sociological research and interpretations and use them to describe, analyse and reflect upon their current and possibly future roles in the processes of education. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xi COURSE SYNOPSIS This course is divided into 9 topics, and further reading materials are also provided to enhance learnersÊ understanding of the course. The synopsis for each topic is presented below: Topic 1 provides learners with the definition and importance of sociology of education and highlights the different theoretical approaches used in sociology of education. It also examines the open systems model and the various research methods used in studying school systems. Topic 2 discusses the importance of processes and structures in the education system and outlines the five major functions of education. The roles of school and society in executing the functions of education are also explained. Topic 3 looks at the stratification process according to the major theoretical approaches and social classes in society. It also explores equality of educational opportunities and the mechanisms of social class reproduction in education. Topic 4 takes learners through the concept of equality in education by examining the roles of race, class and gender on student achievement and the process of socialisation in the school. Topic 5 focuses on students, their characteristics and how these relate to the school organisation, the school climate and overall academic achievement. A discussion on the factors that contribute toward school dropouts and school failures is also included in this topic. Topic 6 highlights the informal school system, drawing attention to the concept of the hidden curriculum and how it influences studentsÊ learning experiences and academic achievement. The topic also includes discussions on how social interactions and relationships of participants are shaped by the power dynamics of the informal system. Topic 7 examines the social structure of the school by focusing on the different components and subsystems that characterise a school as an organisation. Topic 8 focuses on teachers, their roles and responsibilities, their expectations and efforts to gain recognition for teaching as a full-fledged profession. Topic 9 explores the role of school in preparing learners for transition from school to the workplace and discusses the reality that young people face in their schooling and when they join the workforce. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xii COURSE GUIDE TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your understanding of the topic. Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few subsections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly from the module itself. Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define. Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module. Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms in the module. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE xiii References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course. PRIOR KNOWLEDGE No prior knowledge required. ASSESSMENT METHOD Please refer to myINSPIRE. REFERENCES Ballantine, J. M., & Hammack, F. M. (2013). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis (7th ed). Singapore: Pearson. Ballantine, J. H., & Spade, J. (2007). Schools and society: A sociological approach to education. Los Angeles, CA: Pine Forge. Banks, O. (1976). Sociology of education. London, England: Batsford. Levine, D., & Levine, R. (2003). Society and education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Bills, D. (2004). The sociology of education and work. Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. Saha, L. J. (2001). International encyclopedia of the sociology of education. Oxford, England: Pergammon. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
xiv COURSE GUIDE TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL LIBRARY The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books, Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Can you remember the courses you took when you were a student in the university? Did you sign up for any courses related to sociology? If you did, then you may already be familiar with the term „sociology of education‰. Have you heard of this branch of study? Do you think it shares any common traits with the field of sociology in general? This topic highlights the definitions and importance of sociology of education, and the different theoretical approaches in understanding sociology of education. The open systems model and various other research methods used in sociology of education are also examined. Topic 1 What is Sociology of Education? LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define sociology of education; 2. Explain the importance of sociology of education; 3. Compare the theoretical approaches in sociology of education; 4. Describe how the open systems model functions; and 5. Explain the various research methods used in studying school systems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
2 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION What is the definition of sociology of education? Before we can define sociology of education, we need to know the meaning of sociology. It is easy to study sociology of education after understanding what sociology is, as the two terms are like the two faces of a coin. As a learner, are you aware of the different ways in which sociologists have defined sociology and sociology of education? Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 outline the definitions of the two terms. Table 1.1: Definition of Sociology Researcher Definition Durkheim (1950) A study of social facts which must be regarded as things, and these social facts have influence on individuals. Comte (1798) A study of social order or stability and change or progress of the society and its social systems or institutions. Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997) The systematic study of human social relations, groups and societies. Wilson and Kidd (1998) The systematic study and explanation of human social life, groups and societies. Table 1.2: Definition of Sociology of Education Researcher Definition Durkheim (1956) A systematic study of education from the sociological perspective in understanding the education system. Saha (2001) The study of educational structures, processes and practices from a sociological perspective. Ezewu (1969) A scientific study of human behaviour in groups that describe a wide variety of patterns of behaviour in the learning environment. 1.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 3 Based on these definitions, did you notice any similar traits between sociology and sociology of education? Generally, sociology is a study of society or a scientific study of human interactions in groups or societies. But, sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. According to Durkheim (1956), the main emphasis in sociology of education is the school systems. The Importance of Sociology of Education What is the importance of sociology of education? Who do you think needs to study the sociology of education? Why is sociology of education important to them? Society comprises professionals in the workforce, parents of school-going children, and students in schools. As members of society, they need to know what is happening in the school systems and the society they live in. In this subtopic, let us see how an understanding of the sociology of education benefits the different groups of people in society: (a) Teachers and Other Professionals (i) Helps teachers understand the studentsÊ backgrounds and why they behave in a particular manner; (ii) Helps teachers understand studentsÊ behaviours, values and beliefs and the outcomes of the groupÊs behaviour that affect teaching; and (iii) Enables teachers to deal with any situations in their regular interactions and networking with society. (b) Taxpayers (i) Provides the required information needed in understanding the school systems; and (ii) Furnishes taxpayers with knowledge of how their money is being spent. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
4 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? (c) Parents (i) Provides parents with knowledge in making decisions on their childrenÊs education; and (ii) Gives parents confidence to speak out on issues related to their childrenÊs development in schools. (d) Students (i) Provides students with sociological skills to deal with complex organisational and interpersonal challenges in schools; and (ii) Provides students with educational experiences in order to understand the school system and the society they live in. Thus, sociology of education is important as it provides valuable insights into the workings of schools systems, and how they affect individuals and groups in society. THEORETICAL APPROACHES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION Do you know the theoretical approaches used to help learners understand and appreciate the relationships between education and other social institutions in a society? There are two major approaches used ă the macro and the micro approach. This is shown in Figure 1.1 which also provides an overview of the theoretical perspectives in the sociology of education, namely the functionalist theory, conflict theory, symbolic interactionist and interpretive theories. 1.2 SELF-CHECK 1.1 1. Define sociology of education. 2. Explain why sociology of education is important to teachers, parents and students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 5 Figure 1.1: Approaches in Sociology of Education Source: Ballantine & Hammack (2013) Table 1.3 summarises the macro and micro approaches in the sociology of education. Table 1.3: Macro and Micro Approaches in Sociology of Education (a) Macro approach (i) Focuses on institutions of education in societies. (ii) Societies, cultures and institutions as having a set pattern of rules and behaviours. (iii) Individuals being forced, persuaded, manipulated or socialised into some degree of compliance with these patterns in society. (iv) Structural functionalist and structural conflict theories. (b) Micro approach (i) Focuses on interaction between individuals and small groups. (ii) Individuals create society by their daily social actions and change occurs when individuals cease a set of social actions. (iii) Social order is an active production by members of society and negotiated by the social actors. (iv) Symbolic interactionism theory. Source: Meighan & Blatchford (2001) SELF-CHECK 1.2 Discuss the macro and micro approaches that can be used in the sociology of education. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
6 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 1.2.1 Functionalist Theory Society can survive only if there exists among its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity: education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the mind of the child, from the beginning, the essential similarities that collective life demands. Durkheim (1956) What do you understand by the term ‰functionalism?‰ Do you think the functionalist theory is helpful in understanding educational systems and society? Emile Durkheim (1858ă1917), founder of sociology is one of the proponents of functionalism. Functionalism, also referred to as structural functionalism, consensus or equilibrium theory, is concerned with the functions of schools in maintaining social order. Figure 1.2: Emile Durkheim Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 7 Let us examine the functions and role of schools in society. Functionalists look at the specific purposes or functions of schooling. The functions are intellectual, political, social and economical. The school is responsible for incorporating common consensus among the children of the society via formal and hidden curriculum. The role of schools supported DurkheimÊs view that society maintains equilibrium through moral values (Durkheim, 1956). Hence, the core function of schools is to maintain the status quo of society. Durkheim advocates the use of sociological perspectives in the study of education that centred on the relationships between society and its institutions, as both mirror each other (Durkheim, 1956). Let us take a closer look at the assumptions of the functionalist theory: (a) Society is made up of different structures or parts, each fulfilling a different role for survival of society; (b) Society and institutions are interdependent with one another, working harmoniously in the social system; (c) Focus should be on the processes that maintain social order by stressing on consensus and agreement among individuals in society; and (d) SocietyÊs functions can be understood by looking at the mechanism within society. However, critics of functionalism observe that functionalists fail to: (a) Recognise the diverse interests, ideologies and values of individuals in society (Sadovnik, 2007); (b) Deal with the curriculum of the educational processes, that is, what is taught and how it is taught (Karabel and Halsey, 1977); and (c) Explain that changes in the education system do not reflect the reality of the rapidly changing societies (Hurn, 1993). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
8 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 1.2.2 Conflict Theory The importance of education for capitalism is clearly revealed by the stateÊs action in taking control of educational institutions and expanding them Meighan and Blatchford (2001) Do you think conflicts exist in our school and society? If your answer is „yes‰, let us take a closer look at the conflicts faced by schools and society in carrying out their functions and roles to educate our children. Conflict theory originated with Karl Marx (1818ă1883). Marx saw conflicts in society between social classes, notably the conflict in capitalist societies (Marx, 1946). To the conflict theorists, social order is maintained when there is disputed interaction between individuals and groups and the imposing of order and coercion by those with power on the powerless. Figure 1.3: Karl Marx Source: http://www.historyguide.org Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 9 Max Weber (1864ă1920) viewed society from a different orientation. He believed that those with wealth and power hold on to their assets by suppressing the poor and powerless. The powerful, wealthy people are the „haves‰ and the powerless poor are called the „have nots‰. Figure 1.4: Max Weber Source: http://likesuccess.com The „haves‰ control power, wealth, material goods and privileges including access to the best education. Often, by using coercive powers and manipulation, they hold society together for their benefits. The „have-nots‰ are always considered a threat to them as they seek a larger share of societyÊs wealth, that could lead to possibility of conflict and power struggles. Weber believed that power relationships between dominant and subordinate groups form the basic structure of societies. Power relations and the conflicting interests of individuals and groups in society influence the educational systems, that will then shape the schools (Sadovnik, 2007; Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
10 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? Based on MarxÂs and WeberÊs ideologies, what are the views of conflict theorists on the functions and role of schools and society? Conflict theorists observed that schools function for the interests of the dominant groups in society. Schools no longer function as a means of socialisation for children in the society, but as institutions that perpetuate inequality of educational opportunities in society (Meighan & Blatchford, 2001). In the eyes of conflict theorists, if schools and society do not move in the same direction, the relationship becomes problematic. To understand conflict theorists further, let us look at the assumptions of conflict theory: (a) Tension exists in society, created by the competing interests of individuals and groups; (b) Society, fragmented into groups, compete for social and economic resources; (c) Coercion and power are used to maintain social order and control of political, economic and social resources; (d) The structure and functioning of organisations as well as the hierarchy evolves as a result of power relations; and (e) There is no balance or equilibrium between segments of a system or the interactions between members of the system. Besides Marx and Weber, other sociologists have contributed variations of the conflict theories which are summarised as follows: (a) CollinÊs ( 1978) „credentialism‰ indicates that educational expansion is best explained by status group struggles. Additional credentials are not indicators of actual achievement but used by dominant groups to secure better jobs and elevate themselves and their children in social status. (b) MeyerÊs (1977) „institutional theory‰ shows educational expansion as a requirement of civil society and is legalised by institutional ritual and ceremony instead of the actual practices. (c) BourdieuÊs (1973) „cultural reproduction theory‰ indicates that those who dominate capitalistic systems mould individuals to suit their own purposes. The cultural characteristics of individuals and groups are used as indicators of status and class position. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 11 1.2.3 Symbolic Interactionist and Interpretive Theories What is symbolic interactionist theory? Why do you need to understand this theory? Interactionist theory has its origin in social psychology based on the work of G. H. Mead (1863ă1931) and C. H. Cooley (1864ă1929) on the development of self through individualÊs social interaction in school or other situations in society. Interactionists look at what students and teachers actually do in school. The assumptions of the interactionist theory, and types of interaction theories are as follows: (a) Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionist Theory (i) Focuses on individuals, interactions with each other such as interaction between groups of peers, between teachers and students or between teachers and principals; (ii) Consider student attitudes, values and achievement; studentsÊ selfconcepts and their effects on aspirations; socio-economic status as it relates to student achievements; (iii) Interpretation of events is based on individual experiences, social class and status; and (iv) Interaction rituals bind individuals in society together. (b) Types of Interactionist Theories in Sociology of Education (i) Labeling theory ă Helps us to understand how micro-level interactions in the school contribute to individualsÊ formulations of their self-fulfilling prophesy; and (ii) Rational choice (exchange) theory ă Has relevance to education in school choices made by students, teachers and administrators. Focus is on costs and rewards involved in our interaction. Reciprocal interactions exist, that is, interactions that bind individuals and group with obligations and play into the situations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
12 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? THE OPEN SYSTEMS APPROACH What is the open systems approach? Have you any idea how the open systems model operates? In order to understand the educational system as a whole, integrated and dynamic entity, we can refer to the open systems model of education. The open systems model shows the interdependence between an organisation and its environments. Although the open systems model illustrates the component parts of a total system, it does not imply that one part is more important than the others in describing situations or events in the system. Figure 1.5 shows the main components of the open systems model. The structures and processes within the organisation will determine whether the organisation functions on an open system or a closed system. 1.3 SELF-CHECK 1.3 1. Describe the different theoretical approaches used in sociology of education. 2. Discuss the views of functionalist and conflict theorists on the role of education. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 13 Figure 1.5: Open Systems Model Source: Ballantine & Hammack (2013) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
14 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? The explanation on each part in the open systems model is as follows: (a) The Educational Organisation (i) Is the central place of the system where many activities take place; (ii) Consists of formal structure, functions and the processes of the system; (iii) Has both stability and flexibility in structural relationships; and (iv) Has both formal and informal relationships within the school that tell you more about the functions, roles and structure of the educational organisation. (b) Environment (i) Refers to anything outside the boundaries of the system which affects the attributes of the internal components or the social system itself; (ii) The interaction between the organisation and the environment stresses the reciprocal ties of the organisation with those elements that surround and penetrate the system; and (iii) Environment changes and differs depending on the challenges within the school and the environment. (c) Input (i) Comprises students and staff in the educational organisation; (ii) Some inputs are mandatory such as finances, human resources and technology whilst others such as information, raw materials, students, personnel, government mandates and new ideas vary in their degree of importance; and (iii) The organisation has autonomy and control over the process inputs such as the selection of new teachers, textbooks and curricular materials. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 15 (d) Output (i) Refers to the material items and the non-material ideas that leave the organisation; and (ii) Contributes positively (for example, products) and also negatively (for example, pollutants) to the external environments that affect the input, internal structures and processes as well as the output of the organisation. (e) Feedback (i) Refers to the responses received from the other parts of the system; (ii) Allows an organisation to constantly adapt to changes and demands in the environment when new information is received; and (iii) Positive and negative feedback requires different responses. Understanding the open systems model will enable you to visualise the whole system, each subpart in relation to the whole, and the environment surrounding the systems as well as the relationship between the parts in the system. RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION Have you done any research? Can you suggest some of the research methods that you have used before? Why do you choose those research methods? Qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods can be used to study the sociological perspectives of schools and society. Sociology of education relies on empirical methods to understand how schools are related to society, how individuals and groups interact within schools and what the effects of schooling on individuals and groups of children are (Sadovnik, 2007). 1.4 ACTIVITY 1.1 Discuss in the online forum how the school functions by using the open systems model. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
16 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? Several methods such as observation, controlled laboratory studies, content analysis, secondary data analysis, interviews, surveys and case studies are the common sociological research methods used. The various research methods, together with the strengths and weaknesses of each method, are discussed in Table 1.4. Table 1.4: Research Methods in Sociology of Education Research Method Strength Weakness (a) Observation (Anderson & Taylor, 2009) Enables researcher to obtain in-depth knowledge and familiarity with groups of individuals. Researcher is part of the group under study. Time consuming. Difficulty in selecting data from vast amount of field notes. Difficult to generalise from data obtained. (b) Controlled laboratory studies (Anderson & Taylor, 2009) Highly focused mode of collecting data. Useful for determining patterns of cause and effect between variables. Controlled experiments can be fake as they eliminate real-life effects. (c) Content analysis (Anderson & Taylor, 2009) Used to measure cultural change and different aspects of culture. Solicit more information about society by analysing the cultural artifacts. Easy accessibility to media resources or publication. Limited scope of study. Objectivity questionable ă researcher must select and record data. Time consuming. (d) Secondary data analysis (Boslaugh, 2007) Resources are economical ă saves cost, time and energy. Breadth of data available from longitudinal studies. Reliable data collection procedures ă guided by expertise and professionalism. Researcher has no control of data collected. Lack of information on data collection process. Data may not be specific to a particular research. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? 17 (e) Interviews (Neuman, 1991) Less structured; flexible. Interviewer needs to be highly focused ă to listen, think and talk simultaneously. Familiarity with the subject to avoid glitches. Time consuming for data collection. High cost for travelling and supervision. Interviewer bias. Lots of time and energy needed for data analysis. (f) Surveys (Neuman, 1991) Large sample; broad spectrum of data available. Saves time and energy ă postal surveys. Simplicity ă structured and specific questions. Low return response rate. Lack of control on mail questionnaires. Generalisation limited for narrow scope. (g) Case Studies (Neuman, 1991) Good sources of ideas about behaviour. Good method to challenge theoretical perspectives. Immersion gives researcher intimate familiarity with peopleÊs lives and cultures. Time consuming. Difficult to draw causeeffect conclusions. Difficult to generalise from a single case assumptions. Source: Andersen & Taylor (2009); Boslaugh (2007); Neuman (1991) ACTIVITY 1.2 A sociologist wants to do research on the topic „Is school a safe place for children?‰ Two hundred parents had been identified as the respondents in that district. Based on this statement, suggest the research methods you can use and provide justifications to support your answers. SELF-CHECK 1.4 Explain the sociological research methods that can be used in studying educational organisations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
1 C C C C F I 8 TOPIC Sociology sociologica Understan what goes Sociology processes o The theore schools an The open educationa Various so improvem Overview understand Case studies Conflict theor Content analy Controlled la Functionalism Interview C 1 WHAT IS of education al perspective nding the imp on in the edu of educatio of the educati etical approac d education s systems mod al system as a ociological re ent of educat of the topic ding the socio ry ysis aboratory stud m S SOCIOLOGY O is a systemat es. portance of so ucation system on enables y ional systems ches in the so systems from del helps to a whole, integ esearch meth tion. c will provid ology of educ dy Observ Open s Resear Second Survey Symbo OF EDUCATION tic study of th ociology of e m and the soc you to unde s from the ma ciology of ed different per enhance lear grated and dy ods can be e de you with cation. vation systems appro rch methods dary data ana y olic interaction ? he educationa education is c ciety we live in erstand the acro and micro ducation exam rspectives. rnersÊ unders ynamic institu employed in h meaningful oach alysis nist and inter al systems fro crucial to kno n. structures a o approaches mine the roles standing of t ution. the study a knowledge rpretive theor om ow nd s. s of the and in ry Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Appelba We Anderse Tho Ballantin sys Ltd Boslaugh Cam Bourdieu Eng Collins, R Comte, A the Durkheim Durkheim J. H Ezewu, E Ltd Hurn, C soc Karabel, NY aum, R. P., & C esley Educatio n, M. L., & T omson Wads ne, J. H., & stematic analy d. h, S. (2007). S mbridge, Eng u, P. (1973). gland: Sage. R. (1978). The A. (1798). Soc eory of progre m, E. (1956). E m, E. (1950) H. Mueller, Tr E. (1969). The d. . J. (1993). Th ciology of edu J., & Halsey, Y: Oxford Uni TOPIC Chambliss, W onal Publishe Taylor, H. F. ( worth. Hammack, F lysis (7th ed.). Secondary dat gland: Cambr Cultural rep e credential so cial statics & ess. Albuquer Education an ). The rules rans.). New Y e sociology of The limits and ucation (3rd e , A. A. (1977) iversity Press 1 WHAT IS S W. J. (1997). So ers. (2009). Sociol F. M. (2013) . Singapore: P ata sources for ridge Univers production a ociety. New Y & social dynam rque, NM: Am nd sociology. G s of sociolog York, NY: The f education. L d possibilities ed.). Boston, M . Power and . SOCIOLOGY OF ociology. New logy: The esse . The sociolo Pearson Educ or public healt sity Press. and social rep York, NY: Aca mics: The the merican Class Glencoe, IL: F gical method e Free Press. London, Engla s of schooling MA: Allyn & B ideology in e EDUCATION? w York, NY: A sentials. Belm logy of educa cation South A lth: A practica eproduction. ademic Press. eory of order sical College P Free Press. d. (S. A. Sol and: Longma g: An introdu Bacon. education. Ne 19 Addisonont, CA: cation: A Asia Pte. al guide. London, . r and the Press. lovay & n Group uction to ew York, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
20 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION? Marx, K. (1946). The division of labor in society. New York, NY: Macmillan. Meighan, R., & Blatchford, I. S. (2001). A sociology of educating (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Continuum. Meyers, J. (1977). The effects of education as an institution. American Journal of Sociology, 83(1), 55ă77. Neuman, L. W. (1991). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Saha, L. J. (2001). DurkheimÊs sociology of education: A critical assessment. Education and Society, 19(2), 19ă31. Sadovnik, A. R. (2007). Sociology of education: A critical reader. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group. Wilson, P., & Kidd, A. (1998). Sociology for GCSE. London, England: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): Mooney, L. A., Knox, D. and Schacht, C. (2007). The Three Main Sociological Perspectives. Understanding Social Problems, 5th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadswoth. Available from www.abebooks.com Saha, L. J. (2008). Sociology of Education. 21st Century Education: A Reference Handbook. Australian National University, SAGE Publications, pp 299ă307. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Can you remember when you first went to school? What did you learn in school? Do you think that what you learnt in school then is similar to the what is being taught in schools today? If these thoughts have ever crossed your mind, you probably have been thinking about the functions of schools. Topic 2 Functions and Processes in Education: What Makes the System Work? LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the importance of structures and processes in the educational systems; 2. Explain the five main social functions of education; 3. Use different approaches to explain the functions of education; and 4. Explain the dynamic roles of school and family in supporting the functions of education. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 22 So, what exactly do schools do? One of the core functions of education is the transmission of knowledge to students. Schools, as social systems, are part of society, and exist within the larger framework of society. As postulated by Apple and Weis (1986), schools are influenced by the external environment such as the economic, political and cultural spheres, in carrying out their daily routine activities. This topic provides insights into the importance of processes and structures in the educational systems and outlines the five major functions of education. To understand the functions of education, we will examine the roles of schools and society in carrying out the functions of education. The different sociological viewpoints on the functions of education will be also be highlighted in this topic. THE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESSES AND STRUCTURES IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS Are you aware that each school system has its own structures and processes? It is the processes and structures that ensure the smooth running of a school. Learning and teaching, together with a few processes such as socialising disciplining, selecting, innovating, decision making and changing constitute the action part of education. Action part or processes refer to what happens in schools. Educational systems affect our change process, which will influence the processes in the environments (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). How would you define structures in the educational system? Why do you think structures are important? Ballantine and Hammack (2013) define structures as: ... the parts of the system that are defined and diagrammed such as the roles of administrators, teachers, students and other staff in the school systems; the social class; the organisation which includes the individual schools and administrative offices; institutions and their interaction with each other such as the school and family institutions and societies. 2.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 23 As an educational system with structures and processes, the teachers, students, parents and others agencies connected with the school play crucial roles in bringing the structures alive. They learn to fit into society with each having their role expectations. Why do we need processes and structures in educational systems? Are they of any significance to the systems? Structure and processes are interdependent on each other, as without structure, there would be no processes, and structure without the processes would be insignificant. Processes make the system dynamic, functional and life-giving as they also provide the linkage between the educational system and its environments. Obviously, there is a symbiotic relationship between them, and both are significant in the functioning of educational systems. THE FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION Education is the initiation of children by adults into society, and it consists of a methodical socialisation of the young generation. (Durkheim, l956) Do you know why your parents sent you to school? They wanted you to explore beyond the family environment, and to discover the external environment of the world. 2.2 SELF-CHECK 2.1 1. Define the concept of processes and structures. 2. Explain the significant role of actions and structures in an educational system. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 24 Generally, every society has its own way of educating children, and the basic functions of education are similar in most societies. Durkheim (1956) asserts that every society sets a certain standard or ideal of what a person should be from the intellectual, physical and moral points of view. This ideal is the crux of education where the „individual being‰ is transformed into a „social being‰. Parsons (1937), another proponent of the structural functionalism, posits that the primary function of schools is the passing on of the knowledge and behaviours necessary to maintain order in society. Children learn to be social beings and develop appropriate social values through their interactions with others. Reflecting on DurkheimÊs and ParsonÊs explanations on the function of education, let us examine the different sociological viewpoints on the functions of education. To the functionalists, education serves the needs of society by helping to socialise children into the norms and values, as well as the skills that are needed for the survival of society via the manifest and latent functions. The manifest or intended functions are the transmission of general knowledge and specific skills, whereas the latent or unintended functions include socialising children with societal norms and values, which Durkheim described as the moral education, while others termed as the hidden curriculum. Education serves the latent function of preparing members of society to enter into the larger society with the appropriate adult roles, by providing them with training and capitalising on their talents, skills and efforts (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997). Education is seen as a beneficial contribution to an orderly society. However, the conflict theorist emphasises that education reinforces social inequality in the larger society. According to them, part of the hidden curriculum of education is to socialise children of the lower working class to accept the social class by providing unequal access to the skills and training needed in society. Children are taught to define their academic aspirations and abilities in keeping with the social class of their parents, which are reinforced by inferior educational opportunities, through labelling and discrimination. Conflict theorists argue that educational opportunities are highly stratified by social class, race and ethnicity (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997). Education is seen as perpetuating the status quo by suppressing the poor and powerless into being obedient workers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 25 Thus, we can see that there are differing views on how education serves the needs of society. Ballantine and Hammack (2013) highlights five major functions of education, as shown in Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1: The functions of education Let us now look into each of these functions in greater detail. 2.2.1 The Function of Socialisation: Learning to be Productive Members of Society In order to understand the function of socialisation in education, read Narrative 1 as follows: Narrative 1 In 1970, François Truffaut directed a movie called LÊEnfant Sauvage (The Wild Child). It was allegedly a true story about two Frenchmen who lived in the latter part of the eighteenth century. They were walking in the countryside when they came across a boy who appeared to be aged between six and eight years old. He could not speak, walk or relate to humans. It seems he had raised himself, with the help of certain animals. The two men took the boy to Paris, where a doctor worked with him intensively for many years. Eventually, the boy was able to function in French society. Unlike animals, and contrary to what we sometimes see in movies, we cannot raise ourselves ă we must be raised by other people who teach us language, manners, beliefs and much more. What we learn from the people who raise us is called our socialization. Source: „Socialization,‰ n.d. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 26 Man is man, in fact, because he lives in a society. Durkheim (1956) Based on Narrative 1 and from DurkheimÊs (1956) quote, how would you define socialisation? Do you recall the first person you came into contact with in your early years of life? What are the values that you have learnt from your interactions? Parsons (1964) notes that a society is made up of a number of institutions ă family, politics, religions, educational systems and other institutions which function as agencies of socialisation. Each of these institutions play an instrumental role in ensuring the continuance of the existence of society. Let us now look at some definitions of socialisation as shown in Table 2.1 Table 2.1: Definition of Socialisation Researcher Definition Parsons (1964) The process of social interaction, and the internalisation of social objects and the normative patterns governing the childÊs interaction in social environments. Mead (1932) The process we learn to become competent members of a group. Durkheim (1956) The process of inheriting norms and customs by individuals so that they are able to possess the necessary skills and habits to participate within his or her own society. Wilson and Kidd (1998) The process by which the individual learns the culture and appropriate behaviours of his or her society. Based on these definitions, socialisation can be summarised as a learning process that starts from infancy and goes on throughout our life. As we grow and mature, we become members of a new group and learn new things in order to function in our new roles in society. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 27 Let us now examine four dominant agents of socialisation; ă family, school, peer groups and mass media ă and the instrumental roles they play in the socialisation of children. (a) Family The family is the primary socialiser of children as family members are the centre of a childÊs life. They are responsible for teaching the child how to function and care for himself or herself. Children learn about family bonding and relationships, and how to share resources with one another. From infancy through the teen years, children rely almost solely on their parents as the primary caregivers for basic necessities, nurturing, and guidance. The family determines a childÊs race, language, religion, class and political affiliation, all of which contribute heavily to the childÊs self-concept. Children develop different experiences based on their gender, social class, race or ethnicity as well as the neighbourhood in which they live. All these factors play influential roles in socialisation. While the familyÊs social class and background contribute to the differences in the initial process of early childhood socialisation, external agents outside the home such as relatives, neighbours, friends, playmates and schools also contribute significantly as they grow up. We have established the fact that the family plays an important role in the socialisation process of children. But do you know that sociologists have different views on how the family influences a childÊs socialisation process? According to functionalists, parents are responsible for childrenÊs socialisation into societyÊs cultural norms and values. They learn moral values and role expectations from the society they were born into. In learning their role, children are taught how to fulfil the expectations entrusted on them. However, conflict theorists focus on how family serves to reproduce social inequality. Family relations can contribute to inequality between men and women in the larger society. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 28 (b) Schools Schools perform numerous important functions for society by ensuring the young people are socialised to become useful individuals who can contribute to the existence of the society. As agents of socialisation, they provide the basis for socialisation and they work as the mechanism by which individuals are allocated their adult roles (Meighan & Blatchford, 1997). Schools train young people and prepare them for their adult roles to be productive members of society. Schools introduce children to new knowledge, order, bureaucracy and students from family backgrounds different from their own. The school experience also often pressures children to conform to gender roles. Early childhood education provides children with the initial socialisation in the formal institution. The goal is to provide developmentally appropriate experiences that children may not receive in the home, and that will help them in schooling later on. Children gather valuable learning experiences while playing with other playmates and with other children and adults outside the home. These interaction patterns will continue through their childhood (Boocock & Scott, 2005). Variations in early childhood socialisation are remarkable as they depend on family background, social class and the society. The socialisation outcome is different for each individual. Some successful individuals fit well into the system and gain maximum benefits from the school system, while some are failures and dropouts and do not perform well in their future roles. Whatever the outcome may be, the ultimate function of education is to socialise and prepare individuals for their adult roles. How do functionalist and conflict theorists view the role of schools in the socialisation of children? Functionalists believe that schools are expected to produce law-abiding citizens who would be disciplined enough to obey orders and instructions without questioning the authority. But, from the conflict theoristÊs viewpoint, the function of education is to maintain social inequality and preserve the power of those who dominate society. Schools are used as mechanisms by the wealthy and powerful elites to ensure that only values which are beneficial and consistent with their social class are inculcated through the school system. However these values are not similar to what children from the working class and poor families observe at home. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 29 (c) Peer Group A peer group refers to a social group in which members are usually of the same age and have common interests and social positions. A peer group influences an individualÊs personality and behaviour in adulthood via group socialisation. Peers can greatly impact a childÊs socialisation, especially when children begin to break away from their parentsÊ control and learn to make decisions by themselves. They provide support for children and adolescents to assimilate into the adult roles. Children learn their gender roles, develop feelings of self-sufficiency, and learn to connect with the larger social networks. (d) Mass Media How does the mass media contribute to the socialisation of individuals? The mass media directs messages and entertainment to a large audience. According to Meighan and Blatchford (2001), mass media provides knowledge upon which decisions are made and attitudes formed. In the digital world, technology has a great impact on the younger generation. Most children use high-tech gadgets such as ipads, iphones and tablets as mechanisms for learning and socialisation. Television is a tool for socialisation among children long before they start their formal education. The impact of television on childrenÊs socialisation and learning have been cited by Biagi (1998). Also, numerous sociological studies have indicated the profound influence of mass media on children as they shape the childrenÊs way of thinking about themselves and their world. In this subtopic, we have discussed the different agents of socialisation. However, you need to bear in mind that the plurality of socialising agents such as the family institution and the school is sometimes the cause of certain disparity and incongruence between them as they can teach children conflicting lessons that result in negative outcomes. Thus, the function of socialisation to produce productive members of society fails to meet the requirements of the educational institutions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 30 2.2.2 The Function of Cultural Transmission and the Process of Passing on Culture In this subtopic, we will explore the meaning of culture and how culture influences your life as a member of the larger society. According to Appelbaum and Chambliss (2001) and Brown (1991), culture : (a) Consists of all the beliefs, behaviours and products common to the members of a particular group; (b) Refers to the way we understand ourselves as individuals and as members of the larger society; (c) Includes values and customs that we hold in common with others; the language we speak; the rules we follow; the tools and technologies we use to produce material and non-material things; the organisation to which we belong; and the larger institutions of society; and (d) Shapes the way we think, the words we use, and the world of human-made objects that can be a important source of power, wealth and prestige in all societies. The Transmission of Culture Learning is an ongoing process influenced not only by the formal and hidden curriculum, but also by the childÊs capability and interests; readiness to learn; values and attitudes; familyÊs social class, gender and background. ChildrenÊs learning experiences differ from one another and are influenced by gender, race and class. The formal curriculum provides instruction through planned experiences that focus on developing and refining the basic skills. The transmission of cultural literacy prepares individuals to be successful in order to fit into the adult roles. However, there are many values and norms picked up by the students which are not included in the official curriculum but contribute towards the reproduction of our culture (Meighan & Blatchford, 1997). SELF-CHECK 2.2 Discuss how school and family play crucial roles in the socialisation of children. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 31 Do you know that there are two types of culture? Material culture which refers to the objects or belongings of a group such as the physical structures of the houses of worship; and the non-material culture which consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Did you ever wonder how culture is passed on from one member of society to another? In educating the child, the school and family share the responsibilities of passing on the culture. Let us examine how these two agents play their roles in the transmission of culture: (a) Schools Culture is passed on through learning via the formal and hidden curriculum of the school. DeweyÊs (1916) progressivism proposed that schools should capitalise on childrenÊs experiences and get them actively involved in the learning process. The child-centred curricula that focus on learnerÊs needs and interests provide many options to the learners, including planning their own curriculum that are centred around their needs. Through the formal curriculum, the cultural literacy of teaching the basic skills of reading, writing, arithmetics, listening and speaking are taught as well as the thinking skills where students are trained for higher order thinking skills, critical and deep learning. These skills will enable them to make effective decisions in future. (b) Family Different societies have different cultures representing their beliefs and practices of a group, while society represents the people who share the beliefs and practices. Society with different family backgrounds and religious beliefs transmit their culture to the children in various ways. Family provides us with our first system of values, norms, and beliefs ă a system that is usually a reflection of their own social status, religion, ethnic group and more. Cultural transmission is viewed differently by the functionalists and conflict theorists. To the functionalists, schools fulfill their fundamental function of preparing the young people for adult roles in society (Dreeben, 1968; Parsons, 1959). However, conflict theorists argue that the cultural transmission of values and norms as serving the needs of the capitalist society. Often, schools fail in transmitting these cultural values as displayed by the students involvement in school-based crime and violence, gangs and drug abuse in schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 32 2.2.3 The Function of Social Control and Personal Development Did your school teach you how to be a disciplined person? What are the values that the school inculcated in you? Were the values significant in your personal growth and development? According to Wilson and Kidd (1998), society has always attempted to control deviance via social control and discipline. Informal social control such as embarrassment and criticism are used by teachers, peers and friends to control deviance. The function of social control and personal development is seen through the latent roles of school in the transmission of core values. Schools prepare students to enter into society via the formal and informal curricula, and also educate them on how to be responsible citizens. Each school has its own strategy of passing on skills and enforcing discipline and social control on students as discipline methods differ according to social class, racial-ethnic group and sex. A positive school ethos is also essential for studentsÊ personal development and achievement According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), the family is the purveyor of values where we develop our attitudes and moral values to be who we are and what we can become in society. Parents hope that children will conform to the values and norms they are taught through the process of socialisation. Parents guide and stimulate the childrenÊs development and teach them the knowledge and skills they need to become effective adults in society (Gestwicki, 2010). What are the views on the different approaches to cultural transmission? To functionalists, society expects schools, via the formal and hidden curriculum, to inculcate values related to social control and personal development for survival in the work force, and to be law-abiding citizens (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). In this way, societal problems can be minimised as individuals are trained to fit into the society. But, conflict theorists have different views of social control. To them, schools are the mechanisms of capitalist societies that control, train and sort individuals in society and perpetuate stratification of class systems. ACTIVITY 2.1 Explain how cultural transmission influences individual norms and values in an essay. Post your essay on myVLE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 33 2.2.4 Function of Selection and Allocation: The Sorting Process Do you remember how you were selected and streamed into different classes during your schooling days? What criteria do you think the school used in the selecting and sorting process? According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), testing has been used by most industrial societies to sort students. Various testing instruments such as IQ tests, aptitude test, achievement test, Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SATs) and many more are used to track and sort students. Schools have their own standard procedures in sorting students. Schools use many ways in organising and sorting students for instruction. The most common dimension used is examination. Tests are commonly used to track students as schools are given the autonomy and held accountable by society to select and sort students according to their ability and merits. According to Samuelsen (2001), tests also enable schools to track at-risk students who are failing and those who can excel but it can also increase social stratification (Darling-Hammond, 1994). Besides, academic achievement, age, gender and race are also used by schools to select and sort students. This will be discussed further in Topic 3 as ability grouping. This function of selection and sorting students are seen differently by conflict theorists. They argue that schools are supporting social class reproduction among the students, instead of providing opportunities for them to advance to higher tracks in education. According to Apple and Weis (1986), there must be a balance between ascribed characteristics and achieved characteristics in the determination of studentsÊ future educational and occupational success. SELF-CHECK 2.3 Explain the importance of social control and personal development in education. ACTIVITY 2.2 Discuss with your coursemates the effects of tracking students in schools and the educational system in your country. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 34 2.2.5 The Function of Change and Innovation Why do schools need to undergo changes? In the digital world, new knowledge and technologies challenge students and teachers as they seek more knowledge and ways of getting work done. Yet, most people such as workers in organisations, including those in the education sectors, often resist changes when they are in their comfort zones. Numerous studies and research have indicated that innovations for changes can be developed and imbued to be part of the structures of society in the long term. The advent of computer technology is radically changing the function and process of education where students can access information easily via the Internet. Today, most schools have Internet connection but the poorer schools and those in the interior may not have these facilities. Some schools in wealthier districts may fare better than others with the accessibility of new technologies, thus creating a digital divide that reinforces the unequal stratification system In a technological society, teachers must decide how to effectively use computers and the Internet in classrooms, and how to equitably distribute technological expertise. There are five social functions of education ă socialisation, cultural transmission, social control and personal development, selection and allocation, and change and innovation. Socialisation is an ongoing, life-long process that prepares an individual for the adult roles to serve the society. The family and school are key players in carrying out the functions of education. ACTIVITY 2.3 1. Explain the five sociological functions of education. 2. Discuss how teachers prepare students for their future roles in society with the advancement of new technology. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 Func educ Tran the fa Socia schoo Scho to the Scho ensu envir Cultura Cultura Functio Hidden Appelba We Apple, M of Ed Ballantin sys Ltd Biagi, S. CA 2 FUNCTION SYSTEM W ctionalists and cation. nsmission of c amily. al control and ols are respon ols also carry eir abilities an ols are also ure that the e ronment. al literacy al transmissio ons of educati n curriculum aum, R. P., & C esley Educatio M. W., & Wei culture and ducation, 168 ( ne, J. H., & stematic analy d. (1998). Media A: Wadsworth NS AND PROCE WORK? d conflict the culture is one d personal de nsible for. y out the func nd merit. responsible education the on ion Chambliss, W onal Publishe is, L. (1986). S people in th (1). Hammack, F lysis (7th ed.). ia impact: An h. SSES IN EDUCA eorists have d e of the impo evelopment i tion of selecti for implemen ey provide r Mater Non-m Perso Social W. J. (1997). So ers. Seeing educat he sociology F. M. (2013) . Singapore: P n introduction ATION: WHAT different view ortant roles pl s another im ion and sortin nting change remains relev rial culture material cultu onal developm l control ociology. New tion relationa of school kn . The sociolo Pearson Educ n to mass med MAKES THE ws on the func layed by scho mportant funct ng students ac e and innova vant to the c ure ment w York, NY: A ally: The strat nowledge. Jo logy of educa cation South A dia (3rd ed.). B 35 ctions of ools and tion that ccording ations to changing Addisontification ournal of cation: A Asia Pte. Belmont, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)