HMEF5143 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

TOPIC 2 FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES IN EDUCATION: WHAT MAKES THE SYSTEM WORK? 36 Boocock, S., & Scott, K.A. (2005). Kids in context: The sociological study of children and childhoods. Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield. Brown, D. E. (1991). Human Universals. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Darling-Hammond, L. (1994). Performance-based Assessment and Equation Equity. Harvard Educational Review, 64, 5-30. Durkheim, E. (1956). Education and sociology. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Mead, G. H. (2002). The Philosophy of the Present. New York, NY: Prometheus Books. Samuelsen, S. (2001). Student testing: The stakes are rising. State Legislatures, 27(8). Socialization. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.sparknotes.com/sociology/ socialization/context.html Wilson, P., & Kidd, A. (1998). Sociology for GCSE. London, England: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): Morris Janowitz. (1975). Sociological Theory and Social Control. Author. American Journal of Sociology, 81, 1 : pp. 82ă108. The University of Chicago Press Stable. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2777055. Accessed: 27/02/2014. Elder, G. H. (1969). Peer socialization in school. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, pp. 465ă473. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

INTRODUCTION Are you aware that the society you live in is stratified in terms of social class? What are the criteria by which society in your country is stratified? Look around the society you live in. Do you know the people that make up society? Society is made up of people with different cultures, races and ethnicities, and that makes us different from one another. You would have noticed that some people are higher up in the social hierarchy and some are not. There is a tendency for those in the upper hierarchy of society to have more power, wealth and prestige than those in the lower rung of the ladder. The arrangement of people in society on this vertical scale is called stratification. Hence, diversity and inequality are inherent in society. Topic 3 Education and the Process of Stratification LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define the terms „stratification‰ and „social class‰; 2. Identify the determinants of social class in society; 3. Explain the meaning of „equality‰ of educational opportunity; 4. Describe what is meant by „social stratification‰; and 5. Elaborate social class reproduction in the school through various mechanisms. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

38 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION This topic highlights the definition and process of stratification from two major sociological perspectives. It also explores the notion of equality of educational opportunity, the reproduction of social class through the mechanism of private schools, ability grouping and teacher expectations. THE DEFINITION OF STRATIFICATION Education, beyond all other devices of human origin, is the great equaliser of the conditions of men ă the balance wheel of the social machinery. Mann (1891) in Ballantine & Hammack (2013) Are you different from your siblings and other people in society? We differ from each other in many aspects: age, sex and socially, too, as we live in a heterogenous society. Do you know how social stratification occurs? Stratification happens when individuals and groups are ranked in a hierarchy of social status which results in inequality of social positions. Figure 3.1: Social stratification 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 39 How do you define stratification? Let us take a closer look at the definitions of stratification by different sociologists: Stratification is the ranking of units in a social system in accordance with the standard of the common value system. Parsons (1954) Stratification is defined as structured inequalities between different groupings of people. Giddens (2000) Stratification refers to a position in societyÊs hierarchy. Ballantine & Hammack (2013) An arrangement of positions in a graded hierarchy of socially superior and inferior ranks. Mayer (1955) According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), the structure of society determines a personÊs social status. Family background, race, ethnicity, age and gender can also influence a personÊs social standing. Generally, stratification is the arrangement of society into strata, which creates inequality in social groups. ACTIVITY 3.1 What is your opinion about the concept of social stratification in society? Discuss this in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

40 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION: IS INEQUALITY INEVITABLE? What is your position in society? Do you think education can change your social position in society? Are you aware of stratification in your society? Most of us know our social position in society. If asked about our social position, most would answer „middle class.‰ It means that we have an average lifestyle ă a house, a car and earn a decent income. However, there are many rich and poor people around us too. We are born into the permanently ascribed positions in which structured inequality is built into the society (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Do you know how to improve your social status? How can society help you change your social status? According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), society provides opportunities for us to improve and better ourselves. With education and hard work, we can better our social positions and improve our life chances whereby our ascribed status can be elevated to become an achieved status. The process of stratification has significant effects on studentsÊ schooling and achievement. Coupled with the partnership between schools and family, this contributes significantly to the academic success of students. Let us explore the process of stratification from two major theories of stratification: (a) Functionalists argue that education is used to select and train people for the unequal positions in society. Obviously, inequality is unavoidable as education advocates perpetuation of the status quo. (b) According to conflict theorists, inequality is perpetuated by the dominant groups in society ă the „haves‰ who have the controlling power. Education alone is not the panacea to the problems of inequality in society. We need the wholesome restructuring of society for changes to take place. (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013) 3.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 41 From our discussion on the systems model in the previous topic, we know that school, as a social system, operates in the open class system and stratification is perceived as an interwoven part of the whole societal system. Schools and other institutions such as family, politics and economics need to be interconnected with each other in studying the whole system (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). The interrelationships between the process of education and the educational system are shown in Figure 3.2. Figure 3.2: Stratification and the educational system Source: Ballantine & Hammack (2013) ACTIVITY 3.2 Form a buzz group and discuss with your friends the effects of stratification in society. You may create an online discussion in myVLE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

42 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 3.2.1 Determinants of Social Class How do you define social class? What are the elements that make up social class? According to Weber (1954) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), social class comprises wealth, power and prestige. (a) Wealth What is wealth? You may think wealth is having lots of money, condominiums and living in a bungalow house in an elite neighbourhood. According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), wealth refers to an individualÊs property, capital and income derived from oneÊs occupation. If we reflect on this notion, we will ask ourselves: „How is wealth related to social class?‰ According to Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997), wealth is everything a person owns, and is an even more important source of social class position than income. According to Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997), wealth is used to create new opportunities and new wealth. As the saying goes, „the rich gets richer‰. Individuals who possess wealth have better chances to improve life positions and stay ahead in the stratification system (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997). (b) Power Have you heard of leaders and top executives in organisations who are power crazy? What is the power that they are after? Why is power important to them? Ballantine and Hammack (2013) look at the outcomes of power. Power enables individuals to make major decisions or to influence others in society. However, Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997) looked at power from a different angle ă the authoritative power of the „power elite‰. Similarly, Mills (1959) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) also examined the authority of the power elite in making decisions and controlling society. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 43 (c) Prestige What is prestige? Do you think prestige is associated with power? Prestige comes from the power and wealth that an individual derives from oneÊs occupational status. Ballantine and Hammack (2013) said that an individualÊs occupational status and income are closely connected with his occupation, which is a significant factor in determining oneÊs prestige in society. Do you know that social class is related to social mobility? Figure 3.3 shows the status attainment model which outlines the ascribed and achieved variables that are associated with social class, which in turn affect an individual's educational and occupational positions (Beeghley, 1996, in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Besides, Hallinan (2000) mentioned other school factors such as school resources, composition and school ethos, that can also generate unequal educational opportunities among students of different races and ethnicities. Figure 3.3: Status attainment model Source: Ballantine & Hammack (2013) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

44 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 3.2.2 Types of Social Status Social status can be altered and there are different types of social status. How do you alter your social status in society? The questions above lead to the fact that an individualÊs social mobility is related to the social status in the class system. Social mobility happens when an individual has the ability to move his social position either upwards or downwards within a social system. Let us examine the types of social status as shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Types of Social Status Type of Social Status Description (a) Ascribed status Refers to a personÊs social status, traits or characteristics assigned by birth and background. Beyond an individualÊs control. Includes race, gender and nationality. (b) Achieved status Refers to a personÊs status that is earned or achieved based on merit and ability. Rewards according to performance or to qualities that signal a promise for high level performance. Source: Feinberg and Soltis (2004) 3.2.3 Major Explanation of Social Stratification In the previous topics, we explored the views of functionalists and conflict theorists on the functions of education. We also looked at various definitions of „stratification‰ from the views of different sociologists. These definitions of stratification disclose the fact that stratification exists in all societies as cited by Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997). In this subtopic, we will look at social stratification from the eyes of the functionalists and conflict theorists. ACTIVITY 3.3 In your opinion, are schools capable of meeting the expectations of education? Discuss with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 45 (a) FunctionalistsÊ Perspective on Stratification Functionalists argue that it is easier to understand social class by looking at the diverse functions it carries out for society. In this sense, functionalists examine how society operates and exists interdependently, with each part playing its own role to serve the whole society. Based on the discussion in Topic 2, one of the major functions of schools is to develop, sort and select individuals by using a standard procedure based on ability and merits (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). The selection and sorting process of individuals into occupational status begins in the school, when students are streamed according to individual performance (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Similarly, Darling-Hammond (1994) posits that the process of sorting and grouping students based on ability increases social stratification which serves as a mechanism to ensure that the most qualified persons fill the important position in society (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997). However, Parsons (1970) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) asserts that society is evaluated by the shared norms and values upheld by the people in that society, and those who fulfil the requirements of society are likely to be emplaced in the higher hierarchy with higher status and occupational prestige. Why do you think social stratification is important for society? DavisMoore (1945) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) sees social stratification from the positive perspective when they contend that social stratification promotes excellence, productivity, and efficiency besides motivating people to strive further. To a certain extent, stratification strengthens the society where ultimately, the members benefit from inequalities. To them, the system serves a wholesome society where individuals in society are encouraged to work harder and be rewarded with higher income, prestige, and power (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997). (b) Conflict TheoristsÊ Perspectives on Stratification Conflict theorists view the stratification system and equality of educational opportunity from a different perspective. They argue that all the problems and conflicts faced by schools originate from the society itself (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Let us examine social stratification from the views of Karl Marx (1818ă1883) and Max Weber (1864ă1920) who are both famous proponents of the conflict theory. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

46 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION Marx (1846) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) views social stratification based on social class. Furthermore, Marx indicated that society comprises the ruling class or capitalists, and the subject class or workers (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997). The ruling class are the dominant „haves‰ who control the subject class, that is, the „have nots‰ who are subordinates to the ruling class. The contrasting interests of these two groups reflect the winners and the losers which resulted in social stratification (Appelbaum and Hammack, 1997). However, Max Weber looks at social stratification from the components of social class: wealth, power and prestige (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Weber argued that social stratification is a mirror of unequal distribution of wealth and power. Conflict theorists believe that education perpetuates the existing class structure and inequality of the capitalist system (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). From the eyes of the conflict theorists, social stratification benefits the „haves‰ of the society who possess all the wealth, power and privilege. Carnoy (1974) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) states that education perpetuates cultural reproduction and inequalities in society because of power, income and social status. EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY: DOES IT HAPPEN IN SCHOOLS? Do you recall when you were streamed into different classes? Do you think streaming provides equal opportunity? How can education contribute to equal opportunity for members of society? These thought-provoking questions would probably remind you of equality of educational opportunity. 3.3 SELF-CHECK 3.1 Describe the process of stratification from the viewpoints of the functionalists and the conflict theorists. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 47 3.3.1 Meaning of “Equality of Educational Opportunity” In order to have a clearer understanding of the meaning of equality of educational opportunity, let us analyse the job advertisement in Figure 3.4. Figure 3.4: Job advertisement How would you feel if you were looking for a job and see the advertisement in Figure 3.4? How would you react to the above advertisement? With reference to the advertisement, do you think equal opportunity exists in society? In our competitive society where job opportunities are scarce, such an advertisement would definitely generate a lot of unhappiness and disagreement among people in society. Functionalists believe that this kind of advertisement can be attributed to the role that schools have played in developing the psychological attitudes of individuals, and those who secure the job will be based on achievement and merits. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

48 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION Reflecting on the advertisement in Figure 3.4, how do you define „equality of educational opportunity?‰ Let us explore the views of some sociologists on the definitions of equality of educational opportunity as shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2: Definitions of Equality of Educational Opportunity Coleman (1968) Equality of educational opportunity refers to equality of results or output of schooling, given the same individual input or resources. Gardner (1984) Equal opportunity happens when all people have equal chances of achieving a higher socioeconomic status in society, regardless of their sex, minority status or social class. Bulle ( 2009) Equality of opportunity means the adaptation of curricula to studentsÊ characteristics in terms of interests and needs. Based on the above definitions of equality of educational opportunity, let us now examine how education is related to equality of opportunity. According to Coleman (1975), equal opportunity means providing free education to children from diverse backgrounds in the same school using a common curriculum. In this sense, it also means providing equal facilities, funding for schools and the availability of schooling for children in society. On a lighter note, let us examine the views of functionalists and conflict theorists on the role of schools with regard to equality of educational opportunity. From the functionalistsÊ perspective, schools bear the responsibility in providing equal opportunity to everyone, and to identify the most qualified individuals to fill in the social positions in society. Education is a means for an individual to improve oneÊs social standing based on merit and ability (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). The views of functionalists are supported by Kozol (1991) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), which state that schooling helps some children to move up in society but locks others into low-level positions in society. However, conflict theorists advocate that schools will continue to reinforce societal stratification and inequality between students, rather than encourage them to achieve according to their merit, until society is radically changed (Bowles and Gintis, 1976, in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 49 3.3.2 Social Class Reproduction What is „social class reproduction?‰ Do you think social class reproduction occurs in education? According to Doob (2013), social reproduction comprises structures and activities that transmit social inequality from one generation to the next. Through the system of social reproduction, inequality is maintained at its status quo. Social reproduction is also associated with different types of capital. Table 3.3 presents four types of capital that contribute to social reproduction in society. Table 3.3: Four Types of Capital in Social Reproduction (a) Financial capital Refers to the income and wealth of a person. Influences the cultural capital one receives (b) Cultural capital Refers to the shared outlook, beliefs, knowledge and skills that are passed between generations. Influences human capital. (c) Human capital Refers to the education and job training a person receives. Creates the ability for one to attain social capital. (d) Social capital Refers to the social network to which one belongs. Influences oneÊs ability to find an internship or job. Source: Bourdieu (1984) Until we get equality in education, we wonÊt have an equal society. Sonia Sotomayor In the following subtopic, we will explore the factors that contribute to social class reproduction. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

50 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 3.3.3 Private Versus Public Schools Were you in a public or private school? Do you know why some parents send their children to private schools? Do you think private schools provide better education than public schools? To understand social reproduction in society, we need to understand how society reproduces, and the agents for reproduction in society. According to Feinberg and Soltis (2004), every society has to reproduce itself. Schools take the responsibility to help society fulfil this goal for the good of both society and individuals. But, looking at the many social problems in society nowadays, we ask ourselves, „Is school really educating the individuals to be productive members of the society?‰ Are you aware that schools train the young people to accept unquestioningly life in a mindless bureaucracy, that dominant form of institutional life in our society? In fact, schools blunt their creativity, individuality and interests in learning by lock-stepping them in a monotonous mass production system. We mould children to be docile workers and mindless functionaries. We train them to be who they are, and what they can become in our society because of our education system (Feinberg and Soltis, 2004). Ultimately, the products of our schools are not what we intended and programmed them to be to fulfil the needs of the society. The following includes a discussion on private and public schools: (a) Private Schools Do you think stratification occurs when parents send their children to private schools? Social class reproduction is apparent when many parents send their children to private schools for reasons of their own. Ballantine and Hammack (2013) cited that parents are willing to pay for the special „status rights to enable their children to enter private schools‰ that gives them the „passage of privilege.‰ Parents have to select and pay to ensure that their children behave well enough to be allowed to remain in the school. As cited by Ballantine and Hammack (2013), there is a difference in childrenÊs achievement behaviour in private and public schools. They also observed that the most educated and qualified students are more likely to be employed in society. Ballantine and HammackÊs (2013) notion is supported by Meighan and Blatchford (2001) who argued that children from wealthy families have better education compared to poor children from the lower class. Similarly, Coleman, Hoffer and Kilgore (1982) and Coleman and Hoffer (1987) in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) reported Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 51 that Catholic and other private high schools produced higher achievement than public high schools. Thus, private schools have proven to produce high achievers. (b) Public Schools What about those who do not have the capacity and means to attend private schools? Where do they get their education? Do you think social class reproduction occurs in public schools? According to Coleman (1975), public education reduces inequality. In explaining the meaning of equal educational opportunity, he mentioned that the disadvantaged students need more help from schools than the advantaged students, if they are expected to achieve comparable levels of achievement in school. 3.3.4 Theoretical Perspectives Let us examine the views of functionalists and conflict theorists on social class reproduction: (a) Functionalists view education as a social process that inculcates appropriate values and attitudes in future workers (Demaine, 2003). Numerous researches have shown that schools appear to function effectively in helping many middle class and working class youths acquire skills and attitudes needed for their adult roles. As cited by Levine and Havighurst (1992), these children tend to enter school lacking some of the knowledge, skills and attitudes that would help them succeed in the workforce; afterwards, many of them are sorted in the career lines of blue collar jobs similar to the status of their parents. Indirectly, school perpetuates the status quo for the lower class society. (b) According to Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997), conflict theorists emphasise how education perpetuates social inequality and reproduction of inequality. From an early age, children are taught and trained to define their academic aspirations and abilities in keeping with their parentsÊ social class. The lower social class are unlikely to value higher education as an avenue for upwards mobility. As cited by Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997), educational opportunities are highly stratified by class, race and ethnicity. Children from wealthy families receive excellent education from private schools, whereas the poor children from the lower social class have limited educational opportunities. Obviously, private schools create social class reproduction in society. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

52 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 3.3.5 Ability Grouping What is ability grouping? Do you think grouping students by ability makes sense? Is ability grouping related to inequality and social class reproduction? The terms „ability grouping‰ and „tracking‰ are sometimes used interchangably although there is a slight difference between them. Ability grouping is grouping students according to their abilities within one class, whereas the term „tracking‰ refers to grouping students within and between classes and schools. A closer look at the definitions of ability grouping (see Table 3.4) will enable us to understand the sorting processes conducted by schools. Table 3.4: Definitions of Ability Grouping Slavin (1990) Any school or classroom organisation plan that is intended to reduce the heterogeneity of instructional groups. Levine & Havighurst (1992) The sorting and selecting of students for further success in an educational system. Davidson (2009) The practice of grouping students based on ability and achievement in an attempt to provide instruction, specifically relevant to each groupÊs needs. From the definitions, we can infer that ability grouping creates unequal opportunities in education. Levine and Havighust (1992) postulated that students with high academic abilities are placed in the high achieversÊ class within the classroom, and those with low performance are grouped in low achieving classes or subgroups. We see that ability grouping seems to reinforce the low performance disadvantaged students to remain in that subgroup until some educational changes take place. ACTIVITY 3.4 Talk to your peers on the factors that motivate parents to send their children to private schools. Share your findings in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 53 By placing the low achievers in the same classes or subgroups, indirectly, ability grouping reinforces race, class segregation and stereotypes. These lowperforming students have low aspirations and self-esteem that may lead students to create self-fulfilling prophecy (Levine and Havighurst, 1992). From the notion above, we can also infer that ability grouping has created social reproduction in schools. Dimensions of Ability Grouping Do you know how you were sorted into different classes in schools? What are the dimensions used by schools to group students for instruction? Most societies group students based on their merits and abilities. According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), age, gender and academic achievement are used to group students for instruction. (a) Age This is the most common dimension of grouping students for instruction. Generally, it is the norm of placing children of about the same age in the same grade but sometimes students with low achievement levels are retained at the same level, and placed with children younger than them for instructional purposes (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Getting off the regular age-grade progression is an indicator of education risk and dropping out of schools. (b) Gender Gender is sometimes used to sort students into classrooms for academic instruction (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Gender is also used to group students for vocational, technical and skill-based education. In some countries, gender grouping is considered as segregation in the call for Advocacy of Education for All. (c) Academic Achievement Achievement grouping is a common practice in school because teachers believe that it is easier to facilitate and teach students with the same level of knowledge (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Levine and Havighurst, 1992). Grouping students using academic achievements increase social stratification (Darling-Hammond, 1994 in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Numerous research studies reveal ability grouping and tracking students for instruction produced unequal opportunities in learning (Hallinan, 2000; Sorensen and Morgan, 2000). Hence, academic achievement is not a good predictor for sorting students into instructional groups. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

54 TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 3.3.6 Teacher Expectations What do you understand by the term „teacher expectations?‰ Do you think teacher expectations can motivate low-achieving students in their educational achievement? Do you think teacher expectations can create social reproduction among low-achieving students? In this subtopic, we will look at the impact of teacher expectations on the low-achieving students, and how teacher expectations contribute in social class reproduction. From the explanation on ability grouping, we can infer that ability grouping and teacher expectations are closely associated as both focus on helping the low-achieving students in their academic performance. However, teacher expectations are centred in raising the lowăachieving students in their achievement levels and improving teacher-student interactions in school (Kerman, 1979 in Levine and Havighurst, 1992). Scores of literature have shown that teacher expectations are important in determining the levels and quality of the academic performance of lowăachieving students (Bamburg, 1994 in Ballantine and Hammack 2013). According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), the factors influencing teacher expectations are studentsÊ academic records, studentsÊ personal outlooks, communication skills and interaction styles and studentsÊ academic test performances. These factors can influence teachersÊ behaviours in attending to their instructional needs in the classroom. Teachers sort students based on academic grouping to facilitate and control classroom instruction that will leave an impact on the low-achieving studentsÊ performance. Do you think the teacherÊs actions are indirectly related to labelling students? Teachers can become discouraged with studentsÊ low-performance and abilities. If these students accept and internalise their teachersÊ disappointment, they can be pushed to develop a self-fulfiling prophecy (Sadovnik, 2007: Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Do you think the teachersÊ actions contradict their professional role? Apparently, teachers are found to create social reproduction among lowachieving students. Based on the discussion above, let us reflect further: Do you think teachersÊ positive attitudes can change the outcome of the low-achieving studentsÊ achievements and behaviours? Ballantine and Hammack (2013) contended that collective responsibility of teachers and administrators can be the panacea to prevent low-achieving students from failing, and assist them to raise their achievement levels. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Socia Weal Socia Equa achie Socia Abili and m Age, instru Teach Ability Achieve Ascribe Educati Equality Power a Pr em co TOPIC al stratificatio lth, power an al mobility is t al opportunit eving success al reproductio ity grouping merit for instr gender and uction. her expectatio grouping ed status ed status ional opportu y of education and prestige SELF-CHE ivate schools mployability i ursemates. 3 EDUCATIO on is placing m nd prestige are the ability to a ty happens w in life. on produces s is grouping ruction. academic ac ons can assist unity nal opportun CK 3.2 s provide be in the workfo ON AND THE P members of so e the compon alter oneÊs pos when all ind social inequal students into hievement ar t low-achievin nity Soc Soc Soc Str Tea etter educatio orce. Do you ROCESS OF STR ociety into dif nents of social sition within a dividuals hav lity in society o subgroups re used to ca ng students to cial class cial class repr cial mobility ratification acher expecta on and offer agree? Discu RATIFICATION fferent social l class. a social class s ve equal cha . according to ategorise stud o be successfu roduction ations r students gr uss this with 55 strata. system. ances of abilities dents for ul in life. reater your Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

5 B B B C C D D D F G H L M 56 TOPIC Ballantine, J. systemat Pte. Ltd. Bourdieu, P. (R. Nice, Bulle, N. (2009 Britain, E Coleman, J. S Harvard Coleman, J. S Oxford R Davidson, H. (Eds.), P Detroit, M Demaine, J. (2 Studies i Doob, C. B. (2 Jersey, N einberg, W., College P Gardner, J. W. Hallinan, M. T Springer Levine, D. U Massach Meighan, R., & York, NY C 3 EDUCATI H., & Hamm tic analysis ( (1984). Disti Trans.). Cam 9). Sociology England: Briti S. (1968). Th d Educational . (1975). Wha Review of Edu (2009). Abilit Psychology o MI: Macmilla 2003). Social in Sociology o 013). Social in NJ: Pearson Ed & Soltis, J. F Press. (1984). Excel T. (2000). Han r Science and ., & Havigh husetts, MA: A & Blatchford, Y: Continuum ION AND THE mack, F. M. (7th ed.). Sin inction: A so mbridge, MA: and educatio ish Library Ca he concept o l Review, 38, 7 at is meant b ducation, 1 (1). ty grouping. of classroom an Reference U reproductio of Education, nequality and ducation Inc. . (2004). Scho llence. New Y ndbook of the Business Med hurst, R. J. ( Allyn and Bac , I. S. (2001). m. PROCESS OF ST (2013). The ngapore: Pea ocial critique Harvard Uni on: Issues in s ataloguing-in of equality o 7ă22. by „an equal . In: E. M. An m learning: A USA. on and educa 13 (2), 125ă14 d social strati ool and societ York, NY: Har he sociology o dia. 1992). Educa con. A sociology TRATIFICATION e sociology o rson Educati e of the judg iversity Press sociology of e n-Publication. of educationa l educational nderman & L An encyclope ational policy 40. ification. In U ety. New York rper and Row of education. N ation and so of educating N of education: ion South A gment of tas . education. Gre . al opportuni l opportunity L. H. Anderm edia, (pp. 1ă y. Internation US Society. Ne k, NY: Teache w. New York, N ociety (8th ed g (3rd ed.). Ne A sia ste. eat ity. y?‰ man ă4). nal ew ers NY: d.). ew Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 3 EDUCATION AND THE PROCESS OF STRATIFICATION 57 Parsons, T. (1970). Equality and inequality in modern society, or social stratification revisited. In E. O. Lauman (Ed.), Social Stratification (pp. 13ă72). New York, NY: Bobbs-Merill. Sadovnik, A. R. (2007). Sociology of education: A critical reader. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group. Slavin, R. E. (1990). Achievement effects of ability grouping in secondary schools: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 60(3), 471ă499. Sorensen, A. B., & Morgan, S. L. (2000). School effects: Theoretical and methodological issues. In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), Handbook of the Sociology of Education (pp. 137ă160). New York, NY: Springer Science and Business Media. Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical AnalysisAuthor(s): Melvin M. Tumin. American Sociological Review, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Aug., 1953), pp. 387ă394. Published by: American Sociological AssociationStable. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2087551. Accessed: 14/11/2013. Arnoät Vesel. (2012). Education and the Reproduction of Inequalities, Sociological Landscape ă Theories, Realities and Trends, Dr. Dennis Erasga (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0460-5, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/ books/sociological-landscape-theories-realities-and-trends/education-andthereproduction-of-inequalities Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

INTRODUCTION You would have learned by now that education does not always produce the expected consequences, which can be rather frustrating for those who hold strongly to the ideals of education and its contributions to society as a whole. In this topic, we will explore some of the notions and attempt to fulfil the ideal philosophies of most educational systems, which are to ensure equal opportunities for all children regardless of their race, class and gender. The fact Topic 4 Race, Class and Gender: Achieving Equality in Education LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. State the meaning of „equality of educational opportunity‰; 2. Explain how the concepts of „equality‰ and „inequality‰ are applicable in society; 3. Explain the effects of socialisation based on race, class and gender on achievement in school; 4. Explain barriers to achieving equality in education; and 5. Discuss efforts that have been made to attain equality in education. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 59 remains that individualsÊ statuses in society and the educational system is largely influenced by factors such as race, sex, cultural background and social class which subsequently affect stratification within educational systems and society at large. You will only fully understand the dynamics of educational systems once you get a good grasp of these background factors. GENDER AND EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY We all learn very early in our lives that men and women are different. Of course, physiological differences between men and women are easily noticeable but how about differences that transcend physical attributes? For instance, men and women have different roles, expectations, attitudes and behaviours in society. Have you ever wondered how these roles, expectations and behaviour patterns were established? Do you think they were established on equal terms? That is quite a lot to think about, isnÊt it? As educationists, these are issues that we need to reflect upon and address especially when we talk about the provision of education for all children. Education is a fundamental human right and it is essential for the exercise of all other human rights (UNESCO, 2014). Yet, females and males go through different experiences in schools and colleges and this, in turn, determines their future life chances (Balantine & Hammack, 2013). How do we explain all these, especially when many nations around the world have declared equal educational opportunities for all children regardless of race, class and gender? As you may have realised by now, there are many issues plaguing education today. Our discussions in this topic, however, will focus just on issues related to gender and equality and how these affect educational attainment. However, before we proceed, let us make sure that we understand some basic concepts which will be repeated in the rest of this topic. 4.1 ACTIVITY 4.1 1. Reflect on your school days. Do you think boys and girls were treated differently when you were in school? 2. Were boys and girls treated differently in your family? Discuss this in your next tutorial session. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

60 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION Sex and Gender Generally, when we talk about the different educational experiences of female and male students, we are in fact discussing issues related to sex and gender. These issues are gaining prominence in scientific research and the social media and this has helped to ease some of the confusion related to these two concepts. These terms also help us to understand why females and males behave in different ways and are motivated by different sets of expectations from the family, school, workplace and society in general. In simple terms, sex is an ascribed status because we are born with it. Gender, however, is an achieved status because it is something that we learn within the context of our own families and cultural groups. Sex refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish male and female, which include differences in chromosomes, anatomy, hormones and reproductive systems whereas gender refers to social, cultural and other psychological traits linked to males and females within a particular social context (Lindsey, 2010). So, how does gender affect equality of educational opportunities? Remember what we said about gender being something that we learn? In the sociology of gender, this „learning‰ process is referred to as socialisation. Empirical evidence and theoretical explanations about the different educational experiences that boys and girls go through point to the role played by the process of socialisation, the role of education in societies and biological factors that dictate childrenÊs vocation in life (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). Would you like to explore the role of socialisation in determining educational attainment of children in schools? The next few subtopics will take you through different aspects of the socialisation process and how it influences the learning process of females and males in schools. ACTIVITY 4.2 School is very conformist, and one of the very first conforming that goes on in preschool and kindergarten is gender. Dan Savage Do you agree with the statement above? Discuss this with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 61 4.1.1 Sex-role Socialisation According to Vogel et al. (2003) cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), „the socialisation process begins the day we are born and ends the day we die. Informal education is a continuous process throughout life; formal education is restricted to certain periods.‰ Do you agree with them? Some people may argue that this process begins even before the baby is born. What do you think? Not only does society demand conformity to its fundamental values and norms; it also assigns specific roles to each of its members, expecting them to conform to certain established behaviour patterns. Socialisation is particularly forceful regarding gender roles ă ideas about the ways boys and girls and men and women are ÂsupposedÊ to act. Ornstein and Levine, 2006 Where Does It Begin? Since birth, boys and girls go through different socialisation experiences, hence, by the time they start nursery school, they already have a good understanding of their own gender identity. Where do you think they acquire these identities from? What are the consequences of acquiring a gender identity? (a) The Family The earliest agents of socialisation are parents, followed by siblings, other family members, books, the electronic media and other agents of socialisation that a child may come into contact with. Once the gender identity is established, what follows is the learned or socialised „roles‰ that are expected of that particular gender. Roles are performed according to social norms, which are shared rules that guide individualsÊ behaviours in specific situations (Lindsey, 2010). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

62 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION Figure 4.1: Will society stop constructing me? Source: https://www.pinterest.com/trinabearr/why-we-still-need-gender-equality/ Almost all societies have what we term as sex roles because sex is the most obvious differentiating characteristic. These roles are evident right from infancy, where different colours are used to identify sex differences in babies ă in most cases, blue for boys and pink for girls. Our gender identity is also given to us by the common blue or pink blanket that is wrapped around us. See if you can find pictures of yourself when you were a baby or pictures of your own babies. Is there any truth to what we are discussing here? The idea behind this is that different colours should be associated with a certain gender based on the sex. When we really think about it, this branding that is done by using different colours is the first act in a sex role socialisation process (Tozer, Violas & Senese, 2002). As we grow up from infants to toddlers and young boys and girls, we start getting different things such as toy trucks or doctor kits if you are a boy and baby dolls or cooking sets if you are a girl. In fact, parents are very conscious about buying sex-appropriate toys for their children and by the time the child reaches nursery school or kindergarten, they have already been conditioned to play with sex-appropriate toys (Tozer, Violas & Senese, 2002; Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). Can you remember some of the toys that you used to play with when you were a child? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 63 (b) The School The next step in the sex role socialisation process takes place in schools where children spend a considerable amount of time. By the time a child attends preschool, their behaviours are already programmed and welldefined and these behaviour patterns are further reinforced by the school through an elaborate scheme of selective reinforcement. The school and teachers play important roles in providing children with knowledge about sex-appropriate behaviours. Children learn by observing and imitating the actions and roles played by adults ă within the context of schools ă where the adults would constitute the teachers and the school administrators (Tozer, Violas & Senese, 2002; Ornstein & Levine 2006; Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). (c) Books Would it surprise you to learn that books reinforce messages about sex roles? What were the first books that you remember reading as a child? Were the main characters male or female? Was it the male or female character that needed to be rescued? You probably have the answers to these questions and you would have realised by now that childrenÊs books usually portray females as „weak‰, „pampered‰, and „want help‰ whereas males are presented as being „strong‰, „brave‰, and „heroic‰. In recent years, sexism in text books and childrenÊs books has been receiving a lot of attention. Studies show that text books have the tendency to depict girls and women in stereotypical sex roles which can influence how boys and girls define their gender roles. (You may refer to studies by Purcell & Steward, 1990; Goodman, 1993; Heilman, 2001; Keifer & Sekaquaptewa, 2007 for more details). (d) Media Movies, cartoons and television series, too, play important roles in establishing roles based on sex and gender. A study by Smith, Choueiti, Prescot and Pieper (2013) which was conducted to analyse gender roles in popular family films, prime-time programmes (drama, reality shows, comedy, children's series, news magazines) and children's TV shows revealed that gender roles are still stereotyped in entertainment that is popular with children. This is another example where the media sends the wrong kind of messages about gender biasness and endorses gender inequality in education and occupation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

64 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 4.1.2 Development of Sex Roles in Education In our earlier discussions, we learned that socialisation is a process by which children are taught how they can fit into society and sex role socialisation refers to the process of learning how males and females are supposed to act differently to fulfil the roles they are expected to play in society. Sex roles which are established since birth continue to play a dominant role in early education. According to Robert Havighurst (1983) cited in Ornstein and Levine (2006), by age three, there is already a „noticeable difference in behaviour between boys and girls ⁄ boys are more ÂactiveÊ, girls more ÂdependentÊ and ÂnurturantÊ.‰ When children are enrolled in preschool, they are constantly reminded of gender differences by their peers and their teachers. For instance, girls are encouraged to be timid, cooperative and quiet whereas boys are encouraged to exhibit aggressive, assertive and independent behaviours. Playgroups in preschools and kindergarten also tend to be organised around members of the same sex. (Tozer, Violas & Senese, 2002; Ornstein & Levine, 2006; Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). Studies also indicate that boys enjoy more attention from their teachers, are called on more often to answer questions, especially higher-order questions than girls. Boys also receive more praise for the intellectual quality of their work compared to girls who are given praise for neatness and ability to follow instructions (Tozer, Violas & Senese, 2002). These are referred to as „hidden‰ sexist lessons that subtly reinforce the messages that girls receive from home and society which label them as „dependent‰ and did not motivate them to acquire skills that could lead to economic independence in the future. Consequently, girls were traditionally excluded from educational opportunities which, in return, resulted in other problems such as eating disorders, pregnancies, dropping out and low selfesteem (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). However, girls do enjoy some advantages when they go to school. Schools are governed by traditional norms of politeness, cleanliness and obedience and teachers generally enforce these norms by supressing aggressive behaviours which can be problematic to boys who are, on average, more aggressive than girls due to hormonal differences. This accounts for relatively higher rates of alienation and violation of school rules by boys (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 65 As a result, boys may feel that they are not as successful as the girls in terms of their academic achievement which they may associate with female traits, leading to lower levels of male achievement, high school graduation and college admissions and graduation (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). Sex Role Stereotypes When we think of a „male‰, the words that generally come to mind are „masculine‰, „protector‰ and so on and when we say „female‰, words such as „feminine‰, „soft‰ and „emotional‰ come to mind. Why does this happen? Why do we attach different labels to classify different genders? Who determines these different roles? The answer: Society. Yes, society is responsible in determining how males and females should behave based on gender role beliefs. Do you know what happens when sex role beliefs are used as sets of accepted behaviours which are applied to all males and females? Yes, these beliefs turn into gender role stereotypes which are learned by members of society very early in their childhood. Just look around you and you will find instances of genderrole stereotyping in almost everything we do, from home to schools and colleges and finally at the workplace. The Council of EuropeÊs Gender Equality Strategy 2014ă2017 defines gender stereotyping as „preconceived ideas whereby males and females are arbitrarily assigned characteristics and roles determined and limited by their sex.‰ Gender stereotyping has a long and complex history, resulting in inequalities between men and women. Do you think this makes it difficult for modern societies to change attitudes and accommodate differences between the sexes to create a more inclusive society? Although both genders experience stereotyping which leads to gender inequalities, it is still largely considered more of a female issue. In many parts of the world, women are still treated unfairly. This is because excessive use of masculine and feminine labels can hinder peoplesÊ behaviours and attitudes, and in some countries in the world, it can restrict progress as well as educational and economic opportunities for females. Even „modern‰ societies still consider routine house chores such as cleaning, cooking and caring for family members as feminine roles while masculine roles include non-routine chores such as DIY (Do-it-yourself) tasks, car care and outdoor work (Firth, 2012). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

66 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION All nations have their own traditions and gender stereotypes are part of it. But it is good to remember that they are made by people and can be reformed by people. Tarja Halonen, Former President of the Republic of Finland 4.1.3 Gender Equality in the Education System We have come a long way in terms of progress in fields such as technology, science, communications, research and other important areas. However, issues pertaining to gender equality in education and life chances remain as grey areas that still need to be resolved. Why do you think it is so difficult to resolve these issues? Once again, we need to look at the role played by societies and education systems in the world. Most societies are intensely gender stereotyped. Do you agree? Consequently, the school which is a subsystem of the societies they serve actually reproduces the beliefs, values and culture of those societies instead of challenging the possible limitations that these can have on the life opportunities and the entire future of their learners (Bohan, 2015; Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). Perhaps it is time for us to re-examine the purpose of education itself and why we educate our children. We acknowledge the fact that schools play crucial roles in transmitting beliefs, values, sex-role behaviours and expectations to students. How exactly do schools carry out these functions? It is formally carried out through selected courses, subjects, and textbooks used in the classroom and also informally transmitted through the „hidden curriculum‰ (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). We will discuss the „hidden curriculum‰ in more detail in Topic 8. How often have you come across textbooks that portray women as nurses, teachers or secretaries whereas men are portrayed as doctors, engineers or pilots? Such portrayals can affect academic and economic expectations that parents determine for their female children and inadvertently affect female studentsÊ notions of self-esteem and self-worth. Society can play a conscious role in changing attitudes and accommodating differences between the sexes. Schools occupy a unique position in societies. Therefore, instead of perpetuating gender stereotypes that lead to inequalities in educational opportunities, schools can play an important role in promoting gender equality by raising awareness, clearing up misconceptions about gender roles, and creating new models of behaviour that call for gender equality in societies (Bohan, 2015). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 67 Enrolment rates and literacy rates for males and females are good indicators of different societal expectations for both sexes. You can visit UNESCO and UNICEF websites for the latest information on literacy rates for males and females. Over the years, the gap between males and females participating in basic education and higher education has been narrowing, especially in developed and developing countries in the world. In Malaysia, for instance, females outnumber males in terms of participation in higher education (refer to Table 4.1). However, fields such as engineering, manufacturing and construction are still favoured by males. Table 4.1: Graduates from Public Universities in Malaysia by Field Graduates M F Education 3,027 9,594 Arts and Humanities 3,807 6,684 Social Sciences, Business and Law 13,211 31,503 Science, Mathematics and Computer 5,600 10,294 Engineering, Manufacturing and Construction 15,170 12,162 Agriculture and Veterinary 1,342 1,884 Health and Welfare 1,899 5,142 Services 1,830 2,833 General Programmes 23 12 TOTAL 45,909 80,108 Source: Planning, Research and Policy Coordination Division, Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, 2014 ACTIVITY 4.3 Let us take a trip down memory lane, back to your school days. What were the issues that were commonly discussed in the classroom? Do you recall talking about gender or inequalities in education? How often did you discuss experiences and contributions of women in historical events? Discuss this in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

68 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION The same trend is also seen in other countries, for instance the UK. A political editor wrote in 2014 that „young men are becoming a disadvantaged group in terms of going to university and this underperformance needs urgent focus across the education sector‰ (Kirkup, 2014). The World Bank and other international organisations have become strong advocates for gender equality in every aspect of life. The World BankÊs Gender Action Plan (GAP) has been instrumental in efforts to advance womenÊs economic empowerment throughout the world. Besides issues that affect girls, international communities have also started paying attention to issues related to boys. For instance, in some Central European, Latin American and Caribbean countries, many boys are starting to drop out of school, especially secondary school because they fail to see the benefit of remaining in school. They choose to work instead, and many of them end up in jobs related to illegal activities. 4.1.4 Sex Differences in Achievement and Ability: Fact or Myth? Boys are better at mathematics; girls are better at languages. You have probably heard this before. How much truth would you attach to this statement? Let us see what the evidence says. Contrary to early research findings, recent studies carried out in the US claim that sex differences in student achievements are relatively small. In these studies, girls scored just a little higher than boys in reading whereas boysÊ achievement scores on higher-order mathematics were higher than that of girls. The difference, however, was smaller than it was in a 1970 study (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Sex differences in achievement are narrowing in many countries around the world because there has been more awareness about gender equality. Nevertheless, there remains much controversy about possible reasons for sex differences and how we should address the issue. Some researchers argue that women fear success in traditionally male dominated activities and occupations because succeeding would imply defying established sex-stereotypes about what men and women can do, hence the reason for women not excelling in mathematics and STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) as well as other related subjects (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 69 The good news is that more girls are taking science and mathematics based courses today compared to twenty years ago. However, fields such as physics and computer science remain as male-dominated areas of study, especially in higher education. Some writers talk about the invisible „glass ceiling‰ that restricts femalesÊ life choices, from the time they enrol in elementary and high school (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). 4.1.5 Combating Gender Differences Education systems have been guilty of practising differential treatment of boys and girls at all levels of the system. That is a fact that cannot be denied. So, what we should be concerned about is finding ways and means to lessen the effect that these practices have had on children. ACTIVITY 4.4 Although many of us are told that we can be anything we want, being male or female will affect many of the choices we are offered and the decisions we take about our lives. Today, men and women are still not equal. Firth, 2012 What are your views on the above extract? ACTIVITY 4.5 The 2nd Conference of the Council of Europe National Focal Points on Gender Equality 2014 concluded that most societies are still strongly gender stereotyped with education systems that perpetuate the values and cultures of these societies without challenging the possible limitations they can have on the life experiences and opportunities of the students they serve. What are your thoughts on this matter? Share your opinion with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

70 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION The following suggestions may be considered to address gender differences (Ornstein & Levine, 2006; Ballantine & Hammack, 2013): (a) Increase teacher training on dealing with gender issues; (b) Focus on gender issues in vocational education; (c) Eliminate any bias in standardised tests and reduce the role of these tests in college admissions; (d) Improve educational programmes dealing with health and sexuality; (e) Reduce sex stereotyping and further increase the representation of females in instructional materials; (f) Introduce „gender-fair‰ curricula that accommodate learning-style differences; (g) Introduce special programmes to encourage girls to participate in math, computing, and science programmes; and (h) Work to counteract the decline in self-esteem that many girls experience as they become concerned with their appearance. CLASS, RACE AND ATTEMPTS TO RECTIFY INEQUALITIES IN EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY In the previous subtopics, we talked about gender inequalities in educational opportunities. Now, we will continue our discussion on inequalities in education, but we will focus on other issues such as educational disadvantage, poverty and discrimination. In other words, we will be talking about social class and race as factors that affect education. Do you believe that all schools are equal? Factors such as racial composition may depend on the location of the school, but how about school facilities and the quality of education provided to children? Do all children, regardless of their social class and race enjoy the same educational opportunities? Were you able to answer „yes‰ to any of the questions above? Let us look at some of the debates and interpretations about educational opportunities and achievements among various groups of people. 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 71 4.2.1 Social Class Four main variables: occupation, education, income and housing value are generally used to categorise members of society (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Most modern societies are defined by three broad categories: the working class, middle class and upper class, although social scientists are able to identify at least six levels of society which we generally refer to as social class. Let us look at each category in more detail : (a) The Working Class This class is divided into upper working class (skilled craft workers) and lower working class (unskilled manual workers). Skilled workers can fall into either the middle class or working class category, determined by their level of education, income and the community they belong to. (b) The Middle Class Includes professionals, managers and small business owners who are identified as upper middle class and technical workers, sales and clerical workers who are referred to as lower middle class. (c) The Upper Class Includes wealthy persons with substantial property and investments. Individuals who rank high in occupational prestige, amount of education, income and housing value are included in this category. Members of this group are also considered high in socioeconomic status (SES). (d) The Underclass This is a new group identified within the working class of the American society. The underclass is generally identified with the lower working class but they are set apart by the fact that they are the third or fourth generation to live in poverty and are dependent on the stateÊs assistance for their existence. Generally, this group of people are characterised by „low aspirations, poor education, family instability, illegitimacy, unemployment, crimes, drug addiction, alcoholism, frequent illness and early death‰ (Wilson, 1987 as cited in Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). ACTIVITY 4.6 Most of the early studies on society and social issues were carried out in the US and Europe. Why? Share your findings in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

72 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 4.2.2 Race and Ethnicity Race identifies groups of people with common ancestry and physical characteristics; ethnicity classifies people who have a shared culture. Members of an ethnic group are likely to share a common ancestry and language, religion and other cultural traits. Some writers choose to use the term ethnicity rather than race because they do not believe that the concept of „pure race‰ really exists because the population of many nations are made up of a mixture of different races and ethnicities (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). In some countries, certain racial and ethnic minority groups are subjected to social and economic oppression. You can refer to the historical development of education in countries all over the world to learn about the plights of racial and ethnic minority groups and why most of them have low academic achievements in contrast with the majority groups. We cannot deny the fact that race is related to educational outcomes. However, based on the nature of most societies in the world, it is very difficult to separate race from class when we talk about educational attainment and educational opportunities. In societies which are segregated, such as the US, it has been observed that minority students receive fewer and inferior educational opportunities compared to white students (Tozer, Violas & Senese, 2002; Ornstein & Levine 2006; Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). 4.2.3 Social Class, Race and School Success Is there a relationship between social class, race and achievement in school? Some researchers believe that education is a crucial factor in determining an individualÊs social status and income. Can this be true when the acquisition of education itself may be dependent on the individualÊs Socio-economic Status (SES)? What do you think? Let us look at some of the debates on this issue before we come to a conclusion. In their book entitled Middletown: A study in modern American culture, 1959, Robert and Helen Lynd suggest that parents, irrespective of their social class, acknowledge the importance of education for their children. The problem is that most children from the working class are ill-equipped to master the skills and behaviour traits identified by the education system for success in the classroom. Later studies that replicated the LyndsÊ initial study also came to the same conclusion that there is a close relationship between social class and education not only in the US but also throughout the world (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 73 When we talk about education in a formalised classroom setting, we cannot deny the fact that teachers and students bring their own contexts, personalities and mind sets (in other words, their own perceptions) into the classroom which, in turn, affect the process of education, the way it is imparted and the way it is absorbed. Where do teachersÊ and studentsÊ perceptions come from? Their own environment, which relates to the social class they belong to, plays an important role in shaping their perceptions about life. For example, if a teacher uses examples from the middle or upper class to teach study skills for mathematics, students from the working class and the underclass will not be able to relate to the lesson and this in turn distracts them from learning the intended skill for that particular lesson. As discussed earlier, the lower (working) class and the underclass group are mainly made up of minority ethnic groups. Studies on poverty stricken neighbourhoods in large cities also provide evidence on the relationship between social class and school achievement. These studies found that the majority of students in these areas lagged behind in literacy and numeracy compared to children in other neighbourhoods. Studies by Jencks and Peterson (1991), Wooster (1998) as well as Finnernan and Kelly (2003) conclude that in most instances, members of the underclass have very slim chances to improve their economic and social conditions because the majority of them are concentrated in the inner slums of cities or areas of rural poverty which are in much decline, hence, affecting their opportunities to acquire quality education. Besides these, children from lower class families also lack family histories of educational attainment. Children who come from families that have not had access to education lack role models, motivation and access to books that could help them to develop their reading or writing skills. These children are disadvantaged when they join a classroom of other children who have had a head start to written texts. What do you think happens to such children? Unfortunately, these are the children generally labelled as „slow learners‰ or „weak students‰ although, in reality, they may just be disadvantaged children who have had a late start due to the environment they come from. This is another instance where childrenÊs success in school can be determined by their social class (Ornstein & Levine, 2006; Ballantine & Hammack, 2013; „How does race,‰ n.d). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

74 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION These arguments, however, are refuted by some social scientists who consider underclass as a political policy issue. In some instances, the underclass, mostly minority groups in a society, exist because they do not adhere to the predominant culture. There are also claims that the underclass is the consequence of changes in the industrial economy. Furthermore, some members of the underclass do not even display elements of poor health and family breakdown (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). In conclusion, we can say that social class, race and ethnicity are closely interrelated in determining school achievement. However, much of the variation in educational achievement by race and ethnicity is due to differences in social class. If we know the social class of a particular group of children, it is highly probable that we would be able to predict, with significant levels of accuracy, whether their achievement, ability scores and college attendance rates are high or low (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). 4.2.4 Do Schools Provide Equal Educational Opportunities? Based on what we have discussed and your own experiences when you were in school, how would you respond to the above question? If by equal opportunities, we mean providing the resources and conditions for overcoming disadvantages caused by oneÊs family background so that students perform equally well regardless of their socioeconomic status, the answer would be „No‰. The 1966 Coleman report (James Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity), which generated a lot of discussions on the issue of equal educational opportunity concluded that achievement was strongly related to studentsÊ socioeconomic backgrounds and that schools with relatively higher numbers of students from the working class and underclass categories received less funding ACTIVITY 4.7 Obstacles in the classroom have been identified as one reason for low achievement among low status students. List down the possible obstacles and discuss how these obstacles can be overcome in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 75 compared to middle class schools. But they also found that expenditure for school operations did not have any impact on studentsÊ achievement (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). The study, thus, concluded that spending more on education for disadvantaged students was not likely to improve their achievement and the best way to elevate disadvantaged studentsÊ achievement was to move them from predominantly working class schools to middle class schools. These findings were reinforced by two studies by Christopher Jencks and his colleagues (Inequality, 1972; Who gets ahead, 1979) who made the following conclusions (Ornstein & Levine, 2006): (b) Achievement in school is largely dependent on studentsÊ family traits. (c) Family background is responsible for almost half the variation in occupational status and up to 35 per cent of disparity in earnings. (d) SchoolsÊ accomplishments in terms of reducing the achievement gap between students from higher and lower socioeconomic status have been relatively small. Over the years, these findings by Coleman and Jencks have been supported by other international studies, including studies undertaken by the World Bank. 4.2.5 Breaking the Equality Barriers Although we have not had tremendous success in overcoming issues related to equal educational opportunities, we must be cautious about the kind of conclusions that we make pertaining to social class, race and educational achievement. For example, we cannot conclude that all or most students from low-income families would be unsuccessful as adults or that all schools are unsuccessful in providing opportunities for students from lower socioeconomic status. Research shows that: (a) A significant proportion of working class children and those from impoverished families do gradually achieve middle class status; and (b) Educational systems have been successful in helping individuals elevate themselves from their parentsÊ status. (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

76 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION Various measures have been taken to achieve educational equality within and between schools by trying to integrate minority students with students from higher socioeconomic status and desegregate schools, especially in the US. Improvements have been made for minority students by ensuring more effective schools, introducing cooperative learning, improving teachersÊ attitudes toward them and getting the community involved in school reform efforts. EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL CHILDREN: HOW FAR HAVE WE REALLY COME? At the international level, there have been efforts from various organisations to combat gender and racial issues in order to attain equal educational opportunities for every child in this world via Education for All (EFA). Let us take a look at how much success EFA has had since its inception in 2000. EDUCATION FOR ALL (EFA) In 2000, at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, 164 governments agreed on the Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments which launched an ambitious agenda to reach six wide-ranging education goals by 2015: Goal 1 ă Early Childhood Care and Education Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. Goal 2 ă Universal Primary Education Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality. Goal 3 ă Youth and Adult Skills Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes. Goal 4 ă Adult Literacy Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 77 Goal 5 ă Gender Equality Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2015, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girlsÊ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. Goal 6 ă Quality of education Improving every aspect of the quality of education, and ensuring their excellence so that recognised and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. UNESCO (2000) So, what was progress like after Dakar? A fair amount of progress has been made across the world since 2000. In her foreword in the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2015, Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO concluded that: The greatest progress has been achieved in gender parity, particularly in primary education, although gender disparity remains in almost a third of the countries with data. UNESCO (2015) She goes on to say that despite a certain degree of success in terms of gender equality in education and ensuring that all children receive the quality of education they were promised, Education for All remains an unfulfilled vision. According to the 2015 monitoring report: (a) There are still 58 million children out of school globally; (b) Around 100 million children do not complete primary education; (c) Inequality in education had increased, with the worldÊs poorest children and most disadvantaged shouldering the heaviest burden; (d) The worldÊs poorest children are four times more likely not to go to school than the worldÊs richest; (e) The worldÊs poorest children are also five times more likely not to complete primary education; (f) The poor quality of learning at primary level causes millions of children to leave school without acquiring basic skills; and (g) Education remains under-financed in many countries. UNESCO (2015) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

78 TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION We still have a long and challenging journey ahead of us to ensure equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the world, regardless of their race, class and gender. The purpose of education is to provide equal opportunities for life chances to every child who goes through the education system. IndividualsÊ status in society and the educational system is largely influenced by factors such as race, sex and social class. Females and males go through different experiences in schools and colleges and this, in turn, determines their future life chances. Different educational experiences of female and male students are issues related to sex and gender. Gender is something that we learn and this „learning‰ process is referred to as socialisation. The process of socialisation begins from birth and lasts throughout an individualÊs life. The family, school and society are responsible for the process of sex-role socialisation. SELF-CHECK 4.1 1. Examine the effects of sex-role socialisation on educational achievement of boys and girls. 2. Explain the relationship between social class and educational attainment. 3. Do you believe that sex-role stereotyping is a problem in education? 4. Suggest how we can achieve equal education for all children regardless of sex, race and social class. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 79 Sex-role socialisation is reinforced by the education system. The education system has different expectations for males and females, resulting in gender inequalities in educational attainment. Society is responsible for determining how males and females should behave based on gender role beliefs. These beliefs turn into gender role stereotypes which are learned by members of society very early in their childhood. Although both genders experience stereotyping which leads to gender inequalities, it is still largely considered more of a female issue. Earlier studies point to the fact that student achievements are determined by their sex. Recent studies carried out in the US claim that sex differences in student achievements are relatively small. Education systems have been guilty of practising differential treatment of boys and girls at all levels of the system. Most modern societies are defined by these broad categories: the upper class; the middle class; the working class and the underclass which we generally refer to as social class. Race identifies groups of people with common ancestry and physical characteristics; ethnicity classifies people who have a shared culture. Social class, race and ethnicity are closely interrelated in determining school achievement. However, much of the variation in educational achievement by race and ethnicity is due to differences in social class. The ability of schools to provide equal educational opportunities regardless of gender, race and social class is still highly debatable. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

8 E G G G M R B B F K L L O 80 TOPIC Ethnicity Gender equal Gender role Gender stereo Middle class Race Ballantine, J. systemat Ltd. Bohan, M. (20 Report o on gende irth, L. (Ed.) Independ Kirkup, J. (201 The Tele educatio gap-wide Lindsey, L. L. Pearson Lynd, R. S., & society. F Ornstein, A. C Boston, M C 4 RACE, CL lity otyping H., & Hamm tic analysis (7 015). Comba of the 2nd con er equality. H (2012). Equa dence Publish 14, Jan 31). Bo legraph. Retri nnews/10608 ens.html. (2010). Gend Prentice Hall & Lynd, H. M Florida: Harco C., & Levine MA: Houghto LASS & GENDE mack, F. M. 7th ed.). Singa ating gender nference of th Helsinki, Finla ality and gen hers. oys being left ieved from h 8739/Boys-be der roles: A s l. M. (1959). Mid ourt Brace an e, D. U. (200 on Mifflin Com R: ACHIEVING Sex role Sex-role Social cla Undercla Upper cl Working (2013). The apore: Pearso stereotypes he council of and: Council o nder roles. Ca behind as un http://www eing-left-behin sociological p iddletown: A nd Company. 06). Foundati mpany. EQUALITY IN E socialisation ass ass lass g class e sociology o on Education in and thro Europe natio of Europe. ambridge, Un niversity gend .telegraph.co nd-as-univers perspective. N A study in mo tions of educ EDUCATION of education: South Asia P ugh educatio onal focal poin nited Kingdo der gap widen .uk/educatio sity-genderNew Jersey, N odern Americ cation (9th ed A Pte. on: nts om: ns. n/ NJ: can d.). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 4 RACE, CLASS & GENDER: ACHIEVING EQUALITY IN EDUCATION 81 Smith, S., Choueiti, M., Prescott, A., & Pieper, K. (2012). Gender roles & occupations: A look at character attributes and job-related aspirations in film and television. Geena Davis Institute on Gender and Media. Retrieved from: http://www.seejane.org/downloads/FullStudy_GenderRoles.pdf. How does race and social class affect your education? (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.teachnology.com/currenttrends/equity_excellence/race_and _social_class/ Tozer, S. E., Violas, P. C., & Senese, G. (2002). School and society: Historical and contemporary perspectives. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. UNESCO. (2000). Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments. Paris, France: UNESCO Publishing UNESCO. (2014). Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all. Paris, France: UNESCO Publishing. UNESCO. (2015). Education for all global monitoring report: Achievements and challenges. Paris, France: UNESCO Publishing. Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): Gillborn, D. & Mirza, H. S. (2000). Educational inequality: Mapping race, class and gender. A synthesis of research evidence. London: Office for Standards in Education Alexandra House. Available from: www.ofsted.gov.uk Cotter, D. A., Hermsen, J. M. & Vanneman, R. (1999). Systems of Gender, Race and Class Inequality. Social Forces, 78, 2:433ă460. University of North Carolina Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

INTRODUCTION In the previous topic, we discussed the process of socialisation and how it affects the schooling experiences of boys and girls. We also talked about how educational opportunities and life chances of students are determined by their race, class and gender. We concluded the topic by stating that equal educational opportunity is still a vision that has not been fully realised although efforts are underway to address the imbalance that still exists in education. In this topic, we will still be talking about students. But this time, our focus will be on the school environment and processes and how they affect studentsÊ behaviours and also their academic achievements. You will see that there are many different variables that actually work together to determine studentsÊ Topic 5 Students: The Core of the School LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the relationship amongst student characteristics, the school organisation and academic achievement; 2. Identify causes of school failures and dropouts; 3. Identify the variables contributing to the existence of the school climate; 4. Explain how the variables affect student achievement; and 5. Explain how studentsÊ environments affect their achievements in school. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 83 behaviours and their academic performances. Some of these are outside the realm of the school. Do all these sound interesting to you? Would you like to know what these variables are and how they affect students? Let us continue then. We will begin by talking about students ă how we define them and the role designated to them by schools before we go further and examine the variables that affect student achievement. STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS When you were a student in school, did you ever think about why you had to be in school and do the things that you were instructed to do? Did you wonder why some of you were getting better grades than others although you were all going through a set of similar school processes? If you answered „yes‰ to all the questions above, then you are not alone. These are all legitimate questions because they provide a basis for us to understand our similarities and differences as individuals which, in turn, affect what we learn, the way we learn and how much we learn. As learners, we have distinctive personality traits, we come from different backgrounds and our levels of motivation differ from one another. Our perceptions, attitudes and emotions are a consequence of, and reaction to, different environmental influences which include our family background, socioeconomic status, age and gender. Hence, we tend to behave differently in any given social or educational setting because we all have our own individual differences. It is these differences that should be given consideration by educational policy makers and planners to ensure equal opportunities for all students to optimise their potentials, especially when these are the same variables used as predictors of academic achievement. 5.1 ACTIVITY 5.1 1. How would you define a student? 2. Would you consider your students as your „clients‰? Why? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

84 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL The ideal student would be one who was not working for grades but was working because he was interested in the work and not trying to compete with fellow students. ~ Carl David Anderson Do you agree with this statement? 5.1.1 Student Role: What Do We Expect from Them? If someone were to ask you what students do in school, your answer would probably be „They learn.‰ Then the next set of questions would probably be: (a) What do they learn?; (b) Who determines what and how much they learn?; and (c) Is that all what we expect students to do? When you really think about it, these questions are not easy to answer because students are more than just learners. They have to learn how to learn and they have been assigned academic positions and formal roles according to their level or grade of study. These are actually role expectations of the education system for all students. Academic position refers to the grade that the student is placed at whereas formal student roles may include positions usually found in schools such as a school prefect, president, secretary or member of a club, society, athletic team or class monitor. These roles, however, do not mirror the reality of the classroom and the extent of student roles (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). What can you conclude from the preceding discussion? Yes, it is obvious that students take on many different roles throughout the duration of their schooling. The role of schools is to prepare students for their future. Students are the core of schools, yet in most of our conversations, studentsÊ roles are defined only in terms of learning while all other school processes are determined by adults. Expectations for the Student Role Do you ever wonder what life is like for students in schools today? Do you think student life today is the same as it was when you were in school? In most schools, formal role expectations for students are determined by the grade or level that they are assigned to, based on factors such as age and cognitive ability. The teaching and learning process is based on an unspoken Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 85 „contract‰ between the teacher and the students. This „contract‰ outlines what each expects from the other through agreed upon patterns of behaviour and the various roles assigned to each party. However, we need to re-examine our traditional views about the role that students play because students today must be more than learners, collaborators and team players. The 21st century learners are expected to do more than what is specified in the curriculum (Blair, 2012). TodayÊs students need to master a new set of skills that will prepare them for the challenges and changes ahead. Being ready for college and career means not only learning important academic content, but also knowing how to collaborate, think critically and creatively, and use technology tools to communicate. Blair (2012) In other words, our expectations for the students' role is greater now which means students need to acquire different sets of skills in order to succeed in school. Now you are probably wondering, „How are student role expectations determined?‰ Let us take a look at some of the indicators that determine student role expectations. 5.1.2 Student Culture and Its Influence on the Student Role One of the most important variables in determining expectations for the student role is student culture which has very unique characteristics. Waller (1932, 1961), as cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), refers to student culture as a „complex of strange customs‰ which comprises a „participation mystique, complex rituals of personal relationships, a set of folkways mores, and irrational sanctions, a moral code based upon them.‰ Sergiovanni, Burlingame, Coombs and Thurston (1992) provide a simpler understanding of student culture based on studies conducted by James D. Allen (Allen, 1986) and Joyce Canaan (Canaan, 1987) on middle and high school students in America. They refer to it as a subculture that includes „a set of expectations about how to behave as students and how to behave as teenagers.‰ Where do you think students „learn‰ these sets of behaviours? The first place where these behaviours develop is the schools themselves which provide the perfect setting for this subculture. Other settings that help develop this subculture may include places where social gatherings are held such as Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)