136 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 7.2.2 School Goals We have been talking about the purpose of education in almost every topic so you would have observed by now that the purposes of education may refer to the national, state, school district, school, societal, community and individual levels. Educational goals too are developed according to these levels, from broader goals at the macro level to more specific goals at the micro levels. We have already discussed goals at the macro level, so in this subtopic and the following subtopics, we will take a closer look at more specific goals ă at school and individual levels. School goals are usually narrow in focus because they manifest national, state and district goals into declarations that align more closely with the needs, philosophy and priorities of the local school community (Ornstein and Levine, 2006). School level goals are evident in school documents such as the school improvement plan and also the schoolÊs mission statement. Basically, school goals are actually a part of the formally stated educational goals which are interpreted within the school context and put into practice at the school level. This process, however, can lead to conflicts over the purpose and translation of the formal goals as it is open to various interpretations and perspectives. Conflicts can also occur between subsystems within the community and school because of differences in the informal unstated community goals that may contradict the formally stated school goals. (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Who decides on the school goals and who has control over them? It depends on the management of schools. In schools that adhere to the principles of schoolbased management, we will find that school leaders and teachers have more autonomy in goal setting and implementation. Schools which are centrally managed are subject to more control by the district or state resulting in less autonomy for leaders and teachers in goal-setting and less control over goals (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). ACTIVITY 7.3 Herbert Spencer, John Dewey, Emile Durkheim, Jane Addams, Maria Montessori and Jean Piaget are some of the names which are synonymous with significant developments in educational thought. Conduct an online research and list down the contributions of each of the individuals mentioned above. You may add more names to the list. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 137 An outline for school goals was developed by Ralph Tyler in the late 1940s. This outline is still relevant and influential in todayÊs educational setting. According to Tyler (1949) as cited in Ornstein and Levine (2006), the following four fundamental questions need to be addressed when formulating school goals: (a) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (b) What educational experiences can be provided to help attain these purposes? (c) How can these educational experiences be effectively organised? (d) How can we determine whether and to what extent the purposes have been attained? 7.2.3 Individual Goals Since members of the organisation play different roles and hold different responsibilities, it is only natural for them to have different individual goals. Students, for instance may focus on the student subculture and the socialisation function of the school. Their overall attitude and level of congruence with the adult culture will determine the extent of knowledge and skills they accumulate to enable them to successfully overcome the competitive bureaucracies imposed on them by society. Administrators and teachers, on the other hand, may wish for more quality education and at the same time may seek to fulfil their personal motivations such as the desire for higher income, prestige and professional development (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Attending school is compulsory for students. Some are more motivated than others to attend school and these varying levels of motivation will lead to different individual goals. Some students may aspire to succeed in school and continue their education at college level while some may choose to drop out at 16 and enter the job market. StudentsÊ goals may also sometime contradict school goals and this leads to disciplinary problems between students and the school authority. In short, the different functions of education influence the goals that are formulated at the different levels. These goals are usually written in nonbehavioural terms and are detached from any particular content or subject matter and are intended as long-term guides by defining what the entire process of schooling is supposed to accomplish. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
138 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION Schools, like all modern organisations, illustrate some characteristics that comply with Max WeberÊs model of bureaucracy („WeberÊs Model for Bureaucracy,‰ n.d.). The school setting and the work process in a school reflects elements of a bureaucracy, although there are certain limitations to the Weberian model when applied to an educational organisation. In fact, due to the nature of the school organisation, it is possible that elements of bureaucracy that work flawlessly in business organisations may fail in schools. In the following subtopics, we shall look at the extent to which the school is a bureaucracy, limitations of the Weberian model and alternative models that may work better in educational organisations. 7.3.1 The School as a Bureaucracy Bureaucracy! Most of us cringe at the very mention of this word. It evokes such unpleasant images ă red tape, quadruplicate copies of forms, long lines, rigid rules and regulations, impersonal and indifferent attitudes. How many times have we asked ourselves, „Surely, there is a more effective way to do this?‰ Why do we get so frustrated with bureaucracy? Today, we live in an advanced era where rationality and efficiency are the keywords. We expect a reasonable explanation for every action that we are subjected to or required to carry out. We live by the assumption that every action has goals, objectives, motives and plans that dictate the most efficient and effective means to attain these goals and objectives. 7.3 ACTIVITY 7.4 Bureaucracy is the death of all sound work. ~ Albert Einstein Why do you think Einstein said this? Do you agree with him? Discuss. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 139 These assumptions and values also apply to institutions and organisations such as schools. Now here comes the surprising part. According to Max Weber, these assumptions and values are best represented in a bureaucratic form of organisation. In other words: A bureaucracy is an organisation that achieves the epitome of efficiency and rationality while at the same time resting on a bedrock of legitimacy. (Silver, 1983) Bureaucracy is a rational, efficient way of completing tasks and rewarding individuals based on their contributions. (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013) Now let us look at the school again. Does it fit the description of a bureaucracy? Silver (1983) claims that many of the attributes of bureaucratic structure is present in education systems. However, as indicated by several studies on school systems, schools differ in their degree of bureaucratisation. Ballantine and Hammack (2013) highlight the fact that any discussion on schools as bureaucracies must take into account the fact that schools are unique organisations because of their functions in society and the way they are structured which set them apart from other organisations. Therefore, we can conclude that the school is a bureaucracy in its own rights. 7.3.2 What is a Bureaucracy? Hoy and Miskel (2001) maintain that almost all modern organisations display some characteristics of WeberÊs bureaucracy. Of course, no organisation is going to completely match every characteristic of a bureaucracy. What are the characteristics? They include the division of labour and specialisation, an impersonal orientation, a hierarchy of authority, rules and regulations and positions belong to the organisation. ACTIVITY 7.5 If you are given the chance to manage a school, what will you do to decrease the degree of bureaucracy in your school to enhance the smooth functioning of the school? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
140 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION But how do these characteristics relate to schools? Let us find out by examining each one of them and how we can apply them to the processes that take place in the school (Ballantine and Miskel, 2013; Hoy and Miskel, 2001): (a) Division of labour and specialisation ă primarily for instructional purposes. For example matching teachers and personnel with positions and tasks that best suit them; (b) Hierarchy of authority ă evident in the schoolÊs organisational chart with school management at the top, followed by teachers and other staff and students at the lowest level; (c) Rules and regulations ă specifically formulated to cover every aspect of the school process; (d) Impersonal orientation ă assures equality of treatment and facilitates rationality on the part of administrators and teachers; (e) Rationality ă rationality of the total organisation and the processes that take place within the organisation and rational decision making; (f) Positions belong to the organisation ă the notion that positions that individuals hold in the organisation belong to the organisation. When a school leader, teacher or student leaves, new individuals can move in to take their place. Now that you know how bureaucracy relates to the school, let us take a closer look at the characteristics of bureaucracy in general: (a) Division of Labour and Specialisation Gerth and Mills (1946) as cited in Hoy and Miskel (2001) explain that it means: the regular activities required for the purposes of the bureaucratically governed structure are distributed in a fixed way as official duties. In most organisations, the tasks are too complex to be carried out by just one individual. Therefore, division of labour among positions is carried out to improve efficiency, and in the process, specialisation is produced which leads to employees becoming knowledgeable and skilful in performing the task that has been assigned to them (Hoy and Miskel, 2001). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 141 The downside of this is that it could breed boredom among employees, especially those who work long hours in production line. Teachers do not commonly face this problem because no two students or classrooms are ever the same (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). (b) Hierarchy of Authority In bureaucracies, the arrangement of offices is hierarchical whereby lower offices are placed under the supervision and control of a higher one. In schools, this may apply too as illustrated in Figure 7.2. This hierarchy is easily recognised by observing the organisational chart and is one of the most prevalent characteristics in modern organisations (Hoy and Miskel, 2001). Figure 7.2: Hierarchical system of authority in schools Source: Ballantine & Hammack (2013) (c) Rules and Regulations Every organisation has a consistent set of rules and regulations that have been carefully and intentionally constructed. Among other things, the rules and regulations cover aspects such as the rights and duties as stated in the job description and ensure continuity and stability of employee behaviour because every individual in the organisation will be socialised into the systems rules and regulations. (d) Rationality of The total Organisation All organisations seek to achieve overall efficiency in their processes by maximising rational decision making and administrative efficiency. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
142 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION (e) Positions Belong to the Organisation Bureaucracies maintain that all positions belong to the organisation. This means, the job description and the responsibilities and position that come with it belong to the organisation and does the follow the individual who leaves the organisation. The holder of the position enjoys authority over others only in areas pertaining to the job. 7.3.3 Development of Schools as Bureaucracies Most school systems in the world are to some extent bureaucratic. Are you convinced yet? Let us look at some of the characteristics of schools and compare them with the characteristics of a bureaucracy. Most schools today are made up of specialised personnel in terms of subject and grade specialisation of teachers. We also have teachers with specific skills such as art, music, physical education and teachers who are specialists in areas such as reading, psychology and other areas. Besides this, school systems are also marked by extensive organisational charts that clearly delineate boundaries for control and the hierarchy of authority, from the non-teaching personnel to the teaching personnel right up to the school leader. The school community is also bound by rules and regulations and constraints stated in various documents such as the class schedule and the syllabus. Based on what we have seen so far, it is fairly clear that school systems are governed by a certain degree of bureaucracy. How do you think this came about? The main changes in education that caused the bureaucratisation of schools is the movement from small, individual schools to more centralised structures in urban locations. As school sizes increased, they were forced to adopt more modern modals of administration which increased the level of bureaucracy in schools. At the same time, teachersÊ powers in the school system was reduced (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Bureaucracy in schools became more pronounced at the turn of the twentieth century with the consolidation of school districts as well as increase in enrolments in public and private schools. Standardising education systems added to the level of bureaucracy as school boards and administration sought to become more efficient. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 143 7.3.4 Problems in Educational Bureaucracies We started off our discussion on schools as bureaucracies by stating the fact that schools were unique organisations that cannot be compared with other business organisation. The schools structure as a bureaucracy may pose some difficulties and problems that have been summarised as follows (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013): (a) Reliance on test scores as the main criteria for screening and placement of students instead of taking into account factors such as studentsÊ background, socio-economic status, abilities and other personal attributes. This is a consequence of large enrolments in schools. (b) Due to the nature of relationships that tend to be impersonal, disadvantaged students particularly, are deprived of counselling, support, and role models from whom they can develop a positive self-image. (c) Behaviour of school personnel is constrained by official rules and regulations. (d) Teachers and students feel a sense of powerlessness to change school conditions, making them indifferent to problems in school. (e) Administrators and teachers can develop bureaucratic personalities ă insecure, overly protective, rigid behaviour. The school bureaucracy can lead to feelings of alienation among students who are already struggling to survive the school system. This feeling becomes more intense as the school system becomes larger and the school community become more entwined in rules and regulations and more detached from school. Generally, the larger the system, the higher the degree of bureaucracy and the higher the resistance to change (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). 7.3.5 Loosely Coupled School Structures Some of the notions of the school as a bureaucratic structure has been challenged by recent theories and research on school structures. Schools are now considered as organisations with: ambiguous goals, unclear technologies, fluid participation, uncoordinated activities, loosely connected structural elements and a structure that has little effect on outcomes. Analyses such as these are known as loosecoupling theories, and are useful additions to bureaucratic theory. (Weick, 1976; Meyer and Rowan, 1978; Meyer and Scott, 1983 as cited in Hoy and Miskel, 2001) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
144 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION Earlier in this topic, we talked about the hierarchy in educational systems (Figure 7.2). We discussed the physical separation of levels from the lowest level to the highest. In reality, events and decisions which are reached at any one level may not be reflected at another level. For instance, decisions made in the classroom by teachers may not affect the school board or teachers in other classrooms. This is another characteristic of a loosely coupled organisation (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013) Investigations into school activities reveal the fact that schools are indeed loosely coupled organisations because teachers are given the freedom to make professional judgements in order to deal with day-to-day problems regarding students with different abilities. Furthermore, schools enjoy a considerable level of professional autonomy which is not evident in other organisations. For instance, teachers have autonomy in the classroom because they work alone, away from the eyes of their colleagues and administrators. They also enjoy unrestricted authority over their students. The consequence of this is a structural looseness within the school (Hoy and Miskel, 2001). Structural looseness also exists among the different units and components that make up the school structure. However, schools are also expected to maintain a certain degree of uniformity in their product, so a school is more accurately portrayed as a combination of bureaucracy and structural looseness (Hoy and Miskel, 2001). Having said all these, Ballantine and Hammack (2013) also highlight the fact that schools can at times be tightly controlled organisations. This is especially true in situations where the school administration has full control over available resources and every component of the education system has to depend on each other. Furthermore, research conducted by institutional theorists also draw attention to the influence of the external environment on education systems. New programmes and the use of new technologies are usually introduced to the education system by the external environment. However, the ways in which these new programmes and technologies are implemented may differ from one school to another. This is where we see a congruence between institutional theory and loosely coupled practices in school systems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 145 The best way to understand the school is by exploring the internal and the external environments that shape it. The school is a social system because it is made up of a set of subsystems and activities that interact and come together as a single social entity. Schools do not exist in isolation so it has to be understood within the context of the larger society. All formal organisations exist because they have formally stated goals that they want to accomplish. The school system is governed by societal, community and individual goals. Schools, like all modern organisations, illustrate some characteristics that comply with Max WeberÊs model of bureaucracy. Due to the nature of the school organisation, elements of bureaucracy that work flawlessly in business organisations may fail in schools. Schools differ in their degree of bureaucratisation. SELF-CHECK 7.1 1. Describe the social structure of a school. Explain how the various components in the structure work together to ensure smooth functioning of the school system. 2. What do you understand by the term „goals‰? Discuss the influence of the society, community and individuals in formulating school goals. 3. Discuss the strengths and limitations of the Weberian Bureaucratic Model within the context of school systems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Ballantin sys Frankov 1(2 Hoy, W. and Ornstein Bos Sadovnik int Silver, P pra WeberÊs htt tex mo Please do Willowe Edu Cu School a ww ne, J. H., & stematic analy ic, D. P. (1970 2), 7ă12. Paris, K., & Miskel nd practice (6th n, A. C., & L ston, MA: Ho k, A. R., Coo troduction to P. F. (1983). actice and res Model for Bu tps://www.b xtbook/social odel-for-burea ownload the m r, D. J. & C ducational Le urriculum Dev s Organizatio ww.sagepub.c TOPIC 7 Hammack, F lysis. New Jers 0). The schoo , France: UNE l, C. G. (2001) h ed.) Boston, Levine, D. U oughton Miffl kson, P. W., the foundatio Educational search. San Fr ureaucracy. (n boundless.com -groups-andaucracy-352-1 materials from Carr, C. F. ( eadership, pp velopment. Ja ons. Formal a com/sites/de 7 THE SCHOO F. M. (2013) sey, NJ: Pears ol as a social i ESCO. ). Educational , MA: McGra U. (2006). Fou lin Company. & Semel, S. F ons of educati l administrat rancisco, CA: n.d). In Bound m/sociology/ -organization 10202/ m myINSPIRE (1965). The S p 251ă255. A anuary 1965. nd Informal E efault/files/u OL AS AN ORG . The sociolo son Prentice H institution. Pr al administrati w-Hill. undations of . F. (1994). Exp tion. Boston, M tion: Theoret Harper and R dless Sociolog /textbooks/bo -6/bureaucra (under „Othe School as a Association f Education. Re upm-binaries/ GANISATION logy of educa Hall. Prospects in ed tion: Theory, r f education (9 ploring educa MA: Allyn and tical perspect Row. gy. Retrieved oundless-soci acy-56/weber er Useful Refer Social Organ for Supervis etrieved from /40351_4.pdf 147 cation: A education research, 9th ed.). ation: An d Bacon. ctives on from iologyr-srences‰): nization. ion and m http:// Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge. Albert Einstein INTRODUCTION Based on some of our discussions in the previous topics, you would have realised by now that the school as an organisation is home to different categories of participants. We discussed at length the student role and all school processes that directly involve student learning. We also discussed the administrative aspects of the school organisation that facilitate the teaching and learning processes. This topic is going to be dedicated to teachers. If students are the core of the school system, then teachers are the force behind the entire school process that determines the successful outcomes of the core of the school system. Therefore, we will be taking a closer look at the role and responsibilities of the teacher and how these roles and responsibilities have evolved over time. We will also be exploring the status of the teaching profession in society. Topic 8 Teachers in Society LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. List the roles and responsibilities of teachers in the school organisation; 2. Explain the factors causing teacher burnout; 3. Give specific examples of teacher expectations; and 4. Evaluate if teaching can be considered a full professional status. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 149 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHER Education is a social process that is based mainly on the interactions between teachers and students; and teachers and society. A teacher has a profound impact on the lives of students because it is the teacher who has the most contact with students. In some cases, teachers spend even more time with children in school compared to their own parents. Hence, the responsibility of teachers toward their students is considered a „sacred trust‰ because apart from parents, few people are accorded the privilege of influencing the lives of young children. So, what exactly does a teacher do? Most sociologists provide two parallel roles for teachers: one is based on all activities related to the process of instruction and evaluation and the other is concerned mainly about creating a conducive learning environment for learning to take place (Meighan & Siraj-Blatchford, 2001). These roles were further explored by Hoyle (1969) as cited in Meighan and SirajBlatchford (2001) who came up with the following list: (a) Representative of society: instils moral values; (b) Judge: gives marks and ratings; (c) Resource: possesses knowledge and skills; (d) Helper: provides guidance (e) Referee: settles disputes among students; 8.1 ACTIVITY 8.1 Draw two columns on a piece of paper, Column A and Column B. In Column A, write down the names of all your teachers that you can recall throughout your schooling years. In Column B, list down the names of head teachers or principals. Look at the two columns. Which one has a longer list of names? Compare your list with that of your coursemates. Are the results similar? Discuss the roles that you thought the teachers in Column A and Column B had and how they differ. What can you conclude from this activity about the role of teachers in a studentÊs life? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
150 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY (f) Detective: identifies rule breakers; (g) Role model: possess qualities that students may want to imitate; and (h) Motivator: helps students to develop self-confidence. What can you conclude from this list? It is clear that teachers are engaged in a wide range of professional activities both within and outside the classroom. Above all, in order to fulfil all the roles and responsibilities expected of them, teachers need to know more than their subject matter (Ellis, Cogan & Howey, 1991). They have to juggle between the various responsibilities expected of them: classroom manager; caregiver; and provider of physical, emotional and intellectual support for students. Having said all this, do you think that we are placing too great a burden on our teachers? In some of the previous topics, we talked about the function of schools and the socialisation of children into student and adult roles. In our discussions, we determined the fact that the teacher plays a primary role in the socialisation process of children. The teacher helps to mould individuals into their adult roles in society. We have already discussed the teacherÊs role as the main socialisers of children in Topics 4, 5 and 6. You may want to revisit these topics to refresh your memory. What the teacher is, is more important than what he teaches. Karl A. Menninger. What do you think Menninger meant by this? As pointed out by Ballantine and Hammack (2013), as agents of socialisation, teachersÊ roles are very prominent and observable. Therefore, teachers are expected to be exemplary role models to their students. They are expected to instil „good‰ values in their charge, and display high moral standards and ethics at all time. Perhaps, this is one of the greatest challenges of being a teacher. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 151 In recent years however, we see a changing trend in terms of the roles that teachers are expected to play. There is now a need to redefine the role played by teachers to ensure that they meet the current needs and demands of the environment. A teacher is no longer considered a „sage on stage‰, the one with all the knowledge that needs to be transmitted to learners but rather a „guide on the side‰ who helps students to actively participate in the learning process (King, 1993). Teachers have traditionally played the role of the „gatekeeper‰ of information because they were the only ones who had access to information needed by their students. Today, students are overwhelmed by the enormous body of information that is readily available to them. The teacherÊs greatest challenge now is to help students cope with the information they obtain from various sources such as the television, movies, Internet, social media, magazines and other forms of technology. You would be surprised to learn that by the age of five, students today are exposed to more information than their grandparents were at the age of 20 (Johnson & McElroy, 2015). Students are exposed to so much information now that the teacher has to practically compete for their attention in the classroom because students tend to be disaffected if the lessons do not interest or stimulate their creativity. So, lessons need to be more personalised and relevant to the needs of the students and applicable to their lives. In other words, the classroom has to be studentcentred, with the teacher merely facilitating the learning process (Johnson & McElroy, 2015). As the roles and responsibilities of teachers change, you will notice that the interaction patterns between the teacher and students also go through some changes. It is important for the teacher to develop a positive relationship with students regardless of their background. They also have to make learning more relevant and engaging, with students taking the lead and playing active roles in the classroom. According to Johnson and McElroy (2015), the antiquated „drill and kill‰ method of instruction will no longer work in todayÊs classrooms. The teacher has to provide opportunities for students to understand educational concepts within the context of the rapidly changing world and apply the learning to tomorrowÊs world. Beyond that, in order to establish a reciprocal relationship with students, teachers are also expected to master computer and related technological skills. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
152 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY In order to get a better understanding of the changing role of teachers, let us make a comparison between the traditional role of teachers and the contemporary role that they play now by summarising what has been stated by various writers such as Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Meighan and SirajBlatchford, 2001; Johnson and McElroy, 2015; King, 1993 as well as Ellis, Cogan and Howey, 1991. Refer to Table 8.1: Table 8.1: The Changing Role of Teachers Figure 8.1: Is this our ideal teacher? Traditional Roles Contemporary Roles Knowledge provider Gatekeeper of information Educator Authority in the classroom Role of parents Disciplinarian Work in isolation Develop studentsÊ existing knowledge Help students to cope with information Supporter Facilitator Guide Advisor to parents Engage parents in student learning Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 153 SOCIALISATION OF TEACHERS How are teachers socialised into their roles? There are very few professions out there that are as demanding as teaching. Do you agree? Teachers need to be skilled in so many areas. They must possess technical expertise as well as knowledge on human relations in order to ensure that the multitude of roles and responsibilities that they are entrusted with can be carried out effectively. The teacher plays many roles ă a colleague, friend, nurturer of the learner, facilitator of learning, researcher, programme developer, administrator, decision maker, professional leader and community activist. Added to this list is the role of a caring, empathetic, well-rounded individual who serves as a role model to students, parents and members of the community they serve (Sadovnik, Cookson & Semel, 1994). So how do we prepare novice teachers for the daunting task ahead of them? Those of you who have been classroom practitioners would know that facing a classroom of students for the first time can be quite challenging. Lieberman and Miller (1984) as cited in Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel (1994) refer to this as the „social realities of teaching.‰ The focus of most teacher educational programmes is on training individuals to become effective instructors in the classroom by exposing teacher trainees to the various theories of learning and the pedagogical approaches. However, as we have already established in our earlier discussions, teachers will play many more roles than what is stipulated in their job scope, throughout their careers in education. In fact, their roles and responsibilities go beyond the classroom and the school walls. 8.2 ACTIVITY 8.2 Look at Figure 8.1. What is wrong with the given scenario? Is this the profile of a 21st century teacher? Is this still happening in our schools? Discuss with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
154 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY Teachers who graduate from teacher educational institutes are usually certified in their main area of teaching and they leave their institutions believing that they are well-prepared to teach their subject matter and manage their classrooms. In reality, most novice teachers will notice a big gap between theory and real life classroom situations and find themselves at a loss on how to handle 30 or more students in a classroom. In view of this, you will find that many teacher educational programmes now focus on the clinical aspect of teaching by giving future teachers the opportunity to spend more time in real classrooms, early in their preparation programmes. The professional courses included in the teacher educational programmes are closely aligned with classroom observations, assignments as teacher aides or other field experiences that are deemed relevant to the preparation of future teachers (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). You would have noticed how trainees are taken through continual field experiences, beginning from observation to hands-on experience as teacherÊs aides and finally into full-scale teaching responsibilities. This provides them with more meaningful knowledge and experiences that would help to ease novice teachers into their extremely demanding roles once they start their teaching careers. Nevertheless, the best form of socialisation for novice teachers is the experience they gain when they actually begin their career because no amount of training and learning is going to prepare future teachers for the actual task at hand. Teachers are best viewed as craftspeople and most of the craft is learned on the job. Teaching is a somewhat messy and personal undertaking. Lieberman & Miller (1984) as cited in Sadovnik, Cookson & Semel (1994) ACTIVITY 8.3 If you were the principal of a public secondary school, what advice would you give to a novice teacher who is beginning his career in your school? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 155 TEACHER BURNOUT Have you heard of the term „burnout‰? Burnout describes a condition that exceeds mere physical exhaustion caused by extensive workload. It includes stress and emotional fatigue. However, „the hallmark of burnout is the distancing that goes on in response to the overload‰ (Maslach, Shaufeli & Leiter 2001 as cited in Ballantine & Hammack, 2013). We have established the fact that teachers play a multitude of roles. This requires them to wear many hats in the course of any one working day. In many instances, switching between roles can take a toll on teachers and may result in teacher burnout because it takes a lot of emotional energy and imagination on the part of the teachers to maintain a personal balance while accommodating the demands and needs of so many interest groups (Sadovnik, Cookson & Semel, 1994). What happens when teachers experience burnout? Teachers may leave teaching altogether; they may move to a different school; or may be fired from the job (Marvel et al., 2007 as cited in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). What triggers burnout amongst teachers? The following factors can play a significant role in causing burnout (Dworkin, Saha & Hill, 2003; Dworkin & Townsend, 1993 as cited in Ballantine & Hammack, 2013): (a) Work pressure; (b) Being unappreciated; (c) Frequent educational reforms; (d) Poor working conditions; (e) Low prestige; (f) Low salary; (g) Lack of professional autonomy; (h) Difficult students; (i) Higher levels of education; and (j) Higher career expectations. 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
156 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY Ballantine and Hammack (2013) identified the following measures to help teachers reduce their stress levels: (a) Inducting beginning teachers into the school culture; (b) Creating peer support teams; (c) In-service training to meet individual professional needs; (d) Opportunities for shared decision making; (e) Opportunities for professional freedom; and (f) Supportive school leaders. Figure 8.2: Cartoon depicting teacher burnout Source: http://image.slidesharecdn.com Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 157 TEACHER EXPECTATION Who are the clients of teachers? This question always poses a problem because it would seem that teachers have multiple clients. They include parents, employers, and the students themselves. Therefore, teachers have the obligation to fulfil the expectations of all these clients. Besides that, teachers also have to fulfil another set of expectations ă that of the school administrators, especially the school head, their colleagues, those who are responsible for monitoring and assessment such as the school inspectorate, education authorities at the district, state, and federal levels. That is a long list of clients, right? So, how can a teacher possibly live up to this long list of expectations? Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (2001) state that the highest degree of consensus on expectations from teacher is among students. Their research on this area yielded the following list of expectations. Students expect teachers to be: (a) Understanding; (b) Patient; (c) Encouraging; (d) Generous with praise; (e) Able to listen to students; (f) Able to give students the opportunity to speak; (g) Open to criticism; (h) Kind; (i) Pleasant; (j) Provide more activities; 8.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
158 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY (k) Punctual; (l) Enthusiastic; and (m) Warm and personal. If we were to analyse the list, we would find that most of the expectations are actually qualities that a teacher is expected to possess anyway. Parents expect teachers to work together with them rather than to work in isolation. They also expect teachers to understand the family dynamics in todayÊs challenging world and take these into consideration in their interaction with the child and with the parents themselves. Therefore, it is important for teachers to learn to relate to parents (Johnson & McElroy, 2015). Prospective employers, on the other hand, may expect teachers to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge needed by the labour market. The teachers are responsible for more than just academic enrichment. They have the onus to produce well-rounded individuals who possess the technical and soft skills needed by employers. IS TEACHING CONSIDERED A FULL PROFESSION? Would you consider teaching a „profession‰? This is an age old question that has troubled educators and still has the capacity to generate interest and debate among educators, policy makers and the general public. How can we best determine if teachers can be accorded the status of a full professional? One of the approaches used is to list down the ideal characteristics of a profession and rate teachers according to this list of characteristics. Levine and Ornstein (2006) as well as Ingersoll and Perda (2006) as cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), provide a list of characteristics of a full profession based on the work of prominent individuals: (a) A sense of public service, a lifetime commitment to career; (b) A defined body of knowledge and skills beyond that grasped by laypersons; (c) A lengthy period of specialised training; 8.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 159 (d) Control over licensing standards and/or entry requirements; (e) Autonomy in making decisions about selected spheres of work; (f) An acceptance of responsibility for judgements made and acts performed related to services tendered, a set of performance standards; (g) A self-governing organisation composed of members of the profession; (h) Professional associations and/or elite groups to provide recognition for individual achievements; (i) A code of ethics to help clarify ambiguous matters or doubtful points related to services rendered; and (j) High prestige and economic standing. Look at the list of characteristics of a profession. How many of these characteristics do you think fit the teaching profession? You would have realised by now that some occupations, such as law, medicine, engineering and accountancy obviously fall into the category of professionals as they fulfil the characteristics of professionals. You also need to bear in mind that there is no full consensus among researchers on what constitutes a profession. However, the categorisation of teachers into the category of „professionals‰ is not a simple task because teaching does not fulfil all the characteristics identified. Furthermore when we benchmark teaching against other professions, we will find that teaching fails to measure up to those professions related to medicine, law or architecture. For this reason, teaching is „not quite‰ a profession or can be considered a „weak profession‰ (Goodlad, 1990). Goodlad further declared that „the conditions necessary to a profession simply have not been a part of either teacher education or the teaching enterprise.‰ The four main areas in which teachers are lacking are (Ornstein & Levine, 2006; Tozer, Senese & Violas, 2006): (a) A defined body of knowledge and skills beyond that grasped by laypersons; (b) Control over licensing standards and/or entry requirements; (c) Autonomy in making decisions about selected spheres of work; and (d) High prestige and economic standing. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
160 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY Furthermore, as discussed in the previous topic, school organisations are highly bureaucratic in nature. This could pose some problems for professionals because they are committed to fellow professionals in their field and adhere to the rules and regulations of the professional body that govern them. This may result in conflicts between professionals and the organisations they work for. In bureaucratic settings such as the school, teachers are subjected to standardised and centralised processes such as close supervision, conformance to rules and regulations and decision making which contradict the norms of professional freedom (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013; Ornstein & Hammack, 2006). A renowned educational researcher, Linda M. McNeil (1988), as cited in Sadovnik, Cookson, Jr., and Semel (1994), referred to these conditions as „the contradictions of control‰. She and other sociologists of education contended that these conditions which are prevalent within the teaching profession pose a serious challenge to efforts in making teaching a profession in every sense of the word. Trying to be a professional and a bureaucrat, while at the same time trying to fulfil the many roles of a teacher, is a task that cannot be reasonably fulfilled by most people. Sadovnik, Cookson, Jr. & Semel (1994). Nevertheless, teaching can be regarded as a „semi-profession‰ or an „emerging profession‰ which is in the process of achieving the status of a full-fledged profession (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013; Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Some sociologists claim that teachers share this status with nurses and social workers, occupations that are also service orientated. Most of the individuals who fall into this category are females. This is not surprising because teaching and nursing have always been considered „feminine roles‰ compared to occupations in technical and vocational sectors. ACTIVITY 8.4 There are schools that still hire unqualified individuals to carry out the roles and responsibilities of trained and certified teachers. (a) Do you agree with this practice? (b) What are the consequences of this practice? Discuss with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 161 Gaining Recognition Over the years, teachers have begun to exert their desires to be recognised as professionals. This, however, is a very challenging effort for several reasons. What do you think teachers need to do in order to gain the recognition that they seek? The following discusses some of the things that teachers may do to gain recognition. (a) Develop a Defined Body of Knowledge How do we recognise a professional? Recognition and acknowledgement is often bestowed based on the monopoly of certain knowledge and expertise that members in a professional group collectively claim sets them apart from the layperson. This defined body of knowledge is mastered through years of learning and training and entry into the professional body is fiercely guarded by denying those with substandard knowledge and expertise membership. Education or teaching in particular is not affiliated with any specialised body of knowledge. Teachers are also not governed by any vigorous rules or procedures which are present in most established professional bodies. As a result, „too many people, especially the lay public talk about education as if they were experts‰ (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). This situation can cause conflicting and, at times, negative information and does not give teachers control over their vocation. Therefore, teachers need to prove that the task they carry out requires a high degree of specialisation and expert knowledge that the average person does not possess. Only then can teaching claim its position among the ranks of other professions. (b) Strive for High Occupational Prestige and Income When we talk about occupational prestige, we are in fact referring to „the esteem a particular society bestows on an occupation‰ (Levine & Ornstein, 2006). Is teaching a high-prestige occupation? According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), teaching does not rank highly in terms of occupational prestige. Perhaps teachers need to develop a „teacher subculture‰ to allow them to claim the status of professionals and demand for higher pay and status. Sociologist Dan Lortie (1975) as cited in Sadovnik, Cookson, Jr., and Semel (1994) commented that there is „an incomplete subculture‰ which makes it difficult for teachers to be recognised as professionals and to elevate their social status. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
162 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY Furthermore, teachers are in a very different market setting compared to other professionals such as doctors or lawyers. Teachers are paid a regular salary for services rendered within the school organisation. There is not much opportunity for teachers to work independent of the school organisation, which means it is difficult for teachers to gain a reputation for excellence outside the school or district setting (Sadovnik, Cookson, Jr., & Semel, 1994). Many professionals, on the other hand, function on a „fee-for-service‰ basis because they have expert training and knowledge that is not possessed by the general layperson. They have the capacity to earn their living from independent clients and are not economically dependent on any single individual or organisation. Teachers still earn far less than most professionals. In recent years, however, teachers have been moving up the occupational prestige ranking because their average level of education and training has risen over the years and also because the complex nature of teaching is slowly gaining acknowledgement. In order to gain higher salary, teachers need to first be acknowledged as genuine professionals. (c) Comprehensive Teacher Education Programmes and Certification of Qualified Teachers Teacher education is as complex as the teaching profession itself because teaching is very personal in nature. Do you agree? Still, more effective ways of educating teachers must be developed if we want teaching to be acknowledged as a profession, at par with other professions such as doctors and lawyers. Sadovnik, Cookson, Jr., and Semel (1994) wrote that „there is a crisis in teacher education.‰ This observation was made based on a research on teacher education in the US by Goodlad (1990) who concluded that these programmes: (a) Lacked prestige; (b) Lacked coherence; (c) Tended to separate theory from practice; and (d) Leaned towards regulated conformity. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY 163 This study was significant because it confirmed what was generally observed not only in the US but also in many other countries in different parts of the world. Consequently, teacher education programmes in many nations were reviewed and, in some cases, completely redesigned to develop a more cohesive curriculum and to move towards professionalisation of teachers by emphasising the practical component of the programmes (Ornstein & Levine, 2006; Sadovnik, Cookson, Jr. & Semel, 1994). In many countries now, prospective teachers who wish to teach in public schools must be certified by the state or a central body of certification. Certification requirements vary according to states and nations but basically, we see more stringent entry requirements into teacher education programmes and certification to maintain the quality of teachers and to obtain the status of professionals in their field (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). ACTIVITY 8.1 Teachers, I believe, are the most responsible and important members of society because their professional efforts affect the fate of the earth. Helen Caldicott 1. Based on what we have discussed about the teaching profession and the roles and responsibilities of teachers, write a response to the statement above. 2. What do you think is the biggest difference between a novice teacher and an experienced teacher? Discuss. 3. Is teaching an art or a science? Elaborate. 4. Suggest a strategy to professionalise the teaching profession. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
164 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY Teachers are the force behind the entire school process that determine the successful outcomes of the core of the school system. Education is a social process that is based mainly on the interactions between teachers and students. Sociologists provide two parallel roles for teachers: one is related to the process of instruction and evaluation, and the other is about creating a conducive learning environment. Teachers are engaged in a wide range of professional activities both within and outside the classroom. In recent years, there has been a changing trend in terms of the roles that teachers are expected to play. Teachers are no longer the only source of knowledge and information. The teacherÊs greatest challenge today is to help students cope with information they obtain from various sources. As the roles and responsibilities of teachers change, the interaction patterns between teachers and students also go through some changes. Teachers need to be socialised into the various roles and responsibilities they are expected to play. Teacher educational programmes place more emphasis on the clinical component of the programme to better prepare future teachers for the realities of the classroom. Switching between their many roles can take a toll on teachers and may result in teacher burnout. Teacher have to fulfil the expectations of different stakeholders. Teaching is still considered a semi-profession because it does not fulfil all the criteria of a genuine profession such as medicine and law. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Novice Profess Semi-pr Social s Socialis Ballantin sys Ellis, A. edu Goodlad Bas Johnson, cen King, A. 41( Meighan En Ornstein Bos Sadovnik int Tozer, S. con teacher ionalisation o rofessional status sation of teach ne, J. H., & stematic analy K., Cogan, J. ducation (3rd e d, J. (1990). T ss. , B., & McElro ntury. Teache . (1993). From (1), 30ă35. n, R., & Siraj gland: Contin n, A. C., & L ston, MA: Ho k, A. R., Coo troduction to . E., Senese, G ntemporary p of teachers hers Hammack, lysis. New Jers J., & Howey, ed.). New Jers Teachers for o oy, T. M. (201 ers. Net Gazze m sage on the j-Blatchford, nuum. Levine, D. U oughton Miffl okson, P.W., & the foundatio G., & Violas, perspectives (5 TOPIC 8 Tea Tea Tea Th F.M. (2013). sey, NJ: Pears K. R. (1991). sey, NJ: Prent our nationÊs sc 15). The chan ette, 12(12). e stage to gui I. (2001). A U. (2006). Fou lin Company. & Semel, S. F ons of educati P. C. (2006). S 5th ed.). New 8 TEACHERS acher burnou acher educati acher expecta he teacher role The sociolo son Prentice H Introduction tice Hall. schools. San F ging role of t ide on the sid sociology of undations of . F. (1994). Exp tion. Boston, M School and so w York, NY: M IN SOCIETY ut ion ations e ogy of educa Hall. n to the founda Francisco, CA the teacher in de. College T f education. f education (9 ploring educa MA: Allyn and society: Histor McGraw-Hill. 165 cation: A dations of A: Josseyn the 21st Teaching, London, 9th ed.). ation: An d Bacon. rical and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
166 TOPIC 8 TEACHERS IN SOCIETY Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): Goldrick, L. Zabala, D. & Burn, J. ( n.d). Cultivating Effective Teachers Through Evaluation and Support. A Guide for Illinois Policymakers and Educational Leaders. New Teacher Centre, pp 1ă48. Retrieved from http://newteacher center.org/about-ntc/The Joyce Foundation Ingersoll, R. & Merill, E. (2011). The Status of Teaching as a Profession. pp 185ă 198 University of Pennsylvania Scholarly Commons. GSE Publications. This paper is posted at Scholarly Commons. Retrieved from http://repository. upenn.edu/gse_pubs/221 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Your work is going to fill a large part of your life, and the only way to be truly satisfied is to do what you believe is great work. And the only way to do great work is to love what you do. If you haven't found it yet, keep looking. Steve Jobs (2005) In the previous topics, we talked about the school as an organisation and what happens in the school organisation, focusing on the characteristics of the school as an open system and the hidden curriculum of the informal system and students as the core of the school organisation. From these discussions, we are able to understand how the school functions and operates in educating students and preparing them for the adult world, especially the transition from school to the workforce. In this topic, we will examine the role of the school in preparing students for the challenging transition from school to the workforce. Topic 9 Transition from School to Work LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the role of schools in preparing students for transition from school to work; 2. Explain what is meant by „socialisation at the workplace‰; 3. Describe the school curriculum involved in preparing students for employment; and 4. Discuss the issues regarding schooling and jobs for young people. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
168 TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK ROLE OF SCHOOL IN TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK According to the functionalists, school „functions to allocate human resources within the role structure of the adult society‰ (Parsons, 1959 as cited in Hallinan, 2000). We acknowledge that education plays a significant role in preparing young people for adult roles in society. As cited by Feinberg and Soltis (2004), a good education is essential to enable an individual to enter into the workforce. Schools teach the general skills of literacy and numeracy, and some soft skills for survival in society such as communication skills, higher order thinking and information technology. Functionalists advocate that the educational process provides incentives for all students to gain appropriate skills and work habits, as well as provides a selective mechanism for assigning youths to appropriate roles in society (Hallinan, 2000). Clearly, the school culture and school environment are totally different from the workplace environment. Coleman, James, Hoffer, Thomas, Kilgore & Sally (1974) as cited in Levine and Havighurst (1992) noted that the school environment has not completely provided all the opportunities for students to become capable adults who are ready for the workforce. So, the question often asked is, „Has school really performed its functions in preparing the students for the transition from school to work?‰ 9.1 ACTIVITY 9.1 One of the most important things you will do in your young adult years is to decide on your dreams, especially your dream career and other life goals. Unfortunately, at this time in your life, you will also encounter many people who will tell you to stop dreaming and face the reality of the workforce. Discuss in the online forum, how school prepares students for the reality of the transition from school to workplace. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK 169 DOES SOCIALISATION HAPPEN AT THE WORKPLACE? Do you think socialisation happens at the workplace? Before we examine this, you may want to revisit the previous discussion on socialisation, which has been acknowledged as one of the major functions of education. As acknowledged in previous topics, the main function of the school is to socialise individuals for future economic productive roles. When youths start their employment upon completing school, college or university, they enter another phase of their lives. By interacting and communicating with others in the workplace, there is a tendency for their social circle to widen and enlarge. Indirectly, socialisation at the workplace takes place, either explicitly or implicitly. Do you think socialisation at the workplace is important for youths in todayÊs workforce? Socialisation at the workplace enables youths to reinforce the social values and attitudes that they have developed during their early years of schooling. At the workplace, they meet people with different traits and moral values. Subsequently, the social and working environment at the workplace helps them broaden their mindsets so that they gain social acceptance and exhibit tolerance towards other people in the workplace (Yates, 2005). According to Yates (2005), young people experience different pathways in their transition from school to work. They tend to adapt and modify their own interests and skills to fit into the environment in which they are working. Many young people switch jobs or „job hop‰ in their early years of employment to gain more job experiences in hopes of better employment prospects and higher wages. In the process of switching jobs, there is the tendency to meet and socialise with people of different races, ethnicities as well as social and cultural backgrounds. All this affects their belief systems (Yates, 2005). Thus, in reality, socialisation does happen at the workplace. 9.2 ACTIVITY 9.2 Form a buzz group of three to four students. Discuss how socialisation takes place at the workplace. Share your findings in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
170 TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK DOES SCHOOL CURRICULUM PROVIDE STUDENTS WITH THE REQUIRED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS FOR WORK? Do you remember the curriculum used when you were in school? I am sure you will agree that the curriculum differs according to the class you were in ă whether you were in the Arts or Science, or Vocational stream. Do you think the school curriculum prepares you to join the workforce in your country? According to Shavit and Muller (2000) as cited in Hallinan (2000), there are two different curriculums used by schools in most countries, that is „academic‰ and „vocational‰. These two types of curricular and specifics of education vary from one country to another. In this subtopic, we will explore the school curriculum commonly used by schools in preparing students for adult roles in the work force. 9.3.1 The Formal Curriculum What is your definition of formal curriculum? If you are thinking that formal curriculum is related to what you have learnt in the school environment, then you are quite right. UNESCO (2010) states that the formal curriculum, which is also known as the offficial curriculum, is a planned programme of objectives, content, learning experiences, resources and assessment offered by a school that is taught explicitly. This formal curriculum consists of the knowledge and skills that students are supposed to have learnt at the end of the schooling years. It is a prerequisite for them to enter the job market. Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (2001) define the formal curriculum as all the things that are learnt and taught in the school. In some countries, the term „academic‰ is used to describe the formal curriculum which prepares students for colleges and universities, and other further study pathways (Shavit & Muller, 2000 as cited in Hallinan, 2000). Hence, the formal curriculum is academic in nature, and provides the platform for an individual to pursue tertiary education. School subjects are learnt via formal and explicit curriculums. 9.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK 171 However, do you think that formal curriculum is adequate to provide you with all the knowledge and skills for employment? Can the formal curriculum alone prepare you to join the workforce? If you reflect on your schooling years, you will realise that each student has his own uniqueness and capabilities. Many studies in psychology have found that each individual is unique with his own potentials and talents. Do you think schools can sufficiently cater to the needs of individual students through formal curriculum so as to prepare them for the workforce? In addition to the formal or explicit curriculum, there is the „hidden curriculum‰ which refers to all the socialising practices not included in the official curriculum but does contribute towards culture reproduction in our society (Meighan & Siraj-Blatchford, 2001). You can read more on hidden curriculum by revisiting Topic 6. 9.3.2 The Vocational Curriculum What is vocational curriculum? Do you think vocational curriculum is important in preparing youths to enter the world of work? The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 1998) in Hallinan (2000) defines „vocational‰ as occupational preparation or training for manual labour or similar vocations, and the word „technical‰ to denote occupational education or preparation for carrying out middle-rank functions of different types and contents. According to Rosenbaum and Jones (1998) as cited in Hallinan (2000), vocational education is designed to provide relevant skills, training and evaluation, and increases youthsÊ chances of employment after high school or secondary school. Vocational education prepares students for entering the job market as it gives students the knowledge and skills that can increase their work productivity, thus, raising their chances of finding employment and earning a decent salary in the job they perform (Shavit & Müller, 2000 as cited in Hallinan, 2000). In the transition from school to the work force, vocational schools have been successful in providing students with „schooling in the workplace‰, ă a term coined by Nancy Hoffman (2011) who explored the vocational programmes that integrate work and learning. The purpose of this programme is to provide the education and the training young people need to prepare for a career. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
172 TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK Schooling in the workplace is common in countries such as Australia, Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway and Switzerland. YOUNG PEOPLE, SCHOOLING AND JOBS In reality, the transition from school to work can sometimes be problematic. In some countries, students have been socialised into believing that academic achievement at the university level is the key to landing a job of their choice. Based on your personal experience, did school actually prepare you for such a transition? If your answer to the question is „No‰, then you must be asking yourself why you did not secure your dream job after completing school. In this subtopic, we will focus on young people, their schooling and jobs. What do you understand by the phrase „school to work transition‰? Yates (2005) defined the school to work transition as the crucial socio-economic life changing phase for young individuals in the age group of 15 to 24 years. It is during this stage of growth that young individuals develop and build skills based on their early years of schooling and training to help them become dynamic and productive members of the society. Let us walk down memory lane to your school years. How did you feel after completing school? Did you feel excited that you had completed the long years of schooling and the stress of sitting for examinations? Now, you are venturing into a new phase of life ă looking for jobs in the workforce. It must have been a great relief for you, as you look forward to enter the workforce. Most school leavers would feel happy and excited. If you are well-prepared, and have the credentials and required skills for the job you have applied for, then you would feel confident to enter the workforce. But then, in the midst of the interview, you may realise that you lack certain knowledge and skills for the job you have applied for. 9.4 SELF-CHECK 9.1 In a buzz group, discuss how formal and vocational-technical curriculums prepare students for the workforce. Post your discussion online. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK 173 Would you feel resentful if you failed to secure the job? Do you think the limited knowledge and skills that you received in school are the main reasons for your failure during the interview and is the stumbling block to landing the job you have applied for? In todayÊs challenging world, many young people face lots of problems in becoming adults. According to Levine and Havighurst (1992), the long transition from school to work and the rapid changes of modern society, have been identified as factors impeding their school to work transition. Yates (2005), through her longitudinal study, supported Levine and HavighurstÊs (1992) notion that school youths have limited knowledge of the workforce and the commitment required to hold down a particular job. Hallinan (2000) posited that schools lack formal job placement procedures, and that some teachers create informal relationships and linkages with employers to help youths get good jobs. Employers can solicit information on potential candidates to fit the specific jobs when there is communication and interaction between the schools and the employers. According to Useem (1986) and Lortie (1995) as cited in in Hallinan (2000), the reasons given as to why employers do not use information from schools are: (a) Schools do not encourage teachers to give information to employers; and (b) EmployerÊs hiring decisions are not based on information that schools generate such as studentsÊ grades and test scores. These school indicators of young human capital do not influence employersÊ hiring decisions. As cited by Parson (1959) in Hallinan (2000), functionalists assume that schools automatically respond to societyÊs needs whereas according to the network theory, such responsiveness is not automatic as it requires enabling mechanisms, that is, the social relationships that convey information and the social contacts that often provide a platform to convey appropriate information. The network theory focuses on the problematics of information where employers need to learn about job applicants, and they do not trust much of the information that they receive (Miller & Rosenbaum, 1997 as cited in Hallinan, 2000). From the perspective of the network theory, two issues can be argued: First, how can youths with poor contacts convey their values to employers? These job-seeking youths, are mostly from low income families and do not have updated information about work; they also do not have good contacts with people who make hiring decisions. Second, how can youths with poor academic achievements signal positive value to employers? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
174 TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK According to Murnane, Willet and Boudett (1995) as cited in Hallinan ( 2000), generally, the youths who seek full-time employment after high school do not perform well in school and lack basic literacy skills. So how can such youths get positive signals of their value in seeking for jobs? From the perspective of the human capital theory, schools respond to the job market needs by developing studentsÊ productive capabilities (Hallinan, 2000). Further elaboration by Hallinan (2000) revealed that youths who failed to get a degree will enter the job market with the same educational credentials as students who were „work bound‰ in high school but without the vocational preparation that many of the students received. In this way, schools develop studentsÊ human capital to become productive members of society, in order to respond to the demand of the job market (Bowles & Gintis, 1976 as cited in Hallinan, 2000). Yates (2005) in her longitudinal study found that college graduates have more knowledge of specific skills and are well-informed of jobs, as compared to high school graduates who have limited knowledge of job opportunities in the relevant discipline. These students are also at a disadvantage as they lack the general and job specific skills to fit into the workforce. Indirectly, these drawbacks will discourage them to look for jobs. Similarly, Borman (1991) as well as Rosenbaum and Kariya (1989) as cited in Hallinan (2000), noted that high school graduates have great difficulty entering the job market. The youthsÊ unemployment, job instability and low pay are usually blamed for the youthsÊ deficiencies, coupled with the job market rigidities and lack of contact with people with jobs, especially good jobs (Wilson, 1996 as cited in Hallinan, 2000). From the literature cited, it is obvious that the potential youths lack work knowledge and skills upon entering the job market. Schools play an instrumental role in preparing young people to make the transition from school to the workplace. ACTIVITY 9.3 Debate the following topic: „Do schools prepare students for transition to work in your country?‰ Share your findings in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
A go The socie Scho capab Some stude Yout socia Prep curri Trad wher secon Formal Role of Role of School t Feinberg Co Hallinan Spr ood education long transiti ety are some o ols respond bilities. e sociologists ents to becom th who enter alisation that t aration for th iculums. ditionally, voc reas the acad ndary or terti curriculum high school school to work trans g, W., & Soltis ollege Press. n, M. T. (2000 ringer Science TOPIC 9 n is essential t ion from sch of the factors to job mark feel that scho me capable ad r the workfor takes place th he workforce cational edu demic or mo ary education sition s, J. F. ( 2004) 0). Handbook e and Busines TRANSITION o enable an in hool to work hindering a s ket needs by ools have not ults ready for rce must also here. e takes place cation prepa ore formal ed n. Soc Vo Wo Yo ). School and k of the sociol ss Media. FROM SCHOO ndividual to e k, and rapid smooth schoo developing t provided all r the workfor o be prepare via the acad ares students ducation prep cialisation in ocational curri orkforce oung people a d society. New logy of educa OL TO WORK enter the wor changes in l to work tran studentsÊ pro l the opportun ce. ed for the pr demic and vo s for the job pares them f the workplac iculum and schooling w York, NY: T ation. New Yo 175 rkforce. modern nsition. oductive nities for rocess of ocational b market for postce g Teachers ork, NY: Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
176 TOPIC 9 TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK Hoffman, N. (2011). Schooling in the workplace. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing Group. Levine, D. U., & Havighurst, R. J. (1992). Society and education (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Yates, J. A. ( 2005). The transition from school to work: Education and work experiences. Monthly Labor Review (128)2, 21ă32. Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): Youth Employment: Youth Perspectives On The Pursuit Of Decent Work In Changing Times. United Nations World Youth Report ( n. d). Available at UNWorldYouthReport.org. Published By The United Nations Department of Public Information. Arnoät Vesel. (2012). Education and the Reproduction of Inequalities, Sociological Landscape - Theories, Realities and Trends, Dr. Dennis Erasga (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0460-5, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/ books/sociological-landscape-theories-realities-and-trends/education-andthereproduction-of-inequalities Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
MODULE FEEDBACK MAKLUM BALAS MODUL If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to: 1. E-mail your comment or feedback to [email protected] OR 2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE. Thank you. Centre for Instructional Design and Technology (Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi ) Tel No.: 03-27732578 Fax No.: 03-26978702 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)