HMEF5143 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

86 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL community gatherings, parties, athletic meets, malls or places where they work (Tozer, Senese, and Violas, 2006; Sergiovanni, Burlingame, and Coombs et al., 1992). The characteristics of the student subculture that we have been talking about reflect the informal aspects of student roles. You must keep in mind that expectations for student roles in schools include the formal and informal aspects of student culture. Student culture is an accumulation of different sets of values, beliefs, experiences and influences. Is it important for teachers to know what factors influence student culture? Yes, it is important because it provides educators with information about how studentsÊ languages, values, perceptions of self and others including issues related to gender, behaviours in different situations and attitude toward adults are formed. Failure to recognise these factors that make up student culture can lead to failure to understand students and their individualism (Tozer, Senese, and Violas, 2006). Although students form the majority in a school, hierarchically, they are at the lowest rung of the ladder in terms of the role they play and their position within the power structure of the school. Most schools do not engage students in school governance or other school processes. In fact, schools tend to make a distinction between „us‰ that refers to the school administrators and teachers and „them‰ that refers to the students who need to be managed whenever school processes are discussed. 5.1.3 The School-Student Relationship: Is It in a Constant State of Conflict? The informal student culture and the formal structure of the school are constantly competing for power and control because the school represents a well-organised and defined structure with a clear hierarchy and specific sets of rules and regulations (Feinberg and Soltis, 2004). Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel (1994) go one step further by stating that „the adult culture of the teachers and administrators is in conflict with the student culture. This conflict can lead to alienation and even violence.‰ Do you recall any tension between students and teachers when you were a student in school? What do you think causes this divide between the two groups of individuals who constitute what a school is all about? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 87 We must understand that the norms of student culture which is informal and the norms of adult culture may contradict one another. In school, for instance, students may not agree with their teachersÊ classroom management style and teachers may pressure students with their own expectations about the role and the appropriate behaviour of students when they are in the classroom (Sergiovanni, Burlingame, Coombs et al. (1992). Regardless of what is said, the student culture plays a pivotal role in studentsÊ school lives because it spells out acceptable behaviours and norms for peer survival. Students need to conform to the norms and behaviour rules of different peer groups, based on their own views on the purpose of schooling. For instance, students who are concerned about their learning and achievement may support groups that are motivated by school success, whereas peer groups that lean toward social activities will attract students with similar interests. The danger would be peer groups that conform to principles of delinquent activities (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Chen (1997) as cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) concluded that students who have friends who care about learning enjoy better educational outcomes compared to those whose friends are indifferent to learning. In fact, the act of selecting friends is a cultural process which indicates studentsÊ self-concepts and where they think they stand in society or in school processes, especially in terms of school practices such as tracking. Corsaro (1994) as cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), concedes that friendship patterns are a part of the process of class reproduction. 5.1.4 Learning the Student Role We have already established the fact that student culture is an important component in studentsÊ educational experiences because it is the culture that dictates the role that students play in school. The role that students play, in turn, determines their success in school. We also know from our discussions in the previous topics that student subculture comprises informal norms and values which are not formally taught in the classroom but transmitted from one generation of students to the next. So, your next question would obviously be: „How do students figure out what the accepted norms and behaviour are?‰ How did you learn about your own student subculture and your role in school? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

88 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL When students first enter school or a new classroom, they instinctively want to be accepted by their peers. They worry about making mistakes in front of their peers or being alienated for not learning or conforming to their role expectations. In reality, studentsÊ role learnings are closely related to the social control function of education ă learning how to adjust and adapt, taking orders and learning to obey (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Sergiovanni, Burlingame and Coombs et al., 1992). They catch on very early that being a good student translates into following the schoolÊs rules and routines and these early experiences have a lasting impression on students and their overall attitudes toward schooling (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). 5.1.5 Student Coping Mechanism Sometimes, when you relate your student life to someone elseÊs or if you are going through your school yearbook, do you describe your schoolmates by using these phrases: (a) „He used to play tricks on the teachers‰; (b) „He was the class clown ⁄‰; (c) „She was the leader of the most popular group in school‰; or (d) „He spent more time in the principalÊs office than in the classroom?‰ You may not have realised this at the time, but these roles that you remember them by were actually coping mechanisms used by the students to get through the different layers of the school system. The roles, however, need to be adapted according to the needs and demands of situations that arise. This is beautifully explained by Waller (1965) as cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) in the following manner: ⁄ the leader may remain a leader, but he must adapt his leadership to the usually superior force of the teacher, which he may do through alliance, opposition, rivalry, or other means. The clown is still a clown, but his buffoonery must be disguised, it may become covert, or it may adopt a mien of innocence and pose as blundering stupidity. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 89 Reports based on numerous classroom observations also disclose the fact that the status of students in the classroom can affect the behaviour of other students in the classroom. For instance, students who are popular among their peers can positively or negatively influence the behaviours of other students. Likewise, students who are alienated from the classroom can display demeaning behaviours to undermine the teaching process by day dreaming, acting bored or cheating in exams (Jackson, 1968 as cited in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Some students respond to unfavourable classroom settings by becoming indifferent to the classroom, especially if they feel that they are at risk of losing their self-worth. It is their way of protecting themselves from failure and competition where they are certain they cannot win. These students also shun activities which they believe will not bring them any success and in some cases may cease altogether to put in any effort. Figure 5.1: Is this one of the coping mechanisms? Source: https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

90 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL SCHOOL FAILURES AND DROPOUTS According to Abraham Maslow, who developed the theory of basic human needs, human beings are motivated by a number of basic needs which are prioritised according to importance and necessity (see Figure 5.2). Figure 5.2: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs Source: Maslow (1954) In simple terms, MaslowÊs theory of learning posits that basic human needs need to be realised first before individuals can gain higher order skills. In other words, for effective learning to take place, studentsÊ basic needs must be satisfied first. The question is, „What happens to students whose basic needs are not met?‰ Unfortunately, students whose basic needs are not met are most likely to face difficulties in school which affect their learning and achievement. These children may eventually drop out of the education system before they even acquire basic competencies and life skills. In the next few subtopics, we will take a closer look at some of the problems faced by children who do not complete the school cycle. 5.2 ACTIVITY 5.2 Do you think schools have the capacity to deal effectively with violent or potentially violent students? Discuss with your coursemates in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 91 5.2.1 School Dropouts: Understanding the Phenomenon School dropouts are students who enrol in school (primary or secondary) but do not complete the entire school cycle. These may be children who participate in the education system but fail to learn, are enrolled for several years but fail to progress and eventually exit the school system (UNESCO, 2015). Consequently, their future opportunities are limited compared to students who complete the primary and secondary school cycles. School dropout is one of the critical issues in education today. In fact, some researchers refer to it as a silent epidemic that needs to be addressed immediately. By end of 2015, it is estimated that about 100 million children or one in six children in low and middle income countries would not even have completed complete primary education. In 32 countries around the world, mostly sub-Saharan African nations, at least 20 per cent of children enrolled in school are not expected to reach the last grade (UNESCO, 2015). These are alarming figures and reflect the seriousness of the dropout problem faced by the world community. According to Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): Those more likely to underperform or leave school without qualification are most often from poor or immigrant families or have poorly educated parents. They are also more likely to attend schools with fewer resources, and their parents generally cannot afford private tutoring. OECD (2012) Students most likely to drop out of school are students who are identified as disadvantaged (UNESCO, 2015; UNESCO Institute for Statistics and EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2015; Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). They include: (a) Children from poverty stricken homes with work obligations; (b) Children who perform poorly in school and lose interest in learning; (c) Children who face discrimination and marginalisation; (d) Children from families with low educational attainment; (e) Girls who enter into early marriage; (f) Religious or linguistic minorities; (g) Children with learning disabilities; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

92 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL (h) Children with low self-concept; and (i) Children affected by armed conflict. 5.2.2 Why Do Students Drop Out? Ballantine and Hammack (2013) describe dropping out as „a process of progressive academic disengagement that often traces back to childrenÊs earliest experiences in school.‰ This is a rather interesting notion, isnÊt it? It draws upon the numerous studies that highlight the importance of early childhood education because of its far reaching consequences. These experiences are an accumulation of events since the day children were enrolled in school (Alexander, Entwisle and Kabbani, 2001). So, what can you conclude from these findings? Yes, students who have had constructive schooling experiences tend to stay in school and complete their schooling with relatively higher rates of success compared to students who have encountered problems in school. It is the latter group of students who disengage themselves from the school system due to frustrations and consistently low academic achievement. Students also tend to drop out if they face difficulties in coping with formal education systems, defined by compulsory and rigid rules and regulations that do not make any allowances for student misconduct or students who do not conform to the role expectations of the school. Such students drop out when they reach the legal age to enter the workforce. Adolescent and youth problems also contribute toward factors related to school dropouts. Students who indulge in these activities are more likely to go against the adult culture in schools. They become alienated from the popular school culture, disinterested in learning and are more likely to face disciplinary problems in school. According to Ornstein and Levine (2006), these problems can be summarised as follows: (a) Drugs and drinking; (b) Teenage pregnancy; and (c) Delinquency and violence. Students who are involved in the above activities are also less likely to leave behind aspects of the larger culture they come from when they enter school. As a result, there will be more incidences of anti-social behaviours within the school grounds which also lead to studentsÊ disaffections from school (Ornstein and Levine, 2006). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 93 Sometimes, students drop out of school simply because there are employment opportunities which actually create conflicting expectations. It is quite common to find adolescent students working in fast food restaurants, cafes or in other positions in the evenings or during weekends. While it cannot be denied that work experience is important training for adult roles, the fact remains that work takes valuable time from studies and other school-related activities. It also has a detrimental effect on remaining in school. Studies show that dropping out of school is closely related to the number of hours that students work (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). According to Bridgeland, Dilulio and Morison (2006), a survey of high school dropouts in Washington D.C. revealed that students dropped out of school for various reasons including the following: (a) A lack of connection to the school environment; (b) The perception that school is boring; (c) Feeling unmotivated; (d) Academic challenges; and (e) The weight of real world events. Do you think the reasons reported in this survey are relevant to school dropouts in other countries around the world? Do you think these reasons are universal? ACTIVITY 5.3 Source: https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com Read the comic strip. Do you think Calvin is a potential school dropout? Why do you say so? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

94 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 5.2.3 How Can We Prevent Students from Dropping Out? Our earlier discussions point to the fact that most students who are at risk of dropping out come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Helping disadvantaged children to adapt to the school culture and to cope with the demands of school is one way to reduce school failure and dropout rates. In its report on bringing support to disadvantaged students and schools, OECD (2012) outlines five recommendations for improving equity in education systems to help disadvantaged students. It would be worthwhile to note that some of these strategies have already been mentioned by writers such as Ballantine and Hammack (2013) and Ornstein and Levine (2006). OECD recommends that education systems: (a) Eliminate the practice of grade repetition which is costly and ineffective, with limited short-term academic benefits; (b) Stop early tracking of students which could hurt students who have been moved down the track without providing opportunities for them to improve their performance; (c) Eliminate segregation by managing parental school choice which has increased in more than two-thirds of OECD countries in the past 25 years. One way is to encourage the best schools to accept disadvantaged students by offering them financial incentives; (d) Allocate funding according to student needs, and increase investment in early education; and (e) Encourage at-risk students to complete their education by improving the quality of secondary level technical and vocational education and training. This includes creating alternative non-academic pathways which are equivalent to that of mainstream education. Besides these recommendations, schools also need to re-think their policies and strategies to deal with students who are disruptive or troublesome. Most schools have written policies on suspending students who are problematic, who, in most occasions are already at-risk students. What do you think suspension does to these students? It is a short-term remedy that causes stigmatisation but may cause long-term problems such as increased dropout rates because these students fail to keep up with class work. This strategy also ignores the root cause of problems and leads to aggressive student behaviour. The irony of the whole matter is the fact that the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 95 students who are displaced from the school system are the very students who are most in need of a good education, caring school environment and positive peer influence (Hudley et al., 1998 as cited in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). The best approach to reduce school dropouts is early detection of at-risk students and early intervention programmes to address issues related to these students in order to reduce factors that cause apathy and alienation, and increase their chances to acquire good quality education. If all else fails and students do drop out of the education system, measures can be taken to provide programmes that could help them to complete their secondary level education outside the regular school system. This is really important because most school dropouts face a bleak future as they may fail to secure permanent employment. They lack employability, they are low on life skills and they are potentially more likely to be involved in unlawful activities (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). STUDENTS AND THE INFORMAL SYSTEM We started off this topic by discussing the student role in education. We came to the conclusion that students play a pivotal role in the school system which, in turn, affects their learning outcomes. The effectiveness of the student role depends very much on their perceptions of their own ability and potential to succeed. In the following subtopics, we will explore the underlying factors which influences studentsÊ academic successes and their overall school experiences. 5.3.1 Factors that Influence Students’ Academic Performance Let us now look at some of the factors that usually affect studentsÊ academic performances. (a) StudentÊs Self-concept Studies show that studentÊs self-concept and perception of their own academic ability influences their actual academic performance. Are you surprised by this? Would you attribute your academic success to your belief in your own capacity to succeed? 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

96 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL Our self-assessment is based on the conditioning and labelling that we have been exposed to. If students have been conditioned to believe in themselves and their capacity to succeed, they will possess high achievement expectations and vice versa. StudentsÊ academic self-concepts are influenced by factors such as the schoolÊs overall culture, the value climate, peer group relationships and the studentsÊ personal backgrounds (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). (b) School Value Climate How does the school climate affect student achievement? Roger Barker (1968) as cited in Owens (2001) reported that, „environments have great influence in evoking and shaping the patterns of behaviour of the people in them.‰ On this note, we can say that the school environment has a great impact on student development and their level of achievement. Academically-oriented schools, for instance, are known to produce higher levels of student achievement (Sadovnik, Cookson & Semel, 1994). One of the variables in the school environment is the school climate. Organisational climate, according to Owens (2001),„is the study of perceptions that individuals have of various aspects of the environment in the organisation.‰ In the context of a school, these individuals refer to the students, teachers and the principal. The school climate, though intangible, influences the way students and teachers perceive events that take place in a school and make sense of those events. Research on student achievement also reveals that school characteristics such as academic emphasis, teacher quality, conducive learning conditions, appropriate rewards and incentives, all of which make up the school climate, were among factors that affected student achievement. According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), these factors, when combined together create a particular set of values, norms, attitudes and behaviours which create the school value climate which eventually influences the outcomes of the school. This is why most schools encourage teachers to set high academic standards for their students and create meaningful learning experiences in the classroom. This will also encourage parents to set higher standards of achievement for their children. Basically, most students will conform to the academic norms of the school. However, students who are unable to meet these standards will be the victims who fall out of the school system. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 97 (c) Teacher and Student Expectations Do you remember our earlier discussions in the earlier topics about the different theoretical perspectives in the sociology of education? You may want to refer back to Topics 1 and 2 for a quick review. One of the perspectives we discussed was symbolic interactionism which is based on the assumption that individualsÊ self-concepts are the result of interpreting othersÊ symbolic gestures, words and actions during social interactions. According to this perspective, interactions between teachers and students should be beneficial to both parties. How? By allowing teachers and students to each develop a set of expectations for academic and nonacademic performance. Interaction theorists also contend that a teacherÊs expectations of a studentÊs achievement influence the actual performance of that student. So, what happens when the teacherÊs expectations are low? Students either look for other sources for more positive reinforcement or accept the teacherÊs expectations as being true. Unfortunately, the latter can cause students to perform below their actual potential. (d) Peer Groups and Student Culture In the earlier subtopics, we talked about the student subculture, how it is formed and how it affects student roles in school. We also discussed how peer pressure can influence students to embrace particular subcultures in school. You may also want to revisit Topic 4 where we discussed at length about the schoolÊs role in the process of socialisation and the development of role identities. Based on your previous readings, you would have been able to conclude that the student subculture plays a vital role in determining what goes on in a school. Why? This is because student behaviours are influenced by group norms which are „rules of behaviour which have been accepted as legitimate by members of a group‰ (Haire, n.d. as cited in Owens, 2001). Peer groups in school are known to exert pressure on individual students to conform to group norms and these pressures can manifest themselves as an obligation to behave in certain ways. The interaction between students and peer groups goes beyond observable behaviour. In the words of Owens (2001), „it strongly influences the development of perceptions, values, and attitudes.‰ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

98 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL School practices such as streaming or tracking students according to their ability can cause polarisation which reinforces the influence of student subcultures and peer group pressures because this practice inadvertently also reinforces social class differences among students. Consequently, evidence points to the fact that the influence of peer groups is becoming more prominent in many countries, as the influence of the family is slowly heading towards a downward trend, especially in urban areas and inner cities (Ornstein and Levine 2006; Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel, 1994). One way for schools to balance the effects of peer groups is by reconnecting with families and the community to reinforce the role of the home as a socialising agent. This is because peer culture has the tendency to work against academic goals of the school (Ornstein and Levine, 2006). Some educators suggest the use of cooperative learning to enhance studentsÊ interactions with their peers and hone their interpersonal skills; they assign them responsibilities for the welfare of their peers and encourage interaction between senior and junior students. It is hoped that these measures would help to counteract peer group pressures that lead to antisocial behaviour. 5.3.2 Student Coping Strategies Earlier on in this topic, we discussed student coping mechanisms in school. Our focus was on the various strategies used by students to get through the different levels of schooling. Can you recall some of them? In this subtopic, we will be looking at tactics used by students to adapt to the power structure of school culture. These strategies are important elements of the informal system. ACTIVITY 5.4 What were your coping strategies when you were a student? Did you consciously develop these strategies? Share your experiences with your coursemates in the oneline forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 99 How do students develop these strategies? It is developed based on their own needs, their personal schooling experiences, self-concept, peer group relations, ability grouping and other related factors (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). From the onset of schooling, students start to learn strategies to cope with the world of the school and the world of the classroom, which are very different from the world of the home. What are some of these strategies? Let us read on to find out what they are. Educators and researchers have developed many models to explain studentsÊ strategies to cope with schooling. The underlying principle in most explanations is the interactionist theoretical approach which suggests that individuals construct their realities within the context of the environment they are in and behave accordingly. The interactionist perspective views the development of coping strategies as an accommodation or bargain by which students are expected to understand the teachersÊ roles and needs and at the same time try to maximise their own interests. Students will either choose to comply with the teachersÊ goals or ignore them altogether. These negotiations, whether between individual students, teachers and individual students, or teachers and the class as a group, can be ongoing or constantly undergo changes (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Ornstein and Levine, 2006). There are different explanations for studentsÊ coping strategies in school. For the purpose of our discussion, we will focus on Robert MertonÊs (1957) typology of studentsÊ reactions to school goals and the means used by schools to achieve their goals. According to Merton, cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), there are two possible reactions by students to school goals: acceptance or rejection. This reaction is indicated by MertonÊs four typologies: (a) Conformity: acceptance of goals and means; (b) Retreatism: rejection of goals and means; (c) Ambivalence: indifference; and (d) Rejection with replacement: something else in mind. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

100 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL Peter Woods (1980) who tested MertonÊs goals-means typology later added the following categories to the typology: (a) Colonisation: partial acceptance of school goals and means; (b) Indulgence: strong response to goals and means; (c) Conformity: (i) Compliance ă some affinity for and compliance with school goals (ii) Ingratiation ă maximise benefits by conforming to those with power (iii) Opportunism ă fluctuations of behaviour (d) Intransigence: indifferent to school goals and reject means ă disruptive behaviour; and (e) Rebellion: rejection of school goals and means and substitute with others. College students develop different sets of coping strategies in response to the demands of the college settings. Most of their strategies lean towards the work they have to complete in each class. Some college students resort to mastering the „hidden curriculum‰, which we will discuss in the next topic, as a coping strategy. Miller and Parlett (1976) as cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013) introduced the concept of „cue-consciousness‰ by referring to three types of students: (a) Cue-conscious ă rely on hard work and luck; pick up less cues; (b) Cue-seekers ă learn selectively; actively seek cues; and (c) Cue-deaf ă fail to pick up any clues; try to learn everything. Which category do you fall into? Student coping strategies produce different individual roles and labels for students. Once a student is labelled, for instance as rebels, troublemakers, sleepers, or dumb, the studentÊs behaviour may begin to comply more and more with the label given, hence adhering to the self-fulfilling prophecy (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Ornstein and Levine, 2006). Therefore, it is important for educators to exercise caution when evaluating studentsÊ strategies by understanding the entire context of the studentsÊ learning environment, including the power structures, and the goals and means of the school. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 101 STUDENTS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS When we say student environment, what are we really referring to? Environment here refers to external influences that affect the student role in school. In other words, these influences are beyond the control of the school because they are present outside the school but have a significant effect on educational achievements. What are these influences? There are three major influences which are the home environment, family background and social class background. Now, let us read more on how these influences affect students educational achievements. The Home Environment and Educational Achievement Family background plays a significant role in determining childrenÊs status in school and society because it is the earliest agent of socialisation and transmission of culture to children. Studies conducted by Coleman (1966) and Jencks (1972) provide evidence that between half and two thirds of studentsÊ achievement differences is directly linked to home factors such as socioeconomic level, and family processes. For more information on these studies, you may read more in Greenwood and Hickman ((1991)) and Dornbusch and Ritter ((1992). The organisation of schools and the constructs used such as the language of instruction are more familiar to middle- and upper-class students who are also supported by a home environment that imparts the values, attitudes and opportunities for cognitive development that will help them to adapt to the demands of formal education. That is why the early home learning environment is important as 80 per cent of our potential is developed by age eight (Bloom, 1981). Many children do well in school because their family environment has prepared them well to succeed in the traditional classroom. Other children perform poorly because they have been poorly prepared. It may not be the fault of the family because the methods parents use to motivate and encourage their children differ according to the parentsÊ social backgrounds. 5.4 ACTIVITY 5.5 Do you believe that you are a product of your environment? Discuss with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

102 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL Working class parents, for instance, expect their children to conform to the school authority whereas middle class parents may focus on independence and selfdirection (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Ornstein and Levine, 2006). Above all, if these students perform badly in school, it means the school has failed to help disadvantaged children to overcome their shortcomings. Now that you have some idea about how the family can generally affect studentsÊ performances in school, let us explore further into the family unit to learn how specific factors such as parenting styles, the role of mothers, family aspirations, family households, and family size can affect learning and achievement in school (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Ornstein and Levine, 2006). Parenting Styles Student achievement can also be affected by parenting styles. Authoritarian and overprotective parenting styles can have adverse effects on studentsÊ achievements whereas an authoritative style is positively related to achievement. ParentsÊ interaction styles can also affect the childrenÊs achievements. Interaction of middle-class parents with their children is usually based on reasoning and negotiating with the child about activities and accepted behaviours. Working class parents rely on the natural growth approach to child rearing. This means they provide little parental direction and use directive language rather than resorting to negotiate and reason with their children. The Role of Mothers Mothers who are not actively involved in their childrenÊs education also increase the probability of their children dropping out of school because these children are usually left to make their own educational plans and decisions which may not benefit them. In short, the involvement of mothers in their childrenÊs education has a great impact on their academic performance. Mothers who are more educated also positively affect their childrenÊs educational attainment. Family Aspirations Parents who set high standards and have high aspirations for their children increase the possibility for their children to succeed in school. The impact of the home environment and family aspiration is greater than the effects of school programmes in increasing student achievements. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 103 Family Size In family size, number of siblings and if a family is raised by a single parent can affect studentsÊ performances. (a) The Number of Siblings Studies show that children who come from smaller families have increased opportunities for greater intellectual and educational advantages. This is because „the more siblings in a family, the more diluted the parentsÊ attention and material resources and the lower the achievement (Blake, 1991; Hanushek, 1992 as cited in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). (b) Single-parent Families Studies show that students from single-parent homes perform relatively lower than students from two-parent households because many researchers link poverty rates among children and youth with high numbers of singleparent homes. The findings of these studies are also influenced by other factors such as race or ethnicity of the family, educational level and low parental involvement due to the absence of one of the parents. As a result, children from such homes tend to disengage from school by being late or absent from school, ignore their homework and involve themselves in antisocial behaviours. However, single parents who are involved in their childrenÊs education can address these issues and help their children to succeed in school. SELF-CHECK 5.1 1. Do you agree that studentsÊ characteristics and the organisation of the school they attend are powerful predictors of their academic success? 2. Explain why the school system is able to help some students to succeed while others experience failure and disengage from school. 3. Explain the influence of student culture on their achievement in school. 4. Discuss the effects of studentsÊ environments on their achievements. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

104 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL Students are characterised by their distinctive personality traits, backgrounds and motivations. Individual differences must be given consideration by educators to ensure equal educational opportunities for all children. Students are assigned formal roles according to the grade they are at and the academic positions they hold. The teaching and learning process is based on mutually agreed upon expectations between teachers and students. Students in the 21st century have more challenging roles to play. Student culture is an important variable that determines the student role. The characteristics of the student culture reflect the informal role of students. Expectations for the student role is based on the formal and informal aspects of student culture. The informal student culture and the formal structure of the school are constantly competing for power and control. The student role is learned from the moment students start their schooling. Students develop their own coping mechanism to cope with the demands of school life. Students who fail to cope with the demands of the school are at risk of failing or dropping out. School dropout, which is a critical issue in education today, is sometimes linked to the studentsÊ early school experiences. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds have a higher likelihood of dropping out of school. Adolescent and youth problems can also cause students to drop out of school. Adolescent employment opportunities is another reason for student dropout. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Stud prog Stud conce peer Stud of the Stud envir aspir envir Formal Peer gro School c School School f Self-con Alexand in Co Co Allen, J. stra Ballantin sys ent drop out grammes. entsÊ academ ept, school v group and st ents resort to e school cultu entsÊ educat ronment whi rations, famil ronments hav student role oup culture dropout failure ncept der, K. L., En life course pe ollege Record, ontent.asp?Co D. (1986). C ategies. Amer ne, J. H., & stematic analy TOPIC 5 t and failure mic performan value climate tudent culture o various cop ure. tional achiev ich includes ly size and f ve better chan ntwisle, D. R. erspective: Ea d, 103(5), 760ă8 ontentID=1082 Classroom ma erican Educati Hammack, F lysis. Upper Sa STUDENTS: T rates can be nce is also in , teacher and e. ing strategies vement is a parenting st family compo nces of succee Stu Stu Stu Stu Stu Stu ., & Kabbani arly risk facto 822. Retrieved 25 anagement: S ional Research F. M. (2013) addle River, N HE CORE OF T e reduced wi nfluenced by d student exp s to deal with also determin yles, the role osition. Stude eding in schoo udent coping udent coping udent culture udent environ udent role udent role exp i, N. (2001). T ors at home d from http:/ StudentsÊ per h Journal, 23 . The sociolo NJ: Pearson P HE SCHOOL ith early inte factors such pectations as h the power s ned by thei e of mothers ents from fav ol. mechanism strategy nment pectations The dropout and school. T //www.tcreco rspectives, go 3(3), 437ă459. logy of educa Prentice Hall. 105 rvention h as selfs well as structure ir home s, family vourable t process Teachers ord.org/ oals, and cation: A Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

106 TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL Blair, N. (2012). Technology integration for the „new‰ 21st century learner. Principal, 9(3), 8ă11. Bloom, A. H. (1981). The linguistic shaping of thought: A study on the impact of language on thinking in China and the West. New York, NY: Psychology Press. Bridgeland, J. M., Dilulio, J. J., & Morison, K. B. (2006). The silent epidemic: Perspectives of high school dropouts. Retrieved from: http://www.civicenterprises.net/pdfs/thesilentepidemic3-06.pdf. Canaan, J. (1987). A comparative analysis of American suburban middle class, middle school and high school teenage cliques. In G. Spindler & L. Spindler (Eds.), Interpretive ethnography of education journal: At home and abroad (pp. 385ă406). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Coleman, J. S. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics (DHEW/OE). Dornbusch, S. M., & Ritter, P. L. (1992). Home-school processes in diverse ethnic groups, social classes, and family structures. ln S. L. Christenson & J. C. Conoley (Eds.), Homeschool collaboration: Enhancing children's academic and social competence (pp. 111ă124). Maryland, MD: The National Association of School Psychologists. Greenwood, G. E., & Hickman, C. W. (1991). Research and Practice in Parent Involvement: Implications for Teacher Education. Elementary school journal, 91(3), 279ă288. Jencks, C. (1972). Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America. New York, NY: Basic Books Inc. Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. Merton, R. K. (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. OECD. (2012). Equity and quality in education: Supporting disadvantaged students and schools. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/ 9789264130852-en Ornstein, A. C., & Levine, D. U. (2006). Foundations of education (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 STUDENTS: THE CORE OF THE SCHOOL 107 Owens, R. G. (2001). Organisational behavior in education (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Sadovnik, A. R., Cookson, P.W., & Semel, S. F. (1994). Exploring education: An introduction to the foundations of education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Feinberg, W., & Soltis, J. F. (2004). School and society. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Sergiovanni, T. J., Burlingame, M., Coombs, F. S., & Thurston, P. W. (1992). Educational governance and administration. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Tozer, S. E., Senese, G., & Violas, P. C. (2006). School and society: Historical and contemporary perspectives (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. UNESCO. (2015). Education for all global monitoring report: Achievements and challenges. Paris, France: UNESCO Publishing. UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) and the EFA Global Monitoring Report. (2015). Policy Paper 22/Fact sheet 31. A Growing Number of Children and Adolescents are out of School as Aid Fails to Meet the Mark. Woods, P. (1980). Teacher strategies: Explorations in the sociology of the school. Kent, England: Croom Helm. Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): High Expectations and Student Success. Prepared for Springfield R-XII Public Schools. Hanover Research, November 2012. Rumberger, R. & Sun Ah Lim. (2008). Why Students Drop Out of School: A Review of 25 Years of Research. Policy Brief 15. California Dropout Research Project. October 2008. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

INTRODUCTION In the previous topics we discussed the formal school processes, the student role, and the external and internal factors that shape studentsÊ learning experiences. We established the fact that the school plays a critical role in moulding individuals to play their roles in society. In this topic, we will still be talking about the school processes, but this time we will focus on the informal school processes and how they affect studentsÊ experiences in school. In other words, we will be exploring the school system to find out what really happens in schools. Topic 6 The Informal System and the Hidden Curriculum LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify variables in the informal education system that affect studentsÊ school experiences and academic achievements; 2. Define ‰educational climate‰ and explain its effects on school effectiveness; 3. Identify the power dynamics in the informal system and its effects in social interaction and the relationship of participants; and 4. Explain disciplinary problems in schools using some of the theories in the study of disaffection from school. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 109 THE OPEN SYSTEMS APPROACH AND THE INFORMAL CURRICULUM There is a famous saying that goes like this: „We donÊt know who discovered water, but weÊre pretty sure it wasnÊt a fish.‰ No one knows who actually created this analogy but people like Marshall McLuhan, Albert Einstein, Pierce Butler, James C. Coleman, John H. Fisher and John Culkin have all used different versions of it in their writings and presentations. What do you think it means? How can we relate this to what we are going to be discussing in this topic? We have spent most of our childhood and teen years in school. We were totally immersed in our school life; worrying about exams, grades, homework, assignments, competitions, peer pressure, parental expectations and teacher expectations. Our notions about school were formed by our teachers, the classroom atmosphere, internal and external events that affected the school and our very own perceptions and interpretations. In all the time that we were in school, did we really give much thought to any of these matters? Just as fish are oblivious to the fact that they are surrounded by water, we too were oblivious to our surroundings, to the cultural elements that were shaping our beliefs, behaviours and attitudes about school, and to the strategies that we and our teachers adopted to cope with school life. In other words, we were extremely aware of the explicit or visible formal school system but we were unaware of the informal system that is a part of every aspect of education but implicit in nature. At this point, you may ask why there is a need for us to understand the informal school system. The explanation is simple: The internal system of the school is made up of a formal part with its designated roles and functions and an informal part. Both these parts interact with one another to form the open system of schools (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). 6.1 ACTIVITY 6.1 ⁄ what is taught in schools is not necessarily equivalent to what is learned in schools. Sadovnik, Cookson, & Semel (1994) Do you agree with the above statement? Discuss with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

110 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM Schools are basically open systems because they constantly interact with their environments. An open system consists of five basic elements: (a) Input; (b) A transformation process; (c) Output; (d) Feedback; and (e) The environment that constantly interacts with one another. In fact, schools need to structure themselves to deal with forces in the world around them (Scott, 2008 as cited in Lunenburg, 2010). Figure 6.1 depicts a model of the open system of schools. Figure 6.1: The open system of schools Source: Ballantine & Hammack (2013) What do you think is the output of a school as an open system? According to Lunenburg (2010), the schoolÊs output into the outside system includes studentsÊ knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes. Feedback functions as a control mechanism that can be used to correct deficiencies in the inputs or the transformation process (interaction between students and teachers), or both. The inputs are utilised to teach students who are then „exported‰ into the outside environment. The interaction between the internal system and the environment will be discussed in Topic 9. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 111 The formal aspects of the internal school system have already been discussed in this module. In order to understand the informal aspects of the internal school system, we will be examining variables such as the hidden curriculum and reproduction theories, educational climate and effective schools, the role of the school as an informal agent of socialisation, power dynamics and teacher strategies. 6.1.1 The Hidden Curriculum Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (2001) attributed the notion of there being a „hidden‰ part to the curriculum to John Dewey when he made reference to „the collateral learning of attitudes by children‰. However, Philip J. Jackson was the first scholar to use the term „hidden curriculum‰ in Life in classrooms (1968) where he attempted to explore the social complexity of classroom life by referring to the unofficial three Rs ă Rules, Routines, and Regulations ă that are embedded in the official curriculum. Many other variations to „hidden‰ curriculum can be found in discussions on the informal system including „unwritten‰, „unstudied‰, „tacit‰, „latent‰, „unnoticed‰, and „paracurriculum‰ (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). What do all these adjectives tell you? Jackson (1968) contended that the core of the hidden curriculum is formed by the following three features of classroom life that students must learn to accept in order to survive: (a) Delays, denials and interruptions caused by the crowded nature of the classroom; ACTIVITY 6.2 The reasons for a learning to be hidden present one problem. Is it hidden intentionally to manipulate and persuade? Is it hidden because no one notices or recognises it? Is it hidden because it has been forgotten or neglected? Is it neglected because the originator has left? Meighan & Siraj-Blatchford, 2001 What do you think of the above statement? Discuss with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

112 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM (b) Conflicting demands of student and adult cultures; and (c) Unequal power relations which gives teachers authority over students. Since then, many other educationists and scholars have attempted to define the hidden curriculum. Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (2001) provide the following working definition: The hidden curriculum can be defined as all the things that are learnt during schooling in addition to the official curriculum. Richard Lavoie (2005) defines hidden curriculum in the following manner: The hidden curriculum ⁄ consists of the unwritten, unspoken rules of school ⁄ its culture that includes shared norms, values, beliefs, traditions, rituals and customs ⁄ In fact, success in the standard curriculum is often secondary to success in the hidden curriculum. Snyder, (1971) as cited in Ballantine and Hammack (2013), refers to the informal system as the: Implicit demands that are found in every learning institution and which students have to find out and respond to in order to survive within it. A more comprehensive definition of the hidden curriculum is provided by Reid (1986) as cited in Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (2001): Curriculum refers to all of the things that are learnt in school. In addition to the „official curriculum‰ this includes the „hidden curriculum‰, a concept that refers to all of those socialising practices that are not included in the official curriculum but that contribute towards the reproduction of our culture. Look at Figure 6.1 again. It clearly indicates that the hidden curriculum is a significant part of the entire school system which can only be understood within the context of the school setting. Now that you have a sound understanding of what constitutes the hidden curriculum, let us move on to the next subtopic where we will talk about some of the elements that create the informal system. So, what exactly is the hidden curriculum? The concept is based on the acknowledgement that students learn and internalise more than the formal course of study, resulting in what we can term as the unintended outcomes of schooling. In some situations, it is the unintended outcomes that play a major role in the lives of children when they become adults. The fact is that as part of Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 113 the lessons learned through the hidden curriculum, students learn how to interact with their teachers and differentiate between the accepted and unaccepted ideas and behaviours in the classroom. In fact, this is a part of student coping strategies in the classroom. 6.1.2 Reproduction Theory and the Informal System The concept of the hidden curriculum was developed within the sociology of education by conflict theorists, although many of those involved in debates on the unwritten or unofficial goals and purposes of school did not use the term ‰hidden curriculum‰ in their writings. Nevertheless, to a conflict theorist, the social control function which underlies the hidden curriculum helps to reproduce studentsÊ social classes (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Bowles and GintisÊ Schooling in capitalist America (1976) is one of the most significant studies on the unwritten functions of school life which serves as a basis for many of the current debates on the hidden curriculum of schools. Bowles and Gintis proposed that „schools reproduce the existing social relations of capitalist society by reproducing the consciousness necessary for such relations‰ (Lynch, 1989). According to them, students from the working class will learn how to deal with boredom in schools which, in turn, prepares them to cope with boredom in their working life (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Furthermore, Bowles and Gintis (1976) also suggest that different levels of schooling „feed workers into different levels within the occupational structure‰ as cited in Lynch (1989). In other words, what these researchers are proposing is that schools play the important function of maintaining the capitalist system because it is where students learn to accept their political and economic system, regardless of their position in the system (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Lynch, 1989). Do you agree with them? Do you recall our discussions on functionalism and Marxism in some of the earlier topics? Remember how both theorists agreed that the hidden curriculum plays an important role in helping schools to indirectly socialise students into the values and norms of modern society? The similarity ends there because there is a crucial difference between the functionalistsÊ and MarxistsÊ views on the matter. Functionalists, based on their assumption that schools create equal opportunity for every child apply the same principle to the concept of hidden curriculum. Marxists, on the other hand, maintain that the impact of the hidden curriculum is different for children from different social classes (Feinberg and Soltis, 2004). You can refer to studies conducted by Jean Anyon (1980) and Jay MacLeod (1995) for more details. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

114 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM You may also find it interesting that the hidden curriculum is sometimes not so ‰hidden‰. If you were to go through your own school report cards, you will find remarks and comments by your class teacher on your attitude and behaviour, along with your academic grades. Some report cards also include assessments of a childÊs work habits, participation in class, communication skills and other nonacademic aspects. This practice suggests that besides academic learning, students are also expected to learn their roles (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). EDUCATIONAL CLIMATE AND SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS If you were to walk into a school in search of the informal aspect of the school system, do you think you will find anything? You may be able to observe some situations or events, such as the school assembly in that particular school, but it would all seem pretty routine to you. Do you know that careful observation of these events and situations can give you a glimpse of the informal system within that school? Surprised? Let us take a look at how this is possible. The social reality of what really happens in schools and the classroom is influenced by the general social condition that influences the individuals in a particular organisation. In short, the unofficial events and the general atmosphere that encompasses the educational setting are, in fact, the climate and culture of the organisation (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). You would have noticed by now that each school has a distinctive, unique, undefinable „feel‰ to it which you will realise is a manifestation of what the school itself stands for. Many words have been used to describe this sense that you get when you are in a particular school: atmosphere; personality; tone; or ethos. Generally, what we are describing are the distinctive characteristics of an organisation or the organisational climate (Owens, 2001). Climate can be broadly defined as „the characteristics of the total environment in a school building‰ (Tagiuri, 1968, as cited in Owens, 2001). It is important for us to understand what these characteristics are because the school climate could affect studentsÊ academic achievements (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Owens, 2001). Some elements of the school climate are easier to understand because they are observable. These include the architecture, classroom settings and the teaching and learning process. Other aspects are not so observable because one has to experience it and these experiences are influenced by the educational climate of the school (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). 6.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 115 6.2.1 The School Climate and Effective School In our previous discussions, we established the fact that each school has its own unique characteristics that set it apart from other schools. It is this uniqueness that gives a school its identity and own climate or ethos. In this subtopic, we will be exploring the school culture and school learning climate. Why do you think we need to talk about the school culture when our focus is clearly on the school climate? School Culture Ellis, Cogan and Howey (1991) contend that „customs, mores, folkways, language, rules and laws are the essence of a culture‰. Is this any different from climate? You may have noticed that culture does not include the physical aspects of schools such as the school buildings and classrooms. However, in order to truly understand what happens in schools, you need to learn its climate and culture. Like climate, culture is also unique to individual schools because it comprises the values, attitudes, beliefs, norms and customs of all individuals who make up the system (Ballantine and Hammack, 2012). What do you think is the function of school culture? Do you believe that school culture has a function in education? It may come as a surprise to you, but school culture actually facilitates the development of a group feeling of loyalty. For instance, every school has its own rituals and events, songs, award ceremonies, school insignia and many other activities which are unique to that particular school (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Ornstein and Levine, 2006). We have already discussed the influence of culture on student achievement in Topic 5. Can you still recall the discussion? Generally, the culture of the school is also influenced by the culture of the students who attend the school because schools are a reflection of the immediate community they serve. Schools also differ in terms of the type of students they serve and also the environment that is created in the school (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Students usually develop their own subculture which is passed on to each new generation that enters the school. In most cases, the student subculture is constantly in conflict with the adult culture represented by the teachers in the school. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

116 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM School Learning Climate Learning climate refers to the behaviour and attitudinal patterns in a school which has an impact on the academic achievement of all students. Basically, a positive learning climate encourages higher academic achievement and the maintenance of order and discipline. Of course, these must be accompanied by a positive home environment and home-school relations (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). You were introduced to the factors that contribute toward student success in school in the previous topic, which include the home environment. You will be reading more of this in Topic 9. Studies conducted by scholars such as Epstein Salinas and Jackson (1995) as well as Phillips, Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, Klebanov, and Crane (1997) point to the fact that family background and parental involvement in childrenÊs learning play important roles in creating a positive learning culture in schools. These variables are also critical in evaluating school effectiveness. We also need to keep in mind that there is a relationship between the overall learning climate of a school and the classroom learning climate. We will look more closely at this relationship in the next subtopic. 6.2.2 Classroom Learning Climate How would you describe a classroom? Would you agree that a classroom is a self-contained system, isolated from society, as suggested by Ballantine and Hammack (2013)? One discussion on classrooms suggests that „classrooms tend to signal social distance and teaching styles which are authoritarian ⁄ learners are dependent on the teacher throughout‰ (Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford, 2001). Ballantine and Hammack (2013), in their writings refer to Jackson (1968) who equated the classroom with a crowd situation ă individuals in close proximity with each other with one figure of authority trying to maintain order by using discipline. These views give the impression that classrooms are rather „hostile‰ places, donÊt they? Are they really? Let us find out. ACTIVITY 6.3 Name some of the „successful‰ schools that you know. Why do you consider these schools successful? What evaluation criteria did you use? Discuss this with your coursemates in the online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 117 The best way to understand a classroom is by examining the classroom learning climate. The learning climate comprises the practices imposed on students in the classroom in order to retain control and discipline. Basically, there is not much variance in terms of the teaching and learning processes that take place in different classrooms. The activities that take place in the classroom follow welldefined rules because the teacher ... ... serves as a combination traffic cop, judge, supply sergeant, and timekeeper ⁄ the class becomes a place where events happen not because students want them to, but because it is time for them to occur. (Gita Kedar-Voivodas, 1983, as cited in Ornstein and Levine, 2006) Children have to learn from a very young age the proper classroom behaviour if they want to survive school life. We have already talked about students and their coping strategies and how their social backgrounds influence learning. Although a set of students may be exposed to a similar classroom environment, their understanding of their classroom experiences can differ in many ways. These experiences are shaped by their interaction patterns with their peers. Teachers play important roles in creating conducive classroom learning climates. Different teaching and learning strategies can be used to facilitate social and personal development of students. As much as classroom climate can motivate students to improve themselves and achieve academic success, it can also produce anti-school feelings, especially in highly competitive and restrictive classrooms (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Classroom Codes: Interaction in the Classroom In the previous topics, we discussed the role of the school as an agent of socialisation because one of the major processes that take place in a school is interaction between students and teachers, and among students. These interactions are based on messages regarding expectations, power relations and attitudes toward others and the entire learning process. Do you know how these messages are passed on? They are passed on through verbal and non-verbal cues. Can you give examples of these cues? Interactions that take place within the classroom are influenced by several factors. Among the important factors are teacher behaviours and teacher classroom management styles. The daily interaction patterns between teachers and students in the classroom will help to develop the atmosphere in the classroom. Although we tend to believe that classroom activities are routine because they take place every day, in reality, whatever happens daily in the classroom is anything but routine. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

118 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM No two classrooms are ever the same. In fact, each encounter with a class of students is a new „adventure‰ because regardless of how experienced or prepared the teacher is, he or she will not be able to predict exactly how the lesson is going to develop in the classroom. When you were a student, did you ever pay attention to the number of interactions that take place in one hour of class time? Would it surprise you to learn that between 300 and 600 interactions take place within one hour class time? This tabulation is based only on verbal communication. We have not even considered the unspoken messages or the nonverbal communication that are transmitted through body language ă gestures, body posture, facial expressions, eye movement and the use of classroom space. In reality, it is the nonverbal communication that we need to pay attention to because more than any spoken word, the silent language speaks volumes about the classroom atmosphere (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Interaction patterns in the classroom have long fascinated sociologists who were particularly concerned about the formal and informal processes that take place in the classroom. Among them is Basil Bernstein who claimed that classroom dynamics can lead to social reproduction of class. This is because every classroom has its own interaction code. The word code refers to a „regulative principle which underlies various message systems, especially curriculum and pedagogy‰ (Bernstein, 1996, as cited in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). What are examples of the codes that Bernstein refers to? They include the following elements, all of which affect student learning (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013): (a) Hierarchy ă interaction between student and teacher; (b) Progression and rate of information transmission; and (c) Criteria ă studentsÊ acceptance of information transmitted. Another aspect of classroom interactions that we need to understand is the power dynamics which basically relates to power and control. Generally, those who control what knowledge needs to be transmitted also control how it is transmitted. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 119 6.2.3 Student Friendship and Interaction Patterns in the Classroom Did you have many friends when you were in school? Was it a natural process or did you have certain criteria for selecting your friends? In our younger days, most of us did not give much thought to the process of making friends. But friends are a crucial part of school life. For sure, some of your fondest memories of school are of your friends and events that involved them. We have already touched on the influence of student friendship patterns in school on their schooling experiences in some of the previous topics. Here, we will look at how classroom conditions can affect these friendship patterns which, in turn, affect how students learn. Generally, classrooms that are open, flexible and adhere to a more democratic style of management facilitate the emotional development of children as opposed to traditional classrooms which tend to be teacher-centred and focus on academic attainment of students. This is because open classrooms encourage more interactions among students and between teachers and students and provide a platform for students to excel at some of the tasks assigned to them (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Friendship patterns are established very early in childrenÊs lives. In fact, they begin in preschool and continue throughout their school life. It is an important process because having friends facilitates socio-economical development and behaviour and is associated with being popular. For older children and adolescents, loyalty and commitment among friends take precedence over everything else. ACTIVITY 6.4 Do you think that placing students in homogeneous groups based on ability is an effective approach for classroom instruction? Discuss with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

120 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM Sociologists agree that children need social peers and close friends to instil a sense of belonging in them. How does having friends affect student learning? When teachers provide classroom conditions that facilitate healthy friendships and relationships, there is a good chance that childrenÊs achievement will improve (Vandell and Hambree, 1994, as cited in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Student friendship and interaction patterns are affected by school policies such as student ability tracking which limits friendship and interaction opportunities and racial interactions, especially in schools where ability groupings tend to be skewed toward racial lines. Teachers also affect student interaction patterns when they manipulate classroom settings to maximise control over students. This is done by regrouping students, rearranging their desks or assigning seats based on ability, gender, or race. What other activities can you think of that can alter student participation in the classroom? Physical Conditions in Classrooms and Schools When we were students, we did not give much thought to the school building and the conditions in the classroom because most of us accepted it as a part of the school system. At that point in time, we were not aware that a relationship exists between the physical environment of the school and student behaviour and overall performance in school. Can you visualise the classrooms that you spent most of your childhood and adolescent years in? The images that may come to your mind are the arrangement of desks and chairs in neat rows, the teacherÊs table right in front of the room where the teacher can have a full view of all the students and students are able to focus on the teacher. Back then, you probably were not aware of the fact that the teacher had a purpose for setting up the classroom in that manner. Can you guess that purpose? Classrooms are physically set up to give teachers maximum control over students and all activities that take place in the classroom. We probably did not realise this but student behaviour patterns and teacher attitudes toward students are affected by the location of their seats. Seating arrangements are especially effective when they match the tasks that are assigned to students. Students sitting in the front row and the centre of the classroom also tend to be more participative in class and regarded more positively by teachers and peers. They also tend to be more interested in lessons and obtain better grades (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 121 The physical conditions of the learning space also make a difference in terms of student learning. Studies indicate that elements such as the thermal environment, lighting, adequate space, equipment and furnishings had significant effects on student performance and achievement, besides factors such as the types of seats, wall colour, noise level inside and outside the classroom and class size which are also believed to affect student learning (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Size of School and Classroom Does size matter? Apparently it does when it comes to schools and the classroom. The assumption is that students learn better in smaller classes because there would be less control issues, more interactions and communication between teachers and students. In fact, schools with smaller student enrolment and smaller classes enjoy more positive classroom climate which makes it conducive for higher student achievement. However, the merits of small classrooms are dependent on the teachersÊ ability to take advantage of the small class sizes to optimise student learning (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Studies also indicate that small schools can enhance student achievement and participation in school activities because they allow for more social equality among students (Griffith, 1995; Lee, 1995 as cited in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). The interaction patterns between teachers and students in small schools are also more informal, resulting in students playing more active roles in the classroom and in school activities. POWER DYNAMICS AND ROLES IN THE INFORMAL SYSTEM When we talk about the classroom, we are not only referring to formal expectations but also to the informal processes that take place in the classroom. Although schools are made up of formal rules and regulations, many of these are informally transmitted through various processes that take place in the school and the classrooms. This informality benefits the school because it reduces the bureaucracy in the classroom and allows students to instinctively integrate school rules into their routine. It benefits the students because they learn to deal with the formal and informal expectations that are present in every organisation. 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

122 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 6.3.1 Theoretical Explanations of Power Dynamics in the Classroom The discussions in this subtopic will be based on theoretical approaches which have already been introduced to you in some of the earlier topics. These approaches are crucial in understanding the power dynamics in the classroom. Let us begin our discussion by examining what the functional theorists have to say about the function of the classroom. The main argument put forth by functional theorists is that students learn their roles in society by accepting adult-enforced rules in the classroom. Functionalists tend to focus on the socialisation function of the classroom (Parsons, 1959 in Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). They also acknowledge the function of selecting and allocating, beginning from primary education and all through the studentsÊ school years. Students who do well in school are those are able to fulfil the achievement and behavioural expectations imposed on them by schools. Conflict theorists, on the other hand, interpret classroom dynamics as a power struggle between the dominant adults and the students who need to be constantly controlled and coerced by using various strategies. In other words, it is a conflict between the adult culture, represented by the school administrators and teachers, and the student subculture. The societal force behind the coercion in classrooms is capitalism which expects schools to produce loyal, disciplined workforce for the betterment of society. That is why schools must always be viewed within the context of the larger society. As such, the internal power structure and the unequal outcomes of schooling are not determined by schools alone. Interactionists view the function of the classroom from a different perspective. They assume that each individual in the classroom has a unique perception of what the classroom stands for and this determines their actions in the classroom. Perceptions are influenced by many factors such as cultural differences and social class. Studies also show that the role students play in school is influenced by their perceptions of their own possibilities for success. 6.3.2 Teacher Strategies and the Informal System Classroom management is the process by which teachers and schools create and maintain appropriate behaviour of students in classroom settings. The purpose of implementing classroom management strategies is to enhance prosocial behaviour and increase student academic engagement (Emmer & Sabornie, 2015; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 123 Everston & Weinstein, 2006 as cited in Kratochwill, DeRoos, and Samantha Blair, 2015.) Teachers use many different management strategies to maintain order in the classroom and these strategies are determined by the teacherÊs own philosophy, the philosophy of the school, the organisation of the entire school and the classrooms, resources that are available and the number of students. Teachers must choose the techniques they want to employ in the classroom carefully because the technique used can influence the entire climate of the classroom and the teaching and learning processes. Besides this, teachers also need to work hard to capture and maintain student attention to ensure that the lesson planned is implemented successfully. In short, what the teacher is actually getting students to pay attention to is the official environment in the classroom. The teacher is basically in control of the classroom and uses many strategies including questioning to address student inattention while lessons are in progress. They may also use different approaches to deal with students who are disruptive during lessons. Decision Making in the Classroom If you are a teacher, you would know that among the challenges you face in the classroom is resolving conflicts and making decisions based on experience and instincts because classroom are „live‰ situations that demand immediate action. However, teachers do employ some form of decision-making strategies such as „situationally specific decisions or negotiative strategies‰ (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Nevertheless, decision making in the classroom is a complex process which requires careful consideration of many interacting elements. SELF-CHECK 6.1 1. Explain the effect of the informal system on studentsÊ school experiences. 2. Prepare short notes on the variables in the informal system that affect studentsÊ school life and their academic achievement. 3. Discuss the relationship between school climate and school effectiveness. 4. Based on your understanding of this topic, write a thesis statement on what causes disaffection from school and negative schooling experiences for some students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

124 TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM School plays a critical role in moulding individuals to play their roles in society. Informal school processes affect studentsÊ experiences in school. The informal aspects of the internal school system include the hidden curriculum, the educational climate and the role of the school as an informal agent of socialisation. The concept of the hidden curriculum is based on the acknowledgement that students learn and internalise more from it than from the formal course of study. To a conflict theorist, the social control function which underlies the hidden curriculum helps to reproduce studentsÊ social class. Marxists maintain that the impact of the hidden curriculum is different for children from different social classes, hence, perpetuating inequalities in education. The unofficial events and the general atmosphere that encompasses the educational setting are the climate and culture of the organisation. School climate affects studentsÊ academic achievement. School culture actually facilitates the development of a group feeling of loyalty. School learning climate refers to the behaviour and attitudinal patterns in a school which impact the academic achievement of all students. The classroom learning climate comprises the practices imposed on students in the classroom in order to retain control and discipline. One of the major processes that take place in a school is interaction between students and teachers, and among students. These interactions are passed on through verbal and non-verbal cues. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Class affec Ther stude Stud affec Func accep Conf the d Inter class class Teach class Classro Classro Decisio Educati Hidden Informa Informa Open sy TOPIC 6 THE sroom condit t how they le e is a relation ent behaviour ent behaviou ted by the sea ctional theori pting adult-en flict theorists dominant adu ractionists ass room stands room. hers use man room. oom codes oom learning c n making ional climate n curriculum al school proc al system ystems appro E INFORMAL S tions can affe earn. nship betwee r and overall ur patterns ating arrange ists posit th nforced rules interpret clas ults and the st sume that eac s for and th ny different m climate cesses oach YSTEM AND TH ect student fr en the physic performance and teacher ements in the hat students in the classro ssroom dynam tudents. ch student ha his determin management s Po Re Sch Sch Sch Sea Stu Tea HE HIDDEN CU riendship pat cal environme in school. r attitudes t classroom. learn their oom. mics as a pow as a unique pe nes their pe strategies to m wer dynamic production th hool culture hool effective hool learning ating arrange udent friendsh acher strategi URRICULUM tterns which, ent of the sch toward stude roles in soc wer struggle erception of w erceptions ab maintain ord cs heory eness climate ement hip patterns ies 125 in turn, hool and ents are ciety by between what the bout the er in the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1 A B B B B D E E F Ja Je K L 26 TOP Anyon, J. (198 Educatio Ballantine, J. systemat Bernstein, B. pedagog Bernstein, B. research, Bowles, S., & reform a Dewey, J. (19 Indiana, Epstein, J. L. the child Ellis, A. K., Co educatio einberg, W., College P ackson, P. W. erald, C. D. Compreh Kratochwill, T Universi Lavoie, R. (20 learning PIC 6 THE IN 80). Social cl on, 162(1), 67ă H., & Hamm tic analysis. N (1990). Clas gic discourse. (1996). Pe h, critique. Lon & Gintis, H. and the contra 998). Experie IN: Kappa D (1995, May). dren we share ogan, J., & Ho on. New Jersey & Soltis, J. F Press. (1968). Life in (2006). Scho hensive Schoo T. R., DeRoo ity of Wiscons 005) ItÊs so m g disabilities fi FORMAL SYSTE lass and the ă92. mack, F. M. New Jersey, N ss, codes and London, Eng edagogy, sym ndon, Englan (1976). Schoo adictions of ec ence and ed Delta Pi. School/fam . Phi Delta Ka owey, K, R. ( y, NJ: Prentic . (2004). Scho in classrooms. ool culture: T ol Reform and os, R., & Bl sin-Madison, much work to find social suc EM AND THE H hidden curr (2013). The NJ: Pearson Pr nd control, V gland: Routled mbolic contr d: Taylor & F oling in capi conomic life. N ducation: The ily/communi Kappan, 76(9), (1991). Introd e Hall. ool and societ s. New York, N The hidden c d Improveme air, S. (2015 WI: America o be your frie ccess. New Yo HIDDEN CURRI iculum of w e sociology o rentice Hall. Vol. IV: The dge. trol and ide Francis. italist Americ New York, N e 60th anniv ity partnersh 701ă712. duction to the ety. New York NY: Teachers curriculum. T ent, Washingt 5). Classroom an Psychologi iend, helping ork, NY: Simo ICULUM work. Journal of education: structuring dentity: Theo ica: Education NY: Basic Book versary editio hips: Caring f e foundations k, NY: Teache College Pres The Center f ton, DC. m Manageme cal Associatio g the child w on & Schuster l of A of ory, nal ks. ion. for s of ers s. for ent. on. with r. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AND THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM 127 Lezotte, L. (2001). Revolutionary and evolutionary: The effective schools movement. Okemos, MI: Effective Schools Products, Ltd. Lunenberg, F. C. (2010). Schools as Open Systems. Schooling, 1(1), 1ă5. Lynch, K. (1989). The hidden curriculum: Reproduction in education, a reappraisal. London, England: The Falmer Press. MacLeod, J. (1995). AinÊt no makinÊ it: Aspirations and attainment in a lowincome neighbourhood. Colorado, CO: Westview Press. Meighan, R., & Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2001). A sociology of education. London, England: Continuum. Ornstein, A. C., & Levine, D. U. (2006). Foundations of education (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Owens, R. G. (2001). Organizational behavior in education: Instructional leadership and school reform. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Phillips, M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., Klebanov, P., & Crane, J. (1998). Family background, Parenting practices, and the black-white test score gap. In C. Jencks, M. Philips (Eds.), The Black-White Test Score Gap. (pp. 273ă317), Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Sadovnik, A. R., Cookson, P. W., & Semel, S. F. (1994). Exploring education: An introduction to the foundations of education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Tozer, S. E., Senese, G., & Violas, P. C. (2006). School and society: Historical and contemporary perspectives (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Please download the materials from myINSPIRE (under „Other Useful References‰): Joanna Konieczka. (2013). The Hidden Curriculum. Advanced Research in Scientific Areas, December, 2.ă 6. 2013. Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun. Massialas, B. G. (1997). The Hidden Curriculum and Social Studies. Retrieved from http://www.wou.edu/~girodm/foundations/massialas.pdf Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

INTRODUCTION We will be talking about schools in this topic. You must be wondering why we are focusing on schools again. „DidnÊt we look at schools in the last couple of topics?‰ you may be asking. Well, you are right. We did, but our discussions revolved around school processes, particularly the role structure of the school and the informal school system and its effects on student achievement. However, these are only a part of the elements that make up the school as an educational entity. Topic 7 The School as an Organisation LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Name the components and subsystems that make up the social structure of the school; 2. Discuss the roles played by each of the subsystems in ensuring the smooth operation and existence of the school as an organisation; 3. Explain how school goals reflect the concerns of the larger society, the community, participants in the school and individuals; 4. Describe the characteristics of bureaucracy; and 5. Discuss the problems in using a bureaucratic model in education settings. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 129 In this topic, we will explore the operational elements that combine to establish the school as an organisation. These include the subsystems that make up the social structure of the school, the roles played by these subsystems in ensuring the survival of the school as an organisation and the bureaucratic aspects of the school. In our previous discussions, we highlighted the fact that each school is unique, with its own identity, culture, subcultures, traditions, legacies, and ceremonies. However, in this topic you will learn that there are certain organisational aspects that apply to all schools in general. For instance, school size is one of the variables that affects the level of bureaucracy in the organisation. Likewise, other variables such as geographical location, racial composition and the external environment of the school can have an impact on the school structure and climate. Although our focus will be on the internal structure of the school, you will find that some of the discussions will include external factors as well because the school exists as a result of its interactions with the environment. Therefore, we will be exploring the social structure of the school, using the school and classroom as the open system boundaries (You may want to revisit Topic 6, Figure 6.1). The school serves many masters because it prepares students for other organisations and institutions in society. Therefore, the best way to understand the school is by exploring the internal as well as the external environments that shape it. That is exactly what we will be doing in the rest of this topic. ACTIVITY 7.1 Never has a demand regarding school been so persistently repeated through history as the demand that school be related to life. Dragutin P. Frankovic (UNESCO, 1970) Do you think that the goal for schools to be related to life is distant and incomprehensible to society at large? Discuss this with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

130 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION THE SOCIAL SYSTEM OF THE SCHOOL A social system can be defined as a set of subsystems and activities that interact and come together as a single social entity (Hoy and Miskel, 2001). Do you think this definition can be applied to the school? We will find out in this topic but first, let us try to understand the school as a social system. Willard Waller a sociologist of education (1932) as cited in Hoy and Miskel (2001); Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel (1994) wrote that: the school is a system of social interaction; it is an organised whole comprised of interacting personalities bound together in an organic relationship. The life of the whole is in all its parts, yet the whole could not exist without any of its parts ⁄ What characterises a school as a social system? Hoy and Miskel (2001) observe that it is the ⁄ interdependence of the parts, a clearly defined population, differentiation from its environment, a complex network of social relationships, and its own unique culture. Another interesting fact that you need to keep in mind is that when we analyse the school as a social system, we are actually looking at the planned and unplanned or formal and informal aspects of organisational life. Schools are far more than mere collections of individuals; they develop cultures, traditions, and restraints that profoundly influence those who work and study within them. (Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel, 1994) Our discussions on the school as a social system is congruent with the functionalist approach which also focuses on the distinct subsystems or parts that interact with one another and combine to form the school system. In other words, the different components work together to form a single entity we call the school. 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 131 This interdependence is so critical, to the point that if any one of the components should experience problems or fail to function properly, the other parts will be affected too (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Refer to Figure 7.1 to get a clearer idea about the various components that make up the school system. Figure 7.1: Various components that make up school system Source: Ballantine & Hammack (2013) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

132 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION School System Structure and Roles If you were to enter a school for the first time, where would you go first? Refer to Figure 7.1 while we read about the school system structure and roles: (a) Firstly, you would probably be directed to the principalÊs office where the administrative staff will attend to you (refer to Figure 7.1). According to Ballantine and Hammack (2013), the role of the school office and its staff is to protect the school routine from unnecessary interruptions. (b) The next important component of the school is the classrooms which dominate the physical structure of the school. The main players here are the teachers and the students and their interaction patterns affect the social climate within the classroom. We have already discussed the classroom dynamics in Topic 6. (c) In order for the classrooms to function effectively, they need the support of other services. Can you guess what they are? The standard support services include food, janitorial, and health facilities. Other facilities such as counselling, technology, tutoring, bus and library services are also included in the services that are available to support the classroom. If you recall our earlier discussions on schools, you would realise that schools do not exist in isolation. Therefore, any talk about the school has to be done within the context of the larger society that may include the local community, stakeholders, regional setting, the authorities, federal regulations and funding. In short, „a school system ă people, buildings, classrooms, textbooks, and equipment ă becomes what it is through interaction with the environment‰ (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). ACTIVITY 7.2 Do you know that school emblems, mottos, vision and mission statements, yearbooks and songs are reflections of individual schoolÊs general goals? Do you remember your own schoolÊs emblem, motto, vision and mission statements, yearbook, and song? Try putting them down on paper. Share this with your coursemates. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 133 GOALS OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM All formal organisations exist because they have formally stated goals that they want to accomplish. Therefore, we can conclude that organisations, regardless of whether they are social systems or closed systems, are goal-oriented. But, what are goals? Why are they important? Perhaps the following definition by Hoy and Miskel (2001) will help you to answer these questions: Goals are the desired ends that guide organisational behaviour. Specific goals direct decision making, influence the formal structure, specify the tasks, guide the location of resources and govern design decisions. In fact, schools, by nature of being social systems, have multiple goals that need to be fulfilled because educational goals are „endless in their variety and subtle in their complexity‰ (Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel, 1994). What do you think is the central goal of a school system? Hoy and Miskel (2001) argue that the ultimate goal of a school system is to prepare its students for adult roles. Do you agree with them? One of the consequences of having numerous goals is the problem organisations face in prioritising the goals. This is because schools are constantly under pressure to fulfil the needs and desires of different stakeholders. This can lead to conflicts and controversies between the school and its internal and external communities. Hence, there is always a need for goals to be reassessed and realigned to satisfy all parties concerned. The functional theorists view the act of solving issues and problems as a way to keep the system in a constant state of balance. The conflict theorists, on the other hand, believe that problems and issues reflect inequalities and inconsistencies in the goals and interests of those who hold power in society and those who want to see change (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). In the next few subtopics, we will examine some of the goal expectations of various groups in society and how these expectations influence the formal school goals. 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

134 TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 7.2.1 Societal, Community and Educators’ Goals Every society has goals for its education system. Do you know where these goals are put into practice? That is right ă in schools and classrooms that serve as mediums through which these goals are realised. As you already know, schools have functions to fulfil. Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel, (1994) list these functions as follows: (a) Intellectual function ă to teach basic cognitive skills; (b) Political function ă to develop allegiance to the ruling political order; (c) Social function ă to address social issues and ensure social cohesion; and (d) Economic function ă to prepare students for the job market. However, the functions listed above sometimes contradict one another. For example, individuals who support the existing society will focus on the schoolÊs role to maintain it. This complies with the functionalist theorists who believe that schools exist to maintain the status quo of society. Therefore, school goals help the school to function smoothly and support the societal system (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel, 1994). On the other hand, those who feel that society is in need of improvement will call for schools to play their roles in changing or transforming society for the better. This is in line with the underpinning principles of the conflict theorists who maintain that school goals are lopsided, favouring those in power and perpetuating inequalities in society (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013; Sadovnik, Cookson and Semel, 1994). What can you gather from the argument above? When schools have several functions that sometimes contradict each other, the goals of the school system tend to align with the competing functions of school. In homogeneous societies, there may be a higher degree of consensus on key goals, resulting in more standardised national educational programmes. However, in heterogeneous societies with competing interests among the different groups, you will find a lower degree of consensus on key educational goals (Ballantine and Hammack, 2013). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION 135 One of the qualities of goals is its ability to evolve with time. In this respect, educational goals too are not static. This is evident from the literature on developments in educational thoughts, from educationists and sociologists from the turn of the century to the contemporary schools of thought. You will find that the purpose of education, the student role, the role of the teachers, classroom management and school leadership have all gone through many cycles of reform to ensure education remains relevant to the constituencies that it serves. When education changes, without doubt its goals change too. We have been discussing the development of societal goals. Let us now narrow our focus to community and family goals within the context of education. What do you expect schools to do for your community and your family? Have you thought about it? If you have, then you are among those individuals who have been seriously considering community and family goals for schools. Ballantine and Hammack (2013) suggest that community and family goals could include formalising the experiences of the process of socialisation through formal education, enabling peer interaction, facilitating the attainment of family goals for successful schooling outcomes for children, instilling skills and values for the marketplace and developing children who can adhere to the norms and values of the society they live in. However, we must bear in mind that the goals for individuals, groups or families within one community may differ because of factors such as race, religion, social class and status in society. Individual communities tend to have more specific expectations of their schools compared to more general educational goals that the society may have. You may want to revisit Topic 4 for further discussions on these factors. You will also find that school goals are influenced by the location of the school. Schools in the more heterogeneous urban settings will probably focus their energy on achieving their goals on discipline and control of school processes whereby suburban schools are more likely to place emphasis on goals to achieve school success. Nevertheless, you will find that school goal statements are usually far-reaching and rather general in nature. Why? As mentioned earlier, goals need to be general in order for them to be accepted by all educational constituencies and they need to be flexible because they are constantly evolving to meet the demands and pressure for change. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)