ugs{ f nflu kfj/kf]OG6df k|ofu] ul/g] kmf6] fx¿sf] dxŒjk0" f{ el" dsf xG' 5 . xfdLn]
lvrs] f] jf OG6/g]6af6 lnPsf] kmf]6f] kfj/kf]OG6df ko| fu] ug{] h:tf] 7\ofSs} gxg'
;S5 . /fd|f] kfj/kf]OG6 agfpgsf nflu ;fdfGo kmf]6f] Ol8l6ª l;kx¿ xg' ' h?/L
5 . kmf]6fnfO{ kfj/kf]OG6 :nfO8{ df /fv/] klg l;w} kmf6] f] Ol8l6ª;DaGwL l;kx¿
ko| fu] ug{ ;S5f}F . kfj/kfO] G6df l;w} ko| f]u ug{ ;lsg] s]xL kmf]6f] Ol8l6ª l;kx¿nfO{
oxfF tn k:| t't ul/Psf] 5 .
kmf]6fnfO{ Crop ug]{
1. Edit ug{'kg{] kmf]6fnfO{ sDKo'6/sf] 8:] s6kdf save ugx'{ f;] \ .
2. kfj/kfO] G6 vf]n]/ Insert >Picture > This device xF'b} kmf6] f]nfO{ :nfO8df
Insert Ufg'{xf;] \ .
3. Powerpoint sf] Home
> layout df uP/ blank
layout 5fGg'xf;] \ . o;f] ubf{
lrqdf bv] fPsf] h:t} lrqsf]
k5fl8 /xs] f] 3/] f x65\ .
4. :nfO8df /x]sf] kmf]6fnfO{
select u//] Picture Tools lrq 2.21
sf] tn /xs] f] format df click ug'{xf];\ . bfofF lrqdf bv] fPsf] h:tf] :nfO8sf]
bfofFk6\l6 dflyNnf] efudf /xs] f] crop df click ug'x{ f];\ .
5. Crop d f click u b f {
kmf]6fsf] rf/ sg' f / lardf
lrqdf h:t} sfnf] w;f{
b]lvG5 . To; w;f{nfO{
drag ( select and
move) ub}{ kmf]6fsf] crop
ug'k{ g{] efusf] jl/kl/ dfq
kfgx'{ f;] \ .
lrq 2.22
46 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
6. kmf6] fsf] crop ug]{ efu cGo efueGbf rlDsnf] x'G5 . o;kl5 :nfO8sf]
bfofkF 6\l6 dfly /x]sf] crop df click ugx'{ f];\ .
7. o;/L kfj/kfO] G6af6 klg l;w} kmf]6fn] fO{ crop u/L kmf6] fdf rflxPsf] efu dfq
/fVg ;lsG5 .
kmf6] fdf Brightness / contrast, Sharpen / sooften ldnfpg]
1. :nfO8df /x]sf] kmf6] fnfO{ select u//] Picture Tools sf] tn /xs] f] format
df click ug'{xf];\ . o;kl5 :nfO8sf] dfly afofFk6\l6 /x]sf] correction df
click ug{x' f];\ .
2. o;kl5 correction sf] tn /xs] f sharpen/soften, Brightness/contrast df
/xs] f sf]7fx¿df click ub}{ hfgx' f;] \ . hg' sf]7fdf dfp;sf] cursor /fVbf kmf]6f]
k|:6 b]lvG5 To;df click u/]/ kmf6] fnfO{ nfO{ save ug'x{ f;] \ .
3. olb kmf]6fnfO{ cem} ldnfpgk' g{] ePdf Picture corrections options df click
ug'{xf;] \ . o;df click ubf{ bl] vg] ljleGg options dWo] cfkm"nfO{ rflxg] 5fg/]
correction ug'x{ f;] \ .
4. tkfO{nF ] PsfeGbf w/] } kmf]6fnfO{ klg Pp6} :nfO8df /fVg ;Sgx' G' 5 . t/ o;/L
w/] } kmf6] fx¿ Pp6} :nfO8df /fVg rfxgx' G' 5 eg] kmf6] fx¿ :nfO8df otfptf
g;?g\ eg]/ ;a} kmf]6fx] ¿nfO{ group ug{'k5{ . kmf]6fnfO{ group ugs{ f nflu
:nfO8df ePsf ;a} kmf6] fx¿nfO{ group ugs{ f nflu Ctrl + A lyr/]
5fGgx' f];\ . :nfO8df s'g} b'O{ jf bO' e{ Gbf a9L kmf]6fnfO{ group ug{sf nflu s'g}
Pp6f kmf6] fn] fO{ select u//] Shift key lyrL cGo kmf]6f klg select ug'{xf];\ .
5. Group ug'k{ g{] kmf6] f 5flg;s]kl5 sg' } 5fg]sf kmf6] fsf] 5p] df dfp;sf] cursor
/fVgx' f];\ / dfp;df right click ug{x' f];\ .
6. Right click ubf{ ljleGg options x¿ b]lvG5g\ . logLx¿dWo] group df uP/
group ugx{' f];\ .
7. lrq / lrqsf] tnk6l\ 6 text box df n]lvg] caption nfO{ group u/]df lrqnfO{
:nfO8df otfptf ;fbf{ caption klg ;u} ;g{] u5{ . To;n} ] lrq / lrqsf]
caption nfO{ ;wF} group ugx{' f;] \ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 47
2.5 sDKo'6/df nfUg] efO/; (Virus in computer)
sDKo'6/df nfUg] efO/; Ps ks| f/sf] ;ˆ6jo] / xf] h;n] sDKo'6/sf] s'g} klg sfo{df
afwf ul/lbg], sDKo'6/ kf| ]uf| d aGb ul/lbg], af/Daf/ sg' } Ps} ks| f/sf] ;r" gf bv] fpg]
jf sDKo6' /nfO{ c6f]d]l6s ¿kdf aGb u/fpg] cflb sfd ub{5 .
kf| oM sDKo6' /df af/Daf/ sfd ug{ cj/fw] cfO/x\of] jf sDKo'6/ cfkmF} vN' g] jf
aGb x'g] eof] eg] efO/; ubf{ sDKo'6/df ;d:of ePsf] xf] ls eGg] cg'dfg ug{
;S5f}F . olb tkfOFs{ f] sDKo6' /df ePsf kmfOnx¿ lau|]/ gv'Ng,] cfkmF} kmf]N8/x¿
aGg] clg l8ln6 ug{ gldNg,] kg] 8«fOe d]df/] Lsf8{ cflb ldl8ofx¿df kmf]N8/ aGg,]
csf{] sg' } sfd ul//xs] f] ;dodf grflxg] ;r" gf af/Daf/ bv] fO/xg] h:tf 36gf ePdf
rfxLF sDKo6' /df efO/;n] ubf{ o:tf] ePsf] xf] ls eg]/ hfFr ug{'k5{ . clxn] w]/}
nfO{ sDKo6' /df efO/;n] b'Mv lbP/ x}/fg eO/x]sf 5g\ . efO/;n] sDKo'6/df ePsf
kmfOn / kf| ]u|fdx¿nfO{ laufg{s' f ;fy} unt lgb]{zg lbP/ sfddf afwf k'¥ofpF5 .
efO/;n] sDKo'6/df kj| z] ul/;sk] l5 s] sfd ug]{ eGg] s'/f lgdf{tfx¿n] klxNo}
lgwf{/0f u/s] f x'G5g\ / To;}cg;' f/ sfd xG' 5 .
sDKo'6/df efO/; ;g]{ tl/sf
OG6/g6]
sDKo'6/df efO/; lelqg] dV' o dfWod OG6/g]6 xf] . ha xfdL s'g} j]a;fO6 vf]N5fF} /
olb Tof] j]a;fO6df /x]sf] sg' } klg kmfOndf efO/; 5 eg] Tof] l;Wf} xfd|f] sDKo6' /
df lelqg ;S5 .
cGo dfWodx¿ M xfdLn] sDKo6' /df ko| fu] ug{] kg] 8f« Oe, dd] f/] L sf8,{ l;8L, xf8l{ 8:s
cflb sDKo6' /df efO/; lelqg ;Sg] cGo dfWodx¿ x'g\ . efO/; /xs] f] sg' } klg
sDKo6' /df ko| fu] u/s] f] xf8{ l8:s, kg] 8«fOe, dd] f/] L sf8{ cflbdf ePsf] ldl8of jf
kmfOnx¿ csf{] sDKo'6/df ;fbf{ efO/; klg ;lhn} ;b{5 .
o;}u/L sltko efO/;x¿ sDKo'6/df ljleGg k|f]u|fdx¿ Install ubf{ autorun
sdfG8dfkm{t :jtM sDKo'6/df Install x'g kU' 5g\ eg] sx] LrflxF xfdLn] ghflgsg
cfkmF} sDKo'6/df Install ug{ kU' 5f}F .
48 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
sDKo'6/nfO{ efO/; nfUgaf6 arfpg] pkfox¿
efO/; ;ªs\ d| 0fsf] lx;fan] dfgj z/L/ / sDKo'6/df s]xL ;dfgtf /x]sf] 5 .
To;n} ] efO/; ;ªj\ |md0fkl5 To;sf] lgbfg ug{e' Gbf sDKo'6/df efO/; nfUg glbg]
tkm{ ;fR] g'kb5{ . sDKo6' /df efO/; nfUg glbg] sx] L pkfox¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
1. OG6/g]6sf] ko| fu] n] sg' } s'g} j]a;fO6af6 kmfOn 8fpgnf]8 ubf{ efO/; l5g{
;S5 . To;}n] cgfjZos j]a;fO6 rnfpg' xbF' g} .
2. Odn] Dof;h] x¿ vfN] bf ghfgs] f] Odn] 7u] fgfaf6 cfPsf Odn] x¿ (spam mails)
jf d]ndf ;+nUg kmfOnx¿ lglZlrt (confirm) gu/L vf]Ng'x'bgF} .
3. sDKo'6/df ePsf] kmfo/jfn k|f6] S] ;g (firewall protection) nfO{ ;w}F ON
/fVg'kb{5 .
4. c¿n] ;lhn} cgd' fg ug{ ;Sg] kf;j8{ /fVg' xb' gF} . kf;j8{ /fVbf letter(a-z) ,
number (0-9) , special character(!,@,#,$) cflb ldnfP/ strong password
/fVgk' b{5 .
5. ljleGg ja] ;fO6df l;Q}df kfOg] ;ˆ6j]o/ kf| ]uf| dx¿ download / install
ugf{n] klg sDKo'6/df efO/; lelqg ;Sg] xbF' f ;s;] Dd o:tf k|fu] f| dx¿sf]
ko| fu] ug{' x'b}g .
6. sDKo6' /df e/kbf{] antivurus software eof] eg] efO/;af6 aRg ;lsG5 .
7. ;do ;dodf antivirus software nfO{ update ub{} sDKo6/sf] drive, folder,
Portable media (pendrive, floopy, harddisk, memory card) cflbnfO{
scan ug{k' b5{ .
sDKo6' /df ePsf] efO/;nfO{ lgbfg ug]{ tl/sf
xfdLn] ;fjwfgL ckgfpFbf ckgfpFb} klg slxn]sfxL sDKo'6/df efO/; lelqg
;S5 . sDKo'6/ ;fdfGotM eGbf w/] } g} l9nf] rNg] u/]df jf o;df ePsf ;ˆ6j]o/
jf kf| u] |fdn] /fd/| L sfd u/]g eg] sDKo6' /df efO/; ePsf] xg' ;S5 . sDKo'6/df
ePsf] efO/;nfO{ kQf nufP/ delete ug{sf nflu xfdLnfO{ antivirus software
sf] (example) h?/t kb{5 . sDKo'6/df ePsf] efO/;nfO{ kQf nufP/ lgbfg
ug]{ tl/sf tn lbOPsf] 5 M
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 49
1. sDKo'6/df s'g} pkoS' t antivirus software nfO{ install ug{'xf;] \ .
2. o;kl5 lrqdf bv] fPsf] h:tf] kh] vN' g] 5 . ToxfF /x]sf] database update df
uP/ kf| u] f| dnfO{ ck86] ug{x' f;] \ .
3. ck8]6 eO;s]kl5 o;df /x]sf] scan option df uO{ sDKo'6/nfO{ full scan
jf quick scan ug'{xf;] \ .
4. Scan eO;sk] l5 olb sDKo6' /df sg' } efO/; ePdf jf cGo sg' } sf/0fn] ;d:of
pTkGg ePdf To;sf] hfgsf/L notification df b]lvG5 .
5. Notification list sf] bfofFk6l\ 6 bl] vg] select action df /xs] f options af6
5fg]/ delete ug'{xf];\ .
6. Scanubf{ olb ;l] 6ª gldns] f sf/0f sDKo6' /df ;d:of ePsf] ePdf ;l] 6ªnfO{ lgbz{] gdf
lbPcg;' f/ ldnfpg'xf;] \ .
2.6 ;km\ 6jo] / (Software)
sg' } klg sfd sDKo6' /åf/f ug{] jf u/fpg] lgbz{] gnfO{ kf| u] f| d (programme) elgG5 .
o:tf kf| ]u|fdx¿sf] ;dx" (set) nfO{ ;ˆ6jo] / (software) elgG5 . ;ˆ6j]o/ sDKo6' /
nfO{ lgb{z] g lbg] Ps ljz]if ks| f/sf] lgb]z{ g ;]6 xf] . ;ˆ6j]o/n] g} sDKo'6/nfO{
lgoGq0f ug{] / k|of]ustf{sf] ;d:of xn ub{5 . ahf/df MSDOS (Microsoft
Disk Operating System), Windows XP, Paint brush, Spreadsheet, Word
cflb h:tf w/] } ks| f/sf ;ˆ6j]o/x¿ pknAw 5g\ .
lgz'Ns k|of]u ug{ ldNg] v'nf k|s[ltsf (open/free software) ;ˆ6j]o/x¿
OG6/g6] df klg pknAw xG' 5g\ . v'nf k|sl[ tsf ;ˆ6jo] /x¿ j]a;fO6af6 8fpgnf]8
u/L install u//] xfdL ;xh} ko| fu] ug{ ;S5f}F eg] cGo ;ˆ6jo] /x¿ zN' s lt/]/ k|ofu]
ug{'k5{ . v'nf k|sl[ tsf ;ˆ6j]o/x¿af6 sDKo'6/df ko| fu] ugfn{ ] efO/; lelqg klg
;Sg] vt/f ePsfn] logLx¿sf] k|of]u ug{c' l3 xfdLn] ;fjwfgL ckgfpg' kb5{ .
ahf/df pknAw ;ˆ6jo] /nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ juLs{ /0f ug{ ;lsG5 M
l;:6d ;km\ 6j]o/ (system software)
l;:6d ;ˆ6j]o/ sDKo'6/ k|0ffnLsf] ;~rfng / lgoGq0f ug]{ Ps k|sf/sf]
50 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
;ˆ6j]o/ xf] . l;:6d ;ˆ6j6] o/nfO{ sDKo6' /sf] xf8{j]o/ ;~rfng ugs{ f nflu
agfPsf] x'G5 . o;nfO{ sDKo'6/sf] dxŒjk"0f{ cª\usf ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 . l;:6d
;ˆ6j]o/nfO{ operating system(OS) eg/] klg lrlgG5 . Windows , Mac OS,
Android, LINUX cflb sx] L l;:6d ;ˆ6jo] / xg' \ .
PlKns];g ;k\m6j6] o/ (Application software)
k|of]ustf{n] cfˆgf] OR5fcg';f/ sDKo'6/nfO{ ;~rfng ug{sf nflu agfPsf
;ˆ6j6] o/x¿nfO{ g} PlKns;] g ;ˆ6j]6o/ elgG5 . o:tf ;ˆ6j]6o/x¿ k|of]ustf{sf]
cfjZostfcg;' f/ lgdf0{ f ul/Psf] xG' 5, h:t} M MS Office, Photoshop, PDF
Reader cflb PlKns;] g ;ˆ6j]6o/ xg' \ .
o'l6ln6L ;km\ 6j]6o/ (Utility software)
ol' 6ln6L ;ˆ6j6] o/n] sDKo6' /sf] ;ˆ6jo] / / xf8j{ o] /lar /fdf| ] ;DaGw tYff jftfj/0f
agfO{ l56f,] 5l/tf,] /fdf| ] / ljZjf;gLo sfd ug{ ;xofu] k¥' ofp5F . ol' 6ln6L ;ˆ6j6] o/
df antivirus, disk cleaner, disk defragmenter cflb ;ˆ6j]6o/x¿ k5g{ \ .
efl} ts ¿kdf 5g' / bV] g ;lsg] sDKo6' / xf8j{ o] / xg' \ eg] 5g' / bV] g g;lsg] rflx sDKo6' /
;k\m6j6] o/ x'g\ .
lj|mofsnfk 2.8
tkfO“{n] ljBfnosf] sDKo6' / k|of]uzfnfdf bv] s] f jf ko| fu] u/s] f ;km\ 6jo] /x¿sf] ;"rL
agfpgx' f;] \ . logLx¿dWo] sg' } Pp6f ;km\ 6jo] /sf af/]df hfgsf/L lnP/ o;sf
af/]df n]lvPsf] n]v sIffdf ;fYfLx¿;u“ k:| tt' ug{x' f;] \ .
2.7 sDKo'6/ tyf OG6/g]6 ko| fu] ;DaGwL cfrf/ ;+lxtf
xfdLn] ug]{ ljleGg sfdx¿nfO{ sDKo'6/sf] ko| fu] n] ;xh / ;/n agfPsf] 5 .
OG6/g6] sf] kx'Frn] ubf{ Pscsf{df ;"rgf t?' Gt} cfbfgkb| fg ug{ ;lsG5 . sDKo6' /
tyf OG6/g6] sf] ;xL kofu] ug{ ghfGbf jf g;Sbf xfdL ;d:ofdf kg{ ;S5f}F .
;fdflhs ;~hfn k|of]u ubf{ er{'cn dfWodaf6 agfPsf ;fyLx¿nfO{ ljZjf; ubf{
slxns] fxL JolStut jf ufK] o hfgsf/L aflxl/g ;S5 h;n] ubf{ xfdL ;d:ofdf
dfq kg{] geP/ cfly{s ¿kdf Iflt klg xg' ;S5 . . l8lh6n dfWodaf6 ePsf
rf/] L jf 7uLsf 36gfx¿ klg obfsbf ;dfrf/df cfO/xG5g\ . To;n} ] sDKo'6/ tyf
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 51
OG6/g]6sf] ko| f]u ubf{ ckgfpg' kg{] ;fjwfgLaf/] xfdLnfO{ 1fg x'g cfjZos 5 .
sDKo'6/ tyf OG6/g]6 ko| f]u ubf{ xfdLNf] ckgfpg' kg{] lgodx¿nfO{ g} sDKo6' / tyf
OG6/g]6sf] ko| f]u;DaGwL cfrf/;l+ xtf elgG5 . sDo'6/ tyf OG6/g6] k|ofu] ;DaGwL
s]xL lgodx¿nfO{ oxfF k:| tt' ul/Psf] 5 . lbOPsf lgodx¿sf] cfkm"n] kfngf
ub{} kl/jf/df OG6/g]6 k|of]u ug]{ ;b:ox¿nfO{ klg hfgsf/L u/fpbF } ae' mfpg ;s]
sf] v08df OG6/g]6sf] ko| f]u ubf{ cfpg] ;d:ofdf w]/} xb;Dd sd ug{ ;lsG5 .
sDKo6' / / OG6/g6] sf] ko| f]u;DaGwL lgodx¿
1. tkfOs{F f] cfˆgf] JolStut ljj/0f Hf:t} M gfdy/, hGdldlt, pd]/, dfa] fOn gDa/
cflb_ glrgs] f JolStnfO{ lbgx' Fb' g} .
2. tkfO{Fn] lrg] hfg]sf cGo JolStx¿sf] hfgsf/L pgLx¿sf] cgd' ltlagf s;}
nfO{ klg lbg'xbF' g} . olb cgd' lt lnP/ s;n} fO{ o:tf] hfgsf/L lbg} k/]df klg
tkfOF{n] lbPsf] hfgsf/Lsf] b'¿kofu] xb' g} eGg] lglZrt u/]/ dfq lbg'xf;] \ .
3. kf;j8{ (password) slxNo} klg c¿nfO{ ;]o/ ug'{x'bF }g .
4. ;an} ] ko| f]u ug{ ;Sg] ljBfno jf sfof{nosf] sDKo'6/df kf;j8n{ fO{ autosave
ug'x{ 'Fbg} .
5. s;s} f] jf ;fdl" xs kmf6] f] ;DalGwt ;a} JolStsf] cgd' ltlagf s;n} fO{ klg
k7fpg' xb'F }g .
6. sg' } klg ;fdflhs ;~hfndf cGo JolStsf] gfdaf6 gofF vftf (new account)
agfpg' x'Fbg} .
7. tkfO{Fn] k|of]u ug]{ ljleGg vftfx¿ (accounts) rf]/L jf x\ofs ePdf,
glrg]sf] JolStn] wDSofpg] jf ;d:ofdf kfg{] u/]df ;f] s'/fsf] hfgsf/L g]kfn
kx| /Lsf] ;fOa/ Ao/' f]df l/kf6] { ug{'kb5{ .
8. sf]xL ckl/lrt JolStn] ;fdflhs ;~hfndf tkfOF{;Fu glhlsg vf]Hg,] e6] 3f6
u/fF} eGg],cgfjZos ;Gbz] x¿ k7fpg] u/]df cleefjs jf lzIfsnfO{ o:tf
s/' fsf] hfgsf/L t'?Gt u/fpg' kb{5 .
52 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
9. Odn] k7fpg] JolStsf] klxrfg gu/L vfN] g' xbF' g} . olb ckl/lrt JolStn] k7fPsf]
ePdf klg ;xL ko| f]hgsf nflu k7fPsf] xf] eg] dfq olsg u/]/ vf]Ng'k5{ .
10. hyfefjL cfPsf spam mail nfO{ slxNo} klg vfN] g'x'b}g / o:tf Odn] c¿nfO{
klg k7fpg' x'b}g .
11. slxns] fxLF xo\ fs/x¿n] tkfOn{F fO{ k/' :sf/ k/s] f,] sg' } cj;/ jf nfe kf| Kt ePsf]
h:tf hfgsf/L Od]n jf ;fdflhs ;~hfndf k7fP/ tkfO{sF f] hfgsf/L rfg] {
;S5g\ . To;n} ] o:tf Odn] x¿sf] k|nfe] gdf gk/L ;hu xg' k' b5{ .
12. st} 3'd3fd ub}{ jf 3/ aflx/ /x]sf] hfgsf/L yfxf kfpg] lsl;dsf kmf]6fx¿
c;DalGwt JolStn] ;d]t b]Vg] u/L ;fdflhs ;~hfndf cknf]8 ug{'xFb' g} .
tkfOFn{ ] ;o] / ug{'ePsf hfgsf/LnfO{ cfwf/ dfg/] cGo JolStn] rf]/L, 8st} L
klg ug{ ;Sg] x'gfn] o:tf s/' fx¿df xfdL Psbd} ;hu /xgk' b{5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 53
cEof;
1. lbOsf zAbx¿af6 pko'St zAb 5fg/] vfnL 7fpd“ f egx{' f;] \ M
;ˆ6jo] /, af| ph/, hf8] g\ ], cfOl;6L, kf| ]uf| d
-s_ sDKo'6/, :df6k{ mf]g, l8lh6n Sofd/] f cflb ============ sf ;fwgx¿ x'g\ .
-v_ OG6/g]6n] cfOl;6Lsf ;fwgx¿nfO{ Pscfk;df ============ sfd ub5{ .
-u_ OG6/g6] af6 ======================= sf] ;xfotfn] xfdLNffO{ cfjZos k/s] f]
s'/f vf]Hg ;S5fF} .
-3_ jm| daå ¿kdf n]lvPsf lgb]{zgx¿nfO{ sDKo'6/ ================== elgG5 .
-ª_ :k8]| l;6 sDKo6' /df rf6{ jf uf| km tof/ ugs{ f nflu agfPsf] ===================
xf] .
2. ltnsf jfSox¿ l7s eP -√_ / al] 7s eP -x_ lrxg\ nufpgx' f;] \ M
-s_ OG6/g6] n] ubf{ ;;+ f/el/sf sDKo6' /;uF ;DalGwt pks/0fx¿ Pscsf;{ uF
;Dksd{ f /xL ;"rgfx¿ cfbfg kb| fg ug{ ub{5 .
-v_ k|fksnfO{ Odn] xg] {sf nflu OG6/g6] sf] cfjZostf h?/t kb}{g .
-u_ kmf6] f] Ol8l6ª u//] klg xfdLn] lvrs] f kmf6] fn] fO{ cfsifs{ agfpg ;lsG5 .
-3_ Ms Paint af6 kmf]6fsf] ;fOh 36fpg jf a9fpg ;lsG5 .
-ª_ sg' } klg sfd sDKo6' /åf/f ug{] jf u/fpg] lgbz{] gx¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ sDKo6' /
kf| ]uf| d elgG5 .
3. tn lbPsf ljsNkx¿dWo]af6 ;xL ljsNk 5fg]/√ lrx\g nufpg'xf];\ M
-s_ Windows sDKo'6/df ko| f]u ul/Psf] s'g k|sf/sf] ;ˆ6jo] / xf] <
-c_ l;:6d ;ˆ6j]o/ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
-cf_ PlKns;] g ;ˆ6j]o/
-O_ o'l6ln6L ;ˆ6j]o/
-O{_ 8«fOe/ ;º6j]o/
54
-v_ Od]ndf kf| Kt ug]{ dfG5]sf] Od]n 7u] fgf /fVg] 7fpdF f nl] vPsf] CC n] s]
hgfp5F <
-c_ Correct Copy
-cf_ Combine Copy
-O_ Carbon Copy
-O{_ Copy to Copy
-u_ tn lbOPsf dWo] s'g rflxF Odn] sf] a]kmfObf xf] <
-c_ t?' Gt} cfbfg k|bfg ug{ ;lsg]
-cf_ tn' gfTds ¿kdf sd vlrn{ f]
-O_ OG6/g6] h8fg rflxg]
-O{_ lr7Lkq / >JobZ[ o ;fdu|L cfbfg k|bfg ug{ ;lsg]
-3_ :k|8] l;6df drag ug{' eg]sf] s] xf]<
-c_ select
-cf_ select and copy
-O_ select and move
-O{_ select and paste
-ª_ www.moecdc.gov.np j]a;fO6df /xs] f] gov s] hgfpF5 <
-c_ zl} Ifs ;fO6
-cf_ ;/sf/L ;fO6
-O_ u}/;/sf/L ;fO6
-O_{ ;r" gf;DaGwL ;fO6{
4. km/s nV] gx' f;] \ M
-s_ l;:6d ;ˆ6jo] / / PlKns;] g ;ˆ6jo] /
-v_ k/Dk/fut lr7Lkq / Od]n
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 55
5. tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ lbg'xf;] \ M
-s_ cfOl;6L egs] f] s] xf] < tkfO{Fn] cfw'lgs kl| jlwsf] ko| fu] ug'{ePsf] s'g}
Pp6f sfo{sf af/]df JofVof ug'{xf;] \ .
-v_ cfOl;6Lsf cfwl' gs ;fwgx¿ h:t} sDKo6' /, l8lh6n Sofd/] f, OG6/g6] sf]
ko| f]un] ubf{ xfd|f] hLjgzn} L s;/L km]l/Psf] 5, :ki6 kfg{x' f];\ .
-u_ OG6/g]6 egs] f] s] xf] < OG6/g6] n] ubf{ tkfOs{F f] hLjgdf ;Dej ePsf
dxŒjk"0f{ sfo{x¿sf] ;r" L tof/ ugx'{ f];\ .
-3_ Oas' egs] f] s] xf] < Oas' ko| fu] ugs{' f sg' } bO' c{ f6] f kmfObf nV] gx' f;] \ .
-ª_ Od]nsf bO' { bO' c{ f6] f kmfObf / ak] mfObf nV] gx' f];\ .
-r_ :k]8| l;6 k|f]u|fd egs] f] s] xf] < o;af6 xfdLn] ug{ ;lsg] sfdx¿ s] s]
xg' \ <
-5_ sDKo'6/ efO/; eg]sf] s] xf] < o;af6 aRgsf nflu xfdLn] s] ug{
;lsG5 <
6. tn lrqdf lbPsf] cfs“ 8fnfO{ :k|8] l;6df eg{'xf];\ . ;a} ljifox¿sf]
hDdf k"0ffª{ \snfO{ 100 dfg/] s'n kf| Ktfªs\ / k|ltzt lgsfNg'xf];\ .
56 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
# hLjx¿ / ltgsf] agf6]
(Living Beings and Their Structure)
ljleGg lsl;dsf ;hLjx¿
lrq 3.1
-c_ lrqdf sg' s'g k|sf/sf hLjx¿ bv] fOPsf] 5 <
-cf_ lrqdf bv] fOPsf hLjx¿sf] agf6] df s] s] km/s bV] ge' of] <
xfdf| ] j/k/ ljleGg lsl;dsf la?jf / hgfj/x¿ /x]sf 5g\ . tLdWo] sltko hgfj/
/ jg:kltx¿ lgs} ;fgf klg xG' 5g\ . ltgLx¿nfO{ ;I" dbz{s oGqsf] ;xfotfn] dfq
bV] g ;lsG5 . la?jfx¿ sx] L kmn" km' Ng] / gkm' Ng] lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ . o;} u/L hgfj/x¿
klg sx] L 9f8 ePsf / sx] L 9f8 gePsf x'G5g\ . ltgLx¿sf] cfsf/ klg km/s
km/s xG' 5 . o;y{ cfsf/, zf/Ll/s agf]6 / zf/Ll/s kl| jm| ofsf cfwf/df hLjx¿
km/s km/s xG' 5g\ . o; PsfOcGtut{ xfdL ljleGg lsl;dsf la?jf / hgfj/x¿sf
zf/Ll/s agf]6 / z/L/sf efux¿sf sfdsf ;DaGwdf 5nkmn ug]{ 5fF} .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 57
3.1 la?jfsf efux¿ (Parts of a plant)
lj|mofsnfk 3.1
j/k/sf s]xL la?jfx¿sf efux¿sf] cjnf]sg u/L tnsf kZ| gsf cfwf/df 5nkmn ugx{' f;] \ .
-c_ la?jfx¿df s] s] efux¿ b]Vg'eof] <
-cf_ s] kmn" kmN' g] la?jfx¿ ;a}df km"n / kmn b]Vge' of] <
-O_ s] ;a} la?jfsf kft jf h/f ;dfg lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ <
-O_{ la?jfsf ljleGg efux¿n] s] s] sfd u5g{ \ xfn] f <
-p_ s] la?jfsf ;a} efux¿sf] sfd ;dfg x'G5 < k"mn
kmn
la?jfsf] hldgleqsf] efunfO{ h/f 8f7“
k0| ffnL (Root system) / hldgdflysf] kft
efunfO{ sf08 k0| ffnL (Shoot system)
elgG5 . la?jfsf k|sf/cg';f/ h/f h/f
km/s x'g ;S5g\, h:t}M kfgLdf kfOg]
la?jf / hldgdf kfOg] la?jfsf lrq 3.2
h/fsf] agf]6df leGgtf xG' 5 . la?jfsf]
sf08 k|0ffnLcGtu{t 8f7F , kft / xfFufx¿
kb5{ g\ . km"n kmN' g] la?jfdf km"n / kmn
klg x'G5g\ . kmnleq lap xG' 5 . la?jfdf
xg' ] km/s km/s cªu\ x¿sf sfd klg km/s
km/s xG' 5g\ .
3.1.1 h/f / o;sf sfox{ ¿ (Root and its functions)
ljm| ofsnfk 3.2
tnsf lrqx¿ cjnfs] g u/L 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \ . lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
-c_ la?jfdf h/f gePsf] eP s] xG' Yof] xfn] f <
-cf_ s] ;a} la?jfx¿df Pp6} lsl;dsf h/f xG' 5g\ <
58
-O_ s] tkfO{“n] hdLg aflx/ h/f xg' ] la?jfx¿ bV] ge' Psf] 5 <
-O{_ ds} / j/sf] h/fdf s] ;dfgtf 5 < s] dss} f] h/f / ufh/sf] h/fn] ug{] sfd Pp6}
xf]nf t <
-p_ la?jfsf h/fn] s] s] sfd u5g{ \ xfn] f <
Pl/on h/f k/lhjL h/f :6f]/h] h/f
lrq 3.3
h/fn] d'VotM la?jfnfO{ df6fd] f c8\ofpg] / hldgaf6 kfgL ;f:] g] sfd u5{ . s]xL
la?jfsf h/fx¿ ;fdfGoeGbf km/s x'G5g\ . dflysf] lrqdf bv] fOPsf Pl/on h/f,
k/hLjL h/f / :6f/] h] h/f ;fdfGoeGbf leGg 5g\ . o;/L ;fdfGoeGbf km/s h/fnfO{
¿kfGtl/t h/f elgG5 . ¿kfGtl/t h/fsf] :j¿k / o;n] ug{] sfo{ klg ;fdfGoeGbf
km/s xG' 5 . h/fx¿n] d'Vo ¿kn] lgDglnlvt sfd ub{5g\ M
-c_ h/fx¿n] la?jfsf nflu hldgaf6 kfgL / kfi] fs tŒj ;f];/] lnG5 / 8f7F ;Dd
k'¥ofp5F .
-cf_ dss} f Pl/on h/fn] af]6nfO{ hldgdf c8\ofpg] sfd ub{5 .
-O_ j/ lkknsf Pl/on h/fx¿n] ?vsf 7n' f 7'nf xfFufx¿nfO{ ;xf/f lbg] sfd
ub5{ g\ .
-O{_ ufh/, dn' f / ;v/v08sf h/fx¿n] vfgf hDdf ug{] sfd ub5{ g\ .
-p_ sx] L h/fx¿af6 gofF la?jf pTkfbg xg' ;S5g,\ h:tM} ;v/v08 . o; lsl;dsf]
k|hggnfO{ h/faf6 xg' ] el] h6]l6e kf| k] fu];g elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 59
3.1.2 8f“7 / o;sf sfox{ ¿ (Stem and its functions)
pv' cfn ' cfk“ sf] 8F7“ hnsD' eL
ljm| ofsnfk 3.3 lrq 3.4
lbOPsf lrqx¿sf] cjnf]sg u/L 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \ M
-c_ lrqdf sg' sg' la?jfsf 8f“7x¿ b]vfOPsf 5g\ <
-cf_ s] la?jfdf kfOg] 8f“7x¿ Ps} ks| f/sf xG' 5g\ <
-O_ la?jfdf 8f“7n] s] s] sfd u5{ xf]nf <
la?jfdf ljleGg ks| f/sf 8f7F x¿ kfOG5g\ . ;fdfGotof 8f7F n] h/f / kftx¿lar
kl/jxg ug{] / la?jfnfO{ l;wf /fVg cfwf/ lbg] sfd u5{ . sx] L la?jfx¿df ¿kfGtl/t
8fF7x¿ kfOG5g\ . cfn', lkF8fn,' cbj' f cflb ¿kfGtl/t 8f7F x'g] la?jfsf pbfx/0f
xg' \ . ;fdfGoeGbf leGg :j¿ksf 8f7F x¿nfO{ ¿kfGtl/t 8f7F elgG5 .
lrq g+ 3.5
la?jfdf kfOg] ljleGg ks| f/sf 8f7“ sf kd| v' sfdx¿nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ k:| tt' ug{ ;lsG5 M
-c_ 8fF7n] kft, kmn" / kmnnfO{ cfwf/ lbG5 .
-cf_ o;n] h/fn] ;f;] ]/ lnPsf] kfgL / nj0fnfO{ kft;Dd k¥' ofpg ;xof]u ub5{ .
-O_ 8f7F n] kftdf tof/ ePsf] vfgfnfO{ la?jfsf] k|To]s efudf kè' ofp5F .
60 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
-O{_ cfn,' cbj' f / lk8fF n' h:tf 8f7F x¿n] la?jfsf nflu vfB kbfy{ ;l~rt u5g{ \ .
-p_ l;pF 8Lnufotsf la?jfx¿df 8f7F n] ks| fz ;Z+ ni] f0f ug{] sfd ub5{ .
-pm_ sltko 8f7F df ePsf cfFVnf (node) af6 6;' f knfpF5 . pSt 6;' f gofF
la?jfdf ljsf; xG' 5, h:t} M cfn,' pv', lk8F fn' cflb . sltko la?jfsf
8f7F x¿ sf6L df6fd] f uf8/] gofF la?jf pTkfbg ug{ ;lsG5, h:t}M un' fa .
o; lsl;dsf] k|hggnfO{ 8f7F af6 xg' ] e]lh6l] 6e k|fk] fu];g elgG5 .
3.1.3 kft / o;sf sfox{ ¿ (Leaf and its functions)
ljm| ofsnfk 3.4 ;xfos g;f d'Vo g;f
j/k/ ePsf ljleGg kftx¿sf] cjnfs] g u/L
5nkmn ugx' f];\ M
-c_ kf| oM h;f] la?jfsf kftx¿ xl/of xg' s' f] lkl6jn
sf/0f s] xf] <
-cf_ olb la?jfsf ;a} kftx¿ x6fO{ lbg] xf] eg] An8]
To; la?jfsf] jl[ 4df s] c;/ kb5{ < lrq 3.6 kftsf ljleGg efux¿
-O_ s] ;a} la?jfsf kftx¿ Pp6} lsl;dsf 5g\ <
-O{_ la?jfsf kftn] s] s] sfd u5{ xfn] f <
kftsf] km/flsnf] efunfO{ An]8 elgG5 h;sf] lardf Pp6f dV' o g;f (mid rib)
/x]sf] xG' 5 . d'Vo g;faf6 ;fgf 7n' f ;xfos g;fx¿ lg:s]sf xG' 5g\ . kftsf]
An8] df g} k|sfz ;+Zni] f0f ljm| of xG' 5 . To;n} ] kftnfO{ la?jfsf] vfgfsf] sf/vfgf
(food factory) klg elgG5 .
sf“8f kft :6f/] h] kft ls/f ;dfpg] kft
lrq 3.7 kftsf ljleGg :j¿kx¿
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 61
sx] L la?jfsf kftx¿ ;fdfGoeGbf km/s x'G5g\ . sx] L la?jfsf kftx¿ afSnf xG' 5g\
eg] sx] L la?jfdf logLx¿ sfF8fdf kl/jltt{ xG' 5g\ . o;/L la?jfsf kftx¿df klg
¿kfGt/0f ePsf] kfOG5 . o:tf kftx¿nfO{ ¿kfGtl/t kft elgG5 . dflysf] lrqdf
¿kfGtl/t kftsf s]xL pbfx/0fx¿ b]vfOPsf 5g\ . ltgLx¿sf sfd klg km/s km/s
x'G5g\ . ;du|df kftsf kd| v' sfo{x¿ lgDglnlvt 5g\ .
-c_ kftn] k|sfz ;Z+ ni] f0f lj|mof u/L la?jfsf nflu vfgf agfp5F .
-cf_ l;pF 8L h:tf] la?jfdf kft sf8F fsf] ¿kdf kl/jltt{ eO{ hgfj/x¿af6 ;/' Iff
ub{5 .
-O_ l;pF 8L hftsf la?jfx¿df o;n] vfgf / kfgL hDdf ug]{ sfd ub{5 .
-O{_ sx] L la?jfdf kftaf6 gofF la?jf ljsf; x'G5 . o; lsl;dsf] kh| ggnfO{
kftaf6 x'g] el] h6]l6e kf| ]kfu];g elgG5 .
-p_ ls/f vfg] lj?jf Insectivorous plant df o;n] ls/fx¿nfO{ ;dfpgdf
;xof]u ub5{ .
3.1.4 k"mn / o;sf sfo{x¿ (Flower and its functions)
ljm| ofsnfk 3.5
3G6L k"mn (Hibiscus) jf tf/] Lsf] km" n (mustard flower) jf cGo pknAw km"n cjnf]
sg ugx{' f];\ M
lrq 3.8
-c_ tkfOn“{ ] cjnfs] g u/]sf km"nx¿df s] s] ;dfgtf / s] s] leGgtf kfpge' of] <
-cf_ s] k"mnsf ljleGg efux¿sf] ;ª\Vof ;dfg 5 <
-O_ s] ;a} kmn" x¿ /ªu\ Lg g} xG' 5g\, xf]nf <
-O{_ la?jfdf kmn" sf sfdx¿ s] s] xfn] fg\ <
62 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
;fdfGotof kmn" sf rf/ efux¿ xG' 5g\ . tL efux¿ lgDglnlvt 5g\ M
-c_ kqbn (Calyx) ki' kbn
-cf_ ki' kbn (Corolla) k'ªs\ ]z/
:qLs]z/
-O_ kª' \s]z/ (Androecium) kqbn
-O_{ :qLsz] / (Gynoecium) lrq 3.9
km"nsf] ;ae} Gbf aflx/L efudf /xs] f xl/of kqx¿nfO{ kqbn (Calyx) elgG5 .
o;n] kmn" sf] sf]lknf cj:yfdf leqL efunfO{ hfu] fP/ /fVg] sfd ub5{ . kqbneGbf
leqL efudf /x]sf kmn" sf /ª\uLg efunfO{ ki' kbn (Corolla) elgG5 . ki' kbnn]
ls/fkm6o\ fªu\ f| nfO{ cfslift{ ug{] / ;'uGw lbg] sfd ub{5 . k"mndf /xs] f k'ª\s]z/ /
:qLsz] /n] k/fu;r] g ljm| of (pollination) / uefw{ fg lj|mof (fertilization) df efu
lnG5g\ . kª' \s]z/af6 k/fus0f (pollen grain) :qLs]z/sf] of]lgIf]q (stigma) ;Dd
kU' g] ljm| of k/fu;]rg xf] . o;} u/L uefw{ fg ljm| of egs] f] k/fus0f / c08f0f'sf] ldng
xf] . o; k|ljm| ofkl5 c08f0f' (ovule) lap aG5 eg] c08fzo (ovary) kmn aG5 .
3.1.4 kmn / o;sf sfox{ ¿ (Fruit and its functions)
lj|mofsnfk 3.6
Pp6f:ofpjfufn] e8] flnP/To;nfO{cfwfxg' ]u/Lsf6gx' f;] \/To;sf]leqLagf6] cWoogugx'{ f;] \.lrqdf
b]vfPh:t} s] ;a} efu lrGg ;Sg'eof] < 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ .
PShfs] fk{ d];fs] fk{
PG8f]sfk{
lrq 3.10 kmnsf ljeGg efux¿
kmnsf] ;a} eGbf aflx/sf] tx PShf]sfk{ (Exocarp xf] . To;leqsf] afSnf] ub' L
efu d;] f]sfk{ (Mesocarp) / ;ae} Gbf leqL tx PG8fs] fk{ (Endocarp) xf] .
PG8fs] fk{ leq lapx¿ /x]sf xG' 5g\ . oL tLg}cf6] f txx¿nfO{ ;+o'St ¿kdf kl] /
sfk{ (Pericarp) elgG5 . k]l/sfkn{ ] lapsf] ;/' Iff u5{ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 63
k|foh;f] k"mn km' Ng] la?jfx¿ lapaf6 k|hgg\ u5g{ \ . lapsf] aflx/L ;txdf
seed coat /xs] f] xG' 5 / o;n] lapsf] leqL efusf] ;/' Iff u5{ . lapleq e"|0f
(embryo), PG8f:] kd{ (endosperm) / kmSn6] f (cotyledon) /xs] f xG' 5g\ .
e"|0fdf /l] 8sn (radicle) / Kn'dn' (plumule) xG' 5g\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 3.7
Pp6f lehfPsf] ds} / Pp6f rgfsf] lap lngx' f];\ . b'j} lapx¿sf] seed coat lgsfn]/
lapsf] leqL efusf] cjnf]sg ug{'xf];\ . e"0| fsf] /l] 8sn / Kn'dn' sf] klxrfg u/L 5nkmn
ugx'{ f];\ .
-c_ s] bj' } lapsf] leqL agf]6 ;dfg 5 <
-cf_ s] bj' } lapdf sl6n8] gsf] ;ª\Vof ;dfg 5 <
-O _ s] b'j} lapdf PG8f]:kds{ f] ;fOh ;dfg 5 <
-O{ _ s'g lap PsbnLo / s'g b'O{bnLo xf] <
PsbnLo la?jfsf] lapdf Pp6f dfq kmSn]6f/ 7n' f] PG8f]:kd{ xG' 5g\ . b'O{bnLo la?jfsf]
lapdf b'O{cf]6f kmSn]6f / ;fgf] PG8f]:kd{ x'G5g\ . l5lKkPsf] lap plrt tfkj|md /
kfgLsf] pkl:yltdf pldG| 5 . e"0| fsf] /l] 8snn] h/f agfp“5 eg] Kn'd'nn] sf08 (shoot)
agfp5“ . lapsf] cª\s/' 0fkl5 e|0" f (embryo) g} la?jfsf ¿kdf ljsl;t x'G5 .
kl/ofh] gf sfo{
PsbnLo / b'O{bnLo la?jfx¿sf h/f, kft / k"mnsf] ;S' vf ;ª\ux| ug'x{ f;] \ . o;sf] nflu
lgDglnlvt r/0fx¿ k"/f ugx{' f];\ .
-c_ h/fnfO{ pv]n/] 8f7“ af6 cnu ug{x' f];\ .
-cf_ h/fnfO{ wf]O{ kvfnL ;kmf u/]/ ;'sfpg'xf];\ .
-O_ kft / k"mnnfO{ s]xLa]/ 3fddf /fv/] cf]Onfpg lbgx' f;] \ .
-O_{ ;'sfpgsf nflu df]l8Psf 5'6\6f5'6\6} klqsfsf] lardf cfk"mn] rfx]sf] cj:yfdf
ltgLx¿nfO{ /fv]/ 7'nf] lstfan] lyr]/ /fVgx' f];\ . bO' { lbgsf] cGt/fndf klqsf km]g]{
ug'{xf];\ . cGtdf h/f, kft / k"mnnfO{ km/s km/s kfgfdf 6f;“ ]/ ltgLx¿sf] gfdfs/0f
u/L ljz]iftf nV] gx' f];\ .
64 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
cEof;
!= tn lbOPsf kZgsf] ;xL ljsNkdf l7s lrxg\ -√_ nufpg'xf];\ M
-s_ h/fsf] dV' o sfd s] xf] <
-c_ kfgL / nj0f ;f:] g'
-cf_ vfBkbfys{ f] ;~ro ug{'
-O_ vfBkbfyn{ fO{ k|To]s efudf k¥' ofpg'
-O_{ vfB kbfy{nfO{ kftdf k'¥ofpg'
-v_ ;fdfGotof la?jfsf] sg' efun] k|sfz ;Z+ n]if0f ljm| of ub{5 <
-c_ kft -cf_ 8f7F
-O_ km" n -O{_ kmn
-u_ la?jfsf] sg' cª\u ¿kfGtl/t eO{ ks| fz ;Z+ n]if0f lj|mof klg ub{5 <
-c_ kft -cf_ 8fF7
-O_ km" n -O{_ kmn
-3_ k/fu;r] g ljm| ofdf s] x'G5 <
-c_ k/fus0f aGg] sfo {
-cf_ k/fus0f c08f0f'df k'Ug] sfo {
-O_ k/fus0faf6 k/fugnL aGg] sfo{
-O_{ k/fus0f ofl] gIf]q;Dd kU' g] sfo{
@= tn lbOPsf zAbx¿af6 ;xL zAb 5fg/] vfnL 7fp“df eg{'xf];\ M 65
8fF7, h/f, kft, kmn, km"n, lap
-s_ 6l] G8n« la?jfsf] ======================sf] ¿kfGt/0f xf] .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
-v_ ==================nfO{ la?jfsf] vfgfsf] sf/vfgf elgG5 .
-u_ ;fl] ;Psf] kfgLnfO{ kft;Dd kè' ofpg] sfd===================n] ub{5 .
-3_ df6f]af6 nj0f ;f:] g] sfd ==============n] ub{5 .
#= tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M
-s_ kftsf sg' } bO' c{ f]6f sfdx¿ n]Vg'xf;] \ .
-v_ la?jfsf ¿kfGtl/t 8f7F x¿sf] gfd nV] g'xf];\ .
-u_ h/fsf sg' } tLgcf6] f sfdx¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-3_ 8fF7sf kd| v' sfdx¿ s] s] xg' \ <
-ª_ kf| oh;f] ;'Svf 7fFpdf xs' {g] la?jfx¿sf] kft sf8F fsf ¿kdf ¿kfGtl/t
xb'F f ltgLx¿nfO{ s] kmfObf x'G5 <
-r_ glhss} f] xf6ahf/df /]Zdfn] ;v/v08 / g/]zn] cfn' lsg] 5g\ .
-c_ /Z] dfn] la?jfsf] h/f, kft, kmn jf lap s] lslgg\ < JofVof ugx{' f;] \ .
-cf_ g/z] n] la?jfsf] h/f, kft, kmn jf lap s] lsg] < JofVof ugx{' f;] \ .
-O_ ;v/v08 To;/L ¿kfGtl/t eP/ s] s] sfd u5{ <
-O_{ cfn' To;/L ¿kfGtl/t eP/ s] s] sfd u5{ <
-r_ lrqsf] Pp6f l;dLsf] lapsf] leqL agf6] bv] fOPsf] 5 . o, /, n tyf
j o;sf s]xL efux¿ x'g\ .
-c_ o;sf] sg' sg' efun] goFf la?jf agfp5g\ <
-cf_ lap pdb| f klxnf s'g efu lg:sG5 < oj
-O_ efu …/Ú tyf …nÚ sf] sfd s] s] xf] < /n
-O_{ of] lap uxF s' f] lap eGbf s;/L km/s 5 <
66 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
3.2 9f8 gePsf hgfj/x¿ (Invertebrates)
lrq 3.11
-c_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf ;hLjx¿sf] agf]6df s] km/s 5 <
-cf_ s] ;a} ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/df xf8 xG' 5 <
xfdL xfd|f] j/k/ ljleGg ks| f/sf hgfj/x¿ b]V5f}F . tL dWos] f s'g} hLjdf 9f8 xG' 5
eg] sltkodf 9f8 xFb' }g . xfd|f] j/k/ kfOg] ufO,{ e}F;L, ss' '/, la/fnf], r/f cflb
9f8 ePsf hgfj/ x'g\ . u8o\ fnF} f, lemuF f, hs' f, ;fª\nf, lrKnl] s/f, zª\v]ls/f cflb
9f8 gePsf hgfj/ xg' \ . cem sltko hLjx¿ olt ;fgf x'G5g ls ltgLx¿nfO{
cfvF fn] b]Vg ;lsFbg} . o:tf hLjx¿nfO{ xg] { ;"Idbz{s oGq rflxG5 . cfvF fn] b]Vg
g;lsg] ;fgf hLjx¿ Pp6f sfi] fn] dfq ags] f jf Pssfi] fLo (unicellular) x'G5g\
eg] cGo axs' fi] fLo (multicellular) x'G5g\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 3.8
tkfOs{“ f] 3/÷ljBfno÷aur“} f÷kfv] /L÷vt] ÷rp/ j/k/ cjnfs] g u/L] 9f8 gePsf hgfj/x¿
cjnf]sg ug'{xf;] \ . ltgLx¿sf] agf6] / ltgn] b]vfpg] nIf0fsf cfwf/df ljleGg ;dx" df
ljefhg u/L 5nkmn ug'x{ f;] \ .
nIf0fx¿ z/L/sf] cfsf/ v08 v08 a:g] 7fp“ kv6] f z/L/sf] aflx/L ;tx
uf]nf] r]K6f] k/]sf] gk/]sf] hldg kfgL ePsf] gePsf] ;S' vf lunf]
hLjsf]
gfd 67
cGo b'O{
nIf0fx¿
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
pkoS{' t ljm| ofsnfkaf6 xfdL yfxf kfp5fF} ls 9f8 gePsf hgfj/x¿ klg km/s km/s
lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ . logLx¿nfO{ ;dfgtf / c;dfgtfsf cfwf/df gfc} f]6f kmfOnddf
juLs{ /0f ul/Psf] 5 . h;nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 M
1. Pssf]ifLo hgfj/x¿ (Unicellular animals)
ljm| ofsnfk 3.9
lzIfssf] ;xof]udf ;I" dbzs{ oGqsf] dbtn] cldafsf] cjnf]sg ug'{xf];\ / lrq agfO{
nIf0fx¿sf] ;"rL tof/ ug{x' f;] \ .
lrq 3.12
Pssfi] fLo hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
-s_ Pssfi] fLo hLjx¿sf] z/L/ Pp6f dfq sfi] fn] ags] f] x'G5 .
-v_ logLx¿ kf| ou/L kfgLdf kfOG5g\ / sx] L k/hLjL x'G5g\ .
-u_ Ps 7fpF af6 csf]{ 7fFpdf hfg gSsnL v6' \6f, ˆnfh]nf jf l;lnof xG' 5g\ .
-3_ logLx¿ cd}y'lgs ljlwaf6 kh| gg\ u5{g\ . cdy} l' gs k|hgg\df uefw{ fg ljm| of
geO{ ;Gtfg pTkfbg x'G5 .
Pssfi] fLo hgfj/x¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ kf| 6] f]hfc] f (Protozoa) elgG5 .
o; ;dx" sf pbfx/0fx¿ M cldaf, kf/fd]l;od, ol' Ungf, KnfHdf]l8od xg' \ .
68 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
2. l5b|o'St z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿ (Porous animals)
ljm| ofsnfk 3.10
lzIfssf] ;xofu] df :kfG] hsf] :kl] ;d]gsf] cjnf]sg ug'x{ f;] \ / lrq agfO{ nIf0fx¿sf] ;r" L
tof/ ugx'{ f];\ .
lrq 3.13
l5bo| 'St z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M
-s_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ w]/}cf6] f sfi] faf6 ags] f] x'G5 .
-v_ z/L/ e/L l5b| l5b| ePsf xG' 5g\ h;nfO{ ostia elgG5 / dflyGnf] efudf
Pp6f cln 7'nf] l5b| xG' 5 h;nfO{ osculum elgG5 .
-u_ logLx¿ kfgLdf s]xL j:t;' uF } 6fFl:;P/ /xG5g\ .
-3_ z/L/df /xs] f] l5b|x¿af6 (ostia) af6 kfgL / vfB kbfy{ leq hfG5 . To;}
u/L cgfjZos kbfy{ c:sn' d (osculum) eGg] Kjfnaf6 aflx/ cfp5F .
-ª_ logLx¿n] sfl6Psf] efu kg' MpTkfbg ug{ ;S5g\ . h;nfO{ l/hg] /] ;g elgG5 .
l5bo| S' t hgfj/x¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ kf]l/km]/f (Porifera) elgG5 .
o; ;d"xsf pbfx/0fx¿ M :kf]lGhnf, ;fOsf]g cflb xg' \ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 69
3. vfj] m| f] z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿ (Hollow bodied animals)
ljm| ofsnfk 3.11
xfO8f« sf] :yfoL :nfO8sf] cjnfs] g ugx{' f;] \ / To;sf] lrq agfO{ nIf0fx¿sf] ;r" L tof/ ugx{' f;] \
lrq 3.14 xfO8f« , du' f
vfj] |mf z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ .
-s_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ vf]j|mf] gnL h:tf] xG' 5 .
-v_ d'vsf] rf/}lt/ dl;gf] wfuf] h:tf] 6]G6fsN; xG' 5g\ .
-u_ vfgf lng] / lg:sf;g ug]{ b'j} sfo{ dv' af6 g} u5{g\ .
-3_ logLx¿ 6G] 6fsN;sf] dbtn] vfgf dv' leq n}hfg] / lx88n' ug]{ ub{5g\ .
-ª_ logsf xfFuf jf 6;' f 6l' jm| P/ gofF ;GttL aGb5 . h;nfO{ al8ª elgG5 .
vfj] m| f z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ l;nG] 6/6] f (Coelenterata) elgG5 .
o; ;d"xsf pbfx/0fx¿ M xfO8«f, d'uf, hn] Llkm; cflb x'g\ .
4. r]K6f z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿ (Flat animals)
lj|mofsnfk 3.12
6]kjds{ f] :k]l;d]gsf] cjnfs] g ug{'xf];\ / lrq agfO{ nIf0fx¿sf] ;"rL tof/ ugx{' f;] \ .
lrq 3.15 lne/k\mNos" , 6k] jd{
70 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
rK] 6f z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
-s_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ r]K6f] xG' 5 .
-v_ logLx¿ k/hLjL xG' 5g\ .
-u_ d'vsf ?kdf r';s x'G5 h;af6 r;' ]/ vfg] ub{5g\ .
-3_ logLx¿df kfrg gnLsf] ljsf; ePsf] x'G5 t/ dnåf/ (anus) ljsf; ePsf]
xb'F }g .
-ª_ logLx¿ peolnª\uL x'G5g\ cyf{t Pp6} hgfj/df efn] / kfy] L bj' } kh| gg\ cªu\
x'G5g\ .
rK] 6f hLjx¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ Kn]l6x]lNdGy;] (Platyhelminthes) elgG5 .
o; ;d"xsf hgfj/x¿sf] pbf/0fx¿ M lne/ˆNos' , 6]kjd{ cflb x'g\ .
5. v08 v08 gk/s] f 8fn] fsf/ hgfj/x¿ (Unsegmented cylindrical
animals)
lj|mofsnfk 3.13
P:sl] /;sf] :k]l;d]gsf] cjnfs] g ug{x' f;] \ / lrq agfO{ nIf0fx¿sf] ;r" L tof/ ug'{xf];\ .
lrq 3.16 hs' f (Ascaris), x'sjd{ (Hookworm)
v08 v08 gk/]sf 8fn] fsf/ hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M
-s_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ 8f]nfsf/ xG' 5 t/ v08 v08 k/]sf] xbF' }g .
-v_ z/L/nfO{ So'l6snn] 9fs]sf] x'G5 . Sol' 6sn dg} h:t} kbfy{ xf] .
-u_ kf| oMh;f] logLx¿ k/hLjL x'G5g\ . sx] L kfgLdf :jtGq ¿kdf a:5g\ .
-3_ logLx¿sf efn] / kf]yL a]Unf a]Un} x'G5g\ . To;}n] logLx¿nfO{ Pslnª\uL
hgfj/ elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 71
-ª_ logLx¿df d'v / dnåf/ eP tfklg kfrg k|0ffnL cljsl;t g} x'G5 .
o; ;dx" nfO{ g]dfy]lNdGy]; (Nemathelminthes) elgG5 .
o; ;dx" sf pbfx/0fx¿ M k6] df kg{] hs' f (Ascaris), xs' jd{ (Hookworm) cflb xg' \ .
6. v08 v08 k/s] f 8fn] fsf/ hgfj/x¿ (Segmented cylindrical
animals)
ljm| ofsnfk 3.14
glhss} f] rp/af6 NofPsf] Pp6f u8o\ f}nfsf] cjnf]sg ugx{' f];\ / lrq agfO{ nIf0fx¿sf]
;r" L tof/ ugx{' f;] \ .
lrq 3.17 u8of}nf, hs' f -leech_
v08 v08 k/]sf 8fn] fsf/ hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M
-s_ z/L/ 8f]nfsf/ / v08 v08 k/]sf] xG' 5 .
-v_ z/L/df d'nfod /l;nf] 5fnf xG' 5 / o;}af6 ;f; km5] {g\ .
-u_ kf| o M cfl] ;nf] df6f] / emf8Ldf kfOG5g\ .
-3_ logLx¿df efn] / kfy] L cª\u Pp6d} f xG' 5 cyf{t\ logLx¿ peolnª\uL xG' 5g\ .
-ª_ u8\of}nf / :ofG8jdd{ f /xs] f dl;gf /f}+ h:t} l;6] (Setae) / hs' fdf /xs] f] r'ifs
(sucker) sf] dbtn] lxF88'n u5{g\ .
v08 v08 k/]sf hgfj/x¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ Plgln8f (Annelida) elgG5 .
o; ;dx" sf pbfx/0fx¿ M u8\ofn} f, h'sf cflb x'g\ .
72 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
7. v08 v08 v6' \6f ePsf hgfj/x¿ (Animals with jointed legs)
lj|mofsnfk 3.15 Pp6f ;fªn\ fsf] cjnf]sg ug{'xf;] \ / nIf0fx¿sf] ;"rL tof/ ug{'xf];\ .
lrq ;+ 3.18 nfdv6' \6,] k'tnL, lemu+ d] f5f
v08 v08 v'66\ f ePsf hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M
-s_ logLx¿sf] v6' 6\ f v08 v08 hfl] 8P/ ag]sf xG' 5g\ / / v6' 6\ fx¿ tLg hf]8f
jf To;eGbf a9L ;ªV\ ofdf xG' 5g\ .
-v_ z/L/sf] aflx/L tx sfOl6gn] ags] f] xG' 5 .
-u_ efn] / kfy] L km/s km/s xG' 5g\ .
-3_ k|foh;f] logLx¿df ;+o'St cfFvf kfOG5g\ h;n] ubf{ logLx¿n] 6fpsf]
g3d' fOsg klg rf/}lt/sf j:tx' ¿ :ki6 b]Vg ;S5g\ .
v08 v08 v6' 6\ f ePsf hgfj/x¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ cyf| k{] f8] f (Arthropoda) elgG5 .
o; ;dx" sf pbfx/0fx¿ M nfdv6' 6\ ,] kt' nL, uu6f,] lemuF d] f5f, ;fªu\ nf] cflb xg' \ .
8. g/d z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿ (Soft bodied animals)
lj|mofsnfk 3.16 Pp6f zª\vl] s/fsf] cjnf]sg ug'x{ f];\ / lrq agfO{ nIf0fx¿sf] ;"rL tof/
ug{x' f;] \ .
lrq 3.19 zªv\ l] s/f, l;kL, cS6f]k;
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 73
g/d z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ .
-s_ g/d / d'nfod z/L/ xG' 5 / df+;kz] Ln] ag]sf] v6' \6f xG' 5 . To;sf] dbtn]
logLx¿ lxF88'n u5{g\ .
-v_ oL hgfj/x¿ kfgL / hldg bj' } 7fFpdf kfOG5g\ .
-u_ logLx¿df 6fpsfd] f 6]G6fsN; xG' 5 .
-3_ k|foM h;f]df z/L/nfO{ 9fSg] s8f cfj/0f x'G5 h;nfO{ ;]n (shell) elgG5 .
-ª_ efn] / kf]yL 56' 6\ f 5'6\6} xG' 5g\ '
g/d z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ dfn] :sf (Mollusca) elgG5 .
o; ;dx" sf pbfx/0fx¿ M zªv\ ]ls/f, l;kL, cS6fk] ; cflb x'g\ .
9. sf8“ fo'St 5fnf ePsf hgfj/x¿ (Spiny animals)
lj|mofsnfk 3.17
Pp6f tf/fdf5fsf] :kl] ;hsf] cjnfs] g ugx{' f;] \ / lrq agfO{ nIf0fx¿sf] ;r" L tof/ ugx{' f;] \ .
lrq 3.20 :6f/lkm;, l;–clrg{
sf8“ foS' t 5fnf ePsf hgfj/x¿sf nIf0fx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
-s_ aflx/L z/L/ sf+F8f;lxtsf] cfj/0fn] 9flsPsf] xG' 5 .
-v_ logLx¿ ;db' d| f kfOG5g\ .
-u_ logLx¿sf] 6fpsf] xFb' g} .
-3_ logLx¿df rfn ug{sf] nflu 6o\ a' lkm6 (tube feet) kfOG5g\ .
-ª_ k|fo hLjx¿df l/h]g/] ;g Ifdtf x'G5 .
sf8F foS' t 5fnf ePsf ;d"xnfO{ Plsgf]8df6{ f (Echinodermata) elgG5 .
o; ;dx" sf pbfx/0fx¿ M :6f/lkm;, l;–clrg{ , l; s's'Da/ cflb xg' \ .
74 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
cEof;
!= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] ;xL ljsNkdf ;xL lrxg\ -√_ nufpgx' f];\ M
-s_ zªv\ l] s/f sg' kmfOnddf k5{ <
-c_ Knfl6xl] NdGy;] -cf_ Plgln8f
-O_ lgdfyl] NdGy;] -O{_ dfn] :sf
-v_ sg' kmfOndsf hgfj/x¿ ;db' |df dfq kfOG5g\ <
-c_ kf]l/km/] f -cf_ kf| 6] fh] fj] f
-O_ Olsgf8] df{6f -O_{ df]n:sf
-u_ Pssfi] fLo hgfj/ s'g xf] <
-c_ :kf]Gh -cf_ xfO8f«
-O_ kf/fdl] ;od -O_{ Knfgl] /of
-3_ 8fn] fsf/ t/ v08 v08 z/L/ gePsf hgfj/x¿sf] nIf0f sg' xf] <
-c_ ljsl;t kfrg k|0ffnL ePsf ]
-cf_ z/L/ Sol' 6snn] 9fss] f]
-O_ dnåf/ gePsf ]
-O_{ l;6]af6 rfn ug]{
@= tn lbOPsf zAbx¿af6 ;xL zAb 5fg]/ vfnL 7fpd“ f eg{'xf;] \ .
6]G6fsN;\ lålnª\uL Plgln8f kfl] /km]/f kf| ]6f]hfj] f
-s_ 8fn] fsf/ t/ v08 v08 k/s] f] z/L/ ePsf ;hLjx¿nfO{ kmfOnd=======
=================df /flvG5 .
-v_ rK] 6f] z/L/ ePsf hgfj/x¿ ============================= x'G5g\ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 75
-u_ :kf]GhnfO{ kmfOnd================================df /fVg ;lsG5 .
-3_ ;a} Pssfi] fLo ;hLjx¿nfO{ kmfOnd =====================df /flvPsf] 5 .
#= tn lbOPsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f];\ M
-s_ lbOPsf ;hLjx¿sf] ;DalGwt kmfOndsf] gfd nV] gx' f];\ .
hs' f, lemFu] df5f, tf/fdf5f, u8o\ f}nf, o'lUngf
-v_ kmfOnd cfy|f{]kf]8fsf tLgcf]6f nIf0fx¿ n]Vg'xf;] \ .
-u_ kmfOnd kf| ]6fh] f]cfsf sg' } tLgcf]6f nIf0fx¿ n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-3_ kmfOnd kf/] Lkm/] fsf sg' } tLgcf6] f nIf0fx¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-ª_ kmfOnd Olsgf8] df{6fsf s'g} tLgcf6] f nIf0fx¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-r_ r]K6] ls/f / 8fn] fsf/ ls/fsf] Pp6f ;dfg u0' f / Pp6f c;dfg u0' f
n]Vgx' f];\ .
-5_= kmfOnd df]n:sfdf kg{] hLjsf sg' } tLgcf6] f nIf0fx¿ n]Vg'xf;] \ .
-h_ km/s n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-c_ k|f6] fh] f]cf / kf/] Lkm]/f
-cf_ cfyf| ]k{ f]8f / dfn] :sf
-O+_ u8ofn} f / rg' f{
-O_{ k6] df kg]{ hs' f / /ut ;f:] g] h'sf
-em_ tn lbOPsf hgfj/x¿sf] ;kmf lrq agfpg'xf];\ .
cldaf, u8\ofF}nf, zªv\ ]ls/f, xfO8«f
-`_ k]6df kg]{ h'sf / u8o\ f}nf p:tf p:t} bl] vg] eP tfklg ltgLx¿nfO{
juLs{ /0f ubf{ km/s km/s ;dx" df /fVg'kg]{ sf/0f JofVof ugx'{ f;] \ .
76 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
$= lbOPsf lrq?sf cfwf/df lgDglnlvt kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ lbgx' f;] \ M
lrq 3.21
-s_ sg' hgfj/sf] dv' sf] rf/l} t/ 6G] 6fsN; kfOG5 <
-v_ sg' hgfj/df 6fpsf] xbF' g} <
-u_ sg' hgfj/sf ;a} hLjg kl| j|mof Pp6} sf]ifleq xG' 5 <
-3_ ;db' d| f kfOg] hgfj/ s'g xf] <
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 77
3.3 hLjsfi] f (The Cell)
lbOPsf lrqx¿df O6fn] agfPsf] uf/f] /
;"Idbz{s oGqaf6 b]lvPsf] Kofhsf] sf]if
b]vfOPsf] 5 . tL lrqx¿sf] cjnf]sg ug'{xf;] \
/ oL b'O{cf]6fdf s] ;dfgtf / leGgtf /xs] f
5g\ < 5nkmn ug'x{ f];\ .
h;/L uf/f] jf leQfsf] lgdf0{ f O6F f jf 9ª' u\ faf6 lrq 3.22
ags] f] x'G5 To;} u/L ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/ lgdf{0f
hLjsf]ifaf6 ePsf] xG' 5 . km/s olt dfq xf] ls
O6f lghL{j j:t' xf] eg] hLjsfi] f hLljt x'G5 .
O6fx¿ yKb} hfFbf leQfsf] ;fOh a9b} uP h:t}
sf]ifx¿sf] ;ªV\ of a9b\ f xfdf| ] z/L/sf] ;fOh
klg a9\5 . log} sf]ifx¿ ;hLjx¿sf] hLjgsf
cfwf/ xg' \ . sfi] fnfO{ hLjgsf] ;+/rgfTds /
sfofT{ ds PsfO klg elgG5 . o;sf] sf/0f s]
xfn] f < 5nkmn ugx'{ f];\ . lrq 3.23 ljleGg cfsf/ / ;fOhsf sf]ifx¿
;a} ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/ hLjsfi] faf6 ags] f] x'G5 . sf]ifx¿ ljleGg cfsf/ / ;fOhsf
x'G5g\ lsgeg] ltgLx¿n]
z/L/leq km/s km/s sfd
ug'{ kg]{ xG' 5 . sx] L ;hLjx¿sf]
z/L/ Pp6f sf]ifaf6 ag]sf]
x'G5 h;nfO{ Pssf]ifLo hLj
(unicellular organisms)
elgG5 eg] w/] } sfi] fx¿af6
ag]sf] ;hLjnfO{ ax'sf]ifLo
;hLj (multicellular
organism) elgG5 . lrq 3.24
ax'sf]ifLo hLjdf sf]ifx¿n] tGt,' tGtx' ¿n] cª\u, cªu\ x¿n] k|0ffnL / k0| ffnLx¿sf]
;d"xaf6 ;hLjsf] z/L/ ag]sf] x'G5 . o;} u/L la?jfx¿sf] z/L/ lgdf0{ f jg:klt
78 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
sf]ifn] ub5{ g\ eg] hgfj/x¿sf] z/L/ lgdf0{ f hgfj/sf]ifn] ub{5g\ . ;a} ;hLjx¿sf]
z/L/sf] lgdf0{ f sfi] fx¿n] g} u/s] f xG' 5g\ .
s] jg:kltsf] z/L/ lgdf0{ f ug{] sfi] f / hgfj/sf] z/L/ lgdf0{ f ug{] sfi] f Pp6} lsl;dsf
xG' 5g\ xfn] f < lrqsf] cjnf]sg u/L cfsf/ / agf]6df km/s 56' o\ fpg'xf;] \ .
lj|mofsnfk 3.18
Pp6f 6'ylkssf] km/flsnf] 5]paf6
ufnfleqsf] ;txdf 3fp gx'g] u/L
lj:tf/} sf]6\ofP/ cfPsf] kbfy{nfO{ Pp6f
:nfO8dfly /fVg'xf;] \ . o;kl5 To;dfly
Ps yf]kf ldyfOlng An' /fv/] se/l:nkn]
xfjfsf] kmf]sf g/xg] u/L 9fSg'xf];\ . lrq 3.25 dflg;sf] ufnfsf] sfi] f
ca To; :nfO8nfO{ ;"Idbz{s oGqåf/f
x]g{x' f;] \ . bl] vPsf] /rgfsf] lrq agfO{ gfdfs/0f ugx'{ f;] \ . o;sf] Gol' Sno;, sf]
iflemNnL / ;fO6fK] nfHd lrGgsf] nflu lbOPsf] lrqsf] dbt lng'xf;] \ .
ls|ofsnfk 3.19
Pp6f KofhnfO{ laraf6 b'O{ 6j' m| fdf sf6/]
To;sf] afj] m| f lgsfNgx\ f;] \ . To;kl5 To;
Kofhsf] Pp6fkq lgsfnL To;sf] leqkl66\ sf]
kftnf] lemNnL 56' o\ fpgx' f;] \ . To; lemNnLnfO{
jfr Unf;df /flvPsf] :ofkm| flggdf bO' { ldg6]
8a' fP/ /fVgx' f;] \ . To; kl5 pSt lemNnLnfO{ lrq 3.26 Kofhsf] sfi] f
jfrUnf;df /flvPsf] l8l:6N8 jf6/df
sx] La/] sf] nflu /fVgx' f;] \ . ca Pp6f :nfO8 dfly 1 yfk] f lUn:fl/g /fv/] To;df
pSt lemNnLnfO{ /fv/] se/l:nkn] 9fSg'xf];\ / ;"Idbz{s oGqåf/f x]g{x' f;] \ .
b]lvPsf] agf6] sf] lrq agfP/ To;sf ljleGg efux¿sf] gfdfs/0f ug[{'xf;] \ .
ufnfsf] sfi] f / Kofhsf] sfi] fdf tn' gf u/L hgfj/ / jg:klt sfi] f lar km/s
kQf nufpgx' f];\ / sIffdf k:| t't ugx{' f;] \ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 79
jg:kltsfi] f / hGts' fi] fsf] agf]6 (Structure of plant and animal
cells)
lbOPsf] lrqdf hgfj/ / jg:klt sfi] fx¿sf] lrq cjnfs] g ugx'{ f;] \ / lgDglnlvt
kZ| gdf 5nkmn ug{x' f;] \ M
-c_ hgfj/ sfi] fdf kfOg] t/ jg:klt sfi] fdf gkfOg] sf]ifsf cjojx¿ s] s] xg' \ <
-cf_ jg:klt sfi] fdf kfOg] t/ hgfj/ sfi] fdf gkfOg] sfi] fsf cjojx¿ s] s] xfn] fg\ <
-O_ s] b'j} sfi] fsf aflx/L ;txx¿ Pp6} df6] fOsf 5g\ < o;n] ubf{ hgfj/ /
jg:kltsfi] fx¿sf cfsf/df s] km/s x'G5 xf]nf <
lrq 3.27
ba' } sfi] fsf d'Vo ¿kn] tLgcf6] f cjojx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . ;a}eGbf aflx/ sf]iflemNnL
(cell membrane) xG' 5 h;n] ;fO6fK] nfHd / Gol' Sno;nfO{ 3/] ]/ /fVb5 . jg:klt
sf]ifdf sfi] flemNnL (cell membrane) aflx/ sfi] f leQf (cell wall) klg xG' 5
hg' afSnf] txsf] ¿kdf b]lvG5 . ;fO6fK] nfHddf w/] } lsl;dsf cGo cjojx¿
klg /xs] f xG' 5g\ . o:tf cjojx¿df dfO6f]sf]lG8o« f, Eofsn' , Knfl:68, uNuL a8L,
;G] 6f« h] fd] cflb kb{5g\ . sf]ifsf s]xL kd| v' cjojx¿sf] 5f6] f] j0fg{ tn ul/Psf] 5 .
-s_ sfi] f leQf (Cell wall )
sf]if leQf afSnf] x'G5 / ;]n'nf]h eGg] lghLj{ kbfya{ f6 ags] f] xG' 5 . sf]if leQfn]
sfi] fnfO{ arfpg] / cfsf/ lbg] sfo{ ub{5 .
-v_ sf]if lemNnL (cell membrane)
sf]iflemNnL hgfj/ / jg:klt sfi] f b'j}df kfOG5 . of] kftnf] / tGsg] x'G5 . of] dV' o
¿kn] lnlk8 eGg] hLljt kbfy{af6 ags] f] x'G5 . o;n] sf]ifnfO{ rflxg] cfjZos
80 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
kbfyx{ ¿nfO{ 5fg/] sfi] fleq hfg lbg] / grflxg] kbfy{ sfi] faflx/ hfg lbg] sfo{ ub5{ .
-u_ ;fO6f]KnfHd (Cytoplasm)
sf]iflemNnL / Go'lSno;sf] lardf /x]sf] cw{t/n kbfy{nfO{ ;fO6f]KnfHd
elgG5 . of] kfgL, nj0f / kf| l] 6g ldn/] ags] f] xG' 5 . o;leq sfi] fsf ljleGg cjojx¿
/xs] f xG' 5g\ .
-3_ Go'lSno; (Nucleus)
;fO6fK] NffHddf kfOg] uf]nfsf/ jf c08fsf/ j:tn' fO{ Go'lSno; elgG5 . of] Go'lSno/
dD] ag]| , Gol' Sncf]KnfHd, Gol' Sncfn] ;\ / Go'lSno/ a8L jf j|mf]dfl6g u/L rf/cf6] f efu
ldn/] ag]sf] x'G5 . o;n] sf]ifsf ljleGg lj|mofsnfkx¿nfO{ lgoGq0f ub{5 .
-ª_ dfO6f]sfl] G8o« f (Mitochondria)
hgfj/ sf]if / jg:klt sfi] f bj' }df kfOg] of] cjoj nfDrf] cfsf/df /x]sf] x'G5 .
o;n] hLjx¿df Zjf;k|Zjf; lj|mof ;~rfng u5{ / zlSt e08f/0f u5{ . o;nfO{
hLjx¿sf] zlStsf] e08f/ klg elgG5 .
-r_ Knfli68 (Plastid)
Knfli68 jg:klt sf]ifdf dfq kfOg] cjoj xf] h;n] vfBkbfy{x¿sf] lgdf0{ f / ;Gro
ub{5 . o;sf ;fy} k"mn tyf kmnnfO{ cfsif{s /ª lbg] sfd;dt] o;n] ub5{ .
la?jfsf] sfi] fdf Snf/] f:] nfi6, jm| fd] fK] nf:6 / Nos' fK] nf:6 u/L tLg ks| f/sf Knfl:68x¿
kfOG5g\ . Snf/] f]Knf:6df xl/ts0f kfOG5 hg' la?jfsf] sfG8 / kftdf kfOG5 .
j|mf]dfK] nf:6 km"n / kmnx¿df kfOG5 eg] No'sfK] nf:6 la?jfsf] h/f tyf hldgd'lg
x'g] sfG8df kfOG5 .
-5_ Eofsn' (Vacuole)
k|foh;f] Eofsn' jg:klt sf]if / hgfj/ sf]if b'j}df kfOG5 . Eofs'n kf/bz{s
t/n kbfyn{ ] el/Psf xG' 5fg\ . sx] L hgfj/ sf]ifdf Eofs'n kfObg} / kfPsf] v08df
ltgLx¿sf] ;fOh jg:klt sf]ifdf /x]sf] Eofsn' sf] eGbf ;fgf] x'G5 . o;n] sf]ifdf
/xs] f] kfgLsf] dfqfnfO{ ;Gt'lnt /fVg] ub5{ .
-h_ ;]G6fh] fd] (Centrosome)
;G] 6fh] fd] hgfj/sfi] fdf dfq kfOG5 . of] Gol' Sno; glhs} /xs] f] xG' 5 / ;I" d l;lnG8/
cfsf/sf] x'G5 . o;n] sfi] f ljefhg sfo{df e"ldsf v]Nb5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 81
-em_ PG8f]KnflHds /l] 6sn' d (Endoplasmic reticulum)
P08f]KnflHds /]l6s'nd ;fO6f]KnfHddf clgoldt Rofg]nsf] ;~hfnsf] ¿kdf /x]sf]
xG' 5 . o;n] Gol' Sno; d]Dag]| nfO{ sfi] flemNnL;uF hf8] g\ ] ub5{ . o;sf ;fy} o;n]
;fO6fK] nfHddf oflGqs ;xofu] (mechanical support) kb| fg ub{5 .
-`_ nfO;f]hfd] (Lysosome)
nfO;fh] fd] kfrg OGhfOdoS' t Ps lsl;dsf] sfi] f cjoj xf] . o;n] sf]ifdf ljleGGg
kfl} i6s tŒjx¿ krfpg /; pTkfbg u5{ .
-6_ /fOafh] f]d (Ribosome)
P08f]KnflHds /]l6s'ndsf] 6\o'a;Fu 6fFl;Psf w]/} ;fgf uf]nfsf/ ;+/rgfnfO{
/fOafh] fd] elgG5 . logLx¿ ;fO6f]KnfHddf klg kfOG5g\ . /fOaf]hf]dn] sfi] fdf
kf| l] 6g ;+Zni] f0f ug]{ sfo{ ub{5 .
kl/ofh] gf sfo{
Pp6f rf6{k]k/ ;fOhsf] sf8a{ f]8{ jf KnfOp8sf] 6'jm| f lng'xf];\ . To;dfly df6f,]
ydfs{] fn] jf cGo pkoS' t ;fduL| sf] ko| f]u u/L jg:klt sfi] f / hgfj/ sf]ifsf]
gd'gf tof/ ug'x{ f];\ . sf]ifdf ePsf cjojx¿nfO{ pko'St /ª nufO{ ljleGg efusf]
gfdfs/0f klg ugx'{ f];\ .
ls|ofsnfk 3.20
hgfj/ / jg:klt sfi] fsf] lrq x]/L lbOPsf cjojx¿nfO{ ;“us} f] e]g 8fouf| ddf plrt :yfg
lbgx' f];\ .
sf]ifsf cjojx¿
sf]iflemNnL, sfi] fleQf, ;fO6fK] nfHd, Go'lSno;, dfO6fs] f]lG8«of, Eofsn' , Knfl:68,
/fOaf]hfd] , nfO;fh] fd]
jg:klt sf]ifdf bj' } sf]ifdf hgfj/ sfi] fdf
dfq kfOg] kfOg] dfq kfOg]
82 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
cEof;
!= tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿sf] ;xL ljsNkdf l7s lrxg\ -√_ nufpgx' f];\ M
-s_ sg' cjoj hgfj/ sfi] fdf dfq kfOG5 <
-c_ Eofsn' -cf_ Knfl:68
-O_ sfi] f leQf -O_{ ;]G6f« ]hf]d
-v_ s'g cjojsf] pkl:yltn] ubf{ la?jf xl/of] xG' 5 <
-c_ Eofsn' -cf_ Knfli68
-O_ sfi] f leQf -O{_ ;]G6«fh] fd]
-u_ sg' cjojn] cw{ k|j]Zo txsf] sfd u5{ <
-c_ sfi] f lemNnL -cf_ PG8f]KnflHds /]l6sn' d \
-O_ sf]if leQf -O{_ Eofs'n
-3_ la?jfsf]ifdf dfq kfOg] cjoj s'g xf] <
-c_ dfO6f]sf]lG8«of -cf_ Eofs'n
-O_ sfi] flemNnL -O_{ sfi] fleQf
@= tn lbOPsf zAbx¿af6 ;xL zAb 5fg]/ vfnL 7f“pdf eg'{xf];\ M
Knfl:68, dfO6fs] f]lG8«of, Gol' Sno;\ , Eofsn' , ;fO6fK] nfHd
-s_ sfi] f leqsf] x/s] lj|mofsnfknfO{ lgoGq0f ug]{ sfd================n] ub{5 .
-v_ sf]ifsf] zlStux[ =============================xf] .
-u_ la?jfx¿nfO{ vfgf agfpg] sfod{ f ========================n] ;xof]u ub5{ .
-3_ sf]ifsf] Gol' Sno; / sf]if lemNnLsf] afrdf kml} nP/ /x]sf] t/n kbfyn{ fO{
==========================elgG5 .
#= km/s nV] gx' f];\ M
-s_ sf]if lemNnL / sfi] f leQf
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 83
-v_ jg:klt sf]if / hgfj/ sf]if
-u_ Eofsn' / dfO6fs] f]lG8o« f
$= tn lbOPsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ nV] g'xf;] \ M
-s_ sf]if egs] f] s] xf] <
-v_ sf]ifnfO{ hLjgsf] cfwf/et" PsfO dflggs' f] sf/0f nV] g'xf];\ .
-u_ dfO6f]sfl] G8o« fnfO{ zlStux[ elgG5, lsg <
-3_ jg:klt sf]if / hgfj/sfi] fsf] ;kmf lrq agfO{ gfdfs/0f ug'{xf];\ .
-ª_ hgfj/ sfi] fdf dfq kfOg] cjojx¿ s] s] x'g\ < pNnv] ug'x{ f];\ .
-r_ ;fO6f]KnfHddf kfOg] s'g} rf/ xjojx¿sf] gfd n]Vg'xf];\ .
-5_ sfi] fsf] leqL agf6] sf] cWoog ugs{ f nflu kf| oh;f] jg:kltsfi] fsf] 5gf6]
ug{' kg]{ sf/0f s] xfn] f < 5f6] s/Ldf JofVof ug{x' f;] \ .
-h_ lbOPsf] jg:klt sf]ifsf] lrqsf] cWoog u/L lgDg lnlvt k|Zgx¿sf]
pQ/ lbgx' f];\ .
-c_ hgfj/ / jg:klt sf]if b'jd} f kfOg] efux¿ s'g sg' xg' \ <
-cf_ la?jfsf] vfgfsf] sf/vfgf pkgfdaf6 lrlgg] jm' g efu xf] <
-O_ sfi] fsf] zlStu[x pkgfdaf6 lrlgg] efu s'g xf] .
-O_{ o; sf]ifsf] cfsf/ lgoldt xg' ] sf/0f s] xfn] f <
-p_ o; sfi] fdf kfOg] sg' efusf] pkl:yltn] ubf{ la?jfx¿n] jftfj/0fLo
;Gt'ng agfO{ /fVgdf ;xofu] ug{ ;ss] f xg' \ < JofVof ug'{xf;] \ .
84 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
$ h}ljs ljljwtf / jftfj/0f
(Biodiversity and Environment)
s] rf}F/L t/fO{ / lxdfn b'j} 7fFpdf
kfOG5, lsg xf]nf < s] t/fO{ / lxdfnsf]
jftfj/0f ;dfg x'G5 < km/s km/s
jftfj/0fdf km/s km/s lsl;dsf
hgfj/ / la?jfdf kfOG5g\ . ;;+ f/df
/x]sf ljleGg lsl;dsf hgfj/ /
jg:kltx¿ xfd}| jftfj/0fsf cjojx¿ lrq g+ 4.1
xg' \ . xfdf| ] bz] ;fgf] eP tfklg jftfj/0fdf
kfOg] ljljwtfsf sf/0fn] ubf{ b]zsf] ;fgf] e"efudf klg w]/} lsl;dsf jg:klt /
hgfj/x¿ kfOG5g\ . t/fOd{ f kfOg] hgfj/ / jg:klteGbf kxf8 / lxdfndf kfOg]
hgfj/ / jg:klt km/s xG' 5g\ . o;/L km/s km/s lsl;dsf hgfj/ / la?jf kfOgn' fO{
g} hl} js ljljwtf elgG5 . hl} js ljljwtf / jftfj/0flar lgs} 3lgi6 ;DaGw /xs] f]
xG' 5 . o; PsfOcGtut{ jftfj/0f / o;sf] ;Gtn' g, kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] , o;sf] juLs{ /0f
/ ljgfz, hn;f| t] , hnfwf/ / l;d;f/ tyf 7f;] kmfx] f/] dn} fsf] Joj:yfkg /xs] f 5g\ .
4.1 jftfj/0f / o;sf] ;Gtn' g (Environment and its balance)
4.1 lj|mofsnfk
tkfOs{“ f] 3/ jf ljBfno j/k/ kfOg] ;hLj / lghLj{ x¿sf] ;"rL agfpg'xf];\ / sIffdf kb| zg{
ug{'xf];\ .
;hLj j:t' lghL{j j:t'
!= !=
@= @=
============== ============
;hLjx¿n] lghL{jx¿dfly s] s] s'/fdf lge{/ xG' 5g\ < ;hLjx¿n] w]/} dfqfdf
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 85
lghL{jx¿sf] pkof]u u/]df s] x'G5 < xfd|f]
j/k/sf] s'g} Ps lsl;dsf] ;hLjsf] ;ª\
Vof a9\of] jf 36o\ f] eg] cGo ;hLjsf] ;ª\
Vofdf s] c;/ kb{5 xfn] f < s] lghLj{ sf] dfqf
jf agf]6df kl/jtg{ xFb' f To;sf] c;/ To;
jftfj/0fdf /x]sf hgfj/ / jg:kltdf klg
bl] vG5 xfn] f, lsg <
xfdf| ] j/k/ /xs] f ;hLj / lghLj{ x¿sf] ;dli6ut
¿k g} jftfj/0f xf] . xfdL jftfj/0faf6
ljleGg k|fs[lts ;|f]tx¿sf] k|of]u ul//x]sf
x'G5f}F . jftfj/0fdf /x]sf ;a} cjojx¿ lrq g+ 4.2
;Gtl' nt dfqf / :j¿kdf /x]df dfq xfdL afRF g ;S5f}F . ;Gtl' nt jftfj/0f g} xfd|f]
hLjgsf] k|dv' cfwf/ xf] .
lbg k|ltlbg dflg;sf] ;ª\Vof a9\bf] j|mddf 5 . a9\bf] hg;ª\Vof, ;x/Ls/0f /
cfB} fu] Ls/0fn] ubf{ ljleGg k|fsl[ ts ;f| ]tx¿sf] dfu / vkt lgs} a9\bf] b/df
eO/x]sf] 5 . ljleGg dfgjLo lj|mofsnfkn] ubf{ oL kf| s[lts k0| ffnLdf c;Gt'ng
eO/x]sf] 5 h;nfO{ jftfj/0fLo c;Gt'ng jf kofj{ /0fLo c;Gt'ng elgG5 .
xfdLn] kof{j/0f hf]ufpgsf nflu e/k/' ko| f; ug'{k5{ / kf| sl[ ts ;Gtn' g sfod
ug{] pkfox¿ cjnDag ug{k' 5{ .
4.1.1 k|fs[lts ;f| t] x¿ (Natural resources)
lj|mofsnfk 4.2
tkfOn“{ ] cfkmg\ f] j/k/ kfOg] s] s:tf kf| s[lts ;f| t] x¿sf] k|of]u ug{x' G' 5 < tL ;f| ]tx¿ / ltgsf]
pkofu] nfO{ tflnsfdf eg{x' f];\ .
kf| sl[ ts ;|ft] pkof]u
!= kfgL vfgf ksfpg, lkpg, vt] LkftL ug{, l;rfO ug,{ df5f kfNg, kfgL 366\
rnfpg, ljBt' \ lgsfNg, kf8} L vN] g cflb .
@
=======
86 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
kf| s[lts ;|f]t dfgj ;db' fosf
nflu k|sl[ tsf] j/bfg xf] . xfdLn]
kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] x¿af6 xfdf| nflu
vfgf kf| Kt ub5{ f} . xfdf| ] bl} gs
hLjgdf ko| fu] xg' ] sfO] nf, k6] f« l] nod
cflb h:tf OGwgx¿ log} kf| sl[ ts
;f| t] x¿af6 g} kf| Kt xG' 5 . snsf/
vfgfx¿df lgdf0{ f xg' ] ljleGg
lsl;dsf bl} gs ko| fu] sf j:tx' ¿sf] lrq 4.3
lgdf0{ f ugs{ f nflu ko| fu] xg' ] sRrf kbfyx{ ¿ kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] g} xg' \ . k|sl[ tdf pknAw tL
;a} kbfyx{ ¿ h;sf] pkof]u dflg;n] ug{ ;Sb5 tL ;a} k|fsl[ ts ;f| t] xg' \ . o:tf
k|fs[lts ;|f]tx¿Dff ;"o,{ kfgL, xfjf, df6f] / r66\ fg tyf o;df kfOg] vlghx¿,
jg;Dkbf, hgfj/ / ag:klt tyf sf]Onf / k]6f« l] nodh:tf OGwgx¿ kb{5g\ . oL
kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] x¿n] ubf{ g} kY[ jLdf ;hLjx¿nfO{ afRF g ;Dej ePsf] xf] . dflg;n]
o:tf k|fs[lts ;|ft] x¿sf] pkof]u j:t' pTkfbg ug,{ pBf]ux¿ rnfpg, v]tLkftL
ug{ cflbsf] nflu ub{5g\ .
kl/ofh] gf sfo{
kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] x¿df cfwfl/t cfkmg\ f] j/k/ ePsf pBfu] x¿sf] ;r" L agfpgx' f;] \ . o:tf pBfu] x¿n]
s] s:tf k|fsl[ ts ;f| ]tx¿sf] k|of]u ub5{ g\ < ltgLx¿sf] gfd n]v]/ sIffdf k:| t't ug{'xf];\ .
4.1.2 kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] sf] juLs{ /0f (Classification of natural resources)
ljm| ofsnfk 4.3
tkfOn{ ] cfk\mgf] j/k/ s] s:tf kf| s[lts ;|f]tx¿ b]Vg' ePsf] 5 . tL ;f| t] x¿sf ;Dawdf
5nkmn u/L tnsf] tflnsf eg'{xf];\ M
;hLjx¿af6 lghL{jx¿af6 l/lQPkl5 l56} l/lQPkl5 l56} k|fKt
kf| Kt xg' ] k|fKt xg' ] k|fKt ug{ ;lsg] ug{ g;lsg]
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 87
kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] x¿nfO{ km/s km/s cfwf/df
ljleGg ;d"xdf 56' \ofpg] ul/G5 . o;nfO{
kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] sf] juLs{ /0f elgG5 . logLx¿
k|fKt ul/g] cfwf/df h}ljs / ch}ljs
;|f]tsf] ;d"xdf ljefhg ug{
;lsG5 . jg;Dkbf h}ljs k|fs[lts;|f]
t x'g\ eg] ljleGg vlgh tn] / UoFf;sf
;fy} cGo vlghx¿ch}ljs k|fs[lts
;|f]t x'g\ . k|fs[lts ;|f]tnfO{ k'g M lrq 4.4
k|fKt ug{ ;lsg]jf g;lsg] cfwf/df
o;nfOg{ jLs/0fLo -renewable_ kf| sl[ ts
;|ft] / cgjLs/0fLo -non renewable_ kf| s[lts ;f| t] df ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 .
xfjf / ;o" { h:tf kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] x¿nfO{ hlt ko| fu] u/] klg ltgLx¿sf] l/lQg] ;Defjgf
Gog" 5 . df6f] jg;Dkbf / kfgLnfO{ k6s k6s ko| fu] df Nofpg ;lsG5 . jfo,' kfgL,
;o" ,{ jg;Dkbf, df6f] cflb gjLs/0fLo kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] sf pbfx/0f xg' \ . t;y{ gjLs/0fLo
kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] eGgfn] o:tf kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] x¿nfO{ hgfp5F hg' ks| l[ tdf ls t c;Lldt
dfqfdf kfOG5g\ jf l/lQPkl5 ltgLx¿nfO{ kg' :yfl{ kt ug{ sd ;do nfU5 .
sf]Onf tyf k]6«f]lnod h:tf OGwgx¿nfO{ k|of]u ub}{ hfFbf ltgLx¿sf] l/lQg]
;Defjgf a9L xG' 5 lsgeg] ltgLx¿ aGgsf nflu nfvfF} jif{ nfU5 . logLx¿ aGg]
:yfgdf l/lQPkl5 ltgLx¿nfO{ 5f]6f] ;dodf kg' :yfl{ kt ug{ ;lsFbg} . o;} u/L
wft' / r66\ fgx¿nfO{ klg l/lQPkl5 yf]/} ;dodf kg' :yf{lkt ug{ ;lsbF g} . sf]Onf,
k]6«f]lnod, vlgh tn] , wft,' r66\ fg cflb cgjLs/0fLo kf| s[lts ;f| t] sf pbfx/0f
xg' \ . cgjLs/0fLo kf| s[lts ;|f]t eGgfn] o:tf kf| s[lts ;|f]tx¿nfO{ hgfp5F h;nfO{
ks| l[ tdf aGgsf nflu nfvfF} jif{ nfU5 . o;} sf/0f l/lQPkl5 ltgLx¿nfO{ yf/] } ;dodf
kg' :yf{lkt ug{ ;lsbF g} .
kl/of]hgf sfo{
tkfOs“{ f] 3/ j/k/, ljBfno j/k/, ;db' fodf s] s:tf gjLs/0fLo / cgjLs/0fLo kf| sl[ ts
;|f]tx¿ 5g,\ vfh] L ug{x' f;] \ . tL gjLs/0fLo k|fs[lts ;|f]tx¿ s'g s'g sfo{sf nflu ko| f]u
ul/G5g\ < tflnsf agfO{ sIffdf k:| tt' ug{x' f;] \ .
88 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
4.1.3 hn;|ft] , hnfwf/ / l;d;f/sf] dxŒj (Importance of water
sources, watersheds and wetlands)
lrqdf sg' ks| f/sf hn;f| t] bV] ge' of] < tkfOsF{ f]
a:g] 7fpFdf kfgLsf s] s:tf k|fs[lts ;|f]tx¿
5g\ < s] tL ;|ft] x¿df jif}e{ l/ kfgL eO/xG5 <
tkfO{Fsf] ;d'bfodf pSt ;|f]tsf] ;+/If0f s;/L
ul/Psf] 5 <
kfgL Pp6f gjLs/0fLo k|fs[lts ;|f]t xf] .
ks| l[ tdf kfgL ljleGg :yfg / ljleGg ¿kdf /xs] f] xG' 5 h;nfO{lrhqn;4.f|5t] elgG5 . kfgL
el" dut (underground) jf ;txL (surface) u/L b'O{ lsl;dsf] x'G5 . hnfwf/
(watershed) / l;d;f/ If]q (wetland area) klg o:t} hn;|f]tsf pbfx/0f
x'g\ . hnfwf/ eGgfn] o:tf] ;txIf]qnfO{ hgfpF5 hxfFaf6 jiff{sf] axfa
;ª\slnt eO{ Pp6f laGba' f6 cGo ;|f]tdf ldl;G5 . of] Pp6f ;fgf] kfv] /Lbl] v xhf/f}
lsnfl] d6/ Ifq] cfu] 6s] f] gbLsf ¿kdf xg' ;Sb5 . l;d;f/ Ifq] eGgfn] o:tf Ifq] x¿nfO{
ae' mfp5F hxfF jife{ l/ kfgLn] hldgnfO{ 9fss] f] xG' 5 jf kfgL hldg glhs} /xs] f] xG' 5 . xfdf| ]
bz] df yk' }| l;d;f/ Ifq] x¿ Kffv] /L, gbL, tfn cflbsf ¿kdf /xs] f 5g\ .
hn;f| ]tx¿n] k|fsl[ ts ;Gtn' g sfod /fVg] sfo{df dxŒjk"0f{ el" dsf v]Nb5g\ .
hn;f| ]t, hnfwf/ / l;d;f/sf dxŒjnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M
!= hnfwf/ / l;d;f/ Ifq] df kfOg] la?jf / hgfj/x¿ dflg;nufot cGo hgfj/
x¿sf vfgfsf ;|ft] x'g\ .
@= w/] } lsl;dsf hgfj/ / la?jfx¿sf nflu o:tf Ifq] n] jf;:yfg pknAw u/fp5F g\ .
#= w]/} lsl;dsf r/fx¿n] o:tf If]qx¿df aRrf sf]/Ng,] k|lts"n df;} ddf c:yfoL
a;f]af;sf ¿kdf ko| f]u ug{] ub{5g\ .
$= o:tf If]qx¿n] jiffs{ f] kfgLsf] ;ªs\ ng ug{] / ljleGg k|ofh] gsf nflu k|of]u
x'g] kfgLsf ;|ft] sf] sfd ub5{ g\ .
%= o:tf If]qx¿n] jftfj/0fLo tfkj|mddf ;Gtn' g ug{ / hnrj|m ;~rfngdf klg
dxŒjk"0f{ el" dsf vN] b5g\ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 89
4.2 k|fsl[ ts ;f| t] sf] ljgfz (Depletion of natural resources)
tnsf] lrq cjnf]sg u/L lgDglglvt kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \ M
lrq 4.6 89n] f,] ;x/Ls/0f
-c_ 89]nfn] jghª\undf /x]sf ?vx¿ aln/xbF f af]6la?jfsf] ljgfzsf ;fy} cGo
s] s:tf kf| s[lts ;|ft] x¿dfly k|ToIf / ckT| oIf c;/ ub{5 <
-cf_ jghª\unnfO{ 89]nf]af6 hfu] fpg s] s:tf k|of; ug{ ;lsG5 <
-O_ ;x/Ls/0fn] k|fs[lts ;f| t] sf] ljgfz s;/L u5{ <
-O_{ kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] sf] ljgfz cGo s] s] sf/0fn] x'g] ub5{ <
lj|mofsnfk 4.5
cfÇgf cleefjs;u“ klxnf ePsf kfgLsf kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] , kfOg] hªu\ nL hgfj/sf] ;ªV\ of /
glhssf] jghªu\ nsf af/d] f ;fw] /] hfgsf/L lngx' f;] \ / tnsf] tflnsf e/L sIffdf k:| tt' ugx{' f;] \ M
k|fsl[ ts ;f| ]t klxnfsf] cj:yf clxn]sf] cj:yf km/skg xg' fsf]
cg'dflgt sf/0f
kfgL
hªu\ nL hgfj/
jghª\un
cleefjsx¿n] eGge' Psf] / tkfOnF{ ] b]vs] f] clxn]sf] cj:yfdf km/skg x'g] sf/0f
s] xg' ;Sb5, 5nkmn ug'{xf;] \ .
dflg;sf] hg;ªV\ of lbg kl| tlbg al9/xs] f] 5 . a9\bf] hg;ªV\ ofn] ubf{ dflg;n]
ko| f]u ug{] wft,' vlgh tn] , k|fsl[ ts Uof;F cflbsf] ko| fu] / dfu klg a9]s} 5 .
jghªu\ nsf] km8fgL bt'| ultdf ePsf] cj:yf 5 . dfgjLo / kf| sl[ ts sf/0faf6
jghªu\ ndf x/s] jif{ 89n] f] nfu/] jg;Dkbf gfz xg' ] / jftfj/0f kb| i" f0f xg' ] u/s] f]
90 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
5 . o;n] ubf{ hl} js ljljwtfdf klg x|f; cfPsf] 5 . yf/] } v]tLofU] o hldgaf6
w/] } pAhgL lngsf nflu kr| '/ dfqfdf k|of]u ul/Psf /f;folgs dn / ls6gfzsn]
df6fsf] pj/{ ffzlSt 36\bf] j|mddf /x]sf] 5 . snsf/vfgfsf] ;ª\Vof a9\b} uPsf]
x'gfn] ;f; kmg] {sf nflu z4' xfjf kfpg dl' :sn ePsf] 5 eg] hn;Dkbfsf] :t/
klg 3l6/x]sf] cj:yf 5 . k|fs[lts ;f| t] x¿sf] k|lt:yfkgeGbf ltgLx¿sf] ko| fu] sf]
b/ a9b\ f kf| sl[ ts ;|ft] x¿sf] ljgfz x'Fb} uPsf] 5 . kf| s[lts ;|ft] x¿sf] ljgfzsf
sf/s tŒjx¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M
!= a9\bf] hg;ª\Vof / cJojl:yt a;fO;F /fO
@= c;'/lIft v]tL k0| ffnL
#= jghª\un km8fgL / 89]nf]
$= kf| s[lts ;f| t] x¿sf] cTolws vkt
%= cTolws k|b"if0f
^= cfB} f]lus / kf| ljlws ljsf;
ljm| ofsnfk 4.6
k|fs[lts ;|f]tx¿sf] ljgfz x'“bf xfd|f] b}lgsLdf s] c;/ kg{ ;S5, tflnsfdf lbOPsf
If]qx¿df kg{] c;/ / pSt c;/sf] Gog" Ls/0f ug{] pkfo pNn]v ug{'xf;] \ .
j|m=;= c;/ kg{] If]q c;/x¿ Gog" Ls/0fsf pkfox¿
!= kfgL
@= OGwg
#= jghªu\ n
$= vlgh r6\6fg / wft'
%= hl} js ljljwtf
kl/ofh] gf sfo{
tkfOs“{ f] 3/ jf ljBfno jf ;db' fo j/k/ /xs] f kf| sl[ ts ;f| t] x¿sf] ljgfz xg' ] sf/0f, ul/Psf
;/+ If0fsf ko| f;x¿ / yk ug{ ;Sg] pkfox¿sf] vfh] L u/L kl| tjb] g tof/ ugx{' f;] \ / sIffdf k:| tt' ugx{' f;] \ .
4.3 7f;] kmfx] f]/dn} fsf] Joj:yfkg (Management of solid waste)
tkfOnF{ ] 3/af6 lg:sg] kmfx] f]/dn} fsf] Joj:yfkg s;/L ug{] ug'{ePsf] 5 < olb
tkfOsF{ f] 3/ jf ljBfnoglhs} s'g} snsf/vfgf 5 eg] To;af6 lg:s]sf s] s:tf
kmf]xf/] d}nfn] xfd|f] jftfj/0fnfO{ ke| fljt u/s] f 5g,\ 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 91
kmf]xf/] d}nfaf6 x'g] k|bi" f0fn] klg k|fsl[ ts ;f| t] df x|f; Nofp5F . cfhef]ln o;sf]
Joj:yfkg sfo{ w]/}h;f] b]zx¿sf nflu r'gf}tLsf] ljifo ag]sf] kfOG5 . 7f];
kmf]xf]/dn} fsf] plrt Joj:yfkg ug{ ;sd] f k|bi" f0f ;d:ofsf] ;dfwfg x'gs' f ;fy}
sRrf kbfys{ f] pknAwtf / cfly{s ;|f]t klg a9\g] xG' 5 . o; sfos{ f nflu 3 R's
ljlw clt k|efjsf/L ePsf] kfOPsf] 5 h;nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M
-s_ sd ko| f]u jf Gog" Ls/0f (Reduction)
-v_ k'gM ko| f]u (Re-use)
-u_ kg' M rj|m0f (Re-cycle)
-s_ sd ko| f]u jf Go"gLs/0f (Reduction)
jftfj/0fLo k|bi" f0f xg' ] j:tx' ¿sf] pkof]u 36fpg' g} Go"gLs/0f xf] . xfdLn] sg' } klg
;fduL| nfO{ ;s];Dd sd k|of]u ug{] afgL a;fNgk' b5{ . o;f] ePdf tL ;fduL| sf]
pkof]udf sdL cfpF5 . o;n] ubf{ ;f] kbfy{sf] pTkfbg 365\ . xfdLn] Knfl:6ssf]
pkofu] sd ub{} nud] f o;sf] dfu 365\ / pTkfbg klg 365\ . o;n] ubf{ jftfj/0fdf
kg{] gsf/fTds c;/ sd kb{5 . To;} u/L s[lifdf /f;folgs dn sd k|of]u ug's{ f
;fy} sL6gfzs ljiffbLsf] ko| f]u 36fpbF } n}hfg'kb{5 . o;sf] ;66\ fdf sDkf]:6 dn /
h}ljs ls6gf;s cf}ifwL k|of]u ug{k' b{5 .
-v_ kg' M k|ofu] (Re-use)
lrq ; 4.7
k'gM k|of]u eGgfn] Pp6} j:t'nfO{ km]l/ k|of]u ug'{ xf] . o;/L Pp6} j:t'nfO{
kml] / k|ofu] ubf{ o;sf] ahf/df cfjZjstf 365\ / pTkfbg 36\g uO{ jftfj/0fdf
kg]{ c;/ sd x'G5 . 3/df ko| f]u ePsf sfFrsf aft] nnfO{ lrgL lrofkQL, gg'
/fVg k|ofu] ug{ ;lsG5 . n]lv;s]sf / km]l/ cfjZos gkg]{ sfuh, k'/fgf kqklqsf,
92 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
kDKn]6, k:' ts cflbnfO{ ;fdfg /fVg ko| fu] ug,{] Knfl:6ssf emf]nfnfO{ kg' M k|ofu]
ug,{] bw' sf] Knfl:6snfO{ df6f] e//] udnfsf ¿kdf ko| fu] ug,{] ko] kbfys{ f Knfl:6ssf
aft] nnfO{ sf6]/ udnf agfO{ k|ofu] ug]{ h:tf sfo{ ug{ ;lsG5 .
-u_ kg' M rjm| 0f (Re-Cycle)
k|ofu] ul/;s]sf k/' fgf ;fdu|Lx¿nfO{ kg' M sRrf kbfy{sf ¿kdf ko| fu] u/L gofF
;fdfu|L tof/ ug{] sfo{nfO{ k'gM rjm| 0f elgG5 . xfdLn] ko| f]u ul/;ss] f cgfjZos
sfkL, lstfanfO{ km]l/ sfuh sf/vfgfdf nu/] sfuh agfpg ;lsG5 . kmnfd,
cfNd'lgod, tfdf, lkQn, cflb wfts' f ;fdfg k|of]u ub}{ hfbF f k'/fgf] ePdf To;nfO{
kufn/] kg' M gofF ef8F f agfpg ;lsG5 . ljleGg wfts' f ;fduL| agfpbF f lg:sg] 6j' m| fx¿
kml] / kufn/] k|ofu] ug{ ;lsG5 . kmnfdsf 6'jm| f, wft'sf af6f, aflN6gnufot ;fdfg
agfpFbf lg:sg] 6j' m| f, wft'sf tf/ cflb kufn/] k'gM ko| fu] ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L
k|of]u eO;ss] f ;fdfg ko| f]u u/L km]l/ ;fdu|L agfpg' kg' M rjm| 0f xf] .
o;/L 3 R's model sf] k|of]u u/]/ 7f]; kmf]xf/] d}nfsf] Joj:yfkg ug{ ;lsG5 .
lj|mofsnfk 4.7
tkfOs“{ f] 3/ jf ljBfnoaf6 lg:sg] 7f;] kmfx] f/] dn} fsf] Joj:yfkg s;/L ul/Psf] 5 < Gog" Ls/0f
(Reduce), kg' M ko| fu] (Reuse) / kg' r{ jm| 0f (Recycle) s;/L ul/Psf] 5 < tn tflnsfdf
egx{' f;] \ / sIffdf 5nkmn ugx'{ f];\ .
:yfg (Place) Gog" Ls/0f (Reduce) kg' Mk|ofu] (Reuse) k'gM rjm| 0f (Recycle)
3/df
ljBfnodf
kl/of]hgf sfo{ ! lrq ; 4.8
Pp6f b'O{ ln6/ Ifdtfsf] Knfl:6ssf] 93
aft] n lnP/ lrqdf bv] fPh:t} To;df Kjfn
agfO{ k'lbgf jf cGo la?jfsf 8f“7x¿
/fK] gx' f;] \ . ;'?sf] xKtf 5fofdf /fVgx' f];\ /
lgoldt kfgL lbO/xg'xf];\ . o;af6 7f];
kmf]xf]/d}nfsf] Joj:yfkg tyf jftfj/0f
;+/If0f;DaGwL s'g s'g kIfdf ;3fp kU' g] 5nkmn ug'{xf;] \ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
kl/of]hgf sfo{
3/ jf ljBfnodf k|ofu] df NofOPsf sfuh / Knfl:6ssf] k'gM k|of]u u/L ljleGg lsl;dsf ;fdfg
tyf ;hfj6sf ;fdu|Lx¿ agfpg'xf;] \ . ltgLx¿ k|ofu] u/]/ sIffsf7] fdf ;hfpg'xf;] \ .
k|ltlaDag
hn;f| ]t, hnfwf/ / l;d;f/
hnfwf/M jiffs{ f] axfa ;ª\slnt eO{ Pp6f laGba' f6 cGo hn ;|f]tdf ldl;g] If]q
l;d;f/ M jif{e} l/ kfgLn] hldgnfO{ 9fs]sf] If]q jf kfgL hldg glhs} /x]sf If]q
k|fs[lts ;|f]t Jfftfj/0f / k|fsl[ ts ;f| ]tsf] xf| ;
dfgjn] ko| f]u ug{ ;Sg] k|sl[ tdf o;sf] ;Gtn' g a9\bf] hg;ª\Vof, c;/' lIft
kfOg] ;|ft] vt] L k|0ffnL, jgljgfz, a9L
gjLs/0fLo / cgjLs/0fLo vkt, hnkb| "if0f,
cf}Bfl] us / kf| ljlws ljsf;
7f;] kmfx] f]/d}nfsf] Joj:yfkg
Go"gLs/0f, kg' M ko| fu] , kg' Mrj|m0f
cEof;
!= ;xL ljsNkdf l7s lrxg\ -√_ nufpgx' f;] \ M
-s_ cgjLs/0fLo kf| s[lts ;|f]t sg' xf] <
-c_ bfp/f -cf_ sf]Onf -O_ kfgL -O_{ df6f]
-v_ jftfj/0fLo c;Gt'ng s;/L x'G5 <
-c_ lghL{jx¿sf] a9L ko| f]u u//] -cf_ lghLj{ x¿sf] sd k|ofu] u//]
-O_ lghL{jx¿sf] agf6] kl/jtg{ af6 -O{_ lghLj{ x¿sf] agf6] df kl/jtg{ /
a9L ko| fu] af6
94 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
-u_ gjLs/0fLo ;f| t] s'g xf] <
-c_ k]6f« n] -cf_ Gol' Sno/ pmhf{ -O_ jfo' pmhf{ -O_{ ;fo} { pmhf{
-3_ k/' fgf Knfl:6ssf ;fdfgx¿nfO{ kufn/] gofF ¿k lbg' kmfx] f/] dn} fsf] s'g
Joj:yfkg xf] <
-c_ k'gM k|ofu] -cf_ Go"gLs/0f -O_ kg' Mrj|m0f -O{_ c / O b'j}
@= tn lbOPsf zAbx¿af6 ;xL zAb 5fgL vfnL 7fp“df eg{x' f;] \ M
Jftfj/0f, ;Gtl' nt jftfj/0f, kg' M rj|m0f, gjLs/0fLo, h}ljs ljljwtf,
cgjLs/0fLo, Go"gLs/0f
-s_ w]/} lsl;dsf hgfj/ / jg:kltx¿sf] pknAwtf ===============xf] .
-v_ s'g} :yfgdf /x]sf ;hLj / lghL{jx¿sf] dfqfdf ;Gt'ng sfod
xg' n' fO={ ============= ================ elgG5 .
-u_ ========================eg]sf] ;fdfgx¿ lsgd]n ubf{ ;fdfgx¿;uF } ltgsf
kfs]6x¿ 3/df gNofpg] ko| f; xf] .
-3_ =============== k|fsl[ ts ;f| ]t cfˆgf] pTklQ :yndf l/lQPkl5 kl| t:yfkg
ug{ yf}/} ;do nfU5 .
#= tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f;] \ M
-s_ hl} js ljljwtf eg]sf] s] xf] <
-v_ kofj{ /0fLo ;Gtn' g eg]sf] s] xf] <
-u_ s:tf] Ifq] nfO{ l;d;f/ Ifq] elgG5 <
-3_ hnfwf/ Ifq] eg]sf] s] xf] <
-ª_ 7f;] kmf]xf]/dn} fsf] Joj:yfkg ug{] d'Vo pkfox¿ nV] g'xf;] \ .
-r_ kofj{ /0fLo c;Gt'ng x'g] sf/0fx¿ JofVof ug'{xf;] \ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 95
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