jl/kl/ jfo'd08ndf xfjfsf
c0f'x¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . WJflg
zlStsf sf/0fn] ubf{ xfjfdf /x]
sf c0fx' ¿ k;| f/0f xbF' f Ps 7fpdF f
vflbG5g\ eg] csf]{ 7fpdF f 6f9f
6f9f x'G5g\ . j'mg} Ps If]qdf
ePsf xfjfsf c0f'x¿ vflbFbf lrq g=7.15
To;sf] bfofFafofFsf] If]qdf /x]sf
c0f'x¿ 6f9f 6f9f x'G5g\ . lrqdf
A n] c0fx' ¿ vflbPF sf] Ifq] / B n] c0fx' ¿ km' ss] f] -6f9f 6f9f ePsf_] Ifq] hgfp5F .
sDkgaf6 pTkGg xg' ] WJflg zlStn] ubf{ c0fx' ¿ Ps If]qdf vflbgF ] / csf{] Ifq] df
km'Sg] k|ljm| of lg/Gt/ xF'b} hfbfF Wjlg t/ª\u aG5 . t/ªu\ sf ¿kdf k|;f/0f eP/ Wjlg
xfjfsf dfWodaf6 xfd|f] sfg;Dd cfOkU' 5 / xfdLn] ;'Gg ;S5f}F .
Wjlg zlSt k|;f/0f xFb' f xfjfdf c0f'x¿ CR c0f'x¿sf] sDkg
vflF bPsf] Ifq] nfO{ sDk;]| g (compression)
/ c0f'x¿ 6f9f 6f9f ePsf] If]qnfO{
/]o/ˆofS;g (rarefraction) elgG5 .
Pp6f sDk]|;g (C) / /]o/ˆof\ S;g (R)
ldn]/ WJflgsf] k"0f{ t/ªu\ aG5 . lrq 7.16 Wjlg t/ª\u
lrqdf b]vfOP h:t} Wjlg t/ª\u
k|;f/0f x'Fbf xfjfdf /x]sf c0f'x¿
bfofF afofF sDkg xg' ] / WJflg zlSt
klg ToxL lbzfdf k;| f/0f xg' ] ub{5 .
t/ªu\ k|;f/0f x'bF f olb jm' g} dfWoddf
/x]sf c0f'x¿sf] sDkg / t/ª\usf] lrq 7.17 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u
k;| f/0f Pp6} lbzfdf x'G5 eg] To:tf]
t/ªn\ fO{ nlª\uRo'l8gn t/ª\u elgG5 . Wjlg t/ªu\ klg nlªu\ Ro'l8gn t/ª\u xf] /
of] sDk;|] g / /o] /ˆofS;gsf ¿kdf k;| f/0f xG' 5 .
olb xfdLn] zfGt kf]v/Lsf lardf 9'ª\uf kmfNof}F eg] tnfpsf] kfgLdf sDkg
146 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
k}bf x'G5 . sDkg x'Fbf pTkGg ePsf] c0f'x¿sf] sDkg t/ª\usf] k|;f/0f
t/ª\u j[tfsf/ ¿kdf tnfpsf] lsgf/tkm{
k;| f/0f xG' 5 . kfgLsf] t/ªu\ k;| f/0f xFb' f
kfgLsf c0fx' ¿ tndfly sDkg x'G5g\ eg] 6«fG;e;{ t/ªu\
t/ªu\ sf] k|;f/0f rflxF tnfpsf] laraf6 lsgf/tkm{ j[Qfsf/ ¿kdf xG' 5 .
t/ª\usf] k|;f/0f olb jm' g} dfWoddf /x]sf c0f'x¿sf] sDkg x'g] lbzfdf nDa eP/
xG' 5 eg] To:tf] t/ªn\ fO{ 6«fG;e;{ t/ªu\ elgG5 . kfgLdf pTkGg x'g] t/ª\u 6«fG;e;{
t/ªu\ xf] . 6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\ jm| :] 6 / 6«km eP/ k;| f/0f x'G5 .
t/ª\usf k|sf/x¿
nlªu\ Ro'l8gn t/ªu\ 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\u
lj|mofsnfk 7.7
lrqdf bv] fPsf] h:t} Pp6f l:kª| (slinky spring
coil) lngx' f];\ . o;nfO{ Psfkl6\6 lSnkn] jf ;fyLnfO{
;dfTg nufP/ c8\ofpg'xf];\ . csf]{kl6\6sf] 5]paf6
lj:tf/} an nufpgx' f;] \ . Ps 5]pdf an nufpb“ f l:k|ªdf lrqlrq7g.1= 87.21l:kl:k|ª|dªdff ppTTkkGGggx'xg]g' t] /tª\/uªu\
s:tf] c;/ kb{5 < cjnf]sg ug'xf];\ . cjnfs] gkl5 o; l:k|ªdf ePsf SjfOnsf] rfn /
pTkGg x'g] t/ª\usf] k|;f/ Pp6} lbzfdf 5 ls 5g} kQf nufpgx' f];\ . l:kª| sf] Ps 5]pdf
an nufpFbf Toxf“ /x]sf SjfOn vf“lbG5g\ / vflbPsf] If]q lj:tf/} l:k|ªsf] csf{] 5p] tkm{
;b5{ . To;n} ] o; lso| fsnfkaf6 slinky spring coil sf] ko| fu] u//] nªl\ uRol' 8gn
tªu\ sf] pTklQ s;/L xG' 5 eg/] kb| z{ g ug{ ;lsG5 .
ljm| ofsnfk 7.8 lrq 7.19
Pp6f gfOgnsf] 8f]/L lng'xf];\ . 8f]/Lsf] Ps 147
5]pnfO{ leQfdf jf vDafdf af“Wg'xf];\ /
csf]{ 5p] nfO{ xftn] ;dft]/ em8s\ fgx'{ f];\ / o;
ljm| ofsnfknfO{ /fd/| L cjnfs] g u/L lgDglnlvt
kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn ug'x{ f;] \ M
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
1. 8f]/LnfO{ em8\sfbf{ pTkGg xg' ] t/ªu\ jm' g k|sf/sf] t/ª\u xf] <
2. o; t/ª\udf c0fx' ¿sf] sDkg / t/ªs\ f] k;| f/0f j'mg j'mg lbzfdf ePsf] 5 <
t/ª\u;“u ;DalGwt s]xL kbx¿ (Some terms related to waves)
lrqdf 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\unfO{ b]vfOPsf] 5 . m
t/ª\u k;| f/ xb'F f c0fx' ¿ vflbPsf] Ifq] nfO{
p7s] f] efun] hgfPsf] 5 eg] c0fx' ¿ km's]sf] =n
If]qnfO{ blaPsf] efun] hgfOPsf] 5 .
lrq 7.20 t/ªu\ sf] k;| f/0f
j|m]:6 (Crest)
t/ªu\ sf] k|;f/0f xF'bf dWo efuaf6 dfly ;ae} Gbf a9L lj:yfkg ePsf] laGbn' fO{
j|m]:6 elgG5 . lrqdf 'm' n] hgfPsf] laGb' jm| :] 6 xf] .
6«km (Trough)
t/ªu\ sf] k;| f/0f x'bF f dWoefuaf6 tn ;ae} Gbf a9L lj:yfkg ePsf] laGb'nfO{ 6k« m
elgG5 . lrqdf n] 'n' hgfPsf] laGb' 6«km xf] .
PlDKnRo8' (Amplitude)
t/ªu\ k;| f/ xbF' f o;sf dWoefuaf6 tn jf dfly ePsf] ;ae} Gbf a9L lj:yfkg
(displacement) nfO{ PlDKnRo8' elgG5 . PlDKnRo'8nfO{ ;ª\s]t 'A' n] hgfOG5,
o;sf] S.I. PsfO ld6/ -m_ xf] . PlDKnRo'8 dWo efuaf6 dfly jf tn b'j}
lbzfdf x'G5 .
t/ª\u nDafO (Wavelenth)
t/ªs\ f] k|;f/ xFb' f j'mg} Pp6f jm| ]:6af6 glhssf] csf]{ j|m]:6 jf 6«kmaf6 glhssf]
csf]{ 6«km;Ddsf] b/' LNffO{ t/ª\u nDafO elgG5 . t/ªu\ nDafOnfO{ lus| cIf/
(lambda) n] hgfOG5 . t/ª\u nDafOsf] S.I. PsfO ld6/ -m_ xf] .
cfjl[ Q (Frequency)
t/ª\u k;| f/ xFb' f Pp6f s]:6 / 6k« m ldn/] Pp6f k0" f{ t/ªu\ aG5 . lrqdf X bl] v
Y ;Dddf Pp6f k"0f{ t/ªu\ ags] f] 5 . t/ªs\ f] k|;f/ x'Fbf k|lt PsfO ;dodf aGg]
148 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
hDdf t/ª\usf] ;ªV\ ofnfO{ t/ª\unfO{ t/ªu\ sf] cfjl[ Q elgG5 . cfj[lQnfO{ ;ª\st]
'f' n] hgfOG5 / o;sf] S.I. PsfO xh{ (Hz) xf] .
j'mg} t/ª\usf] cfjl[ Q (f) / t/ªu\ nDafO ( ) sf] u0' fgkmnnfO{ To; t/ª\usf] j]u
(v) elgG5 . To;n} ] t/ªu\ sf] ju] cfj[lQ / t/ªu\ nDafOsf] u'0fkmn;Fu a/fa/ xG' 5 .
t/ªu\ sf] ju] (v) = t/ªu\ sf] cfj[lQ(f) x t/ªu\ nDafO ( λ)
lj|mofsnfk 7.9
Pp6f 8«d;]6 / nf/} f] lngx' f;] \ . 8«d;]6sf] ;txdf sx] L tf/] Lsf] lrq 7.21 8«d;]6
bfgf jf rfdnsf] u8] f 5gx{' f;] \ . ;jk{ y| d 8d« ;6] nfO{ nf/} fn] lj:tf/}
lxsf{pg'xf];\ . csf]{k6s 8«d;]6nfO{ cln an nufP/ hf]8n]
lxsfp{ gx' f;] \ . ca o; ljm| ofsnfksf cfwf/df tnsf lgDglnlvt
k|Zgsf] hjfkm vfH] g'xf];\ M
1. 8«d;6] nfO{ nf}/fn] lj:tf/} jf hf]8n] lxsfp{ “bf o;sf] ;txdf 5l/Psf tf/] Lsf
bfgf w]/} dfly;Dd plkm| G5g\,lsg <
2. 8«d;]6nfO{ nf}/f]n] a];/L an nufP/ lxsf{p“bf s:tf] -rsf]{, dw'/f] jf
;l' /nf]_ Wjlg pTkGg x'G5 <
8«d;]6nfO{ a];/L nf}/fn] lxsf{pFbf ;txdf /x]sf tf]/Lsf u]8f w]/} dfly;Dd
plk|mG5g\ . 8«d;]6nfO{ nf}/fn] a];/L lxsfp{ bF f o;df /x]sf c0fx' ¿df sDkg a9L
xG' 5 . c0fx' ¿sf] sDkg jf Wjlgsf] PlDKnRo'8 a9L x'bF f 8d« af6 rsf{] Wjlg pTkGg
xG' 5 . dflysf] ljm| ofsnfkaf6 c0fx' ¿sf] sDkg a9L ePdf t/ª\udf pTkGg x'g]
PlDKnRo'8 klg a9L xG' 5 eg/] lgisif{ lgsfNg ;lsG5 .
k|ltlaDag
1. Wjlg Ps ks| f/sf] zlSt xf] h;n] xfdLnfO{ ;'Gg dbt ub{5 .
2. Wjlg Ps 7fpaF f6 csf{] 7fpF;Dd kU' g] kl| jm| ofnfO{ Wjlgsf] k;| f/0f elgG5 .
3. t/ªu\ k;| f/0f xbF' f olb jm' g} dfWoddf /xs] f c0fx' ¿sf] sDkg / t/ªu\ sf] k;| f/0f
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 149
Pp6} lbzfdf xG' 5 eg] To:tf] t/ª\nfO{ nlªu\ Ro'l8gn t/ªu\ elgG5 .
4. t/ª\usf] k|;f/0f x'bF f c0f'x¿sf] sDkg xg' ] lbzfdf t/ª\u nDa eP/ k;| f/0f
x'G5 eg] To:tf] t/ª\unfO{ 6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\ elgG5 .
5. t/ª\usf] dWoefuaf6 dflytkm{ ;a}eGbf a9L lj:yfkg ePsf] laGb'nfO{ jm| :] 6
elgG5 .
6. t/ªu\ sf] dWoefuaf6 tntkm{ ;ae} Gbf a9L lj:yfkg ePsf] laGb'nfO{ 6«km
elgG5 .
7. jm' g} Pp6f j|m:] 6af6 glhssf] csf]{ j|m]:6 jf 6k« maf6 glhssf] csf{] 6«km;Ddsf]
b'/LNffO{ t/ª\u nDafO elgG5 .
8. k|lt PsfO ;dodf aGg] k"0f{ t/ª\usf] ;ª\VofnfO{ t/ª\usf] cfjl[ Q elgG5 .
9. t/ª\usf] ju] (v) = t/ªu\ sf] cfj[lQ (f) t/ª\u nDafO ( ) xG' 5 . o;nfO{
t/ªs\ f] j]usf] ;dLs/0f elgG5 .
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“df ldNg] zAb egx{' f;] \ M
ld6/ cfjl[ Q dfWod xfjf sDkg 7f];
-s_ j'mg} j:t'df pTkGg xg' ] ======== n] ubf{ WJflg pTkGg xG' 5 .
-v_ Wjlg t/ª\u ==========dfWoddf ;a}eGbf l56f] k|;f/ x'G5 .
-u_ t/ªu\ nDafOsf] S.I. PsfO ====== xf] .
-3_ Wjlgsf] k;| f/0f xg' sf nflu jm' g} =========== cfjZostf k5{ .
-ª_ k|lt PsfO ;dodf pTkGg xg' ] hDdf t/ª\usf] ;ª\VofnfO{ t/ªu\ sf]
============================== elgG5 .
150 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
@= pko'St ljsNkdf l7s lrxg\ -√_ nufpg'xf;] \ M
-s_ tnsf dWo] j'mg dfWodaf6 WJflg k;| f/0f xG' 5 <
-c_ 7f]; dfq -cf_ t/n dfq
-O_ UofF; dfq -O{_ 7f];, t/n / UofF;
-v_ cfjl[ Qsf] S.I. PsfO j'mg xf] <
-c_ hertz -cf_ hertz/sec
-O_ metre -O_{ hertz/min
-Uf_ Wjlg M
-c_ z"Goaf6 klg k|;f/0f xG' 5 .
-cf_ zG" oaf6 slxn]sfxL k;| f/0f x'G5 .
-O_ 7f;] , t/n jf UofF ; jm' g} dfWodaf6 dfq k;| f/0f x'G5 .
-O_{ jfod' 08naf6 dfq k|;f/0f xG' 5 .
-3_ nlª\uRo'l8gn t/ª\udf c0f'x¿sf] sDkg / t/ª\usf] k|;f/0f j'mg
lbzfdf xG' 5 <
-c_ Pp6} lbzfdf -cf_ bO' { km/s lbzfdf
-O_ nDa eP/ -O_{ ljleGg lbzfdf
-ª_ 8d« ;6] nfO{ nf/} fn] hf8] n] an nufP/ lxsfp{ bF f s:tf] WJflg pTkGg xG' 5 <
-c_ rsf]{ -cf_ dl;gf] -O_ ;'l/nf] -O_{ wfb] |f]
#= km/s 5'6\ofpgx' f];\ M
-s_ nlªu\ Ro'l8gn / 6«fG;e;{ t/ªu\
-v_ PlDKnRo'8 / cfjl[ Q
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 151
$= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ lbg'xf;] \ M
-s_ Wjlg zlSt eg]sf] s] xf] < Wjlg zlStsf j'mg} rf/cf6] f ;|ft] x¿sf] gfd
n]Vg'xf];\ .
-v_ xfdLn] jm' /fsfgL ubf{ pTkGg x'g] Wjlg s;/L k;| f/0f x'G5 < lrq;lxt
k|:6 kfg'{xf;] \ .
-u_ 8d« ;]6df nf/} fn] a];/L lxsfp{ Fbf pTkGg xg' ] Wjlgsf] PlDKnRo'8 lsg
w]/} xG' 5, sf/0f lbg'xf];\ .
-3_ tn lbPsf kbx¿sf] ;ªs\ t] / S.I. PsfO n]Vg'xf];\ .
t/ªu\ nDafO, PlDKnRo8' , cfj[lQ, t/ªu\ sf] j]u
7.4 k|sfz (Light)
j/k/sf ljleGg j:t'x¿nfO{ lrq 7.22
b]Vg s'g zlStsf] cfjZostf
k5{ < cWof/f] /ftdf aQL jf
6r{nfO6 gafnL sf]7fdfePsf
j:t'x¿ b]Vg ;lsG5
xf]nf < lrqdf s'g k|sfzsf
;|f]tx¿ b]vfOPsf] 5 < lrqdf
bv] fOeGbf afx]s k|sfzsf cGo
;f| ]tx¿ s] s] xf]nfg\ <
lbpF;f]sf] ;dodf ;"o{af6 cfpg] k|sfzsf] ;xfotfn] xfdL j/k/sf j:tx' ¿ b]Vg
;S5f}F . /ftLsf] ;dodf j/k/sf j:t'x¿ b]Vgsf nflu xfdLnfO{ ks| fzsf ;|ft] x¿
h:t} M aQL, d}gaQL jf 6rs{ f] cfjZostf kb{5 . j'mg} j:ta' f6 cfPsf jf j:t'n]
kmsfP{ sf] k|sfz xfd|f] cfFvfsf] /]l6gfdf cfOk'Ubf Tof] j:t'sf] cfs[lt agfpF5 / xfdL
j/k/sf j:t'nfO{ bV] g ;S5f}F . xfdL o; kf7df ks| fz ;dtn ;txdf 7f]lSsbf
kmls{g] k|ljm| ofsf af/d] f 5nkmn ug{] 5fF} .
152 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
ljm| ofsnfk 7.10
laxfg 3fd nfu]sf] ;dodf k|sfz l5g]{ sf7] fsf]
‰ofndf ;fgf] P]gf lnP/ a:g'xf];\ . sf]7fleq
cfPsf] k|sfznfO{ P]gfdf kg]{ u/L ‰ofnsf]
5]pdf P]gfnfO{ /fVg'xf];\ . P]gfdf 3fd k/]kl5
Pg] fnfO{ bfofafof“ 3'dfpg'xf;] \ . o;kl5 lgDglnlvt
k|Zgx¿dfly 5nkmn ug'x{ f];\ M
!= P]gsf] cufl8 jf k5fl8sf] j'mg efun] lrq 7.23 P]gfdf xg' ] ks| fzsf] k/fjtg{
ks| fznfO{ kmsf{p“bf] /x5] <
@= 38Lsf] 8fon jf dfa] fOn kmfg] sf] l:j|mgn] ks| fznfO{ Pg] fn] h;/L kmsf{pg ;lsG5 ls
;lsb“ }g <
#= P]gfsf] ;6\6fdf sfkL jf lstfanfO{ ko| f]u ubf{ o;n] k|sfznfO{ P]gfn] h:t} kmsf{p5“
ls kmsfp{ b“ g} xfn] f < ko| fu] u/L lgisif{ lgsfNg'xf];\ .
dflysf lj|mofsnfkaf6 Pg] f, 38Lsf] 8fon / dfa] fOnsf] l:j|mg h:tf lrNNff] ;dtn
;tx ePsf j:tx' ¿n] ks| fznfO{ /fd|/L kmsf{pg] ub{5g\ . Pg] fdf k|sfz kbf{ k|sfz
cfPsf] lbzfdf g} kmls{g] u5{ . lrNNff] (smooth) jf ;dtn (Plane) ;tx ePsf]
j:td' f ks| fz 7f]lSsPkl5 klxns] } lbzfdf kmlsg{ ] ub5{ .
ks| fzsf] k/fjtg{ (Reflection of light)
k|sfz Pg] f jf cGo j'mg} lrNnf] ;dtn ;txdf 7fl] SsP/ kmlsg{ ] kl| j|mofnfO{ k|sfzsf]
k/fjt{g elgG5 . dfly lrq 7.26 df P]gfdf ks| fz 7fl] SsP/ k/fjtg{ ePsf]
bv] fOPsf] 5 . P]gf, df]afOnsf] l:jm| g, dfa{n h:tf lrNnf] / ;dtn ;tx ePsf
j:tx' ¿n] k|sfznfO{ /fd|/L k/fjtg{ ub{5 .
lgoldt k/fjtg{ (regular reflection)
;dtn ;txdf k/]sf k|sfzsf ;dfgfGt/ lrq 7.24 lgoldt k/fjtg{
ls/0fx¿ k/fjt{g x'Fbf klg ;dfgfGt/ eP/ 153
hfG5g\ eg] To:tf] k|ljm| ofnfO{ lgoldt k/fjtg{
elgG5 . P]gf, dfa] fOnsf] l:j|mg jf dfan{ sf]
lrNnf] ;tx cflbaf6 lgoldt k/fjtg{ xg' ] ub5{ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
clgoldt k/fjt{g (Irregular reflection)
v;|f] jf gldn]sf] ;txdf k/]sf ks| fzsf ;dfgfGt/
ls/0fx¿ k/fjtg{ xbF' f ;dfgfGt/ geO{ hg' ;s' } lbzfdf
hfg] k|ljm| ofnfO{ clgoldt k/fjtg{ elgG5 . sf7sf]
6s' f| , 3/sf] leQf, af6] lj?jfsf] kft cflbaf6 clgoldt
k/fjt{g x'g] ub5{ . clgoldt k/fjtg{ x'Fbf k/fjltt{
ls/0fx¿ hg' ;s' } lbzfdf 5l/P/ hfg] ePsfn] ubf{
k/fjltt{ ls/0fx¿ P]gfdf h:tf] bl] vbF g} g\ . lrq 7.25 clgoldt k/fjt{g
k|sfzsf] k/fjt{g;“u ;DalGwt s]xL kbx¿
(Some terms related to reflection of light)
cfkltt ls/0f (Incident ray)
ks| fzsf] ;|f]taf6 cfP/ j'mg} j:t'sf] ;txdf 7fl] Ssg] lrq 7.26 P]gfdf x'g] k/fjt{g
ls/0fnfO{ cfkltt ls/0f elgG5 . lrqdf AO cfkltt
ls/0f xf] . o; /v] fdf ko| f]u ul/Psf] tL/n] ks| fzsf]
ls/0f A af6 O tkm{ uO/xs] f] 5 eGg] hgfp5F .
k/fjlt{t ls/0f (Reflected ray)
ks| fzsf] ;f| t] af6 cfPsf ls/0fx¿ ;txdf 7f]lSsP kl5 kg' M klxn]s} lbzfdf kmlsP{ /
hfg] ls/0fnfO{ k/fjltt{ ls/0f elgG5 . lrqdf OB k/fjlt{t ls/0f xf] / o;df
k|ofu] ul/Psf] tL/n] ks| fzsf] ls/0f O af6 B tkm{ uO/xs] f] 5 eGg] hgfp5F .
gdn{ (Normal)
jm' g} ;txdf nDa -90) sf] sf0] f_ xg' ] u/L lvlrPsf] /v] fnfO{ gdn{ /v] f elgG5 . lrqdf
NO gdn{ /]vf xf] h'g Pg] fsf] XY ;tx;uF nDa x'g] u/L lvlrPsf] 5 .
cfkltt sf]0f (Angle of incidence)
cfkltt ls/0fn] gdn{ ;uF agfPsf] sf0] fnfO{ cfkltt sf]0f elgG5 . lrqdf
cfkltt sf0] f xf] .
154 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
k/fjlt{t sf]0f (Angle of reflection)
k/fjlt{t ls/0fn] gdn{ ;uF agfPsf] sf]0fnfO{ k/fjltt{ sf0] f elgG5 . lrqdf
k/fjlt{t sf0] f xf] .
lj|mofsnfk 7.11
!= Pp6f 8«Oª af8] { (drawing board)
jf ;fgf] 6]a'ndf lkgsf] ;xfotfn]
;t] f] sfuhsf] kfgf 6f“:g'xf;] \ .
@= sfuhsf] lar efudf kg]{ u/L Pp6f
;/n /v] f AB lvRg'xf];\ .
#= AB /v] fdf kg]{ u/L To;dfly Pp6f lrq 7.27 P]gfdf ks| fzsf] k/fjtg{
;dtn Pg] f /fVgx' f];\ .
$= AB /v] fdf nDa x'g] u/L Pp6f QP /]vf lvRgx' f;] \ .
%= /v] f PR df laGb' P1 / P2 df kg{] u/L bO' c{ f6] f lkg 9f8f] kf//] 8O« ª af8] d{ f uf8g\ x' f;] \ .
^= lkg ufl8;s]kl5 gd{nsf] csf]{
k6l\ 6af6 Pp6f cfFvf lrDn/] lkgsf]
kl| tlaDanfO{ ;dtn Pg] fdf xg] x{' f;] \ .
P]gfdf b]lvPsf] k|ltlaDa;“u l;wf
kgu{] /L P3 / P4 df bO' c{ f6] f lkg cl8g]
u/L uf8g\ 'xf];\ .
&= ca bj' } lkgnfO{ lgsfn/] laGb' P3 / P4 lrq 7.28 Pg] fdf kg]{ cfkltt ls/0fx¿
df kg]{ u/L Pg] fsf] P laGb;' Dd ;/n
/v] f SP lvRg'xf];\ .
*= ca kml] / dflysf] l;=g= 1 b]lv 7 ;Ddsf k|lj|mofnfO{ ;/n /]vfx¿ TP, UP / VP
lvr/] kfnk} fnf] bf]xf¥] ofpg'xf;] \ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 155
o; ljm| ofsnfksf cfwf/df cfkltt sf0] f / k/fjltt{ sf]0fsf] dfg rfksf] k|ofu] n]
gfk/] tnsf] tflnsfdf egx{' f;] \ .
jm| =;= cfkltt sf0] f k/fjltt{ sf]0f glthf
1. = 40) = 40) cfkltt sf0] f = k/fjlt{t sf]0f
2. = ====================== ====================== ======================
3. = ======================= ====================== ======================
lgisif{ M ;dtn P]gfdf ks| fz k/fjtg{ x'b“ f cfkltt sf]0fsf] dfg k/fjltt{ sf0] f;“u ;w}“
a/fa/ xG' 5 .
ks| fz k/fjts{ f lgodx¿ (Laws of reflection of light)
k|sfzsf] lgoldt k/fjt{g x'bF f o;n] sx] L lgodx¿ kfngf u/s] f] x'G5 . ks| fz
k/fjt{gsf lgodx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
!= cfkltt sf0] f (angle of incidence) / k/fjlt{t sf]0f (angle of reflection)
sf] dfg ;w}F a/fa/ xG' 5 .
@= cfkltt ls/0f (incident ray), k/fjltt{ ls/0f (reflected ray) / gdn{
(normal) ;w}F Pp6} ;txsf] Pp6} laGbd' f kb{5g\ .
ks| fz k/fjtg{ sf sx] L pkofl] utfx¿ (Some applications of reflection of light)
;"Idbz{s oGqdf ePsf] P]gfn] ks| fznfO{ Pp6} laGbd' f k/fjt{g u5{ . o;n] ubf{
;I" d hLjnfO{ ;"Idbz{s oGqsf ;xfotfn] bV] g ;lsG5 .
;jf/L ;fwgdf ko| f]u ePsf] P]gfdf x'g] k/fjt{gn] ubf{ uf8L k5fl8sf] b[Zo b]lvG5 .
sGs]e Pg] fn] j:t'sf] 7n' f] cfsl[ t agfp5F . o;n] ubf{ bfFt, sfg jf cGo z/L/sf
cª\ux¿sf] ;lhn} x/] /] pkrf/ ul/G5 .
kl] /:sfk] (Periscope)
k]l/:sf]k k|sfz k/fjt{gsf] l;¢fGtdf cfwfl/t eP/ agfOPsf] Pp6f pks/0f
xf] . w]/} prfOdf ePsf] j:t'nfO{ tnaf6 klg ;lhn} xg] {sf nflu o; pks/0fsf]
ko| fu] ul/G5 . o; pks/0fsf] gdg' f tkfO{Fn] klg tn lbOPsf cfjZos ;fduL| sf]
;ªs\ ng u//] 3/df klg agfpg ;Sgx' G' 5 . kl] /:sfk] agfpg] ljlwnfO{ tn lbOPsf] 5 .
156 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
cfjZos ;fdu|L
-s_ uf]nfsf/ jf cfotfsf/ sfuhsf] jf kfOk jf gnL
-v_ b'Oc{ f6] f ;dtn P]gfsf 6j' |mfx¿
-u_ 6fF:g] kbfy{ jf Un' (Glue)
-3_ sFr} L
-ª_ /ªx¿
lrq 7.29 k]l/:sf]k
Pp6f uf]nf] sfuh jf Knfl:6ssf] kfOk lng'xf];\ . olb of] pknAw gePdf b/f]
sfuhnfO{ df8] /] uf]nf] agfO{ 6f;F ]/ klg kfOk h:tf] agfpg ;lsG5 .
uf]nf] kfOksf] bj' } 5]pdf Pg] fnfO{ 45) sf] sf0] fdf Ps csfd{ f ;dfgfGt/ x'g] u/L
6fF:g'xf;] \ . o;/L 6fF:bf P]gfx¿ bfofF / afofF lsgf/fdf lrqdf bv] fP h:t} l7s
ljk/Lttkm{ xg' k' b5{ .
P]gfsf cufl8lt/sf Kjfnx¿df csf]{ kfOk hf]8]/ o;nfO{ h8] -Z_ cfsf/ h:tf]
agfpg'xf];\ .
gnLsf] bj' }lt/sf] dv' nfO{ aGb ug{x' f;] \ . ca bj' } P]gfsf cufl8 sF}rLsf] ;xfotfn]
Kjfn agfpg'k5{ . of] Kjfn tn / dfly /x]sf] gnLsf] l7s ljk/Lt ;fO8df x'gk' 5{ .
kfOksf] aflx/ sfuhn] df8] ]/ Kjfnaf6 dfq k|sfz l5g{] agfpg'xf;] \ . jl/kl/ /ª
nufP/ o;nfO{ cfsifs{ klg agfpg ;lsG5 . ca kl] /:sf]k tof/ xG' 5 .
ca tnsf] Kjfnglhs Pp6f cfvF f /fv/] csf{] cfFvf lrDngx' f;] \ . prfOdf /xs] f
j:tx' ¿ kl] /:sfk] af6 xg] x{' f];\ .
sd prfOdf /x]/ klg dfly /x]sf j:tx' ¿ ;lhn} bV] g ;lsG5 .
pkof]u (Application)
-s_ k]l/:sfk] nfO{ kg8A' aL (submarine) hxfhdf ko| f]u ul/Psf] xG' 5 h;n] ubf{
kfgLleqaf6 klg dfly /x]sf j:t'x¿nfO{ ;lhn} bV] g ;lsG5 .
-v_ n8fO{dF f ;]gfx¿n] k]l/:sf]ksf] ko| fu] u//] prfOdf n's]/ a;]sf k|ltåGbLnfO{
bV] g ;S5g\ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 157
k|ltlaDag
ks| fz Ps k|sf/sf] zlSt xf]
s] xf]
ks| fz s] ub5{ j/k/sf j:tx' ¿nfO{ bV] g dbt ub5{ .
s] xG' 5
ks| fz ;dtn ;tx jf P]gfdf kbf{ kmls{g] u5{ s] elgG5 k/fjtg{ k|ljm| of
ks| f/
lgoldt clgoldt
s] xG' 5
cfkltt sf]0f= k/fjltt{ sf0] f -∠i=∠r_
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“df ldNg] zAb egx'{ f];\ M
lgod k/fjtg{ a/fa/ ;dfgfGt/ nDa cfjtg{
-s_ ;dtn Pg] fn] ks| fznfO{ =============ub5{ .
-v_ lgoldt k/fjt{g xFb' f k/fjlt{t ls/0fx¿ Pscfk;df ===================
eP/ Pp6} lbzfdf kmlsG{ 5g\ .
-u_ ks| fzsf] k/fjt{g xFb' f cfkltt sf]0fsf] dfg k/fjlt{t sf0] f;uF =============
x'G5 .
158 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
-3_ kl] /:sfk] k|sfz k/fjtg{ sf] ============df cfwfl/t eP/ agfOPsf] x'G5 .
-ª_ s'g} ;txdf gdn{ /v] f ==================== xg' ] u/L lvlrPsf] x'G5 .
@= km/s 56' o\ fpg'xf];\ M
-s_ cfkltt ls/0f / k/fjltt{ ls/0f
-v_ lgoldt / clgoldt k/fjtg{
#= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ lbgx' f;] \ M
-s_ k|sfz k/fjtg{ egs] f] s] xf] < k|sfz k/fjtg{ sf lgodx¿ nV] g'xf;] \ .
-v_ k|sfzsf] clgoldt k/fjt{g eg]sf] s] xf] < lrq;lxt j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .
-u_ bl} gs hLjgdf k|sfz k/fjt{gsf j'mg} bO' cf6] f pkof]lutfx¿ nV] gx' f];\ .
-3_ k]l/:sf]kn] s;/L sfo{ ub5{ < /]vflrq;lxt j0f{g ug{'xf];\ .
$= lbOPsf] lrq cWoog u/L lgDglnlvt k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ lbgx' f];\ M
-s_ lrqdf cfkltt ls/0f / k/fjlt{t ls/0fsf] gfd nV] gx' f];\ .
-v_ cfkltt sf0] f / k/fjltt{ sf0] fsf] gfd n]Vg'xf];\ .
-u_ gdg{ NO nfO{ j'mg ;tx;uF ()) sf] sf0] f x'g] u/L lvlrPsf] 5 <
-3_ sf] dfg slt x'G5 <
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 159
* ljBt' \ / rD' asTj
(Electricity and Magnetism)
xfd|f] b}lgs hLjgdf ljleGg sfo{x¿ ug{ ljB't\ zlStsf] cfjZostf kb{5 .
3/df k|ofu] ul/g] ljB'tLo pks/0fx¿ ;~rfng ug{sf nflu ;d]t ljB't\ zlStsf]
cfjZostf kb{5 . ljBt' s\ f] ko| f]u u/L ljB't\ r'Das agfOG5 . ljB't\ ux[ df ljBt' \
zlSt pTkfbg ug{ ljB't\ rD' assf] ko| f]u ul/G5 .
lrq 8.1 ljB't\ / rD' as
-c_ lrqdf ljBt' \ sg' sg' tl/sfaf6 pTkfbg ePsf] bv] fOPsf] 5 <
-cf_ ljBt' \ cGo sg' sg' ljlwaf6 pTkfbg ug{ ;lsG5 <
-O_ xfdf| ] bl} gs hLjgdf ljBt' \ / rD' asnfO{ s'g sg' sfdsf nflu ko| fu] ul/G5 <
ljBt' Lo ;fdfgx¿ h:t} M lrd afNg, sDKo6' / / kf| ]h]S6/ rnfpg, 6l] nlehg x]g,{
kªv\ f rnfpg, lx6/ afNg, lkm| h rnfpg ljBt' s\ f] ko| fu] ul/Psf] xG' 5 . tL ;fduL| x¿
rnfpg cfjZos kg]{ ljBt' \ zlSt ljBt' s\ f ;|f]tx¿af6 k|fKt x'g] u5{ . ;'rfns
tf/sf dfWodåf/f pSt ljB't\ 3/ jf ljBfno;Dd cfOk'U5 . o;/L k|;f/0f ug{
;lsg] ljB't\ wf/f ljBt' \ -current electricity_ xf] .
tkfO{Fx¿n] k|foM xfjfx'/L rNg] df};ddf kfgL kg'{ cufl8 cfsfzdf lah'nL
rDss] f,] r6o\ fª k/]sf] t bV] g' ePs} xf]nf . o;u} /L pgsf sk8fx¿ cFWof/fdf
km'sfNbf ;;fgf lemNsfx¿ klg b]Vge' Ps} xfn] f . of] klg Ps ks| f/sf] ljB't\sf] ¿k
xf] . o; tl/sfaf6 pTkfbg x'g] ljB't\ l:y/ ljB't\ xf] .
160 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
8.1 l:y/ ljB't\sf] kl/ro (An introduction of static electricity)
lj|mofsnfk 8.1
lrq 8.2 l:y/ ljB't\
kftnf] sfuhsf dl;gf 6'j|mfx¿ agfP/ 6a] n' df /fVgx' f];\ . Pp6f Knfl:6ssf] 86kg] jf
/a/sf] sfFluof] lnP/ ;V' vf skfndf /u8g\ 'xf];\ . ca sf“luofn] fO{ sfuhsf 6j' m| f glhs nu/]
cjnf]sg ugx{' f];\ . sfuhsf 6'jm| fx¿ sf“luofd] f lsg cfslift{ ePsf xfn] fg,\ cgd' fg ug'xf;] \ .
ko| fu] fTds sfo{ 8.1
an] 'g / pgsf] ko| fu] (Ballon and wool experiment)
Pp6f an] g' lngx' f;] \ . To;df xfjf egx{' f;] \ .
pSt a]n'gnfO{ pgsf] l:j6/df s]xL ;do
/u8\g'xf];\ . ca lj:tf/} a]n'gnfO{ ;dfts] f] xft
5f]8g\ 'xf;] \ . l:j6/df a]ng' 6flF ;G5 . o:tf] lsg
ePsf] xf]nf, lgisif{ n]Vgx' f];\ .
a]n'sL kv cFWof/f] sf]7fdf kf]ln:6/, gfOng, lrq 8.3
Pj|ml] ns jf pgsf sk8fx¿ km'sfNbf l6sl6s
cfjfhsf ;fydf pHofnfsf] lemNsfx¿ klg cfpF5g\ . o:tf] x'gfsf] sf/0f s] xf]nf <
;a} kbfy{x¿ c0fa' f6 ags] f xG' 5g\ . k/df0fx' ¿ ldnL
c0f' ags] f x'G5g\ . wgfTds (+ve) rfh{ ePsf] s]
Gb|Lo efu Go'lSno; / jl/kl/ 3'Dg] C0ffTds (ve)
rfh{ ePsf] On]S6«f]g u/L k/df0f'df b'O{ lj|mofsnfk
xG' 5g\ . bO' { kbfyx{ ¿ cfk;df 3if0{ f xb'F f Pp6faf6 csfd{] f
On]S6«f]g ;/]/ hfG5g\ . On]S6«f]g ;/]/ hfg] kbfy{df lrq 8.4 k/df0fs' f] ;+/rgf
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 161
On]S6«fg] sf] ;ª\Vof a9L xG' 5 / C0ffTds rfh{o'St x'G5 . hg' kbfy{af6 OnS] 6f« ]g
;//] hfG5, To; kbfy{df On]S6«fg] sf] sdL eO{ wgfTds rfh{o'St aG5 .
Knfl:6s, pg, gfOng,
kf]ln:6/, Pj|m]lns cflb ljleGg
s'rfns kbfy{df 3if{0f x'Fbf
rfh{ pTkGg x'G5 . To;}n]
pSt n'ufx¿ nufpbF f z/L/;uF } lrq 8.5
3if{0f eO{ rfh{x¿ aG5g\ .
o:tf nu' fx¿ kms' fNbf rfhx{ ¿ ;5g{ \ / l6sl6s cfjfh cfp5F . ;fy} cWF of/fdf cfufsf]
lemNsfh:tf] klg bv] f k5{ . o; j|mddf rfh{x¿sf] dfqfdf 36a9 cfp5F h;n] ubf{
ljB't\ pTkGg x'G5 . o;/L s'rfns kbfyx{ ¿df 3if0{ fsf sf/0faf6 ljk/Lt rfhs{ f]
dfqfdf 36a9 eO{ pTkGg x'g] ljBt' \ g} l:y/ ljB't\ (Static electricity) xf] .
skfndf sfFluof] /u8b\ f skfndf /xs] f On]S6«fg] sfFluofd] f ;5g{ \ . ;?' df sfuhsf
6j' |mfdf rfh{ ePsf] x'Fb}g . ha C0ffTds rfh{ ePsf] sflF uof] sfuhsf 6j' |mfx¿sf]
glhs nluG5 ta sfFluofd] f /xs] f] C0ffTds rfh{sf] ke| fjn] To;sf] glhsk6\l6
/x]sf] sfuhsf] efudf wgfTds rfh{ pTkGg eO{ cfsif{0f x'G5 . ljkl/t rfhl{ ar
cfsif{0f x'g] ePsf]n] sfuhsf 6j' m| fx¿ sflF uofd] f 6flF ;Psf x'g\ . o;/L sfFluof] /
skfn /u8\bf pTkGg ePsf] an g} l:y/ ljB'tLo an (Electrostatic force) xf] .
8.2 l:y/ ljB't\sf] c;/x¿ (Effects of static electricity)
xfd|f] b}lgs hLjgdf k|ToIf k|efj kfg]{ l:y/ ljB't\sf c;/x¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/
pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M
-s_ r6\ofª kg'{ jf lah'nL rlDsg'
-v_ OGwgsf 6\ofªsLx¿df cfunfuL x'g'
-u_ sDKo6' /sf sx] L OnS] 6f« l] gs lrkx¿df l:y/ rfh{ hDdf xbF' f lrkx¿ l56f] laug| '
-3_ ljBt' Lo em6s\ f nfUg'
-ª_ nu' fx¿, ljBt' Lo ;fdu|Lx¿ l6eL, sDKo'6/, df]afOn cflbdf wn' f] jf /f+} 6flF ;g'
cflb .
162 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
s] tkfO{n“ fO{ yfxf 5 < lrq 8.6
6\ofªs/df OGwg ebf{ OGwg eg]{ kfOksf] gfh] n
OGwg 6o\ fªs\ Ltkm{ / csf{] efu hldgtkm{ hfl] 8G5,
lsg xfn] f <
6o\ fªs\ /df OGwg ebf{ pTkGg xg' ;Sg] l:y/ ljBt' \
rfhs{ f ¿kdf hldgd'lg kj| fx xG' 5 . h;n] ubf{
pSt l:y/ ljBt' Lo rfh{ / OGwgsf] afkm ;Dksd{ f
cfpg kfpFbg} g\ / cfunfuLaf6 hfl] uG5 .
l:y/ ljBt' n\ fO{ xfdf| ] bl} gs hLjgsf lgDgfg;' f/sf ljleGg sfos{ f nflu pkofu] ul/G5 M
-s_ lkG| 6/ tyf kmf6] fs] kL dl] ;gx¿df d;L jf 6fg] /nfO{ kmf6] fs] kL sfuh;uF cfsif0{ f
u/fpg
-v_ /ª nufpbF f /ª 5g]{ pks/0f (Paint sprayer) agfpg
-u_ xfjf 5fGg] pks/0f (Air filter) dfko| fu] ug{
-3_ wn' f] x6fpg] pks/0f (Dust removal) df pkof]u ug{ cflb .
8.3 r6o\ fªsf] kl/ro (Introduction of lightening)
lrq 8.7 r6\ofª k/]sf]
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 163
ljrf/0fLo k|Zg
-c_ cfsfz vn' f ePsf] ;dodf lahn' L rlDs“bg} , lsg <
-cf_ afbn nfu] tfklg xfjfx'/L grNg] ;dodf klg lah'nL rlDsb“ }g, lsg <
oL kZ| gsf af/]df ljleGg ;|ft] x¿ -h:t} M k':tsfno, OG6/g]6, hfgsf/ JolStx¿
cflb_ af6 cfjZos ;r" gf ;ª\sng ug'{xf;] \ / ;ª\slnt ;"rgfsf af/d] f sIffdf
5nkmn ug{x' f];\ .
lrq 8.8
r6\ofª klg ljBt' \sf] kj| fx xf] . cfsfzdf jfiks0fx¿ ldn/] afbn ag]sf] xG' 5 .
lr;f] afbndf kfgLsf ;;fgf yfk] fx¿ xG' 5g\ . kfgLsf oL ;;fgf yf]kfx¿ la:tf/}
tnlt/ em5{g\ . tnlt/sf] tfkn] tftf] xfjf jfikLs/0f eO{ dflylt/ hfG5 . o;/L
x'g] bfx] f/] f] rfnsf sf/0f 3if{0f eO{ OnS] 6«f]gx¿sf] ng] b]g xG' 5 jf afbndf ljB't\
rfh{ pTkGg x'G5 . ;fwf/0ftof dflylt/sf] afbndf wgfTds / tnlt/sf] afbndf
C0ffTds rfh{ k}bf xG' 5 . C0ffTds rfh{ ePsf] afbnaf6 On]S6f« g] x¿ wgfTds
rfh{ ePsf] afbndf ;//] hfG5g\ . o;/L s'rfns j:ta' f6 On]S6«fg] ;//] hfFbf
lgs} tfk kb} f xG' 5 . of] tfkn] xfjfnfO{ ;t] f] x'g] u/L ttfOlbG5 . To;}n] xfdLn]
cfsfzdf lahn' L rlDsFbf rxlsnf] pHofnf] b]V5f}F . To;} u/L ljB't\ k|jfx ePsf]
af6fdf tfltPsf] xfjf t/ªu\ sf] ¿kdf kml} nG5 / Ps}l5gdf lr;f] eO{ t/ªu\ s} ¿kdf
vl' DrG5 . o;/L xfjf km}lnFbf / vl' Drbf 7n' f] cfjfh lg:sG5 . r6\ofª kbf{ cfpg]
u8o\ fªu'8ª' sf] cfjfh oxL xf] .
o;/L cfsfzdf C0ffTds rfh{ ePsf] afbnaf6 On]S6f« ]gx¿ wgfTds rfh{ ePsf
afbndf ;//] hfbF f pTkGg x'g] tfk, k|sfz / WjlgnfO{ g} r6o\ fª elgG5 .
164 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
lrq 8.9
ha C0ffTds jf wgfTds afbn cfsfzaf6 w/] } tn cfOkU' 5, To;kl5 cUnf ?v, 3/
cflb eP/ afbnsf] ljB't\ rfh{ k[YjLdf ;/]/ cfp5F . To;}n] C0ffTds afbn hldg
glhs cfPdf 3/ / ?vsf] dfly wgfTds rfh{ hDdf xG' 5 . wgfTds afbn hldgdfly
cfPdf 3/ tyf ?vsf] dfly C0ffTds rfh{ hDdf xG' 5 . o;/L ljk/Lt rfh{ lardf
cfsif{0f eO{ ljB't\ k|jfx xG' 5 . h;nfO{ xfdL r6\ofª k/]sf] eG5f}F . r6o\ fª kbf{ 3/
jf ?vx¿df Iflt k5{ .
ljrf/0fLo k|Zg
-c_ r6\ofª kbf{ lahn' L rDs]sf] s]xL ;dokl5 dfq u8o\ fªu8' 'ªsf] cfjfh ;'lgG5,
o;sf] sf/0f s] xfn] f <
-cf_ lahn' L rlDsPsf] cj:yfdf ?vsf] dl' g a:g xb“' g} , lsg xf]nf <
-O_ lahn' L rlDsPsf] cj:yfdf 3/df ljBt' Lo ;fduL| x¿sf] ko| fu] ugx{' b' g} , lsg xfn] f <
nfO6l] gª /8 (Lightening rod)
nfO6]lgª /8 3/sf] 5t jf 5fgfdf r6\ofªaf6 3/nfO{ hf]ufpgsf lglDt
/flvG5 . of] /8nfO{ tfdfsf] tf/;uF hfl] 8G5 / tfdfsf] tf/nfO{ hldgdl' g k¥' ofOG5,
h;nfO{ ljBt' \ clyª{ (Electric earthing) elgG5 . pSt /8 / tf/n] r6o\ fªaf6
kj| fx ePsf] ljBt' n\ fO{ hldgdl' g k¥' ofp5F , h;n] ubf{ 3/nfO{ sg' } xflg kU' bg} .
cfwl' gs kl| jlwsf] ko| fu] u/L lgdf0{ f ul/Psf ejgx¿ h:t} es" Dk kl| t/fl] w ljBfno,
ckf6d{ G] 6, Jofj;flos ejgx¿, l;gd] f xn cflbdf nfO6l] gª /8sf] ko| fu] ul/Psf] xG' 5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 165
3/df clyª{ s;/L ul/G5 < ljrf/ ug'{xf;] \ t .
r6o\ fªaf6 3/nfO{ hfu] fpg clyª{ ul/G5 . o;sf nflu 3/sf] 56sf] dflyNnf] efudf
km/flsnf] tfdfsf] 8G8LnfO{ 3/sf] 5fgf] jf 56df /flvG5 . o; 808LnfO{ tfdfsf]
tf/ h8fg u/]/ hldgdf vlgPsf] vfN8f]df k¥' ofOG5 . hldgdf vlgPsf] vfN8fdf
sf]Onfsf 6j' m| fx¿, l9s] g'g /flvG5, h;df lg/Gt/ kfgLsf] k|jfx eO{ lr:ofg
/lx/xg] Joj:yf ldnfOG5 . pSt lr:ofg dfnluPsf] tfdfsf] tf/nfO{ vN8fdf
ufl8Psf] /8;Fu hfl] 8G5 . o;n] r6\ofª kbf{ cfPsf pRr ef]N6]hnfO{ 3/leq k|jz]
ug{ glbO{ hldgtkm{ kj| fx u5{ .
kl/of]hgf sfo{
xfdf| ] bz] df r6\ofªn] kf/s] f] c;/;DaGwL hfgsf/Lx¿ kqklqsf, OG6/g]6, hfgsf/
JolStx¿sf] ;xfotfaf6 ;ª\sng u/L ;ªl\ IfKt k|ltj]bg tof/ kfgx'{ f;] \ / sIffdf
k:| t't ugx'{ f;] \ .
8.4 wf/f ljBt' \sf] kl/ro (Introduction of current electricity)
3/ tyf ljBfnodf ljB'tLo ;fdu|Lx¿ lrq 8.10 ljB't\ kl/kydf aQL an]sf]
rnfpg cfjZos kg{] ljBt' \ sxfaF f6 cfPsf]
xf]nf < o:tf] ljB't\nfO{ s] elgG5 xf]nf <
3/df / ljBfnodf ko| fu] ePsf] ljB't\ Pp6}
jf km/s ks| f/sf] xf,] 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \ .
ljB't\ k|jfx x'gsf nflu ljB't\sf] ;|f]t, ;'rfns tf/, l:jr / nf]8 cfjZos
k5{g\ . ltgLx¿nfO{ hf8] /] agfOPsf] lgoldt af6f]nfO{ ljBt' \ kl/ky (Electric
circuit) elgG5 . ;"rfns tf/df OnS] 6«fg] x¿ Ps 7fpFaf6 csf]{ 7fpFdf ax]/ kj| fx
xg' ] ljBt' \ g} wf/f ljB't\ (Current electricity) xf] . 3/, ljBfno, snsf/vfgf
cflbdf pkof]u xg' ] lrd, /l] 8of,] 6]lnlehg, sDKo'6/, kfgL tfGg] df6] /, kª\vf, lx6/,
ljB't\ 306L cflb ljBt' a\ f6 rNg] pks/0f -ljB'tLo pks/0f_ x'g\ . ljBt' \ zlStnfO{
ltg} ljB'tLo pks/0fx¿sf] ;xfotfdf tfk, k|sfz, Wjlg, r'Das cflb zlStx¿df
¿kfGt/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
166 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
;]nx¿sf] ;dx" Ls/0f (Combination of cells)
ljB't\sf] ;f| t] x¿dWo] ;]n (dry cell) Ps xf] . lrq 8.11 ;]nx¿
h;sf bO' { 5p] df wgfTds / C0ffTds w'j| x¿
/xs] f xG' 5g\ . ;n] x¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ Aof6L« elgG5 .
;n] x¿ ljleGg cfsf/ / ks| f/sf xG' 5g\ h:t} M
8«fO;n] , ;fwf/0f ;n] cflb .
oL ;]nx¿nfO{ ljBt' \ kl/kydf ljleGg tl/sfaf6 h8fg ug{ ;lsG5 .
lrq 8.12 ;n] x¿nfO{ Ps;} fy h8fg ul/g] tl/sf
ljm| ofsnfk 8.2
bl} gs hLjgdf ;n] sf] k|of]u x'g] pks/0fx¿ h:t} M leQ3] 8L, 6]lnlehgsf] l/df]6, 6r{nfO6
cflb lngx' f;] \ . ltgsf] ;n] aS;sf] cjnfs] g ugx{' f;] \ . To;df ;n] x¿sf] h8fg ubf{ wg / C0f
w'|jx¿ s;/L ldnfOPsf] 5, x]g{x' f];\ . lgDglnlvt k|Zgsf cfwf/df sIffdf 5nkmn ug{'xf];\ .
-c_ s] oL ;a} k|sf/sf pks/0fx¿df ;]nx¿sf] h8fg ug]{ tl/sf Pp6} 5 <
-cf_ s'g sg' pks/0fdf Pp6f ;]nsf] wg w'|jaf6 csf]{ ;n] sf] wg w|j' df g} tf/
hf]8/] kl/ky tof/ ul/Psf] 5 < sg' s'gdf km/s km/s w'|j h8fg ul/Psf]
5, tflnsfdf eg{x' f;] \ .
b'Oc{ f6] f ;n] sf] ;dfg w|'j hf]l8Psf b'Oc{ f]6f ;n] sf] ljk/Lt w|'j hf]l8Psf
pks/0f pks/0f
b'O{ jf b'Oe{ Gbf a9L ;]nx¿nfO{ Ps};fy k|ofu] ul/g] k4lt ;]nx¿sf] ;dx" Ls/0f
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 167
xf] . Dfflysf lj|mofsnfksf cfwf/df ;n] x¿sf] ;dx" Ls/0f ;fdfGotof bO' { k|sf/n]
ug{ ;lsG5 . -s_ >0] fLj|md h8fg (Series combination) / -v_ ;dfgfGt/ h8fg
(Parallel combination)
-s_ >]0fLj|md h8fg (Series combination)
Pp6f ;n] sf] C0f w|j' bf;] |f] ;n] sf] wg wj'| ;Fu lrq 8.13 >0] fLjm| d h8fg
/ bf;] f| ] ;]nsf] C0f wj|' t;] f| ] ;n] sf] wg w'|j;Fu
jm| dzM hf8] ]/ >]0fLjm| d h8fg ug{ ;lsG5 .
k|of]ufTds sfo{ M ljB't\sf] >0] fLj|md
;fdu|Lx¿ M
rf/cf6] f ;]nx¿, ;'rfns tf/, aNa, l:jr, 6f:F gsf nflu 6k] cflb
ljlw M
r/0f ! M klxnf] ;]nsf] wgw|j' ;Fu bf];|f] ;]nsf] C0fw'|j, To:t} bf];f| ] ;]nsf] wg w'j| ;uF
t];f| ] ;]nsf] C0f wj|' hf]8\gx' f;] \ .
r/0f @ M t;] f| ] ;]nsf] wg wj'| ;uF tfdfsf] tf/n] l:jr hf]8\g'xf];\ .
r/0f # M l:jrsf] csf]{ 5p] df tfdfsf] tf/;uF aNa hf]8g\ x' f;] \ / aNasf] csf]{
5]pnfO{ klxnf] ;n] sf] C0f w'|j;Fu hf]8\g'xf];\ .
k|ofu] fTds sfo{
lrqx¿ …sÚ, …vÚ / …uÚ df h:t} ;]nx¿ 56' \6f56' 6\ } aNa;uF hf8] \gx' f;] \ . o;sf]
glthf lgDglnlvt tflnsfdf eg'{xf];\ M
lrq 8.14 >0] fLjm| d ;]nsf] pHofnf]kgf
168 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
lrq ;]nsf] ;ª\Vof pHofnfk] gf lgisif{
-s_ 1
-v_ 2
-u_ 3
>0] fLj|md h8fgdf ;]nsf] ;ª\Vof a9fPkl5 efN] 6]h klg a9\5, h:t} M Pp6f ;n] sf]
efN] 6]h 1.5 efN] 6 x'G5 eg] b'Oc{ f6] f ;n] sf] efN] 6h] 3 ef]N6 x'G5 . To:t} tLgcf]6f
;]nsf] efN] 6h] 4.5 ef]N6 x'G5 / ;f]xL jm| dcg';f/ ljBt' \ Ifdtf a9b\ } hfG5 . ;n] sf]
;ªV\ of a9fPkl5 aNasf] pHofnf]kgf klg a9\b} hfG5 . o:tf lsl;dsf ;n] x¿sf]
h8fg g>} 0] fLjm| d h8fg xf] . clwstd ef]N6]h kf| Kt ug{ >0] fLj|md h8fg ul/G5 .
o;df kl/kysf] hDdf efN] 6h] kT| o]s ;]nsf] efN] 6]hsf] of]ukmn;uF a/fa/ x'G5,
h:tM} 1.5V+1.5V+1.5V= 4.5
;n] x¿sf] >0] fLjm| d h8fgsf] pkofl] utf (Uses of the series combination
of the cells)
;n] x¿sf] >0] fLjm| d h8fgnfO{ lgDg lnlvt sfod{ f pkofu] ul/G5 M
-s_ ;n] x¿af6 w]/} ef]N6h] k|fKt ug{sf nflu of] h8fg pkof]u ul/G5 .
-v_ aNasf] pHofnfk] gf a9fpg ;lsG5 .
-u_ lau|]sf ;]nx¿n] ;ls{6 k/" f x'g glbg] x'gfn] ;lhn};Fu kmg] { pkofu] ul/G5 .
-3_ of] h8fg 6rn{ fO6, /l] 8of] cflbdf pkofu] ul/G5 .
-v_ ;dfgfGt/ h8fg (Parallel combination)
b'O{ jf ;fe] Gbf a9L ;n] x¿sf] C0f wj|'
Psflt/ / wg wj'| csf]{lt/ h8fg u/L
;]nx¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fg ul/G5 .
k|of]ufTds sfo{ 8.3
;dfgfGt/ h8fg lrq 8.15 ;dfgfGt/ h8fg
;fdu|L M tLgcf]6f ;]nx¿, ;r' fns tf/, aNa, l:jr, 6fF:gsf nflu 6k] cflb .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 169
ljlw M lrqdf bv] fOP h:t} u/L lGfDglnlvt ljlwx¿sf] ko| fu] u/L ;n] x¿sf] ;dfgfGt/
h8fg ugx{' f;] \ .
r/0f ! M tLgcf6] } ;n] sf] wg„j' / ;fx] L ;n] x¿sf C0f „j' x¿ tf/sf] dbtn] hf8] g\ x' f;] \ .
r/0f @ M wg w|'j;uF tfdfsf] tf/n] l:jr hf]8\g'xf;] \ .
r/0f # M l:jrsf] csf{] 5]pdf tfdfsf] tf/l;t aNa hf8] \g'xf];\ / aNasf] csf{] 5]
pnfO{ ;n] sf] C0f wj'| ;uF hf8] \gx' f;] \ .
ljm| ofsnfk 8.3
s, v / u lrqx¿df h:t} ;n] x¿ aNa;“u hf8] g\ x' f];\ . o;sf] glthf lgDglnlvt tflnsfdf
eg'{xf;] \ .
lrq 8.16 ;dfgfGt/ ;]nsf] pHofnfk] gf
lrq ;n] sf] ;ª\Vof pHofnfk] gf lgisif{
s 1
v2
u 3
o; k|sf/sf] h8fgaf6 aNa w]/} a/] ;Dd aN5 . ;]nx¿ ;dfgfGt/ h8fg ubf{ hlt
g} ;n] sf] ;ªV\ of a9fP klg aNasf] pHofnf] a9b\ g} . o;df ljB't\ rfk ga9] klg
ljB't\ kj| fx xg' ] ;do a9\5 . o:tf ks| f/sf ;]nx¿sf] h8fgnfO{ ;dfgfGt/ h8fg
elgG5 . o;df kl/kysf] hDdf efN] 6h] g} kT| o]s ;]nsf] ef]N6]h;Fu a/fa/ x'G5 .
;]nx¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fgsf] pkof]u
;]nx¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fgnfO{ lgDgsfo{sf nflu pkof]u ul/G5 M
-s_ ;]n÷Aof6«LnfO{ nfdf] ;do;Dd l6sfpgsf nflu of] h8fg pkofu] ul/G5 .
-v_ nfdf] ;do;Dd Psgf;n] s/G] 6sf] dfqfnfO{ l6sfO/xg of] h8fg ko| fu] ul/G5 .
170 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
-u_ ;]nsf] ef]N6h] / kl/kydf xg' ] efN] 6h] Pp6} agfpg o;sf] pkofu] ul/G5 .
-3_ sg' s'g l6eLsf] l/df]6 cflbdf o;sf] pkofu] ul/G5 .
kl/of]hgf sfo{
3/ jf ljBfnodf ;dfgfGt/ tyf >0] fLjm| d h8fg ePsf ljB'tLo pks/0fx¿ s] s]
/x]5g\, vf]hL ug{'xf];\ . tL pks/0fx¿sf] ;r" L tof/ u/L tnsf] tflnsfdf bv] fOP
h:t} u/L e/]/ sIffdf k|:t't ug'x{ f;] \ .
j|m=;= pks/0fsf] gfd ;n] x¿sf] ;d"xLs/0fsf] lsl;d
!= 6r{nfO6 >]0fLjm| d
@= l6eLsf] l/df6] ;dfgfGt/
#= /]l8of] >0] fLjm| d
===== ==================== ======================
kl| tlaDag
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 171
cEof;
!= tnsf k|Zgsf] ;xL ljsNk 5fGg'xf;] \ M
-s_ 3if0{ faf6 pTkGg ljBt' \ zlStnfO{ s] elgG5 <
-c_ wf/f ljBt' \ -cf_ l:y/ ljB't\
-O_ hn ljB't\ -O{_ ;f}o{ ljBt' \
-v_ ljB't\ pks/0f s'g xf] <
-c_ ;fn] f/ jNa -cf_ ;fn] f/ Jof6L«
-O_ 8f« O;]n -O_{ kmf]6f];]n
-u_ l:y/ ljBt' \sf] c;/ sg' xf] <
-c_ 3G6L aHg' -cf_ /]l8of] aHg'
-O_ jQL aNg ' -O_{ r6o\ fª kg{'
-3_ ;n] sf] >0] fLjm| d h8fgdf ;n] sf] ;ªV\ of a9b\ f lrdsf] pHofnfk] gdf s]
cGt/ cfpF5 <
-c_ pHofnfk] gf 36\5 . -cf_ pHofnf]kgf a9\5 .
-O_ pHofnf]kgfdf s'g} klg c;/ kbg{} . -O_{ pHofnfk] gf cl:y/ /xG5 .
-ª_ lbOPsf] lrqn] 3/nfO{ s] af6 hf]ufpF5 <
-c_ e"sDkaf6 -cf_ xfjfx'/Laf6
-O_ r6\ofªaf6 -O_{ cfuhgLaf6
@= km/s n]Vgx\' f;] \ M lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
-s_ wf/f ljBt' \ / l:y/ ljBt' \
-v_ ;]nsf] >0] fLj|md / ;dfgfGt/ jm| d h8fg
172
#= sf/0f lbg'xf];\ M
-s_ r6o\ fª kbf{ cUnf] ?v tyf ejgd'lg a:g' vt/f x'G5 .
-v_ sflF uofn] skfn sfb] f{ skfnsf 6j' m| fx¿ 6flF ;P/ cfpF5g\ .
-u_ cWof/fdf pgsf sk8fx¿ z/L/af6 vf]Nbf l6sl6s cfjfh cfp5F .
-3_ lrDgLsf] 6'Kkfdf tfdfsf] /8 /flvG5 .
$= tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ lbg'xf;] \ M
-s_ l:y/ ljBt' \ an egs] f] s] xf] < of] s;/L pTkGg xG' 5, JofVof ugx{' f;] \ .
-v_ l:y/ ljB't\ eg]s] s] xf] < o;sf tLgcf]6f ;fwf/0f c;/x¿ pNnv]
ugx{' f];\ .
-u_ r6o\ fª sn] fO{ elgG5 < k[YjLdf r6o\ fª s;/L kb5{ , JofVof ugx{' f;] \ .
-3_ 3/ tyf ejgnfO{ r6\ofªaf6 s;/L arfpg ;lsG5 <
-ª_ ;n] sf] ;dx" Ls/0f eg]sf] s] x] < of] lsg cfjZos 5 <
-r_ aNasf] pHofnfk] gf a9fpg'k¥of] eg] tkfO+{ sg' ks| f/sf] ;n] sf] h8fg
ug'{x'G5 . lrq;lxt JofVof ugx'{ f];\ .
-5_ b'Oc{ f]6f 8«fO;]nx¿ pkofu] u/L >]0fLjm| d / ;dfgfGt/ jm| d klxrfg
x'g] u/L lrq agfpgx' f;] \ .
-h_ tkfO;Fu 3 efN] 6ljBt' \ cfjZos kg]{ Pp6f 6rn{ fO6 5 . ;f] 6rn{ fO6df
Ps}k6s 1.5 ef]N6sf 2 cf]6f ;]nx¿ k|ofu] ugk{' ¥of] eg] s:tf] ks| f/
sf] ;dx" Ls/0f ug{k' nf{ < To;f] ubf{ s] kmfObf xG' 5 xf]nf <
-em_ tkfO;F{ Fu 3 ef]N6 ljBt' \ cfjZos kg{] Pp6f /l] 8of] 5 . olb tkfO;{+ Fu
ePsf bO' c{ f]6f k/' fgf ;]nx¿ ko| fu] u/L pSt ;d"xLs/0fsf] lrq klg
agfpgx' f;] \ .
-`_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog ug{x' f;] \ / k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ lbg'xf;] \ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 173
-c_ of] ;]nsf] s'g k|sf/sf] ;d"xLs/0f xf] <
-cf_ olb ;]nsf] ;ªV\ of a9fpbF } hfFbf aNasf]
pHofnf]kgfdf s] km/s k5,{ sf/0f
lbg'xf;] \ .
-O_ o;k|sf/sf] ;d"xLs/0fsf] pkof]lutf n]
Vgx' f];\ .
-7_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog u/L ;fl] wPsf
kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ lbgx' f;] \ M
-c_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf] j:t' s] xf] <
-cf_ s] sfdsf nflu o;sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 <
174 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
( kbfy{ (Matter)
xfd|f] jl/kl/ xfjf, kfgL, df6f,] 9'ªu\ f, ks| fz, 5fof, sf7nufotsf ljleGg j:tx' ¿
5g\ . s] tL ;an} ] 7fpF cfu] 6s] f xG' 5g\ xfn] f < s] tL ;a} j:tx' ¿sf] lk08 xG' 5 xfn] f t <
esG' 8fdf xfjf e/] h:t} ks| fz jf WjlgnfO{ klg To;/L g} hDdf ug{ ;lsPnf t <
lrq 9.1 kbfy{
xfdf| ] j/k/ /x]sf ljleGg j:t'x¿dWo] w/] } h;f] j:t'x¿n] 7fpF cfu] 6s] f x'G5g\ /
ltgLx¿sf] lk08 klg xG' 5 . To:tf lk08 / cfotg ePsf j:tx' ¿ kbfy{ xg' \ .
lk08 / cfotg gePsf j:tx' ¿ eg] kbfy{ xfO] gg\ . 5fof, tfk, ks| fz cflb kbfy{
xfO] gg\ lsgeg] ltgLx¿n] cfott, lk08 / 7fpF cfu] 6g\ ;Sbg} g\ . sg' } kbfyn{ ] yf/] }
7fpF cfu] 6] klg lk08 w/] } xG' 5 eg] sg' d} f w/] } 7fpF cfu] 6] klg lk08 yf/] } xG' 5, h:tM} kmnfd,
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 175
;g' cflb wfts' f] lk08 ;f]xLcfsf/sf] sfuh, Knfl:6s cflbsf] t'ngfdf w]/} x'G5 .
yf]/} 7fpF cfu] 6] klg lk08 w]/} xg' ] j:t'sf s0fx¿ vflF bP/ /xs] f xG' 5g\ . ;fwf/0f
tfkj|mddf kbfyx{ ¿ 7f;] , t/n / Uof;F cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ . ;fdfGotof 7f;] kbfy{df
eGbf Uof;F kbfyd{ f ltgLx¿sf c0f'x¿ v's'nf] ¿kdf /xs] f x'G5g\ . To; ks| f/sf]
kbfys{ f] vlF bnfk] gfsf] hfgsf/L lng kbfy{sf] 3gTj yfxf kfpg cfjZos x'G5 .
9.1 kbfys{ f] 3gTj (Density of matter)
lj|mofsnfk 9.1
Pp6f t/fh' lng'xf;] \ . To;sf] Psfk6\l6 Pp6f 9ª' \uf /fVg'xf;] \ . ToxL 9ª' u\ fsf] lk08;“u
;Gtn' g xg' ] u/L t/fhs' f] csfk{] 6l\ 6 ;S' vf df6f] /fVgx' f;] \ . t/fh' ;Gtn' gdf /xs] f] cj:yfdf
9ª' u\ f / ;V' vf df6f]dWo] s'gn] w]/} 7fp“ cf]u6s] f] b]lvG5 < cyjf s'gsf] cfotg a9L b]
lvG5 < o:tf] lsg ePsf] xf]nf, k|of]usf cfwf/df sIffdf 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \ .
Psl5g ljrf/ u/f}“ t M
-c_ a/fa/ cfsf/sf tLgcf]6f wft'x¿ Kfmnfd, tfdf /
;g' sf 8Nnfx¿dWo] sg' sf] lk08 ;ae} Gbf a9L xG' 5 xf] lrq 9.2
nf, lsg <
-cf_ Ps ln6/ kfgL, dl6t]n / vfg] t]ndWo] s'gsf] tf}n ;a}eGbf a9L xfn] f, sf/0f
s] xf]nf <
-O_ lrqdf lbOPsf] skf; / kmnfdsf] lk08 / cfotglar t'ngf ugx'{ f;] \ . o;f]
x'gfsf] sf/0f 5nkmn ugx'{ f];\ .
lj|mofsnfk 9.2
lrqdf bv] fOPsf] h:t} cfsf/sf] Pp6f if8d\ v' fsf/ a66\ f lngx' f;] \ . To;sf]
leqL nDafO,rf8} fO / prfOsf] gfk lnO{ cfotg kQf nufpgx' f;] \ . To;df
j|mdzM Pskl5 csf]{ ub}{ afn'jf, wn' f] df6f], wfgsf] e;' , sf7sf] wn' f] cflb
eg{x' f;] \ . x/s] nfO{ cnu cnu Knfl:6sdf vGofpgx' f];\ . kT| o]ssf] lk08 lrq 9.3
t/fhs' f] a6\6fsf ;xfotfn] gfKgx' f;] \ . ca x/s] sf] lk08nfO{ To;sf] cfotg
-a66\ fsf] cfotg_ n] efu u//] PsfO cfotgdf ePsf] lk08 kQf nufpgx' f;] \ / tnsf]
tflnsfdf eg{x' f;] \ . k|fKt glthfnfO{ sIffdf 5nkmn ugx{' f];\ .
176 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
tflnsf g= (=!
j|m=;= kbfys{ f] gfd kbfys{ f] lk08 lk08 (m)÷ cfotg (v)
1. afnj' f
2. w'nf] df6f]
3. wfgsf] e;'
4. sf7sf] w'nf]
-c_ x/s] kbfy{sf] lk08 km/s cfpgs' f] sf/0f s] xf]nf <
-cf_ sf7sf] wn' f] ePsf] emf]nfnfO{ vfFb/] ;fgf] agfpg ;lsPnf t/ afn'jfnfO{
;lsbg}F lsg <
;a} j:t'sf] PsfO cfotgdf ePsf] lk08 a/fa/ xFb' g} . PsfO cfotgdf ePsf]
kbfy{sf] lk08nfO{ To; kbfys{ f] 3gTj elgG5 cyft{ \ Ps 3gld6/ cfotg ePsf]
j:t'df hlt lk08 x'G5 Tof] g} To; j:ts' f] 3gTj -density_ xf] .
j:ts' f] 3gTj (D) = j:ts' f] lk08 (M)÷j:t'sf] cfotg (V)
3gTjsf] PsfO (Unit of density)
olb lk08nfO{ lsnf]uf| d (kg) / cfotgnfO{ 3gld6/ (m3) PsfOdf gflkG5 eg]
3gTjsf] PsfO lsnf]u|fdk|lt 3gld6/ (kg/m3) x'G5, h'g 3gTjsf] SI PsfO
xf] . olb lk08nfO{ uf| d PsfOdf / cfotgnfO{ 3g;l] G6ld6/df gflkG5 eg] 3gTjsf]
PsfO u|fd k|lt 3g;l] G6ld6/ (gm/cm3) x'G5, hg' 3gTjsf] CGS PsfO xf] .
pbfx/0f–1
2 3gld6/ cfotg ePsf] Pp6f 9ª' u\ fsf] lk08 10000kg 5 eg] 9'ª\ufsf] 3gTj
slt xfn] f <
oxfF,
9'ª\ufsf] cfotg (V) = 2m3
9ª' u\ fsf] lk08 (M) = 10000 kg 177
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
9ª' \ufsf] 3gTj (d) = ?
;"qcg';f/,
9'ªu\ fsf] 3gTj (d) = j:t'sf] lk08 (m)÷j:t'sf] cfotg (v)
or, (d) = 10000/2
Or, (d) = 5,000 kg/m3
t;y{9ª' \ufsf] 3gTj = 5,000 kg/m3 x'G5 .
;fk]lIfs 3gTj (Relative Density)
lj|mofsnfk 9.3
;dfg cfotg ePsf bO' c{ f6] f ef8“ fx¿ lngx' f;] \ . tL bO' { ef8“ fx¿dWo] Pp6fdf kfgL / csfd{] f
afn'jf egx{' f;] \ / ca b'j} ef“8fx¿nfO{ aU] nfa]Un} hf]v]/ ltgLx¿sf] lk08 kQf nufpgx' f];\ M
-c_ kfgLsf] t'ngfdf afnj' fsf] lk08 slt u'0ffn] w]/} 5 <
-cf_ kfgLsf] 3gTjsf tn' gfdf afn'jfsf] 3gTj slt u0' ff a9L xf]
nf <
j:ts' f] 3gTjnfO{ 40 C sf] kfgLsf] 3gTj;Fu tn' gf u/L pSt lrq 9.4
j:t'sf] ;fk]lIfs3gTj lgsflnG5 .
To;n} ], ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj Ö j:t'sf] 3gTj 40 C sf] kfgLsf] 3gTj
3gTjx¿larsf] cg'kft ePsfn] ;fk]lIfs 3gTjsf] PsfO x'bF g} .
tflnsf (=@ kbfy{sf] 3gTj / ;fk]lIfs 3gTj
jm| =;= kbfy{sf] gfd 3gTj (kg/m3) 3gTj (g/cm3) ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj
1. a/km 920 0.92 0.92
2. kfgL 1000 1 1
3. PlNdlgod 2700 2.7 2.7
4. kmnfd 7800 7.8 7.8
178 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
pbfx/0f–2
olb ;'gsf] 3gTj 19 gm/cm3 lbOPsf] 5 eg] o;sf] ;fk]lIfs 3gTj slt xG' 5 <
(40 Cdf kfgLsf] 3gTj = 1gm/cm3)
oxfF,
;'gsf] 3gTj = 19gm/cm3
40C df kfgLsf] 3gTj = 1 gm/cm3
;g' sf] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj = ?
;'gsf] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj = j:t'sf] 3gTjkfgLsf] 3gTj
= 19 gm/cm3 /1gm/cm2
= 19
t;y{ ;'gsf] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj = 19 x'G5 .
pqg] / 8A' g] ljm| of (Floating and sinking)
lrq 9.5 pqg] / 8A' g] ljm| of
ljrf/0fLo kZ| g
j:tx' ¿ kfgLdf pqg] jf 8'Ag] s/' fsf] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj;Fu s] ;DaGw 5 <
lj|mofsnfk 9.4
j:t' kfgLdf 8A' g] / pqg] k|of]ufTds lj|mofsnfk
-c_ cfjZos ;fduL| M 3/ jf 3/ j/k/ /xs] f sf7sf 6j' m| f, 9ª' u\ fsf 6j' m| f, Knfl:6ssf
j:t', kmnfdsf 6'jm| f, O/h] /, rDrf cflb
-cf_ ljlw M Pp6f km/flsnf] efF8fdf kfgL lng'xf;] \ . kfnk} fnf] oL j:tx' ¿nfO{ kfgLdf
/fv/] x]gx{' f;] \
-O_ cjnfs] g M sg' sg' j:t' kfgLdf 8A' 5g\ / sg' sg' pqG5g,\ cjnfs] g ugx{ f;] \ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 179
o;f] xg' s' f] sf/0f s] xfn] f sIffdf 5nkmn u/L kf| Kt lgisif{ tnsf] tflnsfdf egx{' f;] \ M
jm| =;=+ j:t' 3gTj kfgLdf pqg] jf 8A' g] sf/0f
1. kmnfd 8 gm/cm3
2. a/km 0.92 gm/cm3
3. kfgL -40C) 1 gm/cm3
4. dl6t]n 0.8 gm/cm3
5. PlNdlgod 2.7 gm/cm3
olb s'g} j:ts' f] ;fk]lIfs 3gTj 1 eGbf a9L ePdf pSt j:t' kfgLdf 8A' 5 eGg]
al' emG5 . To:t} s'g} j:ts' f] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj 1 eGbf sd ePdf pSt j:t' kfgLdf
plqG5 eGg] a'lemG5 .
pbfx/0f-3
10cm × 5cm × 2cm gfk ePsf] kmnfdsf] afs;sf] lk08 800 gm 5 eg] ;f]
kmnfdsf] 3gTj / ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj lgsfNgx' f;] \ . lx;fa u/L lgsflnPsf] tYosf
cfwf/df pSt kmnfd kfgLdf 8'A5 jf pqG5, sf/0f lbg'xf;] \ .
-kfgLsf] 3gTj = 1gm/cm3)
oxfF,
kmnfdsf] afs;sf] cfotg (v) = 10cm × 5cm × 2 cm
= 100 cm3
kmnfdsf] afs;sf] lk08 (M) = 800gm
kmnfdsf] 3gTj (d) =
or, d = 800gm100cm3
Or, d = 8gm/cm3
ca, kmnfd afs;sf] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj = kmnfdsf] 3gTj kfgLsf] 3gTj
= 8 gm/cm3/1 gm/cm3= 8
kmnfd afs;sf] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj = 8
180 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
t;y{ kmnfd afs;sf] ;fk]lIfs 3gTj 1 eGbf a9L ePsfn] pSt kmnfd kfgLdf
/fVbf 8A' 5 .
olb j:t' z4' ePdf To:tf j:t'sf] PsfO cfotgdf xg' ] lk08 -3gTj_ ;w}F Psgfz
xG' 5 . z'4 kmnfd, ;g' , kfgL cflbsf] 3gTj ;wF} Pp6} xG' 5 . t/ j:t' cz'4 ePdf
ltgLx¿sf] 3gTj klg 36a9 xG' 5 . df6f], xfjf, gg' kfgL cflb cz4' j:ts' f] 3gTj
To;df ldl;Psf j:t'sf] dfqf / k|sl[ tdf e/ kb{5 . o;sf nflu k|sl[ tdf kfOg]
z'4 -tŒj / ofl} us_ tyf cz4' -ld>0f_ sf af/]df hfgsf/L kfpg cfjZos 5 .
9.2 tŒj / of}lus (Element and Compound)
tŒj (Element)
ljrf/0fLo k|Zg
-c_ s'g} 7'nf] 9'ª\ufnfO{ 6'jm| \ofP/ ;fgf s0fx¿df ljefhg ubf{ pxL ks| f/sf u0' f
ePsf s0fx¿ kfOG5 ls kfOFbg} xfn] f <
-cf_ s] xfdf| j/k/ ePsf ;a} j:tx' ¿nfO{ ;/n ¿kdf 6'jm| ofP/ pxL u0' f ePsf
;/n j:t'x¿ kfpg ;lsG5 xf]nf t < sIffdf 5nkmn ug{'xf];\ .
Matter
Solids, Liquids, Gases
Pure substance Physically Mixture
combined into Soluble Insoluble
chemically Compound Homogeneous Hetrogeneous
Element
combined into
lrq 9.6 tŒj / of}lus 181
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
xfd|f] jl/kl/ /x]sf kbfy{x¿dWo] s]xL kbfy{x¿ h;nfO{ s'g} klg k|lj|mofåf/f
;fx] L u'0f ePsf] afxs] cGo ;/n kbfyx{ ¿df kl/jt{g ug{ ;lsFbg} . o:tf kbfy{x¿
tŒj x'g\ . tfdf Pp6f tŒj xf] lsgeg] tfdfnfO{ 6j' m| fP/ cGo ;/n kbfy{ agfpg
;lsFb}g jf tfdfnfO{ hlt g} 6'j|mofP klg tfdfs} u'0f ePsf 6j' |mfx¿ Dffq kfpg
;lsG5 . ks| l[ tdf ePsf o:tf kbfyx{ ¿ ldn/] g} xfdf| ] jl/kl/ /xs] f cGo;a} kbfyx{ ¿
ags] f x'g\ . xfn;Dd ks| [ltdf 92 cf]6f kf| s[lts / 26 cf6] f sl[ qd u/L hDdf 118
cf]6f tŒjx¿ j}1flgsx¿n] kQf nufPsf 5g\ . ;fwf/0f tfkjm| ddf kmnfd, ;g' ,
rfbF L cflb TfŒj 7f]; cj:yfdf, af| ]ldg / kf/f] t/n cj:yfdf / xfO8«fh] g, clS;hg
cflb UofF; cj:yfdf kfOg] tŒjx¿ x'g\ .
k/df0f' (Atom)
-c_ lrqdf bv] fOPsf ljleGg cjojx¿sf] agf6] df s] km/s kfpg ;lsG5 <
-cf_ kbfyd{ f /x]sf tŒjx¿ / k/df0fs' f] ;DaGw s:tf] /x]sf] 5 <
tŒjsf] ;ae} Gbf ;fgf] s0fnfO{ k/df0f' (atom)elgG5 . s'g} klg tŒjsf] k/df0fn' fO{
6'j\|mofP/ gofF u0' f ePsf] j:t' agfpg ;lsbF }g . Pp6} tŒjsf k/df0f'x¿ ;dfg
lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ . clS;hg tŒjsf] k/df0f' xfO8f« h] gsf] eGbf km/s xG' 5 . To;n} ]
118 cf6] f tŒjsf 118 ks| f/sf k/df0f' xG' 5g\ . /f;folgs k|ltlj|mofdf efu lng
;Sg] tŒjsf] ;ae} Gbf ;fgf] s0f g} k/df0f' xf] .
k/df0f'sf] agf6] (Structure of an atom)
k/df0f' tŒjsf] ;ae} Gbf ;fgf] s0f xf] . o;nfO{ cGo kbfyd{ f 6j' m| f\ pg ;lsbF g} . k/df0f'
tLgcf6] f pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿ (subatomic particles) ldnL ags] f] x'G5 . tL xg' \M
kf| 6] f]g, Go6' «f]g / OnS] 6«f]g . k|f6] f]g / Go6' f« g] k/df0f'sf] s]
Gbd| f vfF lbP/ /xs] f x'G5g\, o;nfO{ Gol' Sno; elgG5 .
On]S6f« g] x¿ Gol' Sno;sf] jl/kl/ lglZrt af6fdf 3'ld/x]
sf x'G5g\ . OnS] 6«f]g 3D' g] af6fnfO{ sIf (orbit) cyjf ;]
n (shell) elgG5 .
182 lrq 9.7
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
kf| 6] f]g (Proton)
k|f]6f]g wgfTds rfh{ ePsf] s0f xf], of] k/df0fs' f] Gol' Sno;df /xs] f] xG' 5 . Pp6f
k|f]6fg] sf] lk08 Pp6f xfO8f« ]hg k/df0fs' f] lk08;uF a/fa/ xG' 5 . o;sf] lk08nfO{ 1
kf/df0fljs lk08 PsfO (atomic mass unit, amu) dflgG5 .
Go'6f« g] (Neutron)
Go'6«f]g t6:y (neutral) cyf{t\ rfh{ljxLg xf] . of] k/df0f'sf] GolSno;df
/xs] f] x'G5 . Pp6f Go'6f« g] sf] lk08 Pp6f xfO8f« h] gsf] k/df0f'sf] lk08;Fu a/fa/
xG' 5 . To;n} ] Pp6f Go6' «f]gsf] lk08nfO{ 1 kf/df0fljs lk08 PsfO (atomic mass
unit-amu) dflgG5 . xfO8«f]hgafx]s ;a} tŒjx¿df Go'6f« g] x'G5 .
On]S6f« g] (Electron)
OnS] 6f« g] C0ffTds rfh{ ePsf] s0f xf] . of] k/df0fs' f] Gol' Sno;sf] jl/kl/ lglZrt
af6fdf 3l' d/xs] f] xG' 5 . On]S6«fg] 3D' g] af6fnfO{ sIf (orbit) cyjf ;]n (shell)
elgG5 . OnS] 6f« g] sf] lk08 k|f]6fg] / Go'6«fg] sf] t'ngfdf c;fWo} sd x'G5 . Pp6f
On]S6«f]gsf] lk08 Pp6f k|f6] fg] sf] lk08sf] sl/a 1/1837amu xG' 5 .
kf| 6] f]g, Go'6«fg] / OnS] 6«fg] sf] tn' gfTds cWoog
pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿ ;ª\st] lk08 (mass) rfh{ /xg] :yfg
(sub-atomic particle) (symbol) (charge) (location)
k|f6] fg] (proton) p+ 1 amu +ve Gol' Sno;
On]S6f« ]g (electron) e– ;]n
1/1837 amu -ve
Go6' «fg] (Neutron) n0 1 amu 0 Go'lSno;
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 183
tŒjx¿sf] gfd / ;ªs\ ]t
jm| =;= tŒjsf] gfd cª\uh]| L gfd k|f6] f]gsf] OnS] 6«f]gsf] Go6' f« g] sf]
;ª\s]t
1. xfO8f« ]hg Hydrogen
;ªV\ of ;ª\Vof ;ª\Vof
H1 1 0
2. xl] nod Helium He 2 2 2
3. lnlyod Lithium Li 3 3 4
4. a]l/lnod Beryllium Be 4 4 5
5. af/] f]g Boron B5 5 6
6. sfa{g Carbon C6 6 6
7. gfO6f« ]hg Nitrogen N 7 7 7
8. clS;hg Oxygen O 8 8 8
9. ˆnf]l/g Fluorine F 9 9 10
10. lgofg] Neon Ne 10 10 10
11. ;f]l8od Sodium
Na 11 11 12
(Natrium)
12. DofUgl] ;od Magnesium M 12 12 12
13. Pn'ldlgod Aluminium Al 13 13 14
14. l;lnsg Silicon Si 14 14 14
15. km:kmf/] ; Phosphorous P 15 15 16
16. ;Nkm/ Sulphur S 16 16 16
17. Snfl] /g Chlorine Cl 17 17 18
18. cfug{ Argon Ar 18 18 22
19. kf]6fl;od Potassium K 19 19 20
(Kalium)
20. SoflN;od Calcium Ca 20 20 20
184 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
kl/ofh] gf sfo{ 9.1
lbOPsf] lrqsf] cWoog u/L tn lbOPsf] lgbz]{ gcg;' f/sf] gdg' f agfpgx' f];\ M
lrq 9.8
Pp6f rf6{kk] / lng'xf;] \ . To;sf] l7slardf s]Gb| xg' ] u/L sDkf;sf] ;xfotfn] jQ[
-ufn] f_] agfpg'xf;] \ . pSt jQ[ sf] jl/kl/ udsf ;xfotfn] /ª\uLg wfuf] 6fF :g'xf];\
o;n] k/df0f'sf] Gol' Sno;sf] ;ªs\ t] u5{ . ;f]xL jQ[ sf] aflx/k6l\ 6 csf{] Pp6f j[Q
lvRg'xf;] \ / klxn]sf] h:t} wfuf] 6fF:gx' f];\ . :yfgLo ¿kdf kfpg ;lsg] tLg km/s
/ªsf :yfgLo j:tx' ¿ bO' { bO' c{ f6] fsf] ;ªV\ ofdf lngx' f;] \ . o;dWo] km/s km/s /ªnfO{
kf| ]6fg] , OnS] 6f« g] / Go'6«fg] dfGgx' f];\ . tL km/s /ªsf j:tx' ¿dWo] b'O{ bO' {cf6] fsf b/n]
k|f]6fg] / Go'6«f]gsf ¿kdf Go'lSno;df bO' { b'Oc{ f]6f 6fF:gxf;] \ . o;/L ags] f] :j¿knfO{
lxlnodsf] k/df0f';uF t'ngf ub}{ sIffdf 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ .
of}lus (Compound)
lrq 9.9
-c_ tŒjx¿ 118 cf]6f /x]sf 5g\ eg] k|sl[ tdf /x]sf hDdf kbfy{x¿sf] ;ª\Vof slt
xfn] f < cg'dfg ug{ ;Sgx' G' 5 <
-cf_ olt w/] } kbfy{ s;/L ags] f xf]nfg\ < sIffdf 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 185
ofl} ussf c0f'x¿ km/s km/s k/df0fx' ¿ ldn]/ ags] f x'G5g\ . b'O{ jf ;fe] Gbf a9L
k/df0fx' ¿ ldn]/ gofF u0' f ePsf j:t' aGg] k|ljm| of g} /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof xf] . o;/L
tŒjx¿lar /f;folgs kl| tljm| of eO{ ags] f] kbfyn{ fO{ ofl} us -compound_ elgG5 .
xfO8f« ]hgsf bO' { k/df0f' / clS;hgsf] Pp6f k/df0f' ldn]/ kfgLsf] Pp6f c0f'
(molecule) aG5 . o;/L leGgfleGg} tŒjx¿sf k/df0f' ldnL ags] f] x'gfn] kfgLsf]
c0fn' fO{ of}lus elgG5 . kfgL, gg' , t]n, cflb of}lussf pbfx/0f xg' \ .
lrq 9.10
c0f' (Molecule) lrq 9.11c0f'
kbfy{ cToGt} ;;fgf s0fx¿ ldnL ags] f xG' 5g\ . oL s0fx¿nfO{ c0f' elgG5 .
c0fd' f ofl} ussf ;a} u0' fx¿ oyfjt\ sfod /x]sf x'G5g\ . Ps rDrf lrgL vfFbf
u'lnof] x'G5 eg] lrgLsf] s0f klg ul' nof] g} x'G5 . tŒjsf c0f' ;dfg lsl;dsf
k/df0f' ldn/] ag]sf x'G5g\ . xfO8f« h] gsf b'O{ k/df0f'x¿ / clS;hgsf] Pp6f k/
df0f' ldnL kfgLsf] Pp6f c0f' aG5 . ks| l[ tdf o;/L tŒjx¿ ldn/] of}lus aGg] /
ofl} usx¿ 6l' j|mP/ jf k|ltljm| of eP/ gofF kbfy{ aGg] u5{ . o;n] ubf{ kbfy{df kljtg{
cfp5F .
ljm| ofsnfk 9.5
;dx" ut ¿kdf :yfgLo ;fduL| -df6f] jf lk7f], ;nfO{sf] sf“6L, /ª\u/f]ug cflb_
sf] pkofu] u/L lrqdf bv] fOP h:t} k/df0f'x¿ ldnfP/ kfgLsf c0f'sf] df]8]n
tof/ ug'{xf];\ . o;sf] agfj6sf af/d] f sIffdf 5nkmn ugx{' f;] \ .
kl/ofh] gf sfo{ 9.2
ljBfno jf 3/df pknAw ICT sf ;fwgx¿sf] pkofu] ub{} kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of @)
;Dd ePsf tŒj, ofl} us, k/df0f' / c0fs' f] ;/+ rgf bl] vg] tyf logsf] ;DaGw k:| 6 kfg{]
>JobZ[ o ;fduL| x¿sf] cjnfs] g ugx{' f;] \ / oL zAbfjnLx¿nfO{ rf6k{ k] /df lrq;lxt
kl/efiff u//] sIffdf k|bz{g ugx{' f;] \ .
186 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
9.3 kbfy{df x'g] kl/jtg{ (Change in matter)
lrq 9.12
lj|mofsnfk 9.6
Ps 6j' |mf a/km / Ps 6j' m| f sf7 lngx' f;] \ . a/kmnfO{ ttfpgx' f;] \ . sf7sf] 6j' m| fnfO{ afn]/
xg] x'{ f;] \ .
-c_ Dfflysf b'Oc{ f]6f ko| fu] df s] km/s kfpg'eof] < kbfy{sf] cj:yf, agfj6 /
u'0fsf cfwf/df 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \ .
-cf_ bl} gs hLjgdf kbfyd{ f xg' ] o:tf kl/jtg{ x¿sf] yk ;r" L agfO{ sIffdf 5nkmn
ugx{' f;] \ .
tfk, ks| fz, rfk cflb ljleGg sf/0fn] ubf{ kbfyx{ ¿df kl/jtg{ cfp5F . s'g}
kl/jt{gdf kbfy{sf] cj:yf / agfj6df dfq kl/jt{g cfp5F eg] s'gd} f ltgLx¿sf]
u0' fdf g} km/skgf cfpF5 . o;sf cfwf/df kbfy{df x'g] kl/jt{gnfO{ efl} ts /
/f;folgs u/L bO' { k|sf/df ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 .
ljrf/0fLo k|Zg
olb kbfyd{ f kl/jt{g gcfpg] xf] eg] s] c;/ knf{ <
efl} ts kl/jt{g (Physical change)
lj|mofsnfk 9.7
lrqdf kfgLaf6 afkm / afkmaf6
k'gM kfgL aGg] k|lj|mof b]vfOPsf] 5 .
sIffdf lgDglnlvt kZ| g dfly 5nkmn
ug'{xf];\ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 187
-c_ o;df kbfy{sf] u0' f, cj:yf / agfj6df s] kl/jtg{ eof] cfof] <
-cf_ s] bw' af6 bxL aGg' klg o:t} k|sf/sf] kl/jt{g xf] <
kbfys{ f] /f;folgs u0' f gablng] t/ cj:yf, /ª, cfsf/, kfgL / afkm cflbdf
kl/jtg{ x'g] cj:yf g} ef}lts kl/jtg{ (Physical Change) xf] .
o:tf k|sf/sf kl/jt{gsf lgDgfg;' f/sf cGo pbfx/0fx¿ klg b}lgs hLjgdf b]Vg
;lsG5,
-s_ l9sf gg' 6l' jm| P/ wn' f] g'g aGg]
-v_ lxpF jf a/km klUnP/ kfgL aGg] tyf kfgL hd]/ a/km aGg]
-u_ sf7 sf6/] bfp/f agfpg]
-3_ d;nf lk;/] wn' f] agfpg]
-ª_ kfgLdf g'g ld;fP/ 3fn] agfpg]
-r_ g'gkfgLsf] 3f]nnfO{ ;'sfP/ gg' 56' \ofpg]
dfly lbOPsf afx]s b}lgs hLjgdf tkfO{Fn] cg'ej ug'{ePsf] cGo ef}lts
kl/jt{gsf] ;r" L agfpgx' f;] \ / sIffdf k|:tt' ug'{xf;] \ M
kbfy{ cfPsf] kl/jtg{
k|ofu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk 9.1
kbfys{ f] ef}lts cj:yfdf kl/jt{g -pmWjk{ ftg skf;
ljlw_ ;fn] L
-c_ ;fduL| M kf| ];]lng a]l;g, sk/' , afn'jf, leh] sk/'
sf] sk8f, ;fn] L, tfksf] ;f| t] , k/LIf0f gnL sk/' / kf| ];l] ng a]l;g
afn'jfsf] ld>0f
-cf_ ljlw
Pp6f k|f;] ]lng a]l;gdf sk'/ / afn'jfsf] ld>0f ag{/
agfO{ tfksf] ;f| ]t dfly /fVg'xf;] \ .
lrq 9.14
188 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
lrqdf h:t} u/L al] ;gdfly Pp6f ;f]nL (Funnel) /;fn] Ldfly Pp6f 6]:66o\ 'a
3fK] 6\ofP/ /fVgx' f;] \ .
6]:66o\ a' nfO{ lr:ofpg lehs] f] sk8f jf sfuhn] 9fSgx' f;] \ / ca ld>0fnfO{ la:tf/}
ttfpgx' f;] \ .
-O_ cjnf]sg
o;/L ttfpFbf sk'/ af:kLs/0f eO{ p8]/ dfly hfG5 / k'gM lrl;P/ 6]:66\o'adf
7f;] ag/] hDdf x'G5 .
-O_{ lgisif{
7f;] sk/' jfikLs/0f eP/ afkm agL k'gM 7f]; sk'/ g} aGbf cj:yf / cfsf/df
kl/jtg{ eP tfklg u0' f jf cfGtl/s agfj6df s'g} kl/jt{g cfPg . kbfy{nfO{
efl} ts kl/jtg{ kZrft\ kg' M klxn]s} cj:yfdf Nofpg ;lsG5 . o;/L kbfys{ f] cj:yf
/ cfsf/ kl/jt{g ePsfn] of] kl/jtg{ ef}lts kl/jt{g xf] . of] ljlwnfO{ pmWj{kftg
ljlw elgG5 .
ko| f]ufTds cEof; 9.2
pmWj{kftg ljlw ckgfP/ cfof]l8g / afn'jf tyf 8f« OcfO; / lrgLsf] ld>0fnfO{
klg 56' o\ fP/ xg] 'x{ f;] \ . To;df xg' ] ef}lts kl/jtg{ sf] cjnf]sg u/L dflysf] 9fFrfdf
ko| fu] fTds kl' :tsfdf l6kf]6 ugx{' f];\ .
k|ofu] fTds cEof; 9.3
jfikLs/0f ljlwsf] k|of]u u/L g'gkfgLsf] 3f]naf6 g'g 5'6o\ fpg] kl| j|mof efl} ts
kl/jtg{ xf] eGg] tYonfO{ k|ofu] u/L cjnf]sg ug'x{ f];\ . k|of]usf nflu cfjZos
;fduL| , ljlw, cjnf]sg, 5nkmn / lgisifn{ fO{ l6kf6] u/L sIffdf k|:tt' ug{'xf];\ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 189
/;folgs kl/jt{g (Chemical change)
ljm| ofsnfk 9.8
sIffdf /x]sf ljBfyL{x¿ /fn] gDa/sf cfwf/df rf/ ;dx" df ljeflht x'gx' f;] \ .
k|Tos] ;d"xn] j|mdzM -s_ bw' af6 bxL aGg] kl| j|mof -v_ Zjf;k|Zjf;df pTkGg CO2
Uof;F nfO{ rg' kfgLdf k/LIf0f -u_ bfp/f, vlgh, tn] , l3p cflb aNg] kl| jm| of / -3_
cG8fnfO{ ttfpbF f cfpg] kl/jtg{ zLif{sdf ;d"xut ¿kdf k|of]u / 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .
oL kl| jm| ofdf dflysf] efl} ts kl/jtg{ df xg' ] kl| jm| ofeGbf s] km/s kfpge' of] <5nkmnsf]
lgisifn{ fO{ tnsf] tflnsfdf egx'{ f;] \ / lj:tt[ Ls/0f;lxt sIffdf k:| tt' ug'x{ f;] \ M
kl/jtg{ sf cfwf/
5nkmnsf zLifs{ cj:yfdf u ' 0 f d f agfj6df ;?' sf] cj:yfdf kmsfp{ g
kl/jt{g kl/jtg{ kl/jt{g ldNg] jf gldNg]
kmnfddf lvof nfUg' xf] xf] xf] gldNg]
b'waf6 bxL aGg] kl| j|mof
Zjf;kZ| jf;df pTkGg CO2
UofF;nfO{ r'gkfgLdf k/LIf0f
bfp/f, vlgh, t]n, l3p cflb
aNg] k|ljm| of
cG8fnfO{ ttfpFbf cfpg] kl/jtg{
Pp6f kbfy{sf] u0' f kl/jtg{ eO{ leGg u'0f ePsf] kbfy{ aGg] cj:yf /f;folgs
kl/jt{g (Chemical change) xf] . o;df j:t'sf] cfGtl/s agfj6df g}
kl/jt{g cfpF5 . o;af6 /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof eO{ gofF u'0f;lxtsf] kbfy{
aGb5 . dflysf ljm| ofsnfksf ;a} kl| jm| ofx¿ /f;folgs kl/jtg{ sf pbfx/0fx¿ xg' \ .
o;afx]s kmnfddf lvof nfUg,' rfdnaf6 eft aGg', gfg} LnfO{ ttfP/ l3p aGffpg,'
emf/kftaf6 sDkf:] 6 dn aGg' cflb klg /;folgs k|ltlj|mofsf pbfx/0f xg' \ .
lvof nfUg' aNg' ksfpg'
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
lrq 9.15 /f;folgs kl/jt{g
190
kbfyd{ f xg' ] ef}lts / /f;folgs kl/jt{glar tn' gf
efl} ts kl/jtg{ /f;folgs kl/jtg{
1. j:ts' f] cj:yfdf kl/jtg{ cfpF5 1. j:ts' f] cj:yf / u0' f bj' s} f] kl/jtg{ cfp5F .
2. kbfyn{ fO{ klxns] } cj:yfdf Nofpg ;lsG5 . 2. kbfyn{ fO{ klxns] } cj:yfdf Nofpg ;lsbF g} .
3. gofF kbfyx{ ¿ aGb}gg\ . 3. gofF u0' f ePsf kbfyx{ ¿ aG5g\ .
4. kl/jt{g c:yfoL xG' 5 . 4. kl/jt{g :yfoL x'G5 .
kmnfddf lvof nfUg' (Rusting of Iron)
ljm| ofsnfk 9.9
tkfO{“nfO{ yfxf 5, 3/sf lu|n, em\ofn, u]6 agfO;s]kl5 /ªx¿ nufOG5, lsg
xf]nf < h:tfkftfdf UofNefgfOlhª lsg ul/G5 < o;af/d] f sIffdf 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ / k|fKt
lgisif{nfO{ dlN6ldl8ofsf] ;xfotfdf sIffdf k:| t't ug{x' f];\ .
kmnfdnfO{ lr;f] jf cf]l;nf] 7fpd“ f /fVbf xfjf;“u kl| tlj|mof eO{ kmnfdsf] aflx/k6l\ 6
/ftf] v}/f] ks| f/sf] kbfy{ bl] vG5, h;nfO{ lvof elgG5 . t/ pSt lvofaf6 eg] kmnfd k|fKt
ug{ ;ls“b}g . To;}n] kmnfdaf6 lvof nfUg' /f;folgs kl/jt{g xf] . o;n] kmnfdsf] cfo'
36fp5“ . kmnfdaf6 ags] f lun| , emo\ fn, u6] x¿df lvof nfUg] ub5{ . o;af6 aRgsf nflu /ª,
Ogfdn] nufpg] ul/G5 . h:tfkftfdf lvof gnfuf;] \ egL UofNefgfOh;] g (Galvanization)
ul/G5 . tfNrf, dl] ;g h:tf kmnfdaf6 ag]sf ;fdfgx¿df nfus] f] lvofsf] c;/ sd ug{
t]n nufpg] ul/G5 .
k|of]ufTds sfo{ 9.4
lrgLnfO{ afNbf /f;folgs kl/jtg{ xG' 5 eGg] tYonfO{ k|of]ufTds ljlwåf/f b]vfpg'xf;] \ . o;
k|lj|mofdf cfjZos kg{] ;fdu|Lx¿ sfo{k4lt / lgisif{ sIffdf k:| t't ugx'{ f;] \ .
kl/ofh] gf sfo{ 9.3
:yfgLo k|ljlwsf] k|of]u u/L 3/fo;L /S;L agfpFbf cGgdf /;fog ld;fO{ kmd]{G6];g
u/fOG5 . o; jm| ddf cNsf]xn aG5 . To;nfO{ kfgL;Fu ttfpFbf pTkfbg x'g] cNsf]xnsf]
afkmnfO{ lr:ofP/ /S;L agfOG5 . o; k|lj|mofdf /f;folgs / efl} ts kl/jtg{ sg' s'g
r/0fdf ePsf 5g\ < OG6/g]6 jf k':tsfno jf hfgsf/ JolStx¿sf] ;xofu] df lgisif{
lgsfNgx' f;] \ / sIffdf k|:tt' ug'x{ f;] \ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff & 191
cEof;
1. lbOPsf] vfnL 7fpd“ f ;xL zAb eg'x{ f;] \ M
1/1837 Na cfotg /;folgs sd 1/183
-s_ j:ts' f] lk08 / ==================== n] pSt j:t'sf] 3gTjdf ke| fj kf5{ .
-v_ kfgLsf] eGbf ===================== 3gTj ePsf] j:t' kfgLdf plqG5 .
-u_ On]S6f« g] sf] lk08 ===================== amu xG' 5 .
-3_ ;f]l8odnfO{ ===================== n] ;ª\st] ul/G5 .
-ª_ kmnfddf lvof nfUg' ===================== kl/jtg{ xf] .
2. hf]8f ldnfpg'xf];\ M ;ªs\ ]t pkkf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of
k/df0f'sf] gfd S 4
B 13
kf]6fl;od Si 19
a]l/lnod Be 16
af]/fg] K 5
;Nkm/ P 14
l;lnsg C 18
3. tn lbOPsf ljsNkdWoa] f6 ;xL ljsNk 5fGg'xf;] \ M
-s_ kfgLsf] 3gTj lbOPsf dWo] sg' xf] <
(c) 1 gm/cm3 (cf) 10 gm/cm3
(O) 100 gm/cm3 (O){ 1000 gm/cm3
192 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
-v_ 3gTjsf] ;xL ;q" sg' xf] <
(c) d = v (cf) d = m
mv
(O)v = d (O){ m= v
m d
-u_ k/df0f'df xg' ] wgfTds rfho{ 'St s0f s'g xf] <
(c) On]S6f« g] (cf) Go'6«f]g
(O) 8\o6' «f]g (O){ k|f]6fg]
-3_ tŒj jf of}lussf ;a} u0' fx¿ oyfjt\ sfod /xg] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] s0fnfO{
s] elgG5 <
(c) c0f' (cf) k/df0f '
(O) Gol' Sno; (O_{ ;n]
-ª_ sf7af6 kmlgr{ / agfpg' sg' ks| f/sf] kl/jtg{ xf] <
-c_ /f;folgs -cf_ h}ljs
-O_ efl} ts -O_{ kf/df0fljs
4. km/s 56' \ofpg'xf];\ M
-s_ /f;folgs kl/jt{g / efl} ts kl/jtg{
-v_ tŒj / of}lus
-u_ 3gTj / ;fk]lIfs 3gTj
5. sf/0f lbgx' f];\ M
-s_ z4' kfgLdf cG8f 8'A5 t/ gg' kfgLdf pqG5 .
-v_ t6:y k/df0f' rfh{ljxLg x'G5 .
-u_ gg' sf] l9sf 6l' j|mP/ w'nf] g'g aGg] k|lj|mof ef}lts kl/jt{g xf] .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff & 193
-3_ xfO8«f]hg / clS;hg ldn]/ kfgL aGg] k|ljm| of /f;folgs kl/jt{g xf] .
-ª_ sk/' / afnj' fsf] ld>0faf6 z4' sk/' lgsfNg pWjk{ ftg ljlw ko| fu] ul/G5 .
-r_ Pnl' dlgodsf k|m] dx¿df kf| oM /ª nufOFb}g t/ kmnfdsf k|]mdx¿df
lg/Gt/ /ª nufO/xgk' b5{ .
6. tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ lbgx' f];\ M
-s_ OnS] 6f« g] , k|f6] fg] / Go'lSno;sf] klxrfg x'g] u/L k/df0f'sf] agf6] sf] lrq
agfpg'xf];\ .
-v_ 3gTj egs] f] s] xf] < 2m3 cfotg ePsf] Pnl' dlgodsf] lk08 slt
xfn] f < -Pn'ldlgodsf] 3gTj 2700 kg/m3)
-u_ ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj eg]sf] s] xf] < olb z'4 b'wsf] 3gTj 1030 kg/m3 /
4oC df kfgLsf] 3gTj 1000 kg/m3 5 eg] pSt b'wsf] ;fkl] Ifs 3gTj
slt xfn] f <
-3_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog u/L ;kl] Ifs 3gTjsf cfwf/df ;fl] wPsf kZ| gx¿sf]
pQ/ lbgx' f];\ .
-c_ kfgLdf ss{ pqg' / Pn'ldlgod 8'Ags' f] sf/0f s] xf] <
-cf_ olb Pn'ldlgodsf] 3gTj 2.7 uf| d k|lt 3g;l] G6ld6/ eP o;sf]
194 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff &
;fk]lIfs 3gTj slt x'G5, lx;fa u/L lgsfNg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ olb sg' } j:t'sf] ;fk]lIfs 3gTj 0.92 5 eg] o; cj:yfdf pSt j:t'
kfgLdf pqG5 jf 8'A5 < sf/0f;lxt ljZn]if0f ug{'xf];\ .
-r_ tŒj eg]sf] s] xf] < kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of 7, 13 / 17 kg]{ tŒjx¿sf] gfd
/ ;ªs\ ]t n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-5_ tŒj, c0f' / ofl} uslarsf] cGt/;DaGwnfO{ lbOPsf] lrqsf cfwf/df
JofVof ug{x' f];\ .
-h_ kfgLsf] Pp6f c0fd' f s'g sg' k/df0f' sltsf] ;ª\Vofdf /x]sf xG' 5g\ <
-em_ pkkf/df0fljs s0f eg]sf] s] xf] < o;cGtu{t s'g s'g s0fx¿
k5{g\ < ltgLx¿nfO{ k/df0f'sf] agf]6df bv] fpgx' f;] \ .
-`_ s0fx¿sf] vFlbnfk] gfsf cfwf/df lbOPsf lrqx¿df kbfy{x¿sf] cj:yf
kQf nufpg'xf;] \ .
-6_ tflnsf k/" f ugx{' f];\ M
pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿ =============== k|f]6f]g ============
pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿sf] 1 ……….. …………..
837
lk08 amu ……… rfhl{ jxLg
rfh{ ……… 195
lj1fg tyf kl| jlw, sIff &
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