Ooi-Malaysia-and-the-Cold-War-Era

266  Ooi Keat Gin
8 The amount of ‘donation’ was Straits $10 million for Singapore and $40 million

for the rest of Malaya. Y. S. Tan, History of the formation of the Oversea Chinese
Association and the extortion by J.M.A. of $50,000,000 military contribution from
the Chinese in Malaya (Singapore: Nanyang Book Co., 1947), pp. 3–6.
9 Ooi Keat Gin, The Japanese Occupation of Borneo, 1941–1945 (London: Rout-
ledge, 2011), p. 66.
10 Presently Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore,
formerly University of Malaya in Singapore.

Appendix

Constitutional proposals for
Malaya, 1947. A comparison

People’s Constitutional Proposals Revised Constitutional Proposals
Proposer: PUTERA-AMCJA, 21 Proposer: Anglo-Malay agreement;
September 1947 revised and approved by the British
A united Malaya including Singapore government, 24 July 1947
A popularly elected Central A federation of the Malay states and the

Government and popularly elected former Straits Settlements excluding
State councils Singapore
An appointed Executive Council headed
A citizenship granting equal rights by a British High Commissioner in
to all who made Malaya their Malaya and an appointed Federal
permanent home and the object of Legislative Council of fifty unofficial
their undivided loyalty members, fourteen official members
and eleven free members (the Menteri
Malay Rulers to have real sovereign Besar of the 9 Malay states and 1
power responsible to the people representative each from Penang and
through popularly elected Councils Malacca)
Birth qualifications, language test,
Malay customs and religion to be and long residential terms imposed,
fully controlled by the Malay effectively restricting the access to
people through special councils citizenship of domiciled non-Malays
Malay Rulers recognised as sovereign
Special provisions for the monarchs with inherent prerogatives,
advancement of the Malays powers and privileges
politically, economically and Malay customs and religion placed
educationally within the sole jurisdiction of the
Malay Rulers
Malay to be the official language Special provisions for the advancement
A national flag and anthem of the Malays politically,
Melayu to be the title of any proposed economically and educationally
Malay recognised as an official language
citizenship and nationality in together with English
Malaya A national flag was adopted with no
provisions for a national anthem
No provisions for a Malayan nationality
was adopted

(Continued )

268  Appendix Revised Constitutional Proposals
People’s Constitutional Proposals Proposer: Anglo-Malay agreement;
Proposer: PUTERA-AMCJA, 21 revised and approved by the British
September 1947 government, 24 July 1947

Foreign affairs and defence to be All portfolios remained within the
the joint responsibility of the prerogative of the British High
government of Malaya and the Commissioner and the government of
government of Great Britain Great Britain

A Council of Races to be set up No such provisions were provided for
to block any discriminatory A Conference of Rulers was formalised
legislation that is based on Ethnic representation in the Federal
ethnicity or religion
Legislative Council was set with no
Anglo-Malay sovereignty entrenched provisions for an elected legislature
with the provision of a Conference
of Rulers consisting of the
Malay rulers presided over by
the British High Commissioner,
and a 55% reservation of Malay
representation in the Federal
legislature for the first three terms

Source: Great Britain, Colonial Office, ‘Federation of Malaya: Summary of Revised Con-
stitutional Proposals; Accepted by His Majesty’s Government, 24th July 1947’ (London:
HMSO, 1947), p. 20. Cmnd. 7171 (NAUK); Yeo Kim Wah, Political Development in Singapore,
1945–1955 (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1973), p. 320; PUTERA-AMCJA, The
People’s Constitutional Proposals for Malaya 1947 (Reprint) (Kuala Lumpur: Ban Ah Kam &
Pusat Kajian Bahan Sejarah Kontemporari, 2005), p. 100.

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komited-kepada-perjanjian-perdamaian-bangsamoro-113891 (accessed 4 Octo-
ber 2019)
‘Kesultanan Sulu sedia berunding, mahu tuntutan ke atas Sabah diiktiraf [Sultanate
of Sulu is willing to negotiate, demand that the claims on Sabah is recognized]’,
MStar, 4 March 2013; https://www.mstar.com.my/lokal/semasa/2013/03/04/
kesultanan-sulu-sedia-berunding-mahu-tuntutan-ke-atas-sabah-diiktiraf/
(accessed 4 October 2019)
Muhtar Suhaili.’“Perjanjian damai Bangsamoro: Malaysia komited jadi peran-
tara [Bangsamoro peace treaty: Malaysia is committed to mediation]’, Sarawak
Voice, 14 August 2016; https://sarawakvoice.com/2016/08/14/perjanjian-damai-
bangsamoro-malaysia-komited-jadi-perantara/ (accessed 4 October 2019)
Pushpavalli A. Rengasamey and Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja. ‘Peranan dan
Perkembangan Tabung Imigrasi Tamil Di Tanah Melayu, 1907–1938 [Role and De-
velopment of the Indian Immigration Fund in Malaya, 1907–1938]’, SARJANA,
27, 2 (2012): 38–49
Ringkasan Sejarah Tentera Anti-Jepun Rakyat Malaya [Brief History of the Malayan
People’s Anti-Japanese Army] (translated and adapted by Indrajaya Abdullah).
Petaling Jaya, Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2014
Sunora Sagi and Azlizan Mat Enh. ‘Polisi Buy British Last (1981–1983): Reaksi-
reaksi British dan Implikasi terhadap Hubungan Bilateral Jangka Pendek Malaysia
dan Britain [Buy British Last Policy (1981–1983): British Reactions and Implica-
tion towards Malaysia and Britain in Short-Term Bilateral Relations]’, Journal of
Social Sciences and Humanities, 12, 3 (2017): 1–23
Tan Cheng Keng. ‘Pemberontakan PKM: Mengapa Berlaku? [MCP Rebellion: Why
it broke out?]’. In Darurat 1948–1960 [Emergency 1948–1960] edited by Khoo Kay
Kim dan Adnan Haji Nawang. Kuala Lumpur: Armed Forces Museum, 1984

Books

Abdul Aziz bin Zakaria. Lt. Nor. Pahlawan Gerila [Lt. Nor. Guerrilla Warrior].
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1986 (first published 1963)

Abdullah C. D. Memoir Abdullah C. D. (Bahagian Ketiga): Perjuangan Di Sempadan
dan Penamatan Terhormat [Memoir of Abdullah C. D. (Third Part): Struggle at the
Border and an Honourable End]. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information Research
Development, 2009

Abdullah C. D. Memoir Abdullah C. D. (Bahagian Pertama): Zaman Pergerakan
Sehingga 1948 [Memoir of Abdullah C. D. (First Part): The Period of Movement
until 1948]. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information Research Development, 2005

Aziz, Freddie Jasbindar. ‘Pengasas Askar Wataniah Berasal Dari Lambor Kiri
[Founder of Wataniah or ig inated from Lambor K ir i]’, Orang Perak, 25 Januar y 2019;
https://www.orangperak.com/pengasas-askar-wataniah-berasal-dari-lambor-
kiri.html (accessed 22 July 2019)

Ho Hui Ling. Pembanterasan Komunis di Tanah Melayu [Eradication of Communists
in Malaya]. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 2010

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Ibrahim Chik. Memori Ibrahim Chik [Memories of Ibrahim Chik]. Bangi: Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia Press, 2004

Indrajaya Abdullah. Ringkasan Sejarah Tentera Anti-Jepun Rakyat Malaya [Sum-
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Malaysia: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre (SIRD), 2014

Irwin, Graham. Borneo Abad Kesembilan Belas: Kajian Mengenai Persaingan Diplo-
matik [Nineteenth Century Borneo: A Study of Diplomatic Rivalry]. trans. Mohd.
Nor Ghani & Noraini Ismail. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1986

Khoo Kay Kim and dan Adnan Haji Nawang. eds. Darurat 1948–1960 [Emergency
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Kunaseelan Muniandy. Hubungan Malaysia-Indonesia 1957–1970 [Malaysia-
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Mohamed Salleh Lamry. Siti Norkiah Mahmud: Srikandi dari Pahang Utara [Siti
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Mohamed Salleh Lamry. Gerakan Kiri Melayu dalam Perjuangan Kemerdekaan
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Mohd Reduan Haji Asli. Pemberontakan Bersenjata Komunis di Malaysia [Armed
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Nabir Haji Abdullah. Maahad Il Ihya Assyariff Gunung Semanggol 1934–1959
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Ramlah Adam. Kemelut Politik Semenanjung Tanah Melayu [Political Unrest in the
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Shamsiah Fakeh. Memoir Shamsiah Fakeh: Dari AWAS ke Rejimen ke-10 [Memoir
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Thock Ker Pong. Ketuanan Politik Melayu Pandangan Orang Cina [Malay Political
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Chinese language

Articles, chapters in books

Chen, Sanjing (Chen San-Ching) 陈三井. ‘Wu Tiecheng yu Nanyang Huaqiao Xie-
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Nanyang Overseas Chinese Association). Qiaoxie zazhi jikan 侨协杂志季刊 (OCA
Quarterly Magazine), 76 (May 2002): 5–9

Chen, Shicheng 陈士诚. ‘Wu Tiecheng (1888zhi1953)’ 吴铁城（一八八八至一九五三）
(Wu Tiecheng 1888–1953). Zhongwai zazhi 中外杂志 (The Kaleidoscope), 59, 1
(347) (January 1996): 106–107

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Da, Jian 达践. ‘“Lueshu Xinhai Jiujiang qiyi’ 略述辛亥九江起义 (A Brief Narration
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Ding, Weici 丁慰慈. ‘Zhongguo shouwei minxuan xianzhang-Wu Tiecheng chuanqi’
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Duan, Mukai 端木愷. ‘Dao Tielao’ 悼铁老 (The Venerable Tie in Memorial). In Zhu
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Huang, Baili 黄百里. ‘Wu Tiecheng de shenping’ 吴铁城的生平 (The Life of Wu Tiech-
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Jiang, Yongjing ed. 蒋永敬. ‘Zhonghuaminguo 76nian jieman bailing xianlie xian-
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Biographical Account of 100th years old Martyr and Advanced Individual on
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(February 1987): 198–199

Li, Pusheng 李朴生. ‘Wu Tiecheng yu Chen Jiageng jian yiduan qiaowu gong’an’ 吴
铁城与陈嘉庚间一段侨务公案 (A Much Discussed Overseas Chinese Affairs Issue
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Li, Yinghui (Lee Ying-Hui) 李盈慧. ‘Wu Tiecheng yu zhanshi Guomindang zai
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Li, Zhigang (Lai Chi-Kong) 黎志刚. ‘Xiangshan gemingdang ren he Xinhai Gem-
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Books

Chen, Ronghua and He Youliang 陈荣华, 何友良. Jiujiang tongshang kouan shilue
九江通商口岸史略 (A Brief History of Jiujiang Treaty Port). Nanchang: Jiangxi
jiaoyu chubanshe, 1985

Fang, Ke ed. 方可编. Jiang Jieshi he tade gaoji muliao 蒋介石和他的高级幕僚 (Chiang
Kai-shek and his Senior Aides). Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 2000

Huang, Hongzhao ed. 黄鸿钊编. Xinhai Geming shiqi de Xiangshan shehui 辛亥革命
时期的香山社会 (Social Change in Xiangshan During the Xinhai Revolutionary
Period). Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2011

Institute of Taiwan Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences ed. 中国社会科学
院台湾研究所. Zhongguo Guomindang quanshu: xia中国国民党全书: 下(Complete
Book of Kuomintang China: Volume 2). Xi’an: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 2001

Jin, Yilin 金以林. Guomindang gaoceng de paixi zhengzhi: Jiang Jieshi ‘Zuigao
Lingxiu’ diwei shi ruhe queli de 国民党高层的派系政治: 蒋介石“最高领袖”地位是
如何确立的 (Top-Level Factional Politics in the Kuomintang: How Chiang Kai-
shek Consolidated His Position as ‘Supreme Leader’). Beijing: Shehui kexue
wenxian chubanshe, 2009

Li, Haisheng and Wanyan Shaoyuan 李海生, 完颜绍元. Muliao zhengzhi: qiansuo
weiwen de zhengtan neimu 幕僚政治：前所未闻的政坛内幕 (Politics of Aides: Un-
heard Insider Story of Political Arena). Taibei: Zhouzhi wenhua, 1995

Ma, Zhendu 马振犊. Guomindang tewu huodong shi 国民党特务活动史 (History of
Kuomintang’s Spy Activities). Beijing: Jiuzhou chubanshe, 2008

Qin, Xiaoyi ed. 秦孝仪主编. Zhongguo xiandaishi cidian: renwu bufen 中国现代史辞典-
人物部分 (Contemporary Chinese History Dictionary: Personality). Taibei: Jin-
dai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1985

Wu, Tiecheng 吴铁城. Wu Tiecheng huiyilu. Sanban 吴铁城回忆录. 三版 (Wu Tiech-
eng Memoir. 3rd ed.). Taibei: Sanmin shuju, 1993

Zhang, Yinglong ed. 张应龙主编. Haiwai Huaqiao yu Xinhai Geming 海外华侨与
辛亥革命 (Overseas Chinese and the 1911 Revolution). Guangzhou: Jinan daxue
chubanshe, 2011

Zhu, Chuanyu ed. 朱传誉. Wu Tiecheng zhuanji ziliao 吴铁城传记资料(Sources of
Wu Tiecheng Biography). Taibei: Tianyi chubanshe, 1979

Zoushang KangRi de daolu – Magong Zhongyang Zhengzhiyu Wieyuan Ayan tongzhi
Huiyilu [The Communist Party of Malaya and the Anti-Japanese War: Memoir of A
Yan, CPM Political Bureau Member]. Kuala Lumpur: 21st Century Publisher, 2011

Newspapers

Sarawak Gazette
Sarawak Government Gazette
Sarawak Tribune
Shenbao 申报 (Shanghai Daily)
Straits Echo & Times of Malaya

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group

http://taylora ndfra ncis.com

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics refer to figures. Page numbers in bold refer to
tables.

Abdullah Ahmad Badawi 182, 198, 263 anti-colonialism 12, 16, 34, 66, 169,
Abdul Mu’min 211–212 255, 258
Abdul Rahman Yaakub 261
ABL see Anti-British League (ABL) anti-colonial movements 146, 147,
Abraham, Collin 123 158–160, 167–169, 172, 173
ACCC see Associated Chinese
anti-colonial slogans 258–259
Chambers of Commerce (ACCC) Anti-Comintern Pact in 1937 41
activism 15, 255 Anti-Enemy Backing-Up Society
administrative changes 258
AEBUS see Anti-Enemy Backing-Up (AEBUS) 40
anti-imperialism 12, 16, 34, 66, 258–259
Society (AEBUS) anti-Japanese movement 16, 18, 39, 82,
Alam, Mohammad Jamalul 216
AIF see Australian Imperial 120, 126, 127, 136
Anti-Japanese Penang Club 127–128
Forces (AIF) anti-Japanese propaganda movement in
‘Ali-Baba’ business practice 235
Alliance Executive Council 206 Penang 125–128
Alliance Party 64, 77, 186, 228, 232, 238 anti-Malaysia forces 188
All-Malaya Council of Joint Action anti-Qing rebellions 27
anti-Qing revolutionary movement 25
(AMCJA) 55 Aquino, Corazon C. 204, 213
AMCJA see All-Malaya Council of Arifin, Azmi 144
armed insurrection 22, 64–65, 152
Joint Action (AMCJA) arms race 183, 204
AMDA see Anglo-Malayan Defence Army of the Republic of Vietnam

Agreement (AMDA) (ARVN) 77
Anglo-Brunei Treaty (1959) 71 ARVN see Army of the Republic of
Anglo-Chinese Pact 110
Anglo-Dutch rivalry 5 Vietnam (ARVN)
Anglo-Malay agreement 53, 56 ASEAN see Association of Southeast
Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement
Asian Nations (ASEAN)
(AMDA) 210 Asia, communist influence in 208
Anglo-Malay relations 254 Asian-African Conference 188–189
Anglo-Malay Working Committee 54–56 Asian nationalism 124
Anglo-Siamese Treaty 8 Asian Youth Conference in Calcutta 145
Anti-British League (ABL) 132 asset ownership 240
anti-capitalist movement 12–13 Associated Chinese Chambers of
anti-colonial independence
Commerce (ACCC) 57
movement 168 Association of Southeast Asian Nations

(ASEAN) 181–182, 191, 197–198,

300 Index Brooke rule 57–59, 255
260; aspiration of 219; Kuala Lumpur Brunei 27, 210–211; British protectorate
Declaration 263; Summit 213
of 187; Legislative Council 70–71;
Australian Imperial Forces (AIF) 9 People’s Party 259; population by
AWAS 62, 132–134, 138, 172 ethnicity in 26; Rebellion 71
Aziz, Abdul 234 bumiputeraism 231–236, 244;
Bahasa Malaysia 3 categories of 241
Baling Talks 131, 186 Burma Communist Party (BCP) 14
Bandar Sri Aman (Town of Peace) 261 Bush, George W. 197
Bandung Conference 188–189, 260 Buy Britain Last campaign 20, 192–195,
Batu Lintang Prisoners of War and 199, 261–262, 264
Cable, J. E. 217
Internment Camp 48 The Calcutta Conference and the South
BCP see Burma Communist East Asian Uprising (McVey) 151
Cambodia/Cambodian 190–192, 262;
Party (BCP) Civil War 190; and Vietnamese
belief system of non-Muslim ethnic War 190
capitalism 12–13; vs. socialism 204
groups 253 capitalist system 12; crux of 255;
Blair, Tony 197 exploitative 13; global 28; weaknesses
BMA see British Military and flaws of 37; Western 253, 257, 260
carpet bombings 263
Administration (BMA) Castro, Fidel 228
BNBCC see British North Borneo CCO see Clandestine Communist
Organization (CCO)
Chartered Company (BNBCC) CCP see Chinese Communist Party
Bolshevik Revolution 12, 14 (CCP)
Borneo 252; Colonial Office (CO) Central Indian Association of Malaya
(CIAM) 237
206–207; colonies in 206; future Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 152
of 209; strengthening of relations cession payment 217, 218
between states 208; territories 207 Cheah Boon Kheng 125–126
Bosnian Muslims massacre 197 Chettiars (community) 236
Britain/British 261–262; allegation Chiang Kai-shek 18, 32, 96, 97, 101, 102,
and intelligence 145; Borneo 9, 109, 111, 112
17, 20, 23, 25, 26, 48, 57; colonial China–Japan War of 1937 126
administration 17, 22, 25, 82, 103, Chinatown 30
144, 145, 147, 148, 170, 184, 229, Chinese/China: assets in the
232, 237, 252, 256, 257–258; colonial construction sector 235; business
beginnings, on Malay Peninsula strategy 235; Civil War 62; communist
253–254; colonial government in expansionism 230; communities 3, 40,
39, 52, 255; decolonization process 54, 252, 257; Communist Revolution
183–184; designed Malayan Union 52; 228; education 35; entrepreneurs 239;
intelligence 166; Malaya 9, 25; Special foreign intervention 27; Imperial
Operations Executive (SOE) 96; Japan’s invasion of 36; invasion of 39,
Western democracies of 263 126; labour, exodus of 28; and Malay
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) joint ventures 236; middle schools
197, 207 15, 69–70; nationalism 35; People’s
British Colonial Office (CO) 254 Foreign Relations Association 108;
‘British Malaya’ 3, 9, 17, 25, 30, 42, political developments in 120; in
102–107, 184 private sector 236; pseudo-colonialism
British Military Administration (BMA) 27; rural farming communities 73–74;
51, 120 schools 33–34; sea passage from
British North Borneo Chartered
Company (BNBCC) 8
British Raj 37
Brooke, James 5–6, 59
Brooke Rajahs 40, 57–59, 199, 255–256;
British colonial administration and
256–257; in Sarawak 257–258

28; ‘secret societies’ 255; traders 27; Index  301
vernacular schools 16, 33, 35, 66, 68 colonial authorities 10, 15–17, 19, 25, 31,
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 52,
62–63, 66, 124, 136, 148, 156–157, 34, 39, 42, 50, 51, 64, 70, 71, 82, 128,
190, 204–205, 257; and MCP relations 237, 255, 258
189–190 colonial bureaucracy 237
Chinese politics in Malaya/Malaysia colonialism 12, 14, 138, 153, 160, 168,
25–26; aid of revolution 31–32; 186, 192, 211
developments on Chinese mainland Colonial Office (CO) 8, 68, 103, 149
32–33; geopolitical scenario 41–42; COMINTERN see Communist
labour organization and workers International (COMINTERN)
36–40; Malayan Emergency 60–64; commercial agriculture 255–256, 260
from Malayan Union (1946) to Commonwealth 10, 183, 192, 262;
Federation of Malaya (1948) 49–57; military assistance 263
MCP, MPAJA and Force 136 42–47; Commonwealth Heads of Government
Pacific War (1941–1945) and Bornean Meeting (CHOGM) 194
territories 47–49; power play in communication 14, 45, 75, 79, 101, 103,
Europe 41; Sarawak Chinese and 121, 123, 132, 138, 254–255
cession to Crown 57–60; Sarawak communism/communists 153, 168–171,
communist insurgency (1962–1990) 203–206, 252–253, 256, 263; conspiracy
72–76; Sarawak Communist 150–151; insurgencies 229, 260, 261,
Organization (SCO) 64–72; schools 263; and Islam 252–253; parties,
33–36; Second Malayan Emergency mushrooming of 15; purveyors of 256;
(1968–1989) 76–82; sojourners to in Southeast Asian region 260
settlers 27–31 Communist Information Bureau
Chinese Rebellion (1857) 256 (Cominform) 149
Chin Peng 123, 124, 156 Communist International
CHMS see Kuching Chung Hwa Middle (COMINTERN) 13, 14, 32, 41
School (CHMS) Communist International in
CHOGM see Commonwealth Heads of Moscow 122
Government Meeting (CHOGM) Communist Party of Australia (CPA) 149
Chuang Hui Tsuan 108 Communist Party of the Philippines 14
CIAM see Central Indian Association of Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Malaya (CIAM) (CPSU) 32
citizenship 54, 56; accordance of 54; Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) 228
automatic 54; criteria for 54; liberal Conference of Asian Youth in
53; non-Malay 77; requirements for Calcutta 149
immigrant peoples 53; restrictive 10; Contemporary Malaysia 2–3
rights and privileges of 53; status 82, contemporary political developments 37
237; and work permit 241 Conversion Plan 67–68
civil service 241 coolie traffic 28–30
Clandestine Communist Organization CPA see Communist Party of
(CCO) 64 Australia (CPA)
Clarke, Andrew 7 CPSU see Communist Party of the
co-curricular activities 126–127 Soviet Union (CPSU)
Cold War 26, 144–147, 149, 182–183, CPV see Communist Party of
203, 218–219, 228, 253; in 1990 243; Vietnam (CPV)
bumiputeraism during 231–236; Credit Guarantee Corporation 240
domestic policy in 228–229; foreign Cuban Revolution 228
policy in 263; in Malayan Emergency cultural heterogeneity 228
148–150; phenomenon on Malaysia cultural inclusivity, promotion of 228
1; The Philippines during 203–206; culture 139–140
see also longue durée approach of Daim Zainuddin 236
Cold War DALFORCE 43, 82, 113
Dalley, John 43

302 Index Federation Meeting Council 236
decolonization 68, 72, 124, 183, 187 Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)
Deery, Phillip 146, 155, 166
demobilization 51, 136 4, 49–57, 61–62, 206–211, 258;
Democratic Republic of Malaya Agreement 53–55
FELCRA see Federal Land
45, 50, 63 Consolidation and Rehabilitation
Dent, Alfred 211–212, 215–216 Authority (FELCRA)
discriminations 80, 122, 193, 264–265 FELDA see Federal Land Development
disenfranchisement 21, 261 Authority (FELDA)
Dobree, P. G. J. 47 FIDA see Federal Industrial
Dureza, Jesus 219 Development Authority (FIDA)
Eastern Sabah Security Zone First Congress (1965) 231
First Malaya Plan (1956–1960) 231
(ESSZONE) 219 FMS see Federated Malay States (FMS)
economic commodities 255 Force 136 25, 42–47, 96, 107–113;
economic development 241 establishment and development of 97;
economic exploitation 255 information of 112–113
Economic Planning Unit (EPU) 232 Foreign Correspondents Association in
economic well-being 239 Singapore 206
education programmes 241 Foreign Office (FO) 68, 103, 255
EEIC see English East India Company foreign policy 229
‘free world’ 183, 260
(EEIC) Furedi, F. 146, 152–154, 167–168, 172;
employment on occupation and viewpoints of 168
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand 37
ethnicity 234 Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek 106
English East India Company (EEIC) 5, Gent, Edward 56
George Town 30, 31, 33
27, 253–254; Court of Directors in global capitalist system 228
London 5 Goode, William 207–208
EPU see Economic Planning governance, permanent form of 254
Unit (EPU) Guillemard, Lawrence 236
ESSZONE see Eastern Sabah Security Haadyai Peace Accord in 1989 123
Zone (ESSZONE) Hakka 7, 29–30, 256; farmers 29;
ethnic corporatism 232 goldminers 256
ethnicity, employment on 234 Heavy Industries Corporation of
ethnic minorities 253 Malaysia (HICOM) 244
Europe: developments in 41–42; power HICOM see Heavy Industries
play in 41 Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM)
FAMA see Federal Agricultural Hitler, Adolf 41–42
Marketing Authority (FAMA) Hizbul Muslimin 62, 160, 163, 167,
Federal Agricultural Marketing 168, 172
Authority (FAMA) 230 Hong Kong 8, 28, 68, 98, 101, 102, 109
Federal Constitution 77, 232, 234 Hope Operation 74
Federal Elections of July 1955 64 huaqiao community 15, 34; in Malaya 32
Federal Industrial Development humilation 129
Authority (FIDA) 240 Hundred Days’ Reforms 31
Federal Land Consolidation Hussein, Saddam 192, 197
and Rehabilitation Authority Ibrahim Chik 135–136
(FELCRA) 230 ICP see Indochina Communist
Federal Land Development Authority Party (ICP)
(FELDA) 230 IJA see Imperial Japanese Army (IJA)
Federal Legislative Assembly 10
Federal Legislative Council 181
Federated Malay States (FMS) 4,
36, 38, 43, 52, 184, 185, 237, 254;
administrative centre of 255;
constituents of 255

IJN see Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) Index  303
immigrants 36, 37, 52–54, 82, 239, 255; Ismail Abdul Rahman 190, 260
Italy 41
Chinese 7, 30; Chinese communities Japan 195; see also Imperial Japan;
17, 25; in Malayan Union 54
Immigration Restriction Ordinance 237 Imperial Japanese Army (IJA);
Imperial Civil Service Examinations 33 Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN)
imperialism 12–14, 161, 210 Jhen Yin Fen 124
Imperial Japan 184; invasion of northern Jones, Arthur Creech 154
China 16; military occupation of 257; Junk Ceylon 5
military targets of 9 Kinabalu Uprising 49
Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) 9, 42, Kiram, Muhammad Esmail 216
128, 257; anti-Japanese elements, KMT see Kuomintang (KMT)
elimination of 257 Konfrontasi 72–74, 83, 187, 204, 259
Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) 9, 41 kongsi, business concept of 234
‘independence-from-Britain-first’ Kuala Lumpur 2, 11, 15, 20, 35, 36, 45,
agenda 69 52, 63, 262
India/Indians 111; citizenship and work Kuala Lumpur Declaration 260, 263
permit 241; community 241; economic Kuala Lumpur-Manila relations 203,
backwardness 243; economic status 213–219; post-Cold War 218–219
of 243; during Great Depression Kuching Chung Hwa Middle School
(1929–1931) 237; Immigration Fund (CHMS) 65
238; labour 236–237; in Malaysia Kuching conference 208
236–244; plantation workers 238; Kuomintang (KMT) 96, 120; Central
socioeconomic deterioration of 240 Executive Committee (CEC) 96;
Indian labourers 239; British colonial Department of Overseas Affairs
policy of 237; citizenship status for 97, 104, 109–111; guerrillas 46–47;
237; education 242; in estate 238; intelligence agency 96, 107–108;
training programme 241–242 Malayan 102–103; mission to 110;
Indian-Malay relations 237 party affairs 100; republicanism 34;
Indian National Congress 37 substantial private funds 109
Indochina Communist Party (ICP) 14 labour 38; organization and workers
Indonesia 2, 3, 72, 187, 205, 208–211, 36–40
229; communist movement in 204; laissez-faire economic system 231
diplomatic relations 73, 83; elements Lai Teck 42, 45, 49–51, 151, 155,
of 167; left-leaning state of 204 164–166
Indonesian Communist Party 259 land development 241
Industrial Coordination Act in 1975 235 Langkawi International Dialogue
infrastructure development 254 (LID) 196
injustices 264–265 Laos 190–191, 208, 262
inter-ethnic relations 77 Larut Wars (1861–1874) 30
Internal Security Council (ISC) 68 Lee Jhen 123
international communism 17, 25, 124 Lee Kuan Yew 69, 77, 206, 208
international communist conspiracy Leninism 12–14, 183, 184
150–151 Lenin, Vladimir 12
international political structures 204 liberal capitalism 228
international recognition 74 Lim Bo Seng 18, 44, 96, 108–111
International Women’s Day on Lin Sen 97, 104
8 March 124 literacy rate 32, 253
intimidation 73, 129 longue durée approach of Cold War
‘Iron Curtain’ 228 10–12, 252–253, 263–265; Colonial
ISC see Internal Security Council (ISC) Malaya and Sarawak 253–257;
Islam 3, 53; communism and 77, Independent Malaya and Malaysia
252–253 257–260; Mahathir era 261–263;
Islamic faith 4
Islamist political party 232

304 Index 159–163; orthodox and revisionists
shift to neutrality 260–261; Western 158–159; reaction and criticism of
capitalist system 257–260 neo-orthodox historians 156–157;
revisionist interpretation 150–156
‘Look East’ policy 194, 195, Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) 57, 73,
261–262, 264 144, 258
Malayan General Labour Union
Lopez, Salvador 213, 215–216 (MGLU) 37–38
Macapagal, Diosdado P. 210, 211, Malayan government security forces 136
Malayan Indian Congress (MIC)
213, 214 10, 181, 239, 240; Annual General
Macaskie, C. F. C. 216 Assembly 242; imbalance in
MacDonald, Malcolm 148, 207 employment 240; position of 242;
Macmillan, Harold 208–210 proposals 242; role and community
Mahani Musa 120 organizations 240; Unit Trust 242
Malacca 3, 5–6, 11, 15, 25, 27–29, 52–54, Malayan KMT 102–103
Malayan National Liberation Army
184, 253–254 (MNLA) 57; guerrilla fighters 60–61
Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) Malayan Overseas Chinese National
Salvation Movement 104
10, 26, 61, 181, 232; conception and Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army
establishment of 62; formation of 61 (MPAJA) 42–47, 96, 120, 257;
Malayan communist insurgency 228 supervision of 131
Malayan Communist Party (MCP) Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Union
10, 14, 25, 26, 36–38, 42–47, 49, 52, (MPAJU) 45, 60
112, 120, 144–146, 148, 150, 151, Malayan Political Bulletin of Political
152, 154–156, 158–159, 186, 190, Intelligence (MBPI) 36
205, 228, 258, 260, 263; and armed Malayan Union 9–10, 49–57, 185, 258;
uprising plan 163–166; Central implementation of 168
Executive Committee (CEC) 50, Malaya-Singapore relations 207
150, 151; chronological development ‘Malay First’ policies 244
42; and colonial government 120; Malay/Malaya/Malaysia 1, 32, 181–182;
communication networks 124; direct British colonial administration in
involvement of 39; failure of 164; 25, 144, 252, 256; British colonial
golden opportunity 39; guerrilla government in 26, 35, 40, 255;
fighters 258; headquarters 123; initial capitalism 263; capitalist market-
gestures 42; involvement of women in driven colonial economy of 264;
125–128; leaders 156–157; leadership Chinese communities in 15, 39–40,
122, 123; in Malaya 123; membership 49; Chinese migration to 28; civil
131; mission 126; moderate policy 50; servants, en masse resignations by
organizational framework of 121; plan 59; and Cold War 10–12; colonial
149; political activities 130; political chains of 258; Communist activities in
work in 121–125; propagandists 125; 154; communist and non-communist
role of women as propagandists ideology in 253; community 58;
during Japanese Occupation 128–132; context of 252; customs and religion
supporters 159–163, 166; suppression 254; East-West conflict 209; economic
and annihilation of 252; suppression benefits 255; economic slump/
of 192; violence 153; women as urban depression on 236; economy of
and rural political organizers 132–136; 231, 258; employment 233; external
women’s involvement in cultural policy 209; external relations of
propaganda 136–140; women’s role 183; foreign exchange earnings 258;
and contributions to 124 foreign relations 189, 264; formation
Malayan Democratic Union (MDU) 133 of 4, 206; geographical settings of
Malayan Emergency 10, 60–64, 74, 1–3; guerrillas 47; independence
144–148, 181, 252, 261; British plot
166–167; and Cold War in 148–150;
communism/nationalism 168–171;
MCP and armed uprising plan
163–166; MCP and Malay support

of 55; Indians in 236–244; internal Index  305
developments in 50; labourers 239; Mindanao Peace Talk 219
longue durée approach 10–12; Minh, Ho Chi 228
national language of 3; in 1920s–1990s mining 255–256, 260; companies,
15–22; Non-Aligned Movement
(NAM) Conference 181–182; Peasant nationalization of 239; workers 28
Front 135; Peninsula, British colonial MNLA see Malayan National
beginnings on 253–254; political
activities 145; political party 147; Liberation Army (MNLA)
population 239; privatization and Mohamad, Mahathir 182, 192, 194,
244; reorientation in focus 192–198;
socioeconomic development of 233; 196–197, 231–232, 244, 261–263
strategic decisions and choices in Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF)
41–42; supremacy, restrictive policy
of 234; terms and names 3; trade 198, 219
relations 194; violence in 153; Western MPAJA see Malayan People’s Anti-
democracies and free world 182–188;
work permit policy 239; world and Japanese Army (MPAJA)
Southeast Asia 12–15; see also MPAJU see Malayan People’s Anti-
Chinese politics in Malaya/Malaysia;
Kuala Lumpur Japanese Union (MPAJU)
Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) 238 multiculturalism 228–229; in domestic
Malaysian Industrial Development
Finance Berhad (MIDF) 240 economic policy 230; in Malaya 230
Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Murad Ebrahim 219
Agency 219 Musa Hitam 231–232
Malaysian socioeconomic policy 229– Muslims 191; systematic pogroms of 197
231; bumiputeraism during the Cold Mussolini, Benito 41
War 231–236; position of Indians Myanmar 85, 191
236–244 Najib Abdul Razak 182, 198, 263
Malaysia-Philippines relations 205 NAM see Non-Aligned
Manchuria, invasion and seizure of 33
Manglapus, Paul S. 213 Movement (NAM)
Maoism 14 National Development Policy
Maoist propaganda from 1969 79
Mao Zedong 13–14 (NDP) 243
Marxism 12–14; periphery of 13 National Economic Consultative
Marx, Karl 12
Mat Zin Mat Kib 203 Council (NECC) 243
May Fourth Movement 34–35 national economic development 231
MBPI see Malayan Political Bulletin of nationalism 168–171
Political Intelligence (MBPI) National Land Finance Co-operative
MCA see Malayan Chinese
Association (MCA) Society (NLFCS) 239
McLane, Charles B. 152 National Productivity Centre 241
MCP see Malayan Communist native labour 6
Party (MCP) natural disasters 27–28
McVey, R. 151 naturalisation process 54
memorandum of understanding neocolonialism 209
(MoU) 261 neo-colony’ of Britain 187
merdeka talks (1955–1957) 186 NEP see New Economic Policy (NEP)
MIC see Malayan Indian Newboult, Alexander 153–154
Congress (MIC); Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP) 193, 232,
Indian Congress (MIC)
233, 235, 236, 261; basic features
of 232–233; implementation 236;
regressive aspects of 240; regulatory
and ethnic framework of 234;
structural ownership 232
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) 189,
196, 260, 264; Conference 181–182
non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) 196
non-Malay communities 56
non-Muslim ethnic groups: belief
system of 253

306 Index creation of Federation of Malaysia
North Borneo 4, 8, 10, 32, 184, 187, 206–211; genesis of 211–213; Kuala
Lumpur–Manila relations 213–219;
210, 211, 216–217; British rights over presidential elections 204; sovereignty/
214; dispute over 213; laid claim on jurisdiction 205
213; population by ethnicity in 26; the Philippines Constitution in
sovereign claim over 213–214 1987 205
North Kalimantan Communist Party Pilcher, J. A. 211, 217
(NKCP) 64, 74–75, 260 Pillai, V. Manikavasagam 242
North Kalimantan People’s Army plural school system 15
(NKPA) 64 Political Consultative Conference
occupation, employment on 234 (PCC) 98
oil palm plantations 243 political developments 51–52
Ooi Keat Gin 1, 25, 181, 252 political power, armed seizure of 256
Operation Hammer 74 poverty 230; eradication of 240, 261;
Operation Zipper 45 skills and culture of 238
Organization of Islamic Cooperation pragmatism 264
(OIC) 182, 191, 262 prejudices 264–265
Overseas Chinese Anti-Japanese Army PRGS, terrorist activities of 73
(OCAJA) 46 private sector 244
Overseas Chinese Anti-Japanese privatization 244
Mobilisation Federation profitability 255
(OCAJMF) 42 pro-Malay policy 229–230
Overseas Chinese Union 101 Province Wellesley 5, 29, 234, 254
Overseas Party Affairs Senior Cadres public administration 232
Meeting 108 public expenditure, allocation of
Pacific War (1941–1945) 8, 9, 47–49, 109, 232, 233
144–145, 190, 257 Qing isolation policy 28
Pact of Friendship and Alliance 41 race, identification of 229, 232
Pahang, anti-British struggle in 138 racial conflict 231–232
Pangkor Engagement 4, 7–8, 254 racial economy 231
Pan-Malayan Federation of Trade racial inclusivity 228
Unions (PMFTU) 49, 148 racial riots 231–232
Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) 232 Rahman, Tunku Abdul 63, 68, 181–182,
PARAKU see Pasukan Rakyat 185, 189, 206–209, 230, 259–260, 263;
Kalimantan Utara (PARAKU) announcement on Malaysia proposal
parental monitoring 126–127 210; political leadership 64, 187
Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) 71, 73, Raja, Sivachandralingam Sundara 228
203, 204, 210, 259; formation of 204 Rajang Area Security Command
PAS see Pan-Malaysian Islamic (RASCOM) 75, 261
Party (PAS) Rashid Maidin 131, 135
Pasukan Rakyat Kalimantan Utara Razak, Tun Abdul 20, 78, 79, 80, 81, 89,
(PARAKU) 64, 66, 72–73, 75, 83, 84, 181, 189, 190, 231, 232, 260–263
259, 261; terrorist activities of 73 resettlement strategy 74
peace talk 64 Revised Constitutional Proposals 56
Penang: anti-Japanese propaganda Revive China Society 100
movement in 125–128; Conference 32; rubber 260
multiethnic society 127 Rubber Industry Smallholders
People’s Action Party (PAP) 68, 207 Development Authority (RISDA) 230
People’s Republic of China (PRC) 63, rural development 261
230, 260, 264 Rural Industrial Development Authority
People’s Trust Council 230 (RIDA) 230
The Philippines 191, 203, 211;
during Cold War era 203–206;

rural political organizers 132–136 Index  307
rural poverty rate 261 activities in 259; strategic decisions
Sabah 203; coastal settlements in and choices in 41–42
Singapore Federation of Trade Unions
3; during Cold War era 203–206; (SFTU) 49
creation of Federation of Malaysia Singapore Town Committee (STC)
206–211; ethnic minorities in 253; 129, 132
genesis of 211–213; Kuala Lumpur– Sino-Malay sectarian violence (13th
Manila relations 213–219; Philippines’ May 1969) 78, 230, 239
claim on 211–213 Siti Norkiah 134, 135
Sambanthan, Tun V. T. 242 small industries and business 240
Sandy, Duncan 208 Snow, Edgar 122
Sarawak 10, 26, 32, 34, 40, 48, 184, social communist system 228
210, 211, 252, 261; capitalist market- socialism, capitalism vs. 204
driven colonial economy of 264; socio-political scenarios 36
Chinese communities in 3, 59; coastal SOE see Special Operations
settlements in 3; colonial government Executive (SOE)
of 259; commercial agriculture in Soebandrio 72–73
29; commodities 255; communist Southeast Asia 27; geopolitical situation
activities in 259; communist and in 181
non-communist ideology in 253; Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free
communist elements in 10; communist Zone (SEANWFZ) 197
insurgency 10, 65, 72–76, 259, 260; Southeast Asian Treaty Organization
Crown Colonies of 259; economy of (SEATO) 210
256, 258; ethnic minorities in 253; South Indian Labour Fund 238
foreign exchange earnings 258; Malays South Korea 195
58; political party in 259; population sovereignty 213, 255; issue of 217
by ethnicity in 26; SCO in 263 Soviet Russia 36
Sarawak Communist Organization Soviet Union 41–42, 183; communist-
(SCO) 49, 64–72, 74, 256–259; socialist idealism of 219; communist-
clandestine involvement of 66; in socialist ideology 203; fall of 204;
Sarawak 263 influence in Indonesia 205; political
Sarawak Dayak Association system and economy model 203–204
(SDA) 58 Special Operations Executive
Sarawak-Kalimantan border 73 (SOE) 42
Sarawak United People’s Party (SUPP) Special Training School (STS) 42
65, 66, 70, 71, 259 spices 27
Saslawaki, E. 216 Spratly dispute 218
schools 257 SS see Straits Settlements (SS)
SCO see Sarawak Communist Stalin, Joseph 41–42
Organization (SCO) Starkey, Lawrence 149
SDA see Sarawak Dayak State Economic Development
Association (SDA) Corporation (SEDC) 236
Second Congress (1968) 231 Stenson, M. R. 163, 238
Second Malayan Emergency (1968–1989) Stockwell, A. J. 146, 154–155, 167;
76–82 viewpoints of 168
self-determination, principles of 211 Straits Chinese British Association
sentimentalism 230–231 (SBCA) 57
Shamsiah Fakeh 133, 135 Straits Settlements (SS) 3, 4, 6–7, 25,
Shanghai 36, 99 28, 52, 184
Short, Anthony 128, 144, 156, 156–157 strikes 36; students 258–259
Singapore 6, 33, 68, 108, 129, 184, 210, Stubbs, R. 156–157
253–255; Chinese communities in students, strikes 258–259
49; Clerical Union 57; communist Suharto 73–74, 189
Sukarno 187, 204, 205, 259

308 Index United Nations Protection Force
Sun Yat-Sen 25, 26, 31, 32; political (UNPROFOR) peacekeeping
operations 197
philosophy 34
super federation 206 United States (US) 210; leadership of
Taiwan 195 260; Office of Intelligence Research
Tamil Immigration Fund 238 (OIR) 42
Tamil schools 242–243
Tan Chee Seng 96 UN Security Council 196, 262
Tan Cheng Lock 54–56, 62, 63 urban political organizers 132–136
Tan Chong Tee 18, 96, 104, 109 Vietnam 191, 228; political reunification
Tanjung Tualang Area Committee 130
Tan Kah Kee 104 of 190
Tan Siew Sin 234 von Overbeck, Baron Gustavus 211–212,
Tan, Vincent 236
teachers 257 214, 215–216
Temporary Occupation Licenses 237 wage reduction 237
territorial acquisition 253 Warner, F. A. 211
Thailand 136–137, 191; exception of 9 War Office (WO) 184, 255
Thatcher, Margaret 194 War of Resistance Against Japan 98
Third Conference of International wartime interruption 65
Western capitalist system 257–260
Communists 1922 123 Western Europe 183
Thomas, Shenton 237 Western-style liberal democracy 35
Tobacco Factory Workers’ Solidarity White Rajahs 6, 9
World Socialist Revolution 12–13
Society 128 Wu Chang Rebellion 32
Tong Meng Hui 17, 25, 31, 97 Wu Tiecheng 96, 97, 97–98, 105–107;
trading community 27
training programmes 241 and British Malaya and Overseas
transport 254–255 Chinese 102–107; connections with
Treacher, W. H. 214 Overseas Chinese 98; education of
Treaty of Bangkok (1909) 3 99; experience in Honolulu 101; and
Treaty of Trade and Friendship 5 Force 136 96–113; KMT party affairs
Tregonning, K. G. 216 98; OCA Annual General Meeting
Tripartite Pact or Berlin Pact 41 112; Overseas Chinese and British
Ulyanov, Vladimir Ilyich see Lenin, 98–102; political career and position
98; relationship with Westerners
Vladimir 101–102
Un-Federated Malay States (UMS) 3, 4, Yangzi River 99
Yeo Kim Wah 150
52, 184, 185 Yuan Shikai 32
‘united front’ policy 165 Zhang Zhenxi 101–102
‘united front’ strategy 39, 71–72, Zhdanov, Andrei 157
Zhongtong 18, 96, 98, 107–111
156, 256 Zimbabwe 196
United Kingdom (UK) see Britain/ Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality
(ZOPFAN) 191, 260, 263, 264
British
United Malays National Organization

(UMNO) 10, 53, 55, 147, 167,
170, 181, 229, 232, 234; annual
assembly 230