LM-1245 COURSE READER

Universidad de Costa Rica Facultad de Letras Escuela de Lenguas Modernas LM-1245 English Composition II Course anthology

Table of contents Chapter Evaluation scales Understanding Teacher Feedback Paragraph outline format Essay outline format Writing an assignment summary Understanding the essay (Introduction to essay writing) Effective titles, introduction, and conclusions What is a cause-effect essay? The comparison-contrast essay Part A. Writing a comparison-contrast essay Part B. What is a comparison-contrast essay? Part C. Composition skills Mechanics and sentence structure Part A. Mastering the basics of MLA Part B. Grammar section Punctuation Commas Semicolons and colons Fragments Italics The apostrophe Quotation marks Two sample essays

Universidad de Costa Rica Escuela de Lenguas Modernas LM-1245 English Composition II Evaluation Scale for Summary Paragraphs % grade points C O N T E N T (10%) 10-9 10-9 Superior main ideas/supporting details discrimination; the introduction includes thesis statement of the original text, minimal use of relevant specific details; rich use of paraphrase, presence of parenthetical references (appropriately formatted) when required. 8.8-8 8.8-8 Occasional problems discriminating main ideas/supporting details; thesis statement of the original text in introductory paragraph, but mild problems stating it, occasional use of irrelevant specific details; mild problems with paraphrasing, parenthetical references with some format problems. 7.6-6 7.8-6 Poor main ideas/supporting details discrimination; thesis statement of the original text not in the introductory paragraph, excessive use of irrelevant specific details; serious problems with paraphrasing, little attempt at formatting parenthetical references. 5.6-2 5.8-2 Complete substitution of main ideas by specific supporting details; absence of the thesis statement of the original text, misinterpretation of original data, extremely deficient paraphrasing, lack of parenthetical references. % grade points O R G A N I Z A T I O N 10-9 30-27 Clear effective introduction: Citation data (author, title, place of publication) followed by the thesis of the original; main ideas of the original text included in the body of the summary; the conclusion mirrors the conclusion in the original; clear, well-planned outline; the title directs readers to the original text. 8.8-8 26-24 Minor problems with introduction: Some citation data (author, title, place of publication) missing; some main ideas of the original text omitted in the body of summary; the conclusion does not paraphrase the conclusion in the original; some problems regarding the outline; the title needs improvement to be effective (omits a reference to the original text). 7.6-6 23-18 Some problems with introduction: most citation data (author, title, place of publication) missing; main ideas of the original text substituted by specific details in the body of summary; the conclusion is not functional for a summary; some problems 1

(30%) regarding the outline; the title needs improvement to be effective (omits a reference to the original text). 5.6-2 17-16 Serious problems with introduction: complete absence of citation data (author, title, place of publication); obvious misinterpretation of main ideas of the original text in the body; absence of a conclusion for the summary; severe problems regarding the outline; title missing or creative title that is not functional for a summary. % grade points G R A M M A R (30%) 10-9 30-27 Effective control of major structural aspects: sentence well-constructed, coherent, and effectively varied; effective coordination and subordination; isolated errors of agreement, verb tense, word order, word form, articles, pronouns, prepositions; parallelism; no fragments, run-ons, or comma splices, meaning clear at all times. 8.8-8 26-24 Control of major structural aspects but lacks sentence variety; simple but effective sentence construction; minor errors of agreement, verb tense, word order, word form, articles, pronouns, preposition, parallelism; minimum problems with sentence fragments, run-ons, or comma splices; but meaning mostly clear. 7.6-6 23-18 Several problems with structural aspects, problems with simple and complex constructions, frequent errors of agreement, verb tense, word order, word form, articles, pronouns, prepositions, parallelism, occasional problems with sentence fragments, run-ons, or comma splices, meaning unclear at times. 5.6-2 17-16 Little or no mastery of sentence construction rules; dominated by errors on various structural aspects; meaning unclear, negative effect on the reader. % grade points V O C A B 10-9 10-9 Effective vocabulary range and usage of paraphrase: precise word choice, word collocation or word partners (ideas phrased idiomatically), consistent and appropriate level of formality, concise expression, (no wordiness), and appropriate use of reporting verbs; clear meaning. 8.8-8 8.8-8 Generally appropriate range and usage of paraphrase: a few misused word/expressions minor problems with collocations (ideas 2

U L A R Y (10%) not always phrased idiomatically), fluent expression but inconsistent or inappropriate level of formality, fairly concise, (little wordiness), generally acceptable use of reporting verbs; meaning mostly clear. 7.6-6 7.8-6 Limited vocabulary range and usage of paraphrase: frequent errors of word choice and usage, several problems with collocations, attempt at using reporting verbs, lacks awareness of formality levels, some wordiness; meaning unclear at times. 5.6-2 5.8-2 Poor vocabulary range and usage of paraphrase: confusing wording, topic-related words misused, abuse of transitions, very little use of reporting verbs, littler awareness of formality levels, meaning unclear, negative effect on the reader. % grade points M E C H A N I C S (20%) 10-9 20-18 Accurate use of MLA, correct application of the conventions regarding: margins, spacing, indentation, heading, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and when pertinent, neat and legible; isolated errors. 8.8-8 17-16 Generally appropriate use of MLA, acceptable application of the conventions stated above; neat and legible; some errors. 7.6-6 15-12 Occasional inconsistencies regarding the use of MLA, several errors in the application of the conventions stated above; minor problems with neatness and/or legibility (e.g. Handwritten corrections on typed paper). 5.6-2 11-4 Generally poor use of MLA, little control of the above conventions; errors seriously diminish the papers quality; poor handwriting affects communication; messy. 3

Universidad de Costa Rica Escuela de Lenguas Modernas LM-1245 English Composition II/ Essay writing Evaluation Scale % Points Features (20%) C O N T E N T 20-19 Ideas are accurate and relevant fully supported and make sense exceptional analysis shown purpose no logic errors no overgeneralization 18-17 Mostly relevant, well-supported ideas; generally appropriate 16-15 Lacks some examples or supporting evidence for main points in the paragraph; lacks some analysis; purpose not fully evident; may have some logic errors or overgeneralization 14-13 Not enough supporting evidence; average analysis of ideas; some needless repetition; purpose somewhat unclear; average logic of ideas; often resorts to overgeneralization 12-11 Little analysis of topic; enough material off topic to distract reader; purpose of paragraph unclear; important logic problems 10-9 Inappropriate or inaccurate ideas, irrelevance, insufficient, support of ideas; poor analysis of the topic; incorrect or unclear purpose of paragraph; serious logic problem 8 or less Content difficult to follow due to limited vocabulary; ideas lack meaning; deficient analysis of the topic; serious logic problems; serious irrelevance; poor support; serious overgeneralization problems (30%) O R G A N I Z A T I O N 30-27 Appropriate tittle; a clear, well-focused topic sentence; coherent, logically developed paragraph; clear controlling idea; necessary transition; effective powerful conclusion; appropriately outline; no errors 26-23 Title may lack originality; a focused topic sentence, generally coherent, good support and logical development; controlling idea generally clear; some transitions inappropriate; conclusion may lack a powerful effect; appropriate outline; minor errors 22-19 Title may be inappropriate; topic sentence may lack some focus; some errors in logical development and support; controlling idea somewhat clear; some transitions inappropriate; conclusions may lack a powerful effect; generally appropriate outline; some errors 18-15 Inadequate title, some portion of the composition incorrectly developed but provides basic evidence of a topic sentence, controlling idea and a plan; problems with ordering of ideas; inappropriate and/or very few transitions; ineffective conclusion; average outline; several errors 14-11 Title missing/ does not follow the requirements, topic sentence or conclusion incorrectly stated or unclear, little evidence of controlling idea; ideas ordered inappropriately; lacks logical development; lacks coherence, transitions missing or inappropriate; inappropriate outline; many errors 4

10-7 Title missing/ does not follow the requirements, topic sentence or conclusion incorrect or missing; controlling idea missing, little or no evidence of a plan; outline missing or incomplete; very poor or lack of transitions 6 or less Title missing/does not follow requirements; paragraph incoherent and difficult to follow; coherence and unity principles not followed; outline missing or incorrect % Points Features (25%) G R A M M A R 25-24 Clear evidence of control over structure: complete sentences; effective structures, very good use of verb/ modal forms, tense sequencing, agreement pronouns, articles, prepositions, relative clauses, phrases, no FRAG/CS/RO 23-22 Evidence of control but with minor gram problems which do not adversely affect the quality of the writing, e.g., modal forms, articles, pronouns prepositions, relative/adverbial clauses, phrases; no FRAG, CS, or RO 21-20 Evidence of control but with some incorrect verb tenses/ forms/modals, some inconsistency of verb tense; some problems with word forms, prepositions relative/ adverbial clauses or articles; occasional FRAG, CS or RO 19-16 Some evidence of control over structure but with several inconsistencies, e.g. incorrect verb tenses/forms, word forms pronouns; prepositions relative/adverbial clauses or articles; occasional FRAG, CS or RO 14-12 Average control over structure but with several errors in areas mentioned above 11-10 Minimal control over structure; many errors with verb tenses/ form, tense sequencing, modals, agreement, pronouns or prepositions which affect the writing quality of the writing; several problems with FRAG, CS or RO 9-8 Serious grammar problems may obscure the message or seriously affect the quality of the writing; too many errors; serious problems with FRAG, CS or RO 7 or less Lack of control over structure; plagued with errors concerning verb tenses/forms, word forms, pronouns; prepositions, relative/adverbial clauses or articles, fragments, comma splices or run-ons that revel immature writing (15%) V O C A B U L A R Y & E X P R E S S I O N S 15-14 Appropriate, precise, varied vocabulary; consistent and appropriate variety of sentence structures; consistent and appropriate variety of sentence structure; consistent and appropriate register; concise (no wordiness); meaning clear and expression fluent thanks to appropriate register, concise (no wordiness); meaning clear and expression fluent thanks to appropriate word choice and idiomatic usage, no errors. 13-12 Generally correct and varied vocabulary; a few misused words/expressions; appropriate variety of sentence structure; fluent expression but inconsistent or inappropriate register, fairly concise, meaning clear thanks to appropriate word choice and idiomatic usage, minor errors. 11-10 Adequate vocabulary; ideas not always phrased idiomatically; some vocabulary/idioms misused; some sentence structure variety; lack of awareness of register; some wordiness, mostly comprehensible meaning clear; some errors 9-8 Several misused words/idioms; attempts at sentence structure variety; some informality; some wordiness, mostly comprehensible meaning, some errors 7-6 Lacks vocabulary to express ideas effectively; very little sentence structure variety; awkward expression, unclear meaning 5

5-4 Basic or incorrect used vocabulary; little or no sentence variety; awkward basic expression, unclear meaning 3 or less Very limited vocabulary and expression that seriously affect the effective transmission of ideas, no attempt at sentence variety; unclear meaning % Points Features (10%) M E C A N I C H S 10-9 Neat and legible; submitted in required type of paper, correct use of heading and margins, indentation, spelling, spacing, punctuation, capitalization; outline follow standards 8-7 Neat and legible; submitted in required type of paper, generally correct use of heading and margins, indentation, spelling, spacing, punctuation, capitalization; outline with minor mistakes 6-5 Some problems with legibility, the heading, margins/ indentation, spelling, spacing, punctuation, capitalization, outline lacks logic/incomplete outline; paragraph not submitted in required type of paper 4-3 May be difficult to read, untidy; frequent problems with margins/ indentation, spelling, spacing, punctuation, capitalization, and /or outline format; incorrect type of paper 2-1 May be illegible; may lack the heading; serious problems with margins/indentation, spelling, spacing, punctuation, capitalization, and or outline format, missing outline 0 Paragraphs does not follow the above conventions Adapted from Jacobs, H.L., Zingraf, S., Wormuth, D., Hartfiel, V., & Hughey, J. ESL Composition Profile (1981). Newbury House Publishers by CUCOL 2012/2019 Notes: 1. Errors in vocabulary and expression will affect the components of meaning and content. 2. Errors in grammar may affect expression and content. 3. Poor or inappropriate content will affect all the other areas. 4. Recurrent errors (previously pointed out by the instructor) will be more severely penalized especially when they seem to suggest poor planning revision or editing. 5. Composition based on a topic or writing technique different from the one assigned will be graded with zero 6

Understanding Teacher Feedback This guide will help you understand the correction symbols in your compositions. It includes different abbreviations for each type of mistake, an explanation of the problem, and recommendations for improvement. Notes: 1. The symbol “^” means “insert” 2. FANBOYS: conjunctions “for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so” 3. Subordinators: although, because, when, even though, etc. Type of Mistake Explanation of the Problem Tips for Improvement Article / art. You have selected the wrong article (a, and, the) for the meaning that you need. Revise article usage rules. Remember: a university, a unique case. Awkward / AWK / nonidiom. The style is not natural, or the way you worded a sentence is not common in English. We don’t say this in English (non-idiomatic). Also see “wrong word” below. Check the sample sentences in a learner’s dictionary to see how to use a particular word. Choppy / Choppiness / Chop Too many sentences in a row all being too the same way: too many “it” subjects, the same Subj + V structures, or too many short sentences. Use FANBOYS and subordinators, combine short and long sentences, or invert sentence structure. Comma / ^C / no C Either you need to insert a comma, or you put one in the wrong place. Study the rules for commas in your course packet. Comma Splice / c. sp. / Cs / c. splice You wrote a comma to join two independent clauses (or two or more sentences), but have not used the FANBOYS. Use the FANBOYS. You may also need to separate the sentences with a period and/or use appropriate subordinators. 7

Fragment / frag. / F / incomplete / inc. You wrote an incomplete sentence. Some required part of the sentence is missing. Check if you missed the subject or the main verb. Spanish speakers tend to skip “it” when it comes in subject position. Logic / log? The logic of an idea or argument is unclear or unreasonable. Reread the idea and analyze it carefully. Think about the implications of what you are saying. Rewrite the idea. New sent. S Paragraph ¶ New par ¶ There is probably a comma splice or a run-on sentence. There is a problem with paragraph structure. Begin a new sentence at this point. Indent to make a new paragraph at the point where the symbol is placed. Overgeneralization / overgen. This idea is not true in all cases. You are generalizing something that applies to some or most situations but not to all as you are saying. Use modal auxiliaries (“may”, “might”, or expressions like “in some cases/some people”) to avoid generalizations. Parallelism / non parallel/ // (1) Grammatical parallelism: You used different grammatical forms that make the sentence lose its balance. (2) Logical parallelism: You had a logical problem -one part of the sentence does not follow the rest logically. Use the same word form when writing items in a series. Pronoun reference / Ref. / pronoun agreement / Pro. You used the wrong pronoun form. Make sure that the pronoun agrees with the noun that it refers to. Punctuation / punt. / P A punctuation rule was not applied. Refer to punctuation rules. Do not overuse semicolons. Use a period. Run-on sentence / Run-on / RO / R-on Two or more independent clauses have no punctuation to divide them Read the sentences out loud to see where you need a period or a comma + FANBOYS. 8

and no FANBOYS to connect them. You may need subordinators. Sentence structure / Spanish structure / Sent struc. / SS You probably used a direct translation from Spanish that may be incorrect, confusing, non-existent, or very unusual in English. Read more. Study the readings to pay special attention to new constructions. Think in English as you write. Singular-plural agreement / SP ag. / Plural form / Pl + s You used the wrong singular or plural form. It does not agree with the preceding article or demonstrative (a/an, this/that, these/those). Check the article or demonstrative that precedes plural nouns, especially. Remember that adjectives do not have plural form as they do in Spanish Spelling / SP You spelled a word incorrectly. Make a list of words you frequently misspell to help you remember the correct spelling. Subject-verb agreement / SVA / s-v agr / SV The form of the verb does not agree with its subject. Check verb forms, especially the 3rd person singular. Verb form / VF / verb / vb The verb does not correspond with the verb tense you are using. Keep a chart of verb tenses handy. Use the dictionary. Verb tense / VT / Tense The verb or modal is the wrong tense/form. The verb tenses were not used consistently. Check the context where the verb is (the sentences before and after it) and see what time frame they refer to (past, simple present, etc.) Word choice wc / Wrong word ww / Awk / usage usg You selected a word/expression that is not correct for the meaning or the grammar that you need to use. Check the sample sentences in a good dictionary. This will help you recognize how to use a particular word. Use your computer to see synonyms. Word form / wf The grammatical form of a word is incorrect. Use a dictionary to check the correct noun, adjective, or verb 9

forms of a word. Word order / wo Some part of a sentence is in the wrong position. Avoid thinking in Spanish as you write. Wordy / wordiness You expressed an idea in too many words or used very “flowery” language like the one used in Spanish sometimes. Be concise and direct. Omit unnecessary fillers and apologetic expressions. *Prepared by Xinia Rodríguez based on Byrd, P. & Benson, B. (1994). Problem/solution: A reference for ESL writers. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. 10

University of Costa Rica | College of Letters | Modern Languages School Cursos de Composicio n y Lectura Outline template | Paragraph Writing Paragraph Outline Formati Student’s name Professor’s name Course code and name Date Topic: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Title: ______________________________________________________________________________________ Topic sentence: __________________________________________________________________________ A. First main point___ 1. First general example__ a. First supporting detail___ b. Second supporting detail _ 2. Second general example _ a. First supporting detail__ b. Second supporting detail_ B. Second main point___ (iterate as needed)

University of Costa Rica | College of Letters | Modern Languages School Cursos de Composicio n y Lectura Outline template | Paragraph Writing Notes to the student: ▪ The first level of generalization is the capital letter, which represents the main idea that supports the topic sentence. There will be as many capital letters as there are main ideas in the paragraph. ▪ The second level is the number, which equals the supporting examples of the main idea. ▪ If there is a supporting detail of the example, there will be a third level: a lowercase letter. There will be as many numbers and lower-case letters as there are general examples and supporting details, respectively. ▪ In cases in which a fourth level is needed, that minor detail will be represented with a lower-case i (i, ii, iii, etc). ▪ There are two types of outlines: the sentence outline and the topic outline. ▪ In the sentence outline, all levels must be sentences. ▪ In the topic outline, the only sentence is the topic sentence. The rest of the levels may be words, phrases, or clauses. That is why you must keep parallelism within the same level all throughout. For instance, if A is a noun phrase, B and C must be noun phrases as well. If 1 is an adjective, 2 and 3 must also be adjectives. ▪ Irrespective of the outline type (topic or sentence), in order to have 1, for example, you must have at least 2. In other words, we cannot just have A, 1 or a without at least B, 2 or b. ▪ Your instructor will inform you: o which outline format (topic or sentence) is preferred. o whether the outline heading (which follows MLA guidelines) is also needed on the first page of the actual paragraph. i Created with information from (1) The Writing Centre: The Lab For Writing and Communication, (2) Los Angeles Valley College Writing Center, “How to Make an Outline”, and (3) Teaching L2 Composition: Purpose, Process, and Practice (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2014) (CUCOL|by Bonilla, M.)

University of Costa Rica | College of Letters | Modern Languages School Cursos de Composición y Lectura Outline template | Essay Writing Outline Format: Option 1 Student’s name Professor’s name Course code and name Date Topic: ________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ I. Introduction A. Hook/Attention getter B. Background/relevant information C. Thesis statement: ___________________________________________________________________ II. First topic (i.e., topic sentence)_ A. First main idea_ 1. First general example_ a. First supporting detail_ b. Second supporting detail_ 2. Second general example__ a. First supporting detail__ b. Second supporting detail__ B. Second main idea__ 1. First general example_ a. First supporting detail_ b. Second supporting detail_ 2. Second general example_ a. First supporting detail__ b. Second supporting detail_

University of Costa Rica | College of Letters | Modern Languages School Cursos de Composición y Lectura Outline template | Essay Writing III. Second topic (i.e., topic sentence) (iterate as needed) … V. Conclusion A. Summary/Synthesis B. Importance of point C. Strong closing statement Notes on format 1: ▪ The first level of generalization is the roman numeral, which represents a paragraph. There will be as many roman numerals as there are paragraphs in the essay (usually five). ▪ The capital letter is level two, which contains main ideas. In the body paragraphs, those main ideas support the topic sentence. There will be as many capital letters in the body paragraphs as there are main ideas in it. ▪ The third level is the number, which presents the general examples that support the main idea. ▪ If there is a supporting detail of the general example, there is a fourth level—represented with a lower-case letter. ▪ In cases in which a fifth level is needed, that minor detail will be represented with a lower-case i (i, ii, iii, etc). ▪ There are two types of outlines: the sentence outline and the topic outline. ▪ In the sentence outline, all levels must be sentences. ▪ In the topic outline, the only sentence is the thesis statement. The rest of the levels may be words, phrases, or clauses. That is why you must keep parallelism within the same level all throughout. For instance, if A is a noun phrase, B and C must be noun phrases as well. If 1 is an adjective, 2 and 3 must also be adjectives. ▪ Irrespective of the outline type (topic or sentence), in order to have 1, for example, you must have at least 2. In other words, we cannot just have A, 1 or a without at least B, 2 or b. ▪ Your instructor will inform you: a. whether they want A and B (in the Introduction) or A, B, and C (in the Conclusion) filled out. b. which outline format (Option1 vs. Option 2 and Topic vs. Sentence) is preferred. c. whether the outline heading (which follows MLA guidelines) is also needed on the first page of the actual essay or if a title page will be necessary instead (following APA).

University of Costa Rica | College of Letters | Modern Languages School Cursos de Composición y Lectura Outline template | Essay Writing Outline Format: Option 2 Student’s name Professor’s name Course code and name Date Topic: ________________________________________________________________________________________________ Title: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Thesis statement: ___________________________________________________________________________________ I. First topic (i.e., topic sentence) A. First main idea_ 1. First general example_ a. First supporting detail___ b. Second supporting detail__ 2. Second general example_ a. First supporting detail__ b. Second supporting detail__ B. Second main idea____ 1. First general example__ a. First supporting detail__ _ b. Second supporting detail__ 2. Second general example___ a. First supporting detai___ b. Second supporting detail___ II. Second topic (i.e., topic sentence)_ (iterate as needed) …

University of Costa Rica | College of Letters | Modern Languages School Cursos de Composición y Lectura Outline template | Essay Writing Notes on format 2: ▪ The first level of generalization is the roman numeral, which represents a body paragraph. There will be as many roman numerals as there are body paragraphs in the essay (usually three). ▪ The capital letter is level two, which contains the main ideas that support the topic sentence. There will be as many capital letters in the body paragraphs as there are main ideas in it. ▪ The third level is the number, which equals the general examples that support the main idea. ▪ If there is a supporting detail of the general example, there is a fourth level— represented with a lower-case letter. ▪ In cases in which a fifth level is needed, that minor detail will be represented with a lower-case i (i, ii, iii, etc). ▪ There are two types of outlines: the sentence outline and the topic outline. ▪ In the sentence outline, all levels must be sentences. ▪ In the topic outline, the only sentence is the thesis statement. The rest of the levels may be words, phrases, or clauses. That is why you must keep parallelism within the same level all throughout. For instance, if A is a noun phrase, B and C must be noun phrases as well. If 1 is an adjective, 2 and 3 must also be adjectives. ▪ Irrespective of the outline type (topic or sentence), in order to have 1, for example, you must have at least 2. In other words, we cannot just have A, 1 or a without at least B, 2 or b. ▪ Your instructor will inform you: a. whether they want A and B (in the Introduction) or A, B, and C (in the Conclusion) filled out. b. which outline format (Option1 vs. Option 2 and Topic vs. Sentence) is preferred. c. whether the outline heading (which follows MLA guidelines) is also needed on the first page of the actual essay or if a title page will be necessary instead (following APA). Created with information from (1) The Writing Centre: The Lab For Writing and Communication, (2) Los Angeles Valley College Writing Center, “How to Make an Outline”, and (3) Teaching L2 Composition: Purpose, Process, and Practice (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2014) (CUCOL|by Bonilla, M.)

Writing an Assignment Summary Avoid Plagiarism Plagiarism is the act of presenting the 14

words or ideas of another author as one’s own or using information without giving credit to its original source. Plagiarism is a form of stealing that leads to serious consequences in both the classroom and the workplace. The penalties for plagiarism in the classroom may range from failing the assignment to expulsion. Likewise, plagiarism in the workplace may result in demotion, lack of opportunity for promotion, or job loss. Plagiarism is not only unethical, it is also illegal. Original work is protected by copyright law. Thus, plagiarism can result in legal action. Many times, plagiarism is not a deliberate act. Instead, plagiarism may occur from lack of knowledge about how to use the work of others or how to give them proper credit for their work. You can avoid plagiarism by properly paraphrasing, summarizing, quoting, and citing the words or ideas of other people. Paraphrasing a text is accurately restating an idea using your own words. The following chart outlines five steps for paraphrasing. The Five R’s of Paraphrasing: Read, Restate, Revise, Revisit, Repeat Read Read the text to understand the author's meaning. Highlight key ideas. Restate Put the original text out of sight. Recall in writing the author’s ideas using your own words. Revise Wait for a space of time (from a few minutes to a few days) to create an opportunity to see your phrase with fresh eyes. Then, revise your paraphrase for clear wording and smooth flow of ideas. Revisit After drafting your paraphrase, revise the original text. Compare your paraphrase to the author’s wording. Change any wording that is too close to the author’s words. Double check to make sure your paraphrase correctly restates the author message. Repeat Complete the preceding steps as many times as needed to draft a sound paraphrase. With a peer or small group of classmates, study the following example of a paraphrase. Read the original text and the paraphrase. Then, discuss how the paraphrase differs from the original text. Finally, discuss how the paraphrase is similar to the original text. Original Text: Health and safety procedures for body artists may be regulated by city, country, or state agencies. Reputable shops and tattoo parlors govern themselves and 15

follow strict safety procedures to protect their clients 一and their body artists. Source of Text: “Body Art: Tattoos and Piercings.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 29 Aug. 2011. Web. Paraphrase: Trustworthy tattooists and body piercers are rigorous in hygiene. They are also faithful to the laws set in place by different levels of government. Responsible “body artists” take steps to ensure the physical well-being of their customers and themselves (“Body Art: Tattoos and Piercings”). Notice that the paraphrase is about the same length as the original text. Also notice that in the paraphrase, any exact words taken from the original text are placed in quotation marks. Finally, the source of the paraphrase is cited in the text to avoid plagiarism. Since the source does not have an author, the title is used in the citation. Also, since this information is from the internet, no page number is given. However, the page numbers where information appears in printed sources are included in the citation. The complete publication information will also be provided in the Works Cited Page. Practice: Assume you work as a manager of several departments at a local retail store. You have a job opening for a supervisor of one of your departments. You have asked applicants to respond in writing to the following question: “How would you describe your style of leadership?” Several of your applicants have paraphrased a passage from a textbook you suggested they read as part of their training for management. Read the original text. Then evaluate each applicant’s paraphrase. Mark each one A for acceptable or U for unacceptable. Finally, discuss your answers and reasoning with a peer or a small group of classmates. Original text: Democratic leaders work with employees to find the best way to complete a job while maintaining final authority. Being a democratic leader means you value the opinions of others in your group. That’s why democratic leaders surround themselves with skillful employees. Democratic leaders empower others, and their decisions are better informed because of the impur of their fellow employees. Source of Text: Van Syckle, Barbara and Brian, Tietje. Anybody’s Business. Upper Saddle River. NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. 136. Print. ____ Applicant 1’s Paraphrase: A “democratic” manager creates a team approach by hiring qualified and dedicated workers and seeking their views about how best to solve a problem or carry out a task before coming to a final decision. This type of manager makes thoughtful decisions. This type of manager taps into and releases the power of each worker. ____ Applicant 2’s Paraphrase: A “democratic” manager creates a team approach by hiring qualified and dedicated workers and seeking their views about how best to solve a problem or carry out a task before coming to a final decision. This type of manager makes thoughtful 16

decisions. This type of manager taps into and releases the power of each worker (Van Syckle and Tietje 136). ____ Applicant 3’s Paraphrase: Democratic leaders work with workers to find the best way to complete the job. Democratic leaders maintain final authority. A democratic leader values the views of others in your group. That’s why democratic leaders surround themselves with skillful employees. Democratic leaders empower others. Their decisions are better informed because of the input of coworkers. ____ Applicant 4’s Paraphrase: Democratic leaders work with workers to find the best way to complete the job. Democratic leaders maintain final authority. A democratic leader values the views of others in your group. That’s why democratic leaders surround themselves with skillful employees. Democratic leaders empower others. Their decisions are better informed because of the input of coworkers (Van Syckle and Tietje 136). Summarizing a text entails reducing a section of text to its main points. A summary is much shorter than the length of the original text as it includes the most important ideas. The following chart outlines the three-step process for summarizing. If the author states the main idea in a topic sentence, follow up to step 3a. If the author does not state the main idea in a topic sentence, then skip step 3a and follow step 3b. An acceptable summary also paraphrases the author’s ideas. The Three-Step Process for Writing a Summary 1. Delete Cross out unnecessary material. Cross out repetitive material. 2. Condense Use a word to replace a list. Use a word to replace individual parts of an action. 3.a. State OR 3.b. Create Underline and then rephrase the topic sentence or thesis statement. OR Compose a topic sentence or thesis statement if not stated. Since you paraphrase ideas in a summary, any exact words of the original text taken from the original text are placed in quotation marks. Just as with the paraphrase, the source of the summary is cited in the text and the Works Cited page to avoid plagiarism. Many experts suggest that you begin a summary with the title of the original text and the author’s name. With a peer or small group of classmates, study the following example of a summary. The original text has been annotated to illustrate the The Three-Step Process for Writing a Summary. Read the original 17

text, the annotations, and the summary. Then, discuss how the summary differs from the original text. Finally, discuss how the summary is similar to the original text. Original Text: Bullying is a Big Problem by Teenshealth.org Every day thousands of teens wake up afraid to go to school. Bullying is a problem that affects millions of students. And it has everyone worried, not just the kids on its receiving end. Yet because parents, teachers, and other adults don’t always see it, they may not understand how extreme bullying can get. Bullying is when a person is picked up over and over again by an individual or group with more power, either in terms of physical strength or social standing. Two of the main reasons people are bullied are because of appearance and social status. Bullies pick up on people they think don’t fit in, maybe because of how they look, how they act (for example, kids who are shy and withdrawn), their race or religion, or because the bullies think the target may be gay or lesbian. Some bullies attack their targets physically, which can mean anything from shoving or tripping to pinching or hitting or even sexual assault. Others use psychological control or verbal insults to put themselves in charge. For example, people in popular groups or cliques often bully people they categorize as different by excluding them or gossiping about them (psychological bullying). They may also taunt or tease their targets (verbal bullying). Step 1: Delete unnecessary material. Step 3: underline, rephrase main idea. Step 1: Delete repetitive material. Step 2: Condense this section to list “physical, psychological and verbal bullying” Summary: According to “Bullying is a Big Problem” by Teenshealth.org, bullying occurs when one or more persons of power repeatedly harass an individual of lesser ”physical strength or social standing”. Bullies use physical, psychological, and verbal abuse to torment others who differ from them. Practice. Assume you are a tutor working with a small group of peers in your college’s writing center. Today, you are looking over a set of practice summaries they have submitted for your input. Read the original text and each summary. Then evaluate each summary as A for acceptable and U for unacceptable. Finally, discuss your answers and reasoning with a peer or small group of classmates. Original Text: Which Traits Fit You Best? To introduce my clients to birth order, I often give them a little quiz: Which of the following sets of personality traits fits you best? (Anyone taking this quiz must understand that he or she doesn’t have to be everything in a certain list of traits. Just 18

pick up the list that has the most items that seem to describe you and your way of operating in life.) A. perfectionist, reliable, conscientious, list maker, well organized, hard driving, natural leader, critical, serious, scholarly, logical, doesn’t like surprises, unspoiled. B. mediator, compromising, diplomatic, avoids conflict, independent, loyal to peers, many friends, a maverick, secretive, unspoiled. C. manipulative, charming, blames others, attention seeker, tenacious, people person, natural salesperson, precocious, engaging, affectionate, loves surprises. D. little adult by age seven; very thorough; deliberate, high achiever; self-motivated; fearful; cautious: voracious reader; black and white thinker; uses “very,” “extremely,” “exactly” a lot; can’t bear to fail; has very high expectations for self; more comfortable with people who are older or younger. If you noted that this test seemed rather easy because A, B, and C listed traits of the oldest right down to the youngest in the family, you’re right. If you picked list A, it’s a very good bet you’re the first born in your family. If you chose list B, chances are you are a middle child (second born of three children, or possibly third born of four). If list C relates best to who you are, it’s likely you’re the baby of the family and are not all that happy that this book has no pictures. (Just kidding一I like to have a little fun with last borns because I’m one myself, but more on that much later). But what about list D? It describes the only child, and I threw it in because in recent years I have been getting more and more questions from children who know they are “first borns” but want to know how they are different from people who have siblings. Source of text: Leman, Kevin. The Birth Order Book. Grand Rapids, MI: Revel, 2018, 14-15. ____ Summary 1: In his book The Birth Order Book, Kevin Leman describes possible personality traits based on birth order. First borns are more likely demanding leaders; middle children are apt to be tactful referees of go-betweens. Last born are prone to be intelligent show-offs. Finally, only children are often mature and competitive (14-15). ____ Summary 2: Personality traits are likely influenced by one’s birth order. Some of the traits of first borns are perfectionists, reliable, and conscientious. The traits of middle children include being mediators, compromising, and diplomatic. Last born children are manipulative, charming, and seek attention. Only children are little adults by age seven, very thorough, and high achievers (14-15). ____ Summary 3: Personality traits are likely influenced by one’s birth order. First borns are 19

most likely demanding leaders; middle children are apt to be tactful referees of go-betweens. Last born are prone to be intelligent show-offs. Finally, only children are often mature and competitive. ____ Summary 4: Personality traits are likely influenced by one’s birth order. First borns are most likely demanding leaders; middle children are apt to be tactful referees of go-betweens. Last born are prone to be intelligent show-offs. Finally, only children are often mature and competitive (Leman 14-15). Quoting a text entails repeating the exact words of the author. When you use the exact words of another person, you enclose that exact wording within a pair of quotation marks. You should use quotes rarely and purposefully in your writing. A well-placed quote adds interest, emphasis, and authority to an important point. Too many quotes make it look like you didn’t take time to understand the text well enough to offer a fresh view of the topic. The following chart presents PAC, a few tips for quoting texts. PAC: Tips for Quoting Put the quote in context Introduce the quote with information about when, where, and why the quote was first stated. Explain the significance of the quote. Attribute the quote to its source Identify the writer/speaker of the quote. Use various verbs other than “he/she says” to give attribution; use the following: argues, claims, notes, comments, points out, remakes, states, suggests, thinks, writes. Cite correctly the publication information of the source In their book Anybody’s Business, Barbara Van Syckly and Brian Tietje claim, “Democratic leaders empowers others” (136) With a peer or small group of classmates, study the following use of a quote in a piece of writing. Annotate the writing to identify the PAC tips for using a quote. Underline the information that gives the context of the quote. Double underline the attribution of the quote. Circle the publication information. Underline the quote with a squiggly line. Example of Quoting: On a cold, snowy day, January 21, 1961, John F. Kennedy at the age of 43 took the oath of office as the youngest man elected to the office. Kennedy 20

explained, “And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country” (American Rhetoric: Top 100 Speeches). Kennedy effectively beckoned an entire generation into public service with his moving call to action. Notice several aspects of this example of proper quoting that applies as general rules for quoting text. First, a comma follows the attribution verb “exclaimed” to introduce the quote. Second, a pair of quotation marks enclose the exact words of President Kennedy. Third, the source or publication information is placed inside a pair of parentheses and immediately follows the quote. Finally, the end sentence punctuation is placed outside the closing parenthesis. Practice. Assume the role of a peer editor. Work with a classmate or a small group. Evaluate the effectiveness of the following quotes for use in a research paper. In the given spaces give suggestions, if needed, for improvement of each quote based of PAC: Tips for Quoting. Quote 1: In January 2009, Captain Sullenberger landed a crippled US Airways plane on the Hudson River, saving the lives of all onboard. In his book Highest Duty, he states We need to try to do the right thing everytime, to perform at our best because we never know which moment in our lives we’ll be judge on (314). Suggestions for improvement: Quote 2: “Never eat more than you can lift,” Miss Piggy. Suggestions for improvement: Quote 3: Each generation has its own personality and impact on society. For example, no one questions the impact on society of the millions of Baby Boomers. Noe, the world is feeling the impact of a new generation of teens and twenty-somethings, the Millennials. “The Millennials,” 21

concludes the highly respected non-profit research organization the Pew Foundation “are confident, self-expressive, liberal, upbeat and open to change” (Millennials: A Portrait of Generation Next 1) Suggestions for improvement: Writing an Assignment Summary Assignment summaries can be extremely challenging to write. A good assignment summary has three principal requirements: 1. It should be focused on the relevant aspects of the source text or texts. (There 22

may be no need to take information from every section or paragraph of the source texts.) 2. It should present the source material in an accurate fashion. 3. It should condense the source material and be presented in the summary writer’s own words. (Summaries that consist of directly copied portions of the original rarely succeed. Such a summary may suggest that you can find potentially important information, but it does not reveal to what extent you have understood it. In addition, you may be engaging in plagiarism. Notice that we have not said anything about the length of a summary because this will often be determined by your instructor. Sometimes instructors will ask for a one-page summary of an article (or maybe a two-page summary of a book). They may also ask for a paragraph-length abstractor, even a mini-summary of one to two sentences. Since the sample texts we provide here are quite short, we expect that the summaries you write will be half a page to a full page. To do a good job, you must first thoroughly understand the source material you are working with. Hence, here are some preliminary steps in writing a summary. 1. Skim the text, noting in your mind the subheadings. If there are no subheadings, try to divide the text into sections. 2. Consider why you have been assigned the text. Determine what type of text you are dealing with, that is, the genre of the source text (e.g., a research paper) or perhaps the organization (problem-solution or general-specific). This can help you identify important information and focus your reading strategies. 3. Read the text, highlighting important information or taking notes. 4. In your own words, write down the main points of each section. Try to write a one-sentence summary of each section. 5. Write down the key support points for the main topic but include minor detail only if necessary. 6. Go through the process again, making changes as appropriate. Task 1 Read this adaptation of “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” and underline the information you think is significant and should be included in a summary. Next to each underlined section, briefly explain why you think the information is important. The first paragraph has been done for you. Then write in the margin, in as few words as possible, what each paragraph is about. 23

Transformation of the Nile River Basin The Egyptian landscape has been changing for centuries. One area which has undergone dramatic change over the last 7 000 years is the Nile River basin. One of the most notable aspects of this transformation is the year-round irrigation of land for agricultural purposes, rather than a strict reliance on the annual flood Conversion to continuous irrigation, which began around 1500 and was limited only by the level of technology, led to improved agricultural productivity. This in turn contributed to an increase in the population of the area. Large scale conversion of agricultural land involving perennial irrigation began in the 1800s with the availability of more modern technology. Water could be retained, raised, and distributed to summer crops with the aid of barrages constructed on the Nile below Cairo and at sites on 30,000 kilometers of new canals. Large dams were built on the Nile a Aswan in 1902, 1912, and 1933. The final transformation to continuous irrigation was finished with the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1960. This full-scale change brought about a major shift an expansion in agriculture. Cash crops such as cotton, sugar cane, and vegetables tended and still tend to be produced at the expense of subsistence crops. Because Egyptians have historically preferred to live within or near the cultivated land area, agricultural expansion has also had an impact on the environment and livelihood of the Nile population. As the amount of land available for agriculture increased, so did the population. Egypt's population has increased from 2.5 million in the early 1800s to 9.7 million in the late 1800s, Reason for Highlighting This is the topic of the passage The effect of the change in irrigation patterns is significant. _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ 24

18.8 million in the 1940s, 37 million in the mid-70s, 46 million in 1984, and nearly 67 million in 2002. The population could reach over 100 million by the beginning of 2050. In 1907, urban dwellers constituted only approximately 17 of Egypt’s population. By 2001, however, they were 45% of the total. Recent studies have indicated that approximately 1 to 2% of Egypt’s arable land is lost annually to human encroachment. _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ Task 2 The "Nile" passage in Task One is fairly easy to summarize because it is factual, has three clear-cut sections, and follows a chronology. Take a look at some attempts at summarizing some of the details in the third paragraph. Which summary provides the right amount of detail? Explain your choice. 1. In the early 1800s the population of Egypt was 2.5 million. By the late 1800s, it was 9.7 million. In the 40s the population reached 18.8 million; by the mid-70s it had reached 37 million. In 1984 the population was 46 million. In2002 it was nearly 67 million. The population could reach over 100 million by2050.One to two percent of Egypt’s fertile land is disappearing annually as a result of the growth. 2. In the 1800s Egypt’s population increased from 2.5 million to 9.7 million. In the 1900s it grew again from 18.8 million in the 1940s to 46 million in 1984, reaching 67 million in 2002. By mid-century, the population will be almost double that in 1984. A result of this population growth is an annual 1-2% loss of agricultural land. 3. The Egyptian population has increased from 2.5 million in the early 1800s to 67 million in 2003. It could grow to approximately 100 million by mid-century. Along with this population growth, Egypt has also experienced it 1-2% was in the amount of fertile land. 4. The Egyptian population has dramatically increased since the 1800s and is expected to continue to increase. A small percentage of agricultural land is lost each year because of the growth in population. 5. The Egyptian population in 2002 was approximately 30 times that in the early 1800s. By mid-century, it could grow to 100 million. Egypt is also losing agricultural land as a result of the population increase. Now attempt your own summary of the third paragraph. 25

Task 3 Here is a slightly longer version of the "Selling Cities" passage from Unit Two. We have removed the citations to simplify our discussion. The "Selling Cities" text is somewhat more difficult to summarize than the "Nile" passage because it is less factual and more argumentative. Students in one of our courses were asked to use this passage to respond to the following questions: What is the potential impact of meetings tourism on a city? Does the meetings tourism market seem like a reasonable market for cities in economic trouble to pursue? With these questions in mind, read the passage, paying attention to the parts that have been underlined. Do you agree that the underlined sections are significant and for the reasons provided? Can you tell how the text is organized? Selling Cities: Promoting New Images for Meetings Tourism 1 Meetings tourism, which we define as travel associated with attendance at corporate or association meetings, conferences, conventions or congresses or public or trade exhibitions, has emerged as a significant subsection of the tourist industry both in terms of volume of travel and expenditure generated. 2 “Meetings” demonstrate enormous variety, ranging from small business meetings of a few participants to large conventions of, for example, professional associations which might attract in excess of 20,000 delegates. 3 The range of locations within which these meetings take place is also broad, including such sites as hotels, universities, sports venues, and specially built convention centers. 4 The meetings tourism market has been vigorously pursued by many former industrial cities in Europe and the U.S. as part of their strategies of post-industrial urban regeneration. 5 This market offers a number of obvious attractions to such cities, not least the rapidity of its growth during the 1970s and 1980s, the very period during which many cities were Meetings tourism may not be such a well-known term, so I should include the definition along with something about its importance. This part further explains why meetings tourism is important. 26

suffering contractions in their industrial base. 6 Figures for the U.S.A. suggest the business conference industry almost doubled during the 1980s. 7 The growth is particularly marked for international conferences which bring the greatest financial returns for host cities. 8 In many European cities the economic contributions of business tourism outweigh those from leisure tourism by two or three times, making it both a seemingly appropriate and rewarding sector for former manufacturing cities to pursue. 9 Meetings tourists are high spending and hence the market is able to generate high levels of investment in cities and regions. 10 Although the myth of the bottomless expense account is somewhat exaggerated, meetings tourists are major users of the entertainment and accommodation facilities of the locations they visit. 11 It has been estimated, for example, that the International Rotary Meeting at the International Convention Center in Birmingham, UK, attracted 23,000 delegates resulting in spending of almost $40,000 million in the city during the meeting, much of which remained inthe local market. 12 The potential for direct and indirect job creation associated with meetings tourism has been recognized as high. 13 A study of the potential job creation effects of a convention center in Birmingham, U.K., was crucial to the decision by the local authority to pursue the development. 14 The study estimated that while only 125 jobs would be created directly in the center itself, almost 2000 indirect jobs would result from its development. This seems like good support for the idea of why meetings tourism is important—even more important than regular tourism. This explains the impact of the spending by meeting tourists. The specific examples of how much meetings tourists spend is helpful. Here is a specific example of what the money generated by meetings tourism can do for a city. 27

15 Success in this market also brings a number of non-financial rewards associated with image and profile enhancement, the improvement to decaying districts and city center landscapes and the generation of civic pride among residents. 16 The zeal with which some cities have developed facilities to attract meetings tourists during the 1980s suggests that it was seen as somewhat of a panacea for the problems that had come to affect them. 17 However, the pursuit of the meetings tourist market certainly incurs costs, for example, the long-term financial burden on local authorities both to cover the costs of construction and to service the typical year-on-year financial deficits of such facilities. 18 It also brings with it potential problems, such as vulnerability to cut back during recession and the fact that at national levels, and sometimes regional levels, the competition between cities for meetings often results in enough profits to just cover expenses. 19 Despite potential risks, many city governments see meetings tourism as a good way to make the transition into a post-industrial economy. (Adapted from Bradley, Hall, Ann Harrison 2002) This is another example of the impact of meetings tourism money. It’s good to highlight the potential negative side of meetings tourism to provide a somewhat balanced discussion. More on the potential drawbacks Overall, it seems that meetings tourism is a good market for cities to pursue. This conclusion is important. A preliminary summary of the passage in Task Three should probably include the definition along with some discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of meetings tourism. In the next step, these elements can be strung together to form the basis of a 28

formal summary. Of course, special care must be taken to ensure a logical flow of ideas. Here is a draft written in response to the two questions posed in Task Three. Draft Summary 1 Meetings tourism is travel associated with attendance at corporate or association meetings, conferences, conventions, or congresses or public or trade exhibitions. 2 It has become a significant subsection of the tourist industry both in terms of the number of tourists and the money they spend. 3 The meetings tourism market has been vigorously pursued by many former industrial cities for urban regeneration. 4 The meetings tourism market offers attractions to such cities, especially its growth during the 1970s and 1980s, when many cities were suffering from economic problems with their industrial base. 5 The expansion in meetings tourism is especially outstanding for international conferences, which get the highest economic reward for entertaining cities. 6 In many European cities the economic profits of business tourism are two to three times greater than those from leisure tourism. 7 Because meetings tourists spend a lot of money, cities have funds to heavily invest in themselves. 8 Meetings tourism has the potential for direct and indirect job creation. 9 One study estimated that jobs can be created directly and indirectly from its development. 10 Apart from generating funds, meetings tourism can also improve image and profile enhancement, improve decaying districts and city center landscapes, and generate civic pride among residents. 11 However, the meetings tourist market certainly takes some risk because cities have to pay for the construction and upkeep of facilities, a weak economy, and competition from other cities. 12 For example, there may not be a profit. 13 Many city governments see meetings tourism as a good way to make the transition into a postindustrial economy. This is perhaps a reasonable beginning. The writer has retained the important parts of the text. Most of the sentences are short, as we would expect in a summary. However, this summary has three weaknesses: 1. It is probably a bit too long. The original contains 560 words, and the summary contains 335. It could be condensed further without any loss of meaning. 2. For the most part, too much of the text is written in the words of the original, although no whole sections were borrowed. It may very well be an example of plagiarism—work copied from a source without proper attribution. Notice that sentence 1 in the summary is very close to the first highlighted part of the original, sentences 2 and 3 use many of the same expressions as in the original, and soon. 29

3. The draft does not display a high level of understanding of the source passage. While it does show that the writer can pull out important information, it does not convince the reader that the summary writer understands the information and how it is interrelated. Overall, although this summary is a reasonable draft, it needs more work before it can be submitted as a written assignment. Now, let us consider how this summary could be improved. One obvious approach would be to paraphrase the original. A paraphrase is a restatement (in your own words) of the ideas in the original. The most common strategy used to accomplish this involves replacing words in the source with synonyms and perhaps changing the grammar. Look again at sentence4. 4 The meetings tourism market has been vigorously pursued by many former industrial cities in Europe and the U.S. as part of their strategies of post-industrial urban regeneration. A full paraphrase of this could be Many cities in the U.S. and Europe that once relied on heavy industry are now trying to revitalize themselves by developing a meetings tourism industry. Note here that the language has been completely changed although the sense of the original is fully maintained. A paraphrase approach to summarizing can be somewhat successful, but if you do this sentence by sentence, you run the risk of not demonstrating your full understanding of the passage. You might miss an opportunity to highlight key points. Another possible danger is that the resulting summary may not be original enough and could be considered plagiarism by some. Some students attempt to paraphrase by following the simple synonym substitution approach. However, this approach definitely has risks. If we take sentence 4 above and paraphrase using synonyms, we get something like the following: The meetings tourism industry has been energetically sought by several historically industrial cities in Europe and the U.S. as one element of their plan of post-industrial metropolitan rebuilding. This paraphrase is somewhat difficult to understand. For one, seek does not have the same meaning as pursue. While an industry can be pursued in English, it generally 30

cannot be sought. For another, historically it does not give the sense that these cities are no longer industrial cities. Finally, the phrase metropolitan rebuilding requires some effort to understand because the common term in this context is urban, as in the original. If you (understandably) feel that your paraphrasing ability is not so strong, you can copy some material and place it in quotation marks. However, a better but more difficult strategy would be to carefully consider the elements you have identified as important, put the original way, and write down what you have understood. This may allow you to condense the ideas in the source even further. In fact, when you write a formal summary of someone else’s ideas, you should keep in mind the following guidelines: 1. Always try to use your own words, except for technical terms. 2. Include enough support and details so that the presentation is clear. 3. Do not try to paraphrase specialized vocabulary or technical terms. 4. Focus on the content of the original. 5. Make sure the summary reads smoothly. Using enough transition devices and supporting detail. You do not want a collection of sentences that do not flow. Task 4 Here again is the draft summary, which is now followed by some instructor comments. Discuss with a partner and decide whether they're reasonable (R) or unreasonable (U). If you are not sure, mark the comment with a question mark. Draft Summary 1 Meetings tourism is travel associated with attendance at corporate or association meetings, conferences, conventions, or congresses or public or trade exhibitions. 2 It has become a significant subsection of the tourist industry both in terms of the number of tourists and the money they spent. 3 The meetings tourism market has been vigorously pursued by many former industrial cities that are aiming for urban regeneration. 4 The meetings tourism market offers attractions to such cities, specially its growth during the 1970s and 1980s, when many cities were suffering from economic problems with their industrial base. 5 The expansion in meetings tourism is specially outstanding for international conferences, which get the highest economic reward for entertaining cities. 6 In many Europeans cities the economic 31

profits of business tourism or two to three times greater than those from leisure tourism. 7 Because meetings tourists spent a lot of money, cities have funds to heavily invest in themselves. 8 Meetings tourism has the potential for direct and indirect job creation. 9One study estimated that jobs can be created directly and indirectly from its development. 10Apart from generating funds, meetings tourism can also improve image and profile enhancement, improved decaying districts and city center landscapes, and generate civic pride among presidents. 11However, the meetings tourist market certainly takes some risk because cities have to pay for their construction and upkeep of facilities, a weak economy, and competition from other cities. 12 For example, there may not be a profit. 13 Many city governments see meetings tourism as a good way to make the transition into a post-industrial economy. Instructor’s comments I think you have a good start here. You have addressed the questions. You have hit the key points and for the most part expressed them clearly. Below are some suggestions for revision. ___ 1. Your first and second sentences are essentially copied from the source. Trying to write this definition in your own words may not be worth the effort. But since this is copied material, you need to place it in quotation marks and indicate the source. ___ 2. Sentences 3, 4, and 13 are also quite close to the original. Try to put the points in your own words. ___ 3. In sentence 5 you have made a good attempt at using your own words, but your synonym paraphrase approach has resulted in a somewhat awkward sentence. In particular, “entertaining cities” does not accurately convey the meaning of the original. Are you happy with “get”? ___ 4. “Profits” in sentence 6 doesn't seem quite right. The original says “contribution”. Can you find another term? ___ 5. You should identify the source somewhere in the discussion. This is standard practice in academic writing—even if your instructor has given the source. You could put this at the beginning or the end. ___ 6. Sentence 7 looks good, but can you offer some support for the point? ___ 7. You could clearly highlight how many benefits the article describes. For example, you could state that there are three benefits for cities that pursue meetings tourism. 32

___ 8. Sentences 8 and 9 essentially say the same thing. Sometimes repetition is OK, but in this case, nothing is gained. ___ 9. The connection between sentences 11 and 12 is confusing. Is sentence 12 really an example? ___ 10. Finally, as you revise and put things more in your words, see if you can reduce the overall length so that it is no more than one-third the length of the original. ___ 11. You should perhaps indicate that this paper heavily relies on data that is rather old. Since many of the summaries you write will be woven into your own original text, it is very important to identify at least the source author, if not the title as well. One of our students chose to identify the source in this way. According to Andrew, meetings tourism can have an enormous effect on the economy of a city. This is a reasonable first attempt, but you may be wondering who Andrew is. Andrew happens to be the first name of the first author of the “Selling Cities” article. When you refer to other authors, you should not use the given name alone. Family names alone are generally used. Also, since there is more than one author in our example, this needs to be acknowledged. We propose the following revision: According to Bradley et al., meetings tourism can have an enormous effect on the economy of a city. The sample summary above uses MLA (Modern Language Association) citation. In APA(American Psychological Association) format, it would be as follows: According to Bradley et al. (year of publication here), meetings tourism can have an enormous effect on the economy of a city. The following language focus provides some additional suggestions for how to refer to a source in your summary. ❖ LANGUAGE FOCUS: IDENTIFYING THE SOURCE IN A SUMMARY 33

Most summaries will start with a sentence near the beginning that contains two elements: the source and the main idea. Notice the use of the present tense in these examples: According to Boskin (2004) ____________________________________ (main idea) Young and Song’s 2004 paper on fluoridation discusses _________________ (main idea) Berstein (2004) states that ________________________________ claims (main idea) argues maintains Barrinaga (2004) suggests that ____________________________ asserts (main idea) hypothesizes states concludes In Tyson’s article “Mapping Dark Matter with Gravitational Lenses,”____________ (main idea) There is a range of reporting verbs that you may use when referring to your source material. A recent study by Ken Hyland identified more than 400 different reporting verbs; however, nearly 50% of these were used only one time in his corpus of 80 research articles. A much smaller number of verbs tend to predominate. In Table 18, we show the most frequently used reporting verbs from a variety of disciplines, with the most frequent on the left. As you can see there are some disciplinary differences. Table 18 High-Frequency Reporting Verbs Discipline Verbs and Frequency Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 Biology describe find report show suggest observe Physics develop report study find expand 34

Electrical engineering propose use describe show publish develop Mechanical Engineering describe show report discuss give develop Epidemiolog y find describe suggest report examine show Nursing show report demonstrat e observe find suggest Marketing suggest argue find demonstrat e propose show Applied Linguistics suggest argue show explain find point out Psychology find show suggest report demonstrat e focus Sociology argue suggest describe note analyze discuss Education find suggest note report demonstrat e Provide Source: Hyland (1999). Other data thanks to Carson Maynard. Although (theoretically speaking) summaries are supposed to be objective, this is not always entirely true. When required, a variety of reporting verbs can be used in summary writing to reveal your personal stance toward the source material. Notice how to report in verbs in the following examples could allow the writer of the summary to convey his or her attitude: Campbell (2004) presumes that all parents are equally capable of helping their children with schoolwork. The authors speculate that people who scrap their old cars will immediately buy another, new(er) car. Notice also how the addition of an adverb (in mid position, of course) can even more clearly reveal your stance, which you may want to do when writing in order to critique. The authors wrongly assumed that patience would adhere to the treatment protocol. Task 5 Some reporting verbs are less objective than others. In Table 19, can you identify which verbs seem to be objective and which verbs have the potential to be evaluated? The first answer has been provided for you. Table 19 Objectivity of Reporting Verbs 35

Objective Evaluative Describe √ Recommen d Claim Assume Contend Propose Theorize Support Examine ❖ LANGUAGE FOCUS: NOMINAL THAT-CLAUSES In formal academic English, many reporting verbs are followed by a that-clause containing both a subject and a verb. Can you identify the verbs in Table 19 that are not followed by that? List them below. That-clauses have a priority of functions. In the following sentence thethat-clause is the direct object of the verb states. Benfield and Howard (2000) state that many medical journals are now published in English because of a desire to attract greater readership and to attract better, more international manuscripts. In spoken English that in clauses which function as direct objects is often omitted, as in the following example. Notice also that in this spoken English alternative the choice of verb is less formal. Benfield and Howard (2000) said many medical journals are published in English now because they want to attract greater readership and to attract better, more international manuscripts. 36

You may have wondered why we have not said anything about the verb mention in the opening sentence for a summary. Notice that if you were to use mention instead of one of the other verbs suggested, you would greatly change the importance of the information following. Benfield and Howard (2000) mention that many medical journals are now published in English because of a desire to attract greater readership into attract better, more international manuscripts. How does the preceding sentence compared to the first example presented in the preceding Language Focus? Mention is used for information that was most likely given without detail or support. The example sentence using mention makes it as if the reason journals are now published in English is a minor point in the article. We suggest that you avoid using mention in summaries. Task 6 Here are some introductory statements that students wrote for a summary of the “Nile” passage in Task One. Which, if any, would you prefer to have written? Why? Edit the weaker sentences. 1. Author Steven Goodman in “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” states how the region has changed as a result of continuous irrigation. 2. “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” by Steven Goodman claims that changes in irrigation have led to an increase in population. 3. According to “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” by Steven Goodman suggests that the Nile River basin has been changed. 4. Goodman in “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” mentions that irrigation has had an impact on the environment and the population. 5. In Goodman's “Transformation of the Nile River Basin” the Nile River basin has been transformed by the introduction of perennial irrigation. If you are summarizing another author's work as part of a longer paper, you may make a reference to your source material following APA, MLA, or another style depending on your field of study. The APA and MLA systems refer to a source similarly by author and date. The following references are in APA style. 37

a. Goodman (1989) has found a correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional crops. b. A correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional crops has been identified (Goodman, 1989). c. In his study of the Nile River basin, Goodman (1989) established a correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from the traditional crops. Goodman also noticed … How does the citation in sentence b differ from those sentences in a and c? For a thorough discussion of APA and MLA styles, see the publication manual of the American psychological Association and the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. ❖ LANGUAGE FOCUS: SUMMARY REMINDER PHRASES In a longer summary, you may want to remind your reader that you are summarizing. The author goes on to say that … The article further said that … (Author´s last name here) also states maintains argues that … (Author´s last name here) also believes that … (Author´s last name here) concludes that … In the second half of the paper, (Author´s last name here) presents … In fact, if your summary is quite long, you will want to mention the source author’s name at different points in your summary—the beginning, the middle, and the end. When you do mention the author in the middle or end of the summary, be sure to use the last name only. Goodman goes on to say … Bradley et al. also believe that … The author further argues that … Some of the following sentence connectors may be useful in introducing additional information. Additionally Also Further In addition to Furthermore Moreover 38

Task 7 Here are some summary reminder sentences written by our students. Which, if any, of these would you prefer to have written? Try to improve the weaker sentences. 1. Bradley finally says meetings tourism may not get rid of all a city’s economic problems. 2. In addition, the article also discusses the problems that can come about. 3. In Bradley's article, he also points out that meetings tourism looks like a good idea. 4. Bradley and colleagues conclude that current strategies need to be reexamined. 5. Bradley and others conclude about the current risks that exist. Task 8 Here is a summary of the “Selling Cities” passage in Task 3. Would it be improved by adding a reminder phrase? Where would you insert it? Summary 1According to Bradley et al., meetings tourism refers to “travel associated with attendance at a corporate or association meeting, conference, convention, or exhibitions, or congress or public or trade exhibitions.” (n.d.) 2 The meetings tourism market has over come increasingly important to cities that once depended on heavy industry for their economic strength. 3 Interest in meetings tourism has grown for three main reasons. 4 First, the average meetings tourist spends two to three times more money than the typical leisure tourist does. 5 If city hosts a “mega” meeting often of thousands of participants, the financial rewards can be considerable. 6 Second, meetings tourism can create jobs in a local economy. 7 For example, the meeting facilities require e-workers, while other jobs may be created in hotels, restaurants, and other entertainment facilities. 8Finally, meetings tourism may lead to cities receiving a “facelift” with landscapes being improved and city centers being revitalized, which may in turn improve civic pride. 9 City improvements may also encourage meetings tourists turn to a host city at a future date for business, pleasure, or even a change in residence. 10 Despite these important advantages, investment in meetings tourism is not risk-free. 11 Investment in facilities may impose a long-term financial burden on cities that must face competition from many other cities in the market. 12 Thus, cities may invest heavily in meetings facilities, but may not reap the expected benefit. 13Despite the 39

potential concerns, a good meetings tourism strategy has the potential to revive an ailing post-industrial city. 14 As a result, this industry will likely continue to grow. Task 9 Read “Reducing Air Pollution” and try to determine the text type. Then read the summaries that follow. Decide which of the summaries you like best. Write one to two sentences after each summary, explaining what you like or dislike about each. Finally, discuss each of the summaries with a partner. Reducing Air Pollution in Urban Areas: The Role of Urban Planners Yasufumi Iseki Recently, increasingly significant problems regarding energy use have emerged. Enormous amounts of pollutants are being emitted from power plants, factories, and automobiles, which are worsening the condition of the Earth. This environmental degradation is a clear result of acid rain, increased levels of carbon dioxide (C02) in the atmosphere, and other forms of air pollution. Acid rain and air pollution, for instance, are devastating forests, crops, and lakes over wide areas of Europe and North America. In fact, in Europe early 50 million hectares have been identified as damaged, representing 35% of the total forested area. In the United States, approximately 1,000 acidified and 3,000 marginally acidic lakes have been reported. Since the mid century, COC levels in the atmosphere have increased by 13%, setting the stage for global warming. As atmospheric temperatures rise, grain output may significantly decrease, making it more difficult for farmers to keep pace with the growth of population. In urban areas, air pollution is taking a toll on buildings and human health. To reduce the amount of environmental damage in cities specifically, developed countries have devised technology to control the harmful emissions. However, as these countries already have an abundance of vehicles that continues to growing number, the efficacy of these measures is diminished. Since cars and other vehicles create more air pollution than any other human activity, the most effective means to reduce pollution is to decrease the number of vehicles. A major shift away from automobile usage in urban areas may be possible with the aid of urban planning. Summaries 1. According to Yasufumi Iseki, air pollution can be controlled through effective 40

urban planning. 2. Yasufumi Iseki in “Reducing Air Pollution in Urban Areas: The Role of Urban Planners”states that pollutants are worsening the condition of the Earth as a result of acid rain, increased levels of CO2 , and other forms of pollution. In fact, 35% of the total forested area in Europe has been damaged, and in the United States, approximately 1000 acidified lakes and 3000 marginally acidic leaks have been reported. Since the mid-century, CO2 levels have increased by 13%. Cars and other vehicles create more pollution than any other activity; thus, decreasing the number of vehicles is the most effective way to reduce pollution. This may be possible with urban planning. 3. Yasufumi Iseki states that because cars and other vehicles are the greatest single source of air pollution, a reduction in the number of vehicles in urban areas would be an effective approach to improving the urban environment. This reduction could be achieved through urban planning. 4. Yasufumi Iseki claims that urban planning can play a role in improving air quality in urban areas by prompting a shift away from heavy vehicle use. This will be difficult to achieve because of the overabundance of vehicles in developing countries. Some Notes on Plagiarism 41

Plagiarism is best defined as a deliberate activity—as the conscious copying from the work of others. The concept of plagiarism has become an integral part of North American and Western European countries. It is based on a number of assumptions that may not hold true in all cultures. One is a rather romantic assumption that the writer is an original, individual, creative artist. Another is that original ideas and expressions are the acknowledged property of their creators (as is the case with a patent for an invention). Yet another is that it is a sign of disrespect—rather than respect—to copy without acknowledgment from the works of published authorities. Of course, borrowing the words and phrases of others can be a useful language learning strategy. Certainly, you would not be plagiarizing if you borrowed items that are commonly or frequently used in academic English or that are part of common knowledge. Paris is the capital of France. An increase in demand often leads to an increase in price. The results from this experiment seem to suggest that … These results are statistically significant. But do not borrow "famous" phrases without at least putting them in quotation marks. Here, for example, is a famous quotation by Louis Pasteur. It was originally in French. Chance favors the prepared mind. If you wanted to use this phrase, you should recognize its special status. We would encourage you to borrow standard phraseology of your field and skeletal phrases when appropriate, but not special expressions. Task 10 Here are some approaches to writing, beginning with a plagiarizing approach and ending with an acceptable quoting technique. Where does plagiarism stop? Draw a line between the last approach that would produce plagiarism and the first approach that would produce acceptable original work. 1. Copying a paragraph as it is from the source without any acknowledgment. 2. Copying a paragraph making only small changes, such as replacing a few verbs or adjectives with synonyms. 3. Cutting and pasting a paragraph by using the sentences of the original but leaving one or two out, or by putting one or two sentences in a different order. 4. Composing a paragraph by taking short standard phrases from a number of sources and putting them together with some words of your own. 42

5. Paraphrasing a paragraph by rewriting with substantial changes in language and organization, amount of detail, and examples. 6. Quoting a paragraph by placing it in block format with the source cited. Finally, we recommend that you read through your university’s plagiarism policy so that you are familiar with it. Task 11 Complete your own summary of the "Nile" passage in Task One. Try to limit yourself to 150 words or less. Task 12 Choose a short article or passage in an article from your field of study and write a summary. Source: Swales, J. & Feak, C. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students (2nd ed.). The University of Michigan Press. Adapted for pedagogical purposes by Bonilla, M. UNDERSTANDING THE ESSAY An essay is a series of closely related ideas. All of us have had some experience studying, writing, or reading essays. What do you already know about essays? Where have you seen essays? What are the traits of an essay? Perhaps the most common and flexible form of writing, an essay allows powerful personal expression. The essay is used for academic papers, business reports, business letters, newspaper and magazine articles, Web articles, and personal letters, as well as letters to the editor of a newspaper or journal. By mastering the task of writing an essay, you empower your ability to think, reason, and communicate. Practice 1. What’s the Point of an Essay? Like a paragraph, an essay is a series of closely related ideas that develops and supports the writer’s point about a topic. In fact, the paragraph serves as a building block for an essay since an essay is composed of two, three or more paragraphs. Therefore, the skills you develop to write a paragraph will also help you write an effective essay. The following series of pictures depicts several situations in which people are reading different publications. Each of these publications features different types of essays. Study each photograph. Then 43

predict the topic or purpose of the types of essays written for the audience of each publication (write your predictions in the given spaces). Finally, answer the question: What’s the point of an essay? What’s the point of an essay? One Student’s Writing Response Read the following student response to the question “What's the point of an essay?” An essay allows a person to express an idea by using several paragraphs. So an essay lets a person get more details about a topic across to an audience. There are different types of essays. In everyday life, we read essays in newspapers, magazines, and on the Internet. For example, a newspaper has new stories and editorials. These are both essays. A magazine article is an essay. In work life, people write and read business letters and reports. In college life, students write many essays as exams and research papers. The Five Parts of an Essay An essay has several basic parts: a title; a beginning, made up of an introductory paragraph that often includes the stated main idea or thesis statement; a middle, made up of body paragraphs; and an ending, often made up of a concluding paragraph. The following chart shows the general format of an essay: 44

Practice 2. Understand the Five Parts of an Essay. Test your understanding of the structure of an essay. Read the student essay below straight through one or twice. The, follow the following directions to annotate the essay to identify its five parts. 1. Draw a circle around the introduction. 2. Underline the thesis statement. 3. Draw a box around the body of the essay. 4. Underline the topic sentence in each body paragraph. 5. Draw a circle around the conclusion Lacey Durrance 45