Professor Ragan ENC 1011: Section 47 10 October 2012 Traits of a Successful College Student (1) First-time college students don’t realize the reality shock they will receive when they get to college. (2) High school and college atmospheres are extremely different in many ways. (3) College campuses and classes are often larger, college teachers have different expectations, and college students face many new challenges. (4) To get through college successfully, all first-time college students must be dedicated, responsible, and independent. (5) Many won’t realize this until it is too late. (6) Dedication is a primary part of being successful in college. (7) Students must work hard and take action to learn at a college level. (8) Assignments can’t be left until the last minute like they might have been in high school. (9) College students must be willing to speak up in class and ask questions when they don’t understand. (10) Dedication means setting priorities for success; dedication means putting off going out with friends and caring about producing the best work possible. (11) Dedicated students will do their work and do it well, spending hours reading textbooks, reviewing notes, and revising essays. (12) For many, being responsible during high school wasn’t really necessary. (13) Students might forget to do their homework and the teacher most likely would extend the deadline. (14) In contrast, college students must be responsible for their actions and accept the consequences. (15) Paying attention to what’s due and when assignments 46
should be turned in is a prime example. (16) Most college teachers stick to their deadlines and expect students to do so also. (17) Being on time to class is another example of being responsible. (18) Responsibility plays a key role in a successful college career. (19) However, having dedication and being responsible aren’t the only traits college students need to survive. (20) College students must also be independent. (21) Teachers expect students to take notes without assigning them to do so. (22) In high school, teachers often gave out notes to study from or told students where and when to take them. (23) College students must do their work without being reminded every day. (24) However, teachers are there to help their students understand the class material. (25) They will guide their students yet not help complete their work. (26) Being independent is a skill to acquire for college success, as well as life-long success. (27) College is hard work, and students must have these traits to be successful. (28) Most first-time college students will struggle with the new experience, yet by being dedicated, responsible, and independent, they will thrive in the college world. Levels of Information in an Essay In connection to its various parts, an essay offers several levels of information that range from general to specific. Understanding these levels of information helps a writer create and organize ideas throughout the writing process. Titles, Introductions, and Conclusions Express General Ideas Titles, introductions, and conclusions introduce and summarize ideas. The next chapter offers helpful hints about how to effectively use titles, introductions and conclusions. 47
The Thesis Statement: The thesis statement is a one-sentence summary of the main idea of the essay. All the details in the body paragraphs support the thesis statement. Types of Supporting Details: Two types of details are often needed to thoroughly explain a main idea: primary and secondary details: Primary details directly explain or support the thesis statement. Secondary details indirectly support the thesis statement. In an essay, topic sentences of the body paragraphs are the primary supports of the thesis statement. The examples, reasons, and facts within the body paragraph support the topic sentence. They serve as secondary details to support the thesis statement. Levels of Supporting Details: Secondary supports can also be divided in two levels: major details and minor details. A major detail supports a topic sentence. A minor detail supports the major detail. Thus, a topic sentence supports a thesis statement, and secondary supports a topic sentence. The following chart illustrates these levels of information in an essay. This chart represents a basic three-paragraph essay. This format is often expanded to include two or more body paragraphs. 48
Practice 3. Identify the Levels of Detail in an Essay Read the following three-paragraph essay. Underline the thesis statement. Next, underline three major details in the body paragraph. 49
Street Luging for the Extreme Thrill (1) Extreme sports take athletic competition to new levels of danger and excitement. (2) They often offer a combination of speed, height, danger, and mind-blowing stunts. (3) Street luging illustrates the allure of extreme sports. (4) Street luging, like many extreme sports, involves high levels of speed, danger, and adrenaline. (5) First, street luging is all about speed. (6) A pilot lies on his or her back on a luge (a type of skateboard, eight and a half feet long) and flies through a street course at speeds of around 70 miles per hour. (7) As a result, the urethane wheels of the luge may actually flame fire and melt during the run due to the high speeds. (8) Second, the street luging courses are known for rough, hazardous road surfaces and obstacles. (9) For example, very dangerous courses are known as bacon while less dangerous ones are labeled scrambled eggs. (10) And frequently, luges snag or hook together, wobble, wipe out, or slam into barriers that mark the course. (11) Finally, the dangers of street luging are related to another important attraction of extreme sports一the thrilling rush of an adrenaline high. (12) The adrenaline rush is due to high levels of dopamine, endorphins, and serotonin produced by the body in response to the danger. (13) Adrenaline floods the body with additional surges of energy, power, and well-being so that a person can either fight or flee the danger. (14) Many extreme sports participants are called adrenaline junkies. (15) Luge pilots refer to this feeling as being “amped”. (16) Extreme sports include a wide variety of thrill-seeking sports such as wave surfing, windsurfing, BASE jumping (jumping from buildings, antennas or towers, spans or bridges, or cliffs), parachuting, and drag racing. (17) Overall, street luging offers athletes all the dangers and thrills that all extreme sports enthusiasts find so attractive. The Traits of an Effective Essay The word essay means “attempt” or “an effort to accomplish an end.” An essay is a writer’s attempt to share his or her unique and specific point about a specific subject to a specific audience for a specific purpose. An effective essay supports a main idea or thesis statement with relevant details in logical order, using effective expression. 50
A Clear Point: Main Idea or Thesis Statement What’s the point of a focused main idea? To make a clear and powerful point to your reader! An effective essay makes a clear point by focusing on a main idea. A focused main idea is the result of several thinking steps: selecting and narrowing a topic and drafting a thesis statement. Select and Narrow a Topic Many writers break this step into two parts. First, a writer often generates a list of topics. This list serves as a bank of ideas that can be applied to a wide variety of writing situations. Second, a writer considers the writing situation. Understanding the writing situation helps the writer narrow down the topic. For example, the length of an essay often depends on your audience and purpose. A paper for an academic audience such as a history professor may have a required length of 1,000 words. In contrast, a local newspaper may limit the lengths of letters to the editor to 500 words. The scope of the topic needs to match the required length. For example, the 500-word letter to the editor cannot cover all the reasons one should volunteer at the local soup kitchen for the poor. Instead, you would need to narrow the topic to just two or three reasons. And you would choose only those details that are of interest to your specific audience. The following pictures present specific writing situations. Each picture represents an audience, and each caption states the purpose for writing to that audience. First, match the audience and purpose to its appropriate topic. Then, write the letter of the topic in the appropriate space. Finally, discuss your answers with your class or in a small group. Topics: A. What I have learned through research B. Gratitude for the sacrifice of service C. How to solve a problem D. The importance of a healthful diet Purposes: To inform To express To reflect 51
( ) Writing situation 1: ( ) Writing situation 2: ( ) Writing situation 3: ( ) Writing situation 4: Draft a Thesis Statement After choosing and narrowing a topic, a writer composes a working draft of the thesis statement. A thesis statement shares the same traits of a topic sentence for a paragraph. Just as the topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph, the thesis statement states the main idea of the essay. Both statements answer the question “What’s the point?” This point is the opinion about the topic that you are explaining and supporting in the essay. In fact, your point further narrows your topic. The writer’s point or opinion is often referred to as the controlling idea. The controlling idea often includes a pattern of organization as well as the writer’s opinion. The following graphic illustrates an effective thesis statement. 52
The word “dramatically” is an opinion that must be explained or supported. In addition, the word “changes” suggests a pattern of organization. This word indicates that the writer is going to compare what the person was like before the near-death experience to what he or she is like after the near-death experience. The controlling idea answers the question “What’s the point?” of the essay. Hints for Drafting a Thesis Statement Use specific statements. Replace vague, general words with vivid, exact words. “Football is a dumb game” is too vague an general. “Football glorifies violence” is specific and vivid. Always state your thesis statement as a complete sentence. Avoid announcing your topic. Never say, “I am going to write about football and violence,” or “My essay is about football and violence,” or “My topic is football violence” Review and, if necessary, revise your thesis statement after you have written a rough draft. As you think about a topic, the point you want to make often becomes clearer. Connecting Paragraphs In addition to ordering paragraphs coherently, writers clearly connect each paragraph to the next so that readers can follow their chain of thought. The following chart lists and illustrates 53
several options to connect paragraphs to each other. Connecting Paragraphs Echo or repeat important words or phrases from the thesis statement in the body paragraphs. Thesis statement: We can ease the pain that occurs from illness or injury in several different ways. Topic sentence: Pain can be eased by deep breathing. Topic sentence: Visualization and imagery ease pain. Refer to the main idea in the previous paragraph in the topic sentence of the present paragraph. Thesis statement: Applying the principles of computer ergonomics reduces the chances of injury and fatigue. Topic sentence: The computer screen should be placed properly to avoid painful injuries to the neck. Topic sentence: Proper placement of the screen not only reduces the possibility of neck injury but also eases eye fatigue. Use transitional words, phrases, or sentences. Thesis statement: Sleep disorders can deprive sufferers of much needed rest and complicate their lives. Topic sentence: One type of sleep disorder is known as night terrors. Topic sentence: Another type of sleep disorders, nightmares, torments many people. Transition sentence and topic sentence: At least the previous two disorders occur in the privacy of one’s home. Narcolepsy, a third type of sleep disorder, can occur suddenly anywhere, and at any time without warning. Tie the last idea in one paragraph to the opening of the next paragraph. Thesis statement: Hurricane activity is on the rise, is likely to increase, and calls for new methods of preparation. 54
Topic sentence and ending idea of paragraph: Hurricane activity is on the rise because of higher ocean temperatures and lower vertical wind shear. Therefore, these climate changes are likely to continue for as many as 10 to 40 years. Topic sentence: These shifts in climate call for new methods of hurricane preparation. 55
Effective Titles, Introductions, and Conclusions Titles, introductions, andconclusions work together toemphasize the writer’s point. The importance of effective titles, introductions, and conclusions is obvious in the composition of a movie. Think of a good movie you have seen lately. How did its title hook your interest? How did the title relate to the point of the movie? How effective was the opening of the film? How was the conclusion of the movie related to its beginning? Just as in a successfully constructed movie, an essay with an effective title, introduction, and conclusion is more likely to have a strong impact on your audience. What’s the Point of Effective Titles, Introductions, and Conclusions? Effective titles, introductions, and conclusions work together to emphasize the writer’s point. Study the following series of pictures of the World Trade Center in New York City. For each photograph, write a caption that records a point you would like to make in a personal essay. Then, answer the question “What’s the point?” to create your thesis statement. Finally, compose a first draft of a title, introduction, and conclusion for your essay. Title: Introduction: Before September 11, 2001 September 17, 2021 September 11, 2011 56
Twin Towers Ruins of World Trade Center USA- September 11 Ten Anniversary- NY City Caption: Caption: Caption: What’s the point? (thesis statement): Conclusion: Set a time limit, such as five minutes, and write in your notebook about the images you just studied. Do not let your pen or pencil stop. Even if you must repeat ideas, keep writing until the limit is up. Let the ideas flow freely. Getting your first thoughts about a topic on paper is a great way to start the writing process. One Student’s Writing Response The following paragraph offers a student’s writing response to the call to write a title, introduction and conclusion based on the images of the World Trade Center. Read the text below and the annotations. Complete the activities in bold type given in the annotations. Then, read the writer’s journal that records decisions she made during the writing process. We Are Not Defeated As the sacred scripture “beauty for ashes” implies, out of tragedy comes wisdom. Our reaction as a nation to the events of September 11, 2001, has proven this saying to be true. Our strength, courage, and hope have overcome destruction and fear. Through the terror and fear of destruction, we as a nation learned the depth of our strength, courage, and hope. Title: An effective title can be a word or phrase that helps the reader understand the writer’s point by stating the topic and suggesting the writer’s opinion about the topic. Underline the topic and circle the writer’s opinion. 57
Introduction: An effective introduction stirs the reader’s interest , establishes the relevance of the topic, and often suggests or states the main idea. Underline the sentences that state the main idea. Conclusion: An effective conclusion restates the main idea to reinforce the writer’s point in the reader’s memory. Underline the words that restate the topic and the writer’s opinion. The Writer’s Journal The student who wrote “We Are Not Defeated” wrote the following journal entry to record her thoughts about using a title, introduction, and conclusion. Read her writer’s journal that describes a few key choices she made as she wrote. Underline any strategies that you may be able to use in your own writing. Thoughtful titles, introductions, and conclusions enhance the effectiveness of an essay. Often these three aspects of the essay are written after the thesis statement and body paragraphs have been drafted. Although titles are the first part of the essay that catches the reader’s attention, many writers create them after the introduction and conclusion. Compose Effective Titles An effective title fulfills the following purposes: - It hooks the reader’s interest. - It vividly describes the topic of your essay. You should write your essay, reread your essay for its overall impact, and then create your title. Your title should be brief, and you should not use italics, quotations, or underlining for emphasis. Instead, center the title on the page about an inch above the introductory paragraph. Capitalize the first word and other key words of the title, except for prepositions such as in, on, 58
for, at and articles such as a, an, and the. The following chart describes and illustrates several types of effective titles. Types of Titles The question title: states the main point as a question. Examples: Is Cloning Moral? Why Clone? The descriptive title: Uses keywords to form the thesis statement. Examples: The Arrogance of Cloning Cloning Offers Hope The recommendation title: Calls for action. Examples: Cloning Must Be Bane Clone On! The general-specific title: States the general topic followed by a controlling point. Examples: Cloning: An Unethical Procedure Cloning: The Scientific Method Working for Progress The pattern(s) of organization title: Uses the words that establish the essay’s central pattern(s) of organization. Example - Description: Example - Narration: Example - Process: Example - Illustration/Example: Example - Classification Example - Comparison / Contrast Example - Definition: Example - Cause / Effect: The Town of My Birth The Beauty of the Beach Sojourner Truth’s Journey An Unforgettable Memory How to Deal with Cranky Customers Starting Your Own Business Winning Isn’t Easy Pets Are People Too Types of Sexual Harassment Kinds of Camps for Kids The Differences between Male Talk and Female Talk Why Soccer Is the Real Football The Forgiving Heart The Meaning of Bravery What It Means to Be Compulsive Why Parents Send Their Kids to Camp The Reasons Students Cheat 59
Example - Persuasion: The Effects of Binge Drinking The Need for Smaller Classes in Public Schools We All Have the Right to Die Commit to Life to the Very End Read the following three-paragraph business memo and supply a title in the blank labeled RE (for the topic of the memo). Memo To: Sales Associates From: Shanika Thomas, Store Manager Date: 3 November 2012 Re: _________________________________________________________ Do you want to win the $200 bonus promised to each employee of the store which best represents our company’s ideals: professional, service, fast service? Corporate representatives will be popping in unannounced sometime over the next few weeks to rate us as individuals and as a team. To ensure our win, keep the following tips in mind. Reflect professionalism in your personal attire, the store’s appearance (keep shelves stock and orderly), and in your work ethic. Reflect friendliness in your attitudes to supervisors, coworkers, and, most importantly, to our customers. Finally, be quick to help each other and the customer. Greet the customer promptly and politely. The moment the customer walks in through the door, make that person feel like he or she is the most important person on earth. If each and every one of you continues to do the fine job that has put our store in the finals of this competition, we will all be winners! Compose Effective Introductions An effective introduction serves the following purposes: - It introduces the essay topic. - It explains the importance of the essay topic and/or gives necessary background information about the topic. - It hooks the reader’s interest. - It presents the essay’s main idea in the thesis statement. 60
P.D. Many writers choose to end the introductory paragraph with the thesis statement. The following chart describes and illustrates several types of introductions you can use to effectively begin your essay. The thesis statement in each introduction is underlined. Typesof Introductions An interesting illustration or anecdote. Example: The Wooten family makes a point of sharing the evening meal as special family time. Every evening, just as the family begins to dine and enjoy each other’s company, the phone begins its non-stop ringing with unwanted harassment of telemarketers. Thankfully, the family now can put a stop to the harassment. The National Do Not Call Registry is open for business, putting customers in charge of the telemarketing calls they get at home. A surprising fact or statement. Example: According to recent estimates, as many as 2.4 million to 5.1 million Americans have Alzheimer’s disease. Sadly, the number of people with this disease is only going to grow if current trends continue. That’s because the risk of Alzheimer’s increases with age. And the U.S. population is aging. The number of people aged 65 and older is expected to reach 72 million in 2030. And the number of people with Alzheimer’s doubles every 5-year interval beyond age 65. We must fund research to find a cure for this terrible disease. - U.S. National Institution of Health. “Alzheimer’s Information”. ADER Homepage. Dec. 2010. Sep. 2011. Web A direct quotation. Example: In 1961 a copy writer named Shirley Polykoff was working for the Foote, Cone & Belding advertising agency on the Clairol hair-dye account when she came up with the line: “If I’ve only one life to live, let me live it as a blond!” In a single slogan she had summed up what might be described as the secular side of the Me Decade. “If I’ve only one life to live, let me live it as a __________!” (You have only to fill in the blank.) - Tom Wolfe. “The Me Decade and the Third Great Awakening” A definition. Example: Hope is belief that the impossible is possible. Hope is the future counted in the present. Hope is a light, a map, and a compass. Hope gave me the will to fight and survive cancer. 61
A contradiction or opposing view. Example: Many wanna-be runners don’t even try because they believe they don’t have the right physique. Their legs are too short. Their stomachs are too big. Their shoulders are too broad. Their body weight is too much. These people are wrong. The body is unimportant. The mind is everything. Running is not a physical sport. It’s mental. - “Mind Over Body.” Running Fit Prevention Guide A vivid description. Example: Two gas stations. A car repair barely visible through the rusty open hoods of dismantled race cars. A man clad in overalls selling roasted peanuts from the back of his truck. These are a few sights at the unpretentious intersection that is the small town of Barberville in Northwest Volusia. To some, the settlement along the corner of U.S. 17 and State Road 40 represents one of the area's last strongholds of unspoiled country life. - Maria Herrera, “Rural Residents Wary of Road Projects” A general or historical background. Example: During the thousands of years of human prehistory, people made their living by collecting food and other necessities from nature. All group members had equal access to life-sustaining sources. Most people throughout the world now live in economies much different from this description. In anthropology (the study of humankind), economic systems include three elements: livelihood, consumption, and exchange. - Miller, Barbara. Cultural Anthropology. 6th ed., p. 82 Read the following four introductory paragraphs. Underline the thesis statement and identify the type of introduction used in each one. Discuss your answers with your class or in small groups. A. An interesting illustration or anecdote B. A surprising statement or fact C. A direct quotation D. A definition E. A contradiction or opposing view F. A vivid description G. General or historical background _____ 1. Heat kills! In fact, excessive heat is the number one weather-related killer, causing more fatalities per year than floods, lighting, tornadoes, hurricanes, winter storms, and extreme cold, according to the National Weather Service’s storm data from 2001 to 2010. Therefore, when you exercise in warm, humid temperatures, protect yourself by taking a few sensible safety measures. _____ 2. To Frederick Douglass is credited the plea that, “the Negro be not judged by the 62
heights he has risen, but by the depths from which he has climbed.” Judged on that basis, the Negro woman embodies one of the modern miracles of the modern world. (- Mary McLead Bethune, A Century of Progress of Negro Women) _____ 3. Many are convinced that playing video games is a complete waste of time. Others believe gaming has harmful, even antisocial effects. However, video games may actually foster critical thinking, problem-solving, self-esteem, and social interaction. _____ 4. When we first saw Henry, we knew he had to be ours. He had only been recently rescued from a cruel breeder who supplied greyhounds to local race tracks. We were told that the breeder caged Henry in a metal crate with shredded newspaper for bedding for 18-22 hours each day. He fed Henry cheadp 4-D meat for Greyhounds. The “D” stands for dying, diseased, disabled and dead livestock. Henry had barely survived the E.coli poisoning from his feed. At one time, almost every detail of Henry’s skeleton could be seen beneath his thin skin. The fact is that these kinds of abuses are more common than not. Greyhound racing should be outlawed. Compose Effective Conclusions An effective conclusion fulfills the following purposes: - It brings the essay to an end. - It restates the essay’s main idea and sums up the major points in the essay. In longer essays, the conclusion may be a separate paragraph. In shorter essays the conclusion may be a powerful sentence or two at the end of the last body paragraph. Just remember that a conclusion must stay on point, so do not introduce new information. The following chart describes and illustrates several types of conclusions you can use to effectively and powerfully end your essay. Typesof Conclusions A question. Example: Don’t you want to experience the well-being that results from a healthful diet and regular exercise? A quotation. Example: Just as renowned coach of the Green Bay Packers Vince Lombardi said, “The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength, not a lack of knowledge, but rather in a lack of will.” A call to action. Example: This is not a time for indecision or hesitation. This is a time for commitment and action. Tell your federal, state, and local 63
governments that you demand a coordinated response plan for natural disasters. A suggestion. Example: Your best friend is the one that will tell you a hard truth for your own good. A warning about consequences. Example: If instruments used for ear and body piercing are not properly cleaned and sterilized between clients, then you could contract HIV, hepatitis B, or hepatitis C. A vivid image. Example: And when this happens, when we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sign in the word of the Old Negro Spiritual - Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last! Martin Luther King, “I Have a Dream” A summary. Example: Therefore, it is especially important to wash your hands before, during, and after you prepare food, before you eat, after you use the bathroom, after handling animals or animal waste, when your hands are dirty, and more frequently when someone in your home is sick. National Center of Infectious Diseases, “Wash Your Hands Often” Read the following four conclusions. Identify the type of conclusions for each selection. Discuss your answers with your class or small groups of o peers. A. A question E. A warning about consequences B. A quotation F. A vivid image C. A call to action G. A summary D. A suggestion ____ 1. Fellow citizens, we will fight violence with patient justice - assured of the rightness of our cause and confident of the victories to come. President George W. Bush, “Address to a Join Session of Congress and the American People, 2001” ____ 2. The crew of the space shuttle Challenger honored us by the manner in which they lived their lives. We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and “slipped the surly bonds of earth” to “touch the face of God.” 64
President Ronaki Reagan, Eulogy for the Challenger Astronauts, 1986 ____ 3. The measure of students’ achievements is not in the grade from a teacher, too often these days a symbol of high inflation and low value, but in the wisdom gained from learning. Daniel Pederson stated it best in Newsweek, March 3, 1997: “When A stands for average, do grades mean anything at all?” ____ 4. Our life on earth has already reaped many benefits from past and current space exploration. The establishment of a human colony on the moon would further enhance the quality of life on this planet. Products designed for independent life on the moon will someday become part of everyday life on Earth, advancing research in robotics, communications, medicine, computer technologies, food and nutrition, clothing, environmental and architectural design, rocketry, fuel and energy, building materials, and agriculture. We should shoot for the moon! 65
The Cause-Effect Essay LM-1245 Composition II 66
132 Unit 6 Cause-Effect Essays A toxic algal bloom from fertilizer runoff covers a third of Lake Erie in the United States. 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 132 5/22/14 5:41 PM 67
Objectives To learn how to write a cause-effect essay To use effective transitions in cause-effect writing To use verb tenses consistently To recognize and avoid sentence fragments What are the causes and effects of pollution? 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 133 5/22/14 5:41 PM 68
We all understand cause-effect relationships; for example, lightning can cause fire. As a student you know that if you stay up late the night before a test to watch a movie and do not study, you may not perform well on the test the following day. A cause-effect essay tells how one event (the cause) leads to another event (the effect). A cause-effect essay can do one of two things: • It can analyze the ways in which one or more effects result from a particular cause. (Focus-on-Effects Method) • It can analyze the ways in which one or more causes lead to a particular effect. (Focus-on-Causes Method) In other words, your essay may focus more on the effects of a cause or more on the causes of one effect. Either approach provides a useful means of discussing the possible relationship between the two events. It is not a good idea to mix several causes and several effects in an essay because your focus may become unclear. In cause-effect essays, it is easy to suggest that because one event preceded another event, the former event caused the latter. Simply because one event follows another one sequentially does not mean that the two actions are related. For example, people often complain that as soon as they finish washing their car, it starts to rain. Obviously, washing a car does not cause rain. Writers need to be sure that the causes and effects they describe are logically connected. What Is a Cause-Effect Essay? 134 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 134 5/22/14 5:41 PM 69
135 There are two basic ways to organize a cause-effect essay: focus-on-effects or focus-on-causes. If your assignment is to write a cause-effect essay on the topic of global warming, you could write two kinds of essays: • In a focus-on-effects essay, you would write about the threatened habitat of polar bears as a result of global warming and the melting of large parts of the Arctic Circle. Your essay might include five paragraphs and look like this: How Is a Cause-Effect Essay Organized? Introduction Paragraph 1 hook connecting information thesis Body Paragraph 2 Effect 1: dangerous swimming conditions • sea ice platforms farther apart Paragraph 3 Effect 2: scarcity of food • fewer hunting opportunities Paragraph 4 Effect 3: reduced population • Females with less body weight have lower reproduction rates. Conclusion Paragraph 5 restated thesis suggestion/opinion/prediction Introduction Paragraph 1 hook connecting information thesis Body Paragraph 2 Cause 1: human activities • carbon dioxide from vehicles • not recycling (requires creating more products from scratch) Paragraph 3 Cause 2: increased industrial activity • greater carbon dioxide from burning fuels to run factories Paragraph 4 Cause 3: deforestation • Increased human population requires more space, so trees are cut down. • Fewer trees mean less oxygen, which causes a higher percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Conclusion Paragraph 5 restated thesis suggestion/opinion/prediction • In a focus-on-causes essay, you would write about the causes of global warming, such as excessive carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In this case, the organization for this essay could have five paragraphs and look like this: 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 135 5/22/14 5:41 PM 70
136 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays What is a great topic for a cause-effect essay? This type of essay may focus more on the causes or more on the effects, but most writers answer this question by thinking of an effect or a final result. The brainstorming stage then requires thinking about one or more causes of that effect. When selecting topics for this type of essay, a good writer should consider relevant questions such as: • What is the end effect? • Is there one primary effect, or are there several effects? • Is there one primary cause, or are there several causes? As you read this list of some general topics that lend themselves well to a cause-effect essay, notice that the last two in each group do not use the obvious words cause or effect: Focus on Causes Focus on Effects the causes of the high divorce rate in some countries the effects of pollution in my country the causes of World War I the effects of high salaries for athletes the causes of low voter participation in elections the effects of the Internet on how businesses are run the reasons new teachers quit the impact of technology on education why only a small percentage of people read newspapers today what happens when a large percentage of adults cannot read well Activity 1 Identifying Topics for Cause-Effect Essays Read these eight topics. Put a check mark (✓) next to the four that could be good topics for cause-effect essays. 1. the reasons that the earth’s weather has changed so much in the last century 2. Bangkok versus Singapore as a vacation destination 3. a trip to visit my grandparents 4. the increasing use of computers in schools 5. explaining dietary guidelines for children 6. how to play the piano 7. why a student received a scholarship 8. why the birth rate is falling in many countries Can you think of two additional topics that would be excellent for a cause-effect essay? 9. 10. Great Topics for Cause-Effect Essays 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 136 5/22/14 5:41 PM 71
137 Supporting Details After you have selected a topic, your task is to determine whether you will focus more on the causes of the issue or the effects of it. This process will also help you to select and develop supporting details for your essay, which is an important step in constructing a solid essay. When you brainstorm your plan for this essay, a useful technique is to make two lists. One list has as many causes as you can think of. The second list has as many effects or results as you can think of. The list that is bigger—the causes or the effects—should determine the primary focus of your essay. Here is an example for an essay about the difficulty of learning English: Causes Effects 14 vowel sounds some people study it for years. unpredictable spelling system people spend millions of dollars to learn it. 12 verb tenses there are many jobs for teaching English. phrasal verbs Some people never learn it well. vocabulary from German and from Latin Some people have a weak vocabulary. Activity 2 Brainstorming for Two Methods One of the topics that we hear so much about in today’s society is stress. In this activity, you will use the space in the boxes on page 138 to brainstorm ideas for an essay on the topic of stress. In the first box, your organization will address the focus-on-effects method. In the second box, your organization will address the focus-on-causes method. After you complete these tasks, work with a partner or a small group to discuss your answers. 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 137 5/22/14 5:42 PM 72
138 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays Focus-on-Effects Method Cause: Effects: Focus-on-Causes Method Causes: Effect: 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 138 5/22/14 5:42 PM 73
139 Activity 3 Studying an Example Cause-Effect Essay This essay discusses some effects that weather has had on events in history. Discuss the Preview Questions with a partner. Then read the essay and answer the questions that follow. Preview Questions 1. Can you name a time when the weather had an effect on an event that you attended? Was it a positive effect or a negative effect? 2. In the 1200s, the warrior Kubilai Khan tried to invade Japan by sailing from the Asian mainland to Japan. A certain kind of weather event prevented the invasion. Write three guesses in the diagram about what this weather was. Do not consult the Internet, a book, or a person. tempting: attractive; desirable fate: the plan for the future that has been decided and that you cannot control a course: a route or direction cumulatively: formed over time by many parts or additions to intervene: to become involved in something in order to influence the final result Essay 13 How Weather Has Changed World History 1 It is tempting, and often comforting, to think that humans control their fates. The decisions that people make in their daily lives can affect many things, and the course of their lives cumulatively reflects these many small decisions. On the other hand, people cannot control every aspect of their environments, and forces beyond human control frequently intervene in human affairs. Notwithstanding many people’s opinion that the weather has little influence in their lives besides determining what clothes they wear on a particular day, the weather has in fact caused world history to radically shift in important ways that are still felt today. 2 Numerous examples from world history document the long-term effects of weather in the formation of cultures and nations. In the thirteenth century, Khubilai Khan ruled over the vast Mongol empire, which spanned from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the Black Cause 1: Cause 2: Effect: No invasion of Japan Cause 3: 3. Go back in time. Imagine you are a captain of a troop of 500 soldiers and you want to attack your enemy at night. However, it is raining heavily. What are three possible effects of the rain? Effect 1: Cause: Heavy rain at battle time at night Effect 2: Effect 3: 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 139 5/22/14 5:42 PM 74
140 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays to document: to maintain a written record of; to write about to span: to extend from one point to another a reign: a time of political control, especially for kings, queens, or unelected officials to mount: to prepare something so that it takes place a monsoon: a strong rain storm that happens at a certain time of the year a casualty: an injury or death in a severe event such as an accident or a war to stage: to plan, organize, and make something happen ambition: a strong desire for power, wealth, or fame Sea in the west, from present-day Siberia in the north to Afghanistan in the south. To expand his reign further, Khubilai Khan mounted two invasions of Japan. Two monsoons, however, caused him to end his attacks. Delgado (2008) describes legendary accounts of this event: “The legend, oft repeated in countless history books, speaks of gigantic ships, numbering into the thousands, crewed by indomitable Mongol warriors, and of casualties on a massive scale, with more than 100,000 lives lost in the final invasion attempt of 1281” (p. 4). Because of this unexpected defeat, Khubilai Khan decided to stage a third invasion of Japan, but he died before he could fulfill this ambition. Without these monsoons, Japan might have been defeated by the Mongols and thus lost its identity as a unique culture, with far-reaching consequences for Asian and world history. 3 In the early years of America’s Revolutionary War, which began in 1775, it appeared likely that the British would crush the armies of her colonial territory and incorporate it back into the empire. The British troops were a well-trained and disciplined army that was feared worldwide. In contrast, the American troops were newly trained, sometimes poorly organized, and lacked sufficient resources to fight effectively. General George Washington could have easily been defeated in the Battle of Long Island on August 22, 1776. Historical records show that Sir William Howe, the British commander, was clearly defeating Washington on Long Island and was actually winning handily (Seymour, 1995). Nonetheless, the weather intervened when a heavy fog rolled in, so the American forces were able to retreat, regroup, and survive to fight 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 140 5/22/14 5:42 PM 75
141 to crush: to destroy handily: easily fog: a type of weather similar to a cloud very near the ground to retreat: to go back a tie: a connection domain: land that a ruler or government controls to capture: to catch; to trap to overlook: to fail to notice or know about brutal: severe abominable: disgusting; causing hateful feelings dreadful: extremely bad; causing fear unambiguously: not ambiguously; clearly and definitely dense: thick a forecaster: a person who predicts something, often the weather another day. Because of this fog, the United States was not defeated in its struggle for freedom. Consequently, today’s United Kingdom of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland does not include the United States. The United States is not a commonwealth of a mother country, as Canada and Australia are, though the United States still has strong ties to its colonial past. 4 When Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Russia in the early nineteenth century, he met with early successes that appeared to guarantee that he might eventually rule the world as his personal domain. His soldiers captured Moscow and destroyed the city, which encouraged him to push farther in his military campaigns. However, because of his dreams of glory, Napoleon overlooked the simple fact that Russian winters are extremely cold. When the temperatures fell below freezing, many of his soldiers and their horses died in the brutal weather. As Belloc (1926) writes in his classic study of the Napoleonic wars, “The cold was the abominable thing: The dreadful enemy against which men could not fight and which destroyed them” (p. 217). As a result of the failure of Napoleon’s Russian campaigns, his own rule ended relatively soon after. His defeat led to a reorganization of power throughout the European nations, as well as to the rise of Russia as a major world power. 5 As these three examples unambiguously demonstrate, the weather has caused numerous huge shifts in world history as well as in power balances among cultures and nations. Without the rainy storms of the monsoon season, Japan might be the eastern outpost of Mongolia; without the appearance of dense fog, the United States might still be a territory of the United Kingdom; and without winter snow, Muscovites might speak French. Today weather forecasters can usually predict with a high degree of accuracy when thunderstorms, hurricanes, tsunamis, and tornadoes will strike, but the course of history cannot be fully isolated from the effects of the weather. References Belloc, H. (1926). Napoleon’s campaign of 1812 and the retreat from Moscow. New York: Harper. Delgado, J. (2008). Khubilai Khan’s lost fleet: In search of a legendary armada. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seymour, W. (1995). The price of folly: British blunders in the War of American Independence. London: Brassey’s. Post-Reading 1. What is the topic of the essay? 2. What is the writer’s thesis? 3. What is the cause that the writer describes in the essay? 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 141 5/22/14 5:42 PM 76
142 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays 4. What are some of the effects that the writer describes? 5. Write one detail that strongly supports the thesis statement. 6. How is this essay organized? ☐ focus-on-causes method ☐ focus-on-effects method 7. Can you think of any information that the author should have included to make the message of the essay stronger? Building Better Sentences: For further practice, go to Practice 3 on pages 239–240 in the Appendix. Activity 4 Practicing Three Kinds of Vocabulary from Context Read each important vocabulary word or phrase. Locate it in the essay if you need help remembering the word. Then circle the best synonym, antonym, or collocation from column A, B, or C. Type of Vocabulary Important Vocabulary A B C Synonyms 1. capture catch fulfill prosper 2. tempting attractive inherent precise 3. forecast dread predict reign 4. on account of due to prior to regardless of Antonyms 5. handily by vehicle on foot with difficulty 6. dense thin superior reluctant 7. eventually beyond cumulatively immediately 8. expand differentiate proceed shrink Collocations 9. span ___ Greece from England to near England and with England or 10. ___ in a dispute duplicate intervene merge 11. a brutal ___ friendship lunch storm 12. defeat ___ an attack an enemy a reptile Building Better Vocabulary 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 142 5/22/14 5:42 PM 77
143 Activity 5 Analyzing the Organization Use the words from the box to complete the outline of “How Weather Has Changed World History.” Reread the essay on pages 139–141 if you need help. • the Battle of Long Island in the American Revolutionary War, during which fog helped the American forces to retreat • the course of history cannot be fully isolated from the effects of weather. • H. Belloc, who documents the effect of the Russian winter • the weather has changed world history in important ways still felt today. • Japan’s cultural identity would have changed if Khan had succeeded in his invasion. Title: How Weather Has Changed World History I. Introduction A. Describe how people think they control their fates. B. Suggest, however, that people cannot control every aspect of their environments. C. Thesis statement: . II. Body Paragraph 1 A. Provide the example of Khubilai Khan and his invasion of Japan. B. Cite the study of J. Delgado, who describes Khubilai Khan’s failed invasion. C. Discuss how . III. Body Paragraph 2 A. Provide the example of . . B. Cite the study of W. Seymour, who documents the circumstances of the battle. C. Discuss how the United States might have remained a member of the British Commonwealth, if not for a heavy fog. IV. Body Paragraph 3 A. Provide the example of Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion of Russia. B. Cite the study of . C. Discuss the consequences of Napoleon’s defeat in relation to Russia’s rise as a world power. V. Conclusion A. Summarize the three examples from the body paragraphs. B. Suggest that, although weather forecasters can predict the weather with more accuracy than in the past, . 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 143 5/22/14 5:42 PM 78
144 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays A strong thesis statement for a cause-effect essay indicates whether the essay focuses on causes or on effects. Sometimes the thesis statement uses the words cause(s) or effects(s), but this is not necessary if either the cause or the effect is implied in the statement. In addition, a thesis statement sometimes includes a number, such as three causes or two effects, but this is also optional. Focus Example thesis statement on causes Many customers prefer to shop online for three important reasons. The increase in obesity in our country is due to food commercials, cheap fast food, and video games. on effects This essay will discuss the effects of watching too much TV on children’s family life, interpersonal skills, and school life. Most people are not aware of the positive effects of simply walking for 20 to 30 minutes per day. Activity 6 Writing Strong Thesis Statements for Cause-Effect Essays Write a thesis statement for each topic. When you finish, compare your answers with a partner’s. 1. the causes of bullying 2. the effects of being an only child 3. the causes of choosing a vegan diet 4. the effects of society’s love for computers Transitions and connectors are important in cause-effect essays because they help indicate causation or effect regarding the topic. Perhaps the most familiar cause-effect transition word is because: “X happened because Y happened.” Precise use of transitions helps the reader to follow the writer’s reasoning about cause-effect relationships. Strong Thesis Statements for Cause-Effect Essays Transitions and Connectors in Cause-Effect Essays 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 144 5/22/14 5:42 PM 79
145 The transitions for both a focus-on-causes essay and a focus-on-effects essay are the same because both kinds of essays discuss one or more causes or one or more effects. Transitions and Connectors Commonly Used in Cause-Effect Essays as a consequence due to on account of as a result (the) effect (of X) owing to (for this) reason (X can be) attributed to (Y) (a key) factor of (X) (X is the) reason for (Y) because for this reason (X is a) result of (Y) because of furthermore (X) resulted in (Y) caused if (X), then (Y) since (X is the) cause of (Y) in addition (to) so (X is) caused by (Y) in order to therefore (one) consequence of this (is that . . .) (X) influences (Y) this means that . . . consequently (X) leads to (Y) thus Activity 7 Identifying Transitions and Connectors in an Essay Reread “How Weather Has Changed World History” on pages 139–141. Find seven transitions or connectors. Copy the sentences here, underline the transition or connector, and write the paragraph number in the parentheses. 1. ( ) 2. ( ) 3. ( ) 4. ( ) 5. ( ) 6. ( ) 7. ( ) 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 145 5/22/14 5:42 PM 80
146 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays Studying Transitions and Connectors in an Example Cause-Effect Essay Activity 8 Warming Up to the Topic Answer the questions on your own. Then discuss them with a partner or in a small group. 1. What was the happiest time in your life? Describe what happened. Why were you so happy? 2. There is a saying that “Money can’t buy happiness.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? In 75–100 words, explain your answer. Activity 9 Using Transitions and Connectors in an Essay Read “Happiness” and circle the correct transition words or phrases. Essay 14 to proclaim: to state loudly or clearly for the record seemingly: apparently to facilitate: to make easier or more likely to happen intriguing: extremely interesting a hypothesis: an idea or theory that has not been proven chief: main; principal an obstacle: something that stops progress or forward movement Happiness 1 What makes a person happy? 1 (If / So) people want to be happy— and few people proclaim their desire to be sad—should they seek money and professional success? Many experts in fields such as sociology, psychology, and public policy are attempting to answer this seemingly simple question of what makes people happy and how communities,social organizations, and employers can facilitate happiness by implementing a few simple strategies. In this new field of happinessstudies,some intriguing answers are beginning to emerge about what makes people happy. Surprisingly, they support the longstanding hypothesisthat money cannot buy happiness. 2 One of the chief obstacles to happiness is referred to as social comparison. When people compare themselves to other people, they prefer to see themselves as in some way superior. In an experiment, social 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 146 5/22/14 5:42 PM 81
147 the latter: the second of two presented options a scenario: an imagined situation the former: the first of two presented options means: a person’s ability to afford integrity: the personal quality of being honest and fair trite: boring, unimportant, or no longer special, especially due to overuse to pursue: to try hard to obtain reciprocal: inversely related; mutually agreed upon to end up: to reach a final condition or place, often without an original intention scientists asked whether people would prefer earning $50,000 per year while their peers earned $25,000 per year, or whether they would prefer earning $100,000 per year while their peers averaged $250,000 per year. Even though people would earn more in the latter scenario, most chose the former as a consequence of their desire to see themselves as more successful than others (Layard, 2005). 2 (In addition / Thus), a simple way to increase happiness is for people to reject the urge to compare themselves to others based on their finances and to live within their means. 3 3 (Another / Other) way to increase people’s sense of personal happiness is for them to be true to themselves and keep their personal sense of integrity. While this advice may seem rather trite, people who respect and follow their authentic desires generally report being happier than people who do not. As Martin (2012) explains,“At its core, authenticity implies discovering and pursuing what we care about most deeply.” He further explains the reciprocal relationship between happiness and authenticity:“As much as authenticity contributes to the pursuit of happiness, then, happiness in turn contributes to identifying our authentic selves” (p. 55). When people limit their personal desires 4 (in order / in spite) to obtain certain goals, they may achieve greater financial success but actually end up unhappier. 4 5 (Finally /Therefore),sometimes people benefit from social rules that encourage them to improve their lives, even when these laws cost more money. While few people enjoy paying taxes, some taxes make people happier 6 (although / because) they improve the overall quality of people’slives. In theirstudy ofsmoking and cigarette taxes, Gruber and Mullainathan (2006) conclude that“taxes may affect the happiness of former smokers (by making 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 147 5/22/14 5:42 PM 82
148 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays to resist: to fight against something so that it does not happen prospective: related to future possibility of happening or coming true merely: simply; only to enhance: to improve it easier to resist the temptation to resume smoking) or prospective smokers (by making it easierto neverstartsmoking in the first place)” (p. 139).This example demonstrates how a society’s rules can 7 (cause / lead) to the general happiness of its populations, even through the apparently negative practice of increased taxation. Taxes also contribute to the funds available for other social purposes, which proves furtherjustification for their use. 5 These are merely three ways that scholars of happiness studies have determined that people can employ to enhance their personal happiness. People should avoid comparing themselves to others financially. They should seek to live as their authentic selves in their personal and professional lives. 8 (Furthermore / In contrast), they should welcome rules, laws, and even taxes that increase the general happiness of the population. Everyone says they want to be happy, and happiness studies are helping people learn how to lead happier lives rather than to passively expect happiness to find them. References Gruber, J., & Mullainathan, S. (2006). Do Cigarette Taxes Make Smokers Happier?. In Yew-Kwang Ng & Lok Sang Ho (Eds.), Happiness and public policy: Theory, case studies, and implications (pp.109–146). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Layard, R. (2005). Happiness: Lessons from a new science. New York: Penguin. Martin,M.(2012).Happiness and the good life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Activity 10 Practicing Three Kinds of Vocabulary from Context Read each important vocabulary word or phrase. Locate it in the essay if you need help remembering the word or phrase. Then circle the best synonym, antonym, or collocation from column A, B, or C. Type of Vocabulary Important Vocabulary A B C Synonyms 1. pursue chase mount overlook 2. obstacle difficulty extinction forecast 3. authentic challenging likely real 4. scenario demeanor example verification Antonyms 5. intriguing accurate uninteresting worthwhile 6. the former the incentive the latter the organizer 7. hinder facilitate navigate range 8. chief essential, vital far, remote minor, lesser Collocations 9. the means ___ something do doing to do 10. care about something ___ deeply happily tritely 11. my overall ___ of core example impression 12. obtain a ___ desire goal tax Building Better Vocabulary 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 148 5/22/14 5:42 PM 83
Consistent Verb Tense Usage Good writers are careful to use the same verb tense throughout an essay. While it is true that an essay may have, for example, some information about the past and some information about the present, most of the information will be about one time, most likely either past or present. Do not change verb tenses without a specific reason for doing so. Explanation Examples When describing an event in the past tense, maintain the past tense throughout your explanation. In our experiment, we placed three live fresh-water plants (each approximately 20 centimeters in length) into a quart jar that was filled with fresh water at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. We left the top two centimeters of the jar with air. We then carefully added a medium goldfish. When talking about facts that are always true, use present tense in your explanation. The sun is the center of the solar system. The earth and other planets revolve around the sun. Most of the planets have at least one moon that circles the planet, and these moons vary tremendously in size, just as the planets do. In writings such as a report, it is possible to have different verb tenses reflecting different times. According to this report, the police now believe that two men stole the truck and the money in it. Grammar for Writing 149 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 149 5/22/14 5:42 PM 84
150 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays Sentence Fragments For many writers, sentence fragments, or incomplete sentences, are difficult to avoid. Writing a fragment instead of a complete sentence is considered a very serious error because it shows a lack of understanding of the basic components of a sentence, namely a subject and a verb that express a complete thought. Because fragments are one of the most serious errors in writing, it is imperative to learn how to avoid them. Explanation Examples A sentence must have a subject and a verb and be able to stand by itself in meaning. ✗ Because I read and studied the textbook often. ✓ I scored 97 on the quiz because I read and studied the textbook often. It is possible to begin a sentence with because, although, if, when, or while, but the sentence needs a second part with another subject-verb combination. ✗ Because I studied for the final exam a great deal. ✓ Because I studied a great deal, my score on the final exam was 99. ✓ My score on the final exam was 99 because I studied a great deal. Activity 12 Working with Fragments Write C on the line next to complete sentences. Write F if there is a fragment and circle the fragment. 1. Despite the heavy wind and the torrential rain, the young trees around the lake were able to survive the bad weather. It was a miracle. 2. The huge, two-story houses all have a very similar design. With no difference except the color of the roofs. Grammar for Writing Activity 11 Working with Consistent Verb Tense Usage In the paragraph, correct the verbs where the tense shifts for no reason. The Experiment In our experiment, we placed three live fresh-water plants (each approximately 20 centimeters in length) into a quart jar that is filled with fresh water at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. We left the top two centimeters of the jar with air. We then carefully added a medium goldfish. Next, we tighten the lid and wrapped tape tightly around the lid. This very last step is done to ensure that no air can enter or exit the bottle. The jar was placed on a shelf where it is exposed to indirect sunlight for approximately eight hours each day. At 1 p.m. every day for a week, we observed the fish swimming in the jar. On several occasions, we notice that the plants emit multiple bubbles of a gas. The fish survived for the entire week. No food or air was provided. Thus, these green plants in the jar produced a gas, and we believed this gas was oxygen. Paragraph 4 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 150 5/22/14 5:42 PM 85
151 3. Ireland has a rich and colorful history. One with many stories of fairies and elves. 4. Shopping malls are a very popular tourist attraction in many cities, but some tourists are not interested in them. Shopping is not for everyone. 5. Because of the popularity of the film. Producers were anxious to begin work on its sequel. 6. The chef added so much spice to the stew that only the most daring of his patrons tasted it. The result was that less than half of the food was consumed. 7. There was a strange tension in the air. After so many years of separation. 8. My mother is so organized that she uses a color-coding system in her kitchen pantry. My father, on the other hand, is one of the most unorganized people that I know. 9. What is a dream and why do we dream? Scientists really do not understand dreams, but I wish someone could explain them to me. 10. Thousands of commuters were late for work this morning. Since the bus workers are on strike over pay and health benefits. For more work with sentence fragments, see the Brief Writer's Handbook with Activities, pages 217–220. Activity 13 Editing an Essay: Review of Grammar Ten of the fifteen words or clauses in parentheses contain an error involving one of the grammar topics featured in this unit. If the word or phrase is correct, write C. If it isincorrect, fill in the blank with a correction. dramatically: greatly; exceedingly a flip: a turn from one position to the opposite to revolutionize: to change completely (and possibly suddenly) overwhelmingly: greatly; by a large number or amount an accomplishment: anything a person has been able to do successfully, especially after some difficulty to enable: to make able to happen Essay 15 How the Light Bulb Changed the World 1 Few inventions have changed the world as dramatically as Thomas Alva Edison’s light bulb. 1 (With the flip of a switch. He turned darkness into light, thus revolutionizing people’s lives.) While the effects of the light bulb have been overwhelmingly positive, scientists have also identified some of its harmful effects, proving that even the greatest achievements often bring with them unexpected side effects that offset their advantages. 2 2 (One of the most positive of the light bulb’s accomplishments is that it has allowed people to expand their lives into the dark hours of night.) Human productivity 3 (increases) dramatically after its invention because better lighting enabled people 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 151 5/22/14 5:42 PM 86
prevalence: the condition of being widespread or extremely common to enhance: to improve to illuminate: to light up potential: possible virtually: just about; almost completely infrastructure: basic structures, such as roads and bridges, needed for a region to function properly to acknowledge: to show recognition of; to admit that something is real to lament: to regret to read, study, work, play, and socialize into the late hours. 4 (Also, the prevalence of affordable lighting. This allowed companies to continue to manufacture their products during the night hours, when necessary.) Electric lighting also enhanced public safety because of city streets being illuminated without the potential danger of gas. Now that light bulbs 5 (are) everywhere, it is virtually impossible to imagine a world without them, for they are a core part of the infrastructure of modern society. 3 6 (Nonetheless, it is important to acknowledge the negative consequences of the light bulb as well, including a phenomenon that scientists term light pollution.) Miranda (2003) laments the “changes in the biology of ecosystems, in the life of people due to invasive lighting, and the ‘artificialization’ of the 152 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 152 05/06/14 2:26 AM 87
153 primarily: mainly urban: city; the opposite of rural frustrated: disappointed; unsatisfied self-efficacy: the power to produce a desired result or effect convinced: very sure; certain to deserve: to merit night” (p. 7). 7 (These problems have been caused by excessive lighting. Primarily in urban areas.) 8 (Animals and humans are biologically prepared for the changing rhythms of night and day, and constant lighting undermines these rhythms.) Light pollution also 9 (clouded) ____________ the night skies so that people cannot see the stars, which 10 (frustrated) astronomers and anyone who 11 (loved) looking up to the heavens to inspect its wonders. 4 12 (Another unintended consequence of the light bulb. Is a phenomenon referred to as switch psychology, which theorizes that people become conditioned by light switches and other modern conveniences to expect immediate solutions to their problems.) Switch psychology lessens a person’s sense of self-efficacy, which Hockenbury and Hockenbury (2006) define as “The degree to which you are subjectively convinced of your own capabilities and effectiveness in meeting the demands of a particular situation” (p. 486). People are so used to light switches immediately bringing light that some find themselves at a loss for words when a light 13 (did not go) on; they feel that they are incapable of correcting the situation or undertaking any steps to solve the problem. 5 Edison’s achievement with the light bulb rightly 14 (deserves) _____________ celebration for its contributions to human comfort and productivity. At the same time, we must be careful to recognize 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 153 5/22/14 5:42 PM 88
154 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays some of its unintended consequences, such as light pollution and switch psychology, that threaten to tarnish his shining legacy. 15 (Many lasting innovations that have contributed dramatically to humanity’s advancement. These innovations can also be the cause of unintended results, and we must strive to mitigate these consequences to take full advantage of their predominant benefits.) References Hockenbury, D., & Hockenbury, S. (2006). Psychology (4th ed.). New York: Worth. Miranda, P.(2003). Discurso delrepresentante de conama (Both versions, in English and in Spanish).In H. Schwarz (Ed.), Light pollution: The global view (pp. 3–14). Dordrecht,The Netherlands:KluwerAcademic Publishers. Activity 14 Practicing Three Kinds of Vocabulary from Context Read each important vocabulary word or phrase. Locate it in the essay if you need help remembering the word or phrase. Then circle the best synonym, antonym, or collocation from column A, B, or C. Type of Vocabulary Important Vocabulary A B C Synonyms 1. incapable can not must not should not 2. prevalent common intentional key 3. revolutionize anticipate change mate 4. tarnish make dirty make happy make tired Antonyms 5. urban indigenous rural vivid 6. convinced doubting dreading learning 7. excessive dramatic on account of very little 8. mitigate deserve increase mimic Collocations 9. the main cause ___ something by of with 10. ___ everywhere dramatically substantially virtually 11. ___ someone’s help acknowledge denote merge 12. unintended ___ consequences fog goal Building Better Vocabulary to tarnish: to stain; to lessen the image of a legacy: a personal history or record an innovation: a new idea, invention, or method to strive: to try hard to do or achieve something to mitigate: to make something less harsh or severe 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 154 5/22/14 5:42 PM 89
155 In this section, you will follow the seven steps in the writing process to write a cause-effect essay. If you need help, refer to Unit 2, pages 34–46. Activity 15 Step 1: Choose a Topic Your first step is to choose a topic for your essay. For a cause-effect essay, you want to choose a topic for which you can develop three causes of one effect or three effects from one cause. Your teacher may assign a topic, you may think of one yourself, or you may choose one from the suggestions in the chart. As you consider possible topics, ask yourself, “What do I know about this topic? What do my readers know? What else do I need to know? Do I need to research this topic?” Humanities Literature: The effects of writing a novel on a computer History: The causes of an important historical event such as World War I Philosophy: The effects of Socrates on modern thought Sciences Biology: The causes of cancer Geology: The effects of burning oil and gas Meteorology: The causes of climate change Business Economics: The causes of inflation Personal The effects of your attitude toward challenges in life 1. What topic did you choose? 2. Why did you choose this topic? 3. How well do you know this topic? What is your experience with it? Original Student Writing: Cause-Effect Essay 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 155 5/22/14 5:42 PM 90
156 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays Activity 16 Step 2: Brainstorm A. Use the chart to brainstorm a list of possible causes and effects for your topic. TOPIC: Causes: Effects: B. Now carefully consider the causes and effects. Which focus do you think would be better for your essay? If you have more causes, then you should write a focus-on-causes essay with one effect. If you have more effects, then you should write a focus-on-effects essay with one cause. Activity 17 Step 3: Outline Prepare a simple outline of your essay. Focus either on causes or on effects. Title: I. Introduction A. Hook: B. Connecting information: C. Thesis statement: 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 156 5/22/14 5:42 PM 91
157 II. Body Paragraph 1 (Cause 1 or Effect 1): A. B. III. Body Paragraph 2 (Cause 2 or Effect 2): A. B. IV. Body Paragraph 3 (Cause 3 or Effect 3): A. B. V. Conclusion: Peer Editing of Outlines Exchange books with a partner. Read your partner’s outline. Then use the following questions to help you to comment on your partner’s outline. Use your partner’s feedback to revise your outline. 1. How is this essay organized? ☐ focus-on-causes method ☐ focus-on-effects method 2. Is there any aspect of the outline that is unclear to you? Give details. 3. Can you think of an area in the outline that needs more development? Make specific suggestions. 4. If you have any other ideas or suggestions, write them here. 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 157 5/22/14 5:42 PM 92
158 Unit 6 • Cause-Effect Essays Activity 18 Step 4: Write the First Draft Use the information from Steps 1–3 to write the first draft of your cause-effect essay. Use at least four of the vocabulary words or phrases from the Building Better Vocabulary activities in this unit. Underline these words and phrases in your essay. Try to also use at least two of the words from the Academic Word List in the Brief Writer’s Handbook with Activities on pages 230–231. Activity 19 Step 5: Get Feedback from a Peer Exchange papers from Step 4 with a partner. Read your partner’s first draft. Then use Peer Editing Sheet 6 (available online at NGL.Cengage.com/GW5) to help you to comment on your partner’s writing. Be sure to offer positive suggestions and comments that will help your partner improve his or her essay. Activity 20 Step 6: Revise the First Draft Read the comments on Peer Editing Sheet 6 about your essay. Then reread your essay. Can you identify places where you should make revisions? List the improvements you plan to make. 1. 2. 3. Use all the information from the previous steps to write the final version of your paper. Often, writers will need to write a third or even a fourth draft to express their ideas as clearly as possible. Write as many drafts as necessary to produce a good essay. Activity 20 Step 7: Proofread the Final Draft Be sure to proofread your paper several times before you submit it so you find all the mistakes and correct them.. Additional Topics for Writing Here are ten more ideas for topics for additional cause-effect essay writing. PHOTO TOPIC: Look at the photo on pages 132–133. There are several different types of pollution, for example, water, land, and light pollution. Choose one type of pollution. What are the causes or effects of this type of pollution on the environment? TOPIC 2: What are the causes of illiteracy? 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 158 5/22/14 5:42 PM 93
159 Timed Writing How quickly can you write in English? There are many times when you must write quickly, such as on a test. It is important to feel comfortable during those times. Timed-writing practice can make you feel better about writing quickly in English. 1. Read the essay guidelines below. Then take out a piece of paper. 2. Read the writing prompt below the guidelines. 3. Write a basic outline including either one cause and more than one effect or a few causes and one effect. You should spend no more than five minutes on your outline. 4. Write a five-paragraph essay. 5. You have 40 minutes to write your essay. Cause-Effect Essay Guidelines • Use the focus-on-causes or the focus-on-effects organization for this essay. Do not write about multiple causes and multiple effects. • Remember to give your essay a title. • Double-space your essay. • Write as legibly as possible (if you are not using a computer). • Include a short introduction (with a thesis statement), three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. • Try to give yourself a few minutes before the end of the activity to review your work. Check for mistakes in spelling and consistent verb tense, and look for sentence fragments. We all face personal troubles in our lives. Think about a recent challenging situation in your life at home, at work, at school, or with friends. What were the causes of this situation? What were its effects? Although you will discuss both causes and effects, remember to emphasize either the causes of the situation or the effects of the situation. TOPIC 3: What are the effects of overcrowding in cities? TOPIC 4: What effects can one person have on the government? TOPIC 5: Why do many people prefer foreign goods? TOPIC 6: What are the causes of credit card debt? TOPIC 7: Discuss how people’s childhood experiences influence their lives. TOPIC 8: What are the effects of sudden wealth (such as when a person wins the lottery)? TOPIC 9: What are the effects of poverty? TOPIC 10: What are the causes of a recent political crisis? 94967_ch06_ptg01_hires_132-159.indd 159 5/22/14 5:42 PM 94
The Comparison-Contrast Essay LM-1245 Composition II 95