Strategic Leadership of School Administrators Under the Office of the Basic Education Commission, Thailand

Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Theme Description Sub–theme Statement of students
S2. Time
Impact on management
Learning
Resources S3. Lack of lab
equipment
S8. Internet
connection

Financial S6. Money
S7. Expenses

Nature of the S8. A bit hard since
subject almost all subjects
are with lab
S9. Difficult
laboratory
Experiments

S7. Sharing ideas,

learning and

Effect of modular Advantage knowledge with
system to learning
classmates

S10. Flexible

S4. Lacked of

Disadvantage hands on

Laboratory skills

3.2 Factor Analysis

The researcher's judgment is crucial in determining how many components the study contains. The
reliability of the Data Survey Instrument and factor analysis were calculated in this study using the tool
PSPP, which is an intermediate statistical alternative to SPSS. For Component Analysis, items were
subjected to Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to determine how many factors there are and which
items belong to each factor. The PCA confirmed the presence of seven components, with a noticeable
break after the fourth component, according to the scree plot. As a result, the decision was taken to keep
these four elements. According to the exploratory factor analysis, there are four factors that influence
student engagement in modular science instruction.

The table below shows the four factors arising from the results of the survey; (1) Effect on
Student Engagement (2) Challenges Experienced (3) External Factor and Support and (4) Advantages
and Disadvantages of Modular Science Instruction.

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Table 3

Factor Analysis from the Response of 16 Students in the Survey

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

Effect on Student Challenges External Factor and Advantages and
Engagement Experienced Support Disadvantages of
Modular Science
Instruction

2) I observe new things in 14) Laboratory 8) I communicate 1) Science lessons are
my modular science class. procedures are with my teacher for related to life.
difficult to clarification on
understand instructions and
activities.

4) I am determined to learn 15) Doing home 13) My family 3) I am an active
in a modular science class. science experiments encourages me to student when doing a
alone is hard. finish my task. modular science
activity.

5) I am an independent 16) I have a hard time 18) Household 12) The topics are
learner. chores are distracting well organized in a
understanding the me from doing my modular science
tasks. instruction.
lessons during the

module science

classes.

6) I can manage to finish my 17) I have difficulty 19) It is difficult for 21) Science activities
task on time. on the topics in
which Mathematics/ me to manage my are easy to
solving is involved.
time. understand.

10) I can review my lessons 20) Science is fun 29) Financial 22) Laboratory
in a modular instruction. when in modular problems disrupt my results are less
studies. accurate and factual
science instruction. when conducted at
home.

23) I worked as a scientist 28) Poor internet
when I engaged in a connection is one of
modular science activity. the problems that I
encounter.

24) The activities are more
interesting when using
modular science instruction.

26) Doing a modular
science activity makes me
curious.

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3.3 Effects of Modular Science Learning in Student Engagement

Responses from the participants suggest that modular methods still maintain student engagement to an
extent because some laboratory activities can be performed and there are interesting experiments in
food science and chemistry.

Table 4
Supporting Students’ Quotes on the Effects of Modules in Student Engagement

Factor no. 1 Statement of Students
Effect on student engagement
S1. Performance and activities in the laboratory
S2. Various food science and chemistry

laboratory activities
S7. Interesting experiments
S10. Engaged in Food Microbiology subject,

learning about bacteria and pathogens
harmful and Beneficial effects

The two most significant metrics in learning are student satisfaction and the quality of the
student experience. Careful curriculum design can impact one of the ways that helps students engage in
subjects. According to a study conducted by Holmes in 2017, the use of e-assessments resulted in a
considerable rise in online activity. In order to improve the student experience, institutions are adopting
the trend of blending or online delivery to ensure that virtual learning environments foster student
engagement.

Several studies have been undertaken to assess student satisfaction in both traditional and
online settings. Students who felt their professors communicated effectively, enabled or encouraged
their learning, arranged the course efficiently, showed interest in students' learning and advancement,
shown respect for students, and accurately evaluated their work have higher satisfaction ratings (Gray
& DiLoreto, 2016).

3.4 Challenges experienced with Modular Science Instruction

Most of the students find it hard and challenging to adapt to the new normal. The traditional way of
learning which is through face-to-face interaction needs minimal resources unlike the modular methods.
Students’ expenses increased because of the need to secure necessary gadgets and internet connection.
Lack of opportunities to do hands-on laboratory work is one of the major difficulties of remote learning.

According to a study by Alvarez, 2020, four themes emerged from experiences of learners who
were prematurely exposed to remote emergency teaching or ERT; (1) poor to no internet access, (2)
financial constraints, (3) lack of technological devices, and (4) affective or emotional support. It is
critical that the government reassess present academic rules in light of the challenges raised by students.
In terms of a new normal in education, it would be critical if colleges and universities set aside funds for
faculty training in remote teaching. Additionally, especially during difficult times, the need to invest in
various modalities of instructional design will be critical to ensure proactive movements in instructional
innovations and teacher training and development.

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Table 5
Supporting Students’ Quotes on the Challenges experienced

Factor no. 2 Statement of Students

Challenges experienced S1. Network/ data signal and expenses
S2. Time and financial problem
S4. Lacked on hands on laboratory skills
S5. Laboratory activities cannot perform all

the time laboratory activity results
sometimes not accurate and factual

3.5 External Factors and Support

Environmental and other factors affect student engagement in the new normal. It is important to make
sure that studying at home is conducive enough to promote focus in academic activities. Responses
from the participants clearly suggest that receiving support from family or even approachability of their
teachers matter in their engagement. Since the current situation itself is stressful to students, it is
essential that they get emotional support from their surroundings.

Table 6

Items on the Survey that Students Agree On

Factor no. 3 Statement of Students
External factors I8. I communicate with my teacher for

Support clarification on
I18. Household chores are distracting me from

doing my tasks.
I29. Financial problems disrupt my studies.

I13. My family encourages me to finish my
tasks

3.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Modular Science Instruction

“Modular instruction is one the latest innovations in education” (Guido, 2014). According to him, the
modular approach contains a series of activities addressed to learners, explanation, exercises and
generalization. It is a self-contained, independent unit which is designed for students to accomplish
planned objectives. Advantages of modular education includes (1) close interaction between the student
and the subject matter, (2) teachers can focus more on student deficiencies since modules allow them to
evaluate specific areas of the subject, (3) offers individual instructions for teachers especially when
teaching a large group of students and (4) the learner is able to learn flexibly at his own pace, choose his
own learning mode and identify strengths and weaknesses.

Table 7
Supporting Students’ Quotes on the Advantages and Disadvantages of Science Modules

Factor no. 4 Statement of Students

Advantages S5. Because of pandemic
S6. To learn more though the situation is hard
S9. Accurate, precise and understandable, you

can go back and read again

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Factor no. 4 Statement of Students
S10. We are guided to adjust to the new mode of

learning, easy to understand and to answer

Disadvantages S3. Difficulties in coping up, difficult to handle
lab Activities

S8. A bit hard since almost all subjects are with
Laboratories

There are also limitations to the new system. Students become bored with the module routine;
thus, teachers need to find ways to make the approach more interesting to the learners (Schwaller, 2000).
Sejpal, 2013, enumerated three disadvantages of modular methods. First, modules are economically
used. Second, they are appropriate only to mature students and lastly, these methods demand smart
classrooms.

4. Limitations

This study was limited to the number of participants mentioned, who responded in the interview and
survey. However, conducting the research to a larger group may give further advantage as to the wider
range of perceptions and experience that may be gathered by the researcher. The data collection was
also limited to virtual or online messages and calls because of the current pandemic situation.

5. Implications on Teaching

Based on the insights of the respondents and results of the factor analysis, suggestions on teaching can
be drawn.
1. Modules offer students to be more flexible since they can work at their own pace and time, however,

they should manage their time wisely to finish tasks at a given time.
2. Educators should assess student performance and focus on helping out learners’ needs when they

encounter difficulties and deficiency in a particular topic or area.
3. College and university instructors should take into consideration the availability of resources

students have in their homes. Regarding the issues of lack or poor internet connection, teachers
should also be considerate or lenient in giving deadlines and requirements to students.
4. Instructors should review their course syllabi and balance activities to avoid overloading their
students.
5. It is essential to exert an effort to make courses interesting even in the new normal to maintain
student engagement.
6. Knowing that environmental, external factors and support affect student engagement, Instructors
should take into consideration where their students are coming from and become a source of
encouragement to their students amidst this stressful pandemic.

6. Conclusion

Modular science instruction is a new, interesting yet challenging education system that emerged during
the pandemic. Students’ experiences were both positive and negative and from these insights emerged
four factors affecting student engagement namely: (1) Effect on Student Engagement (2) Challenges
Experienced (3) External Factors and Support and (4) Advantages and Disadvantages of Modular
Science Instruction. These factors can be used by educators as a guide in order to improve their current
teaching styles and enhance student engagement.

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Acknowledgement

The completion of this article is never the work of anyone alone. The contributions of many different
people, in one way or another, have made this study possible. The author, therefore, would like to
extend her gratitude especially to her mentor, Dr. Amelia Buan of Mindanao State University-Iligan
Institute of Technology, who provided guidance, great ideas and advice. The author also acknowledged
all the students who spared their time and participated in the study. Indeed, without them the author
would not have been able to finish this research.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The author declares that she has no competing interests that could appear to have influenced the work
described in this paper.

References

Alvarez, A. V. (2020). The phenomenon of learning at a distance through emergency remote teaching amidst the
pandemic crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 144–153.

Fraenkel, J., Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

French S. (2015). The Benefits and Challenges of Modular Higher Education Curricula. Melbourne Centre for the
Study of Higher Education, 1–12.

Gray J. A., DiLoreto M. (2016). The Effects of Student Engagement, Student Satisfaction, and Perceived Learning
in Online Learning Environments. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 11(1),
1–20.

Guido, R. M. D. (2014). Evaluation of a Modular Teaching Approach in Materials Science and Engineering.
American Journal of Educational Research, 2(11), 1126–1130.

Holmes, N. (2018). Engaging with assessment: Increasing student engagement through continuous assessment.
Active Learning in Higher Education, 19(1), 23–34.

Ibrahim, A. M. (2012). Thematic analysis: a critical review of its process and evaluation. Western East Journal of
Social Sciences, 1(1), 39–47.

Mahdi, R., Sukarman, S. S., Yok, M. C. K. (2014). Fostering Creativity through Innovation Engagement in
Science and Technology Education: Case Study of UniversitiTeknologi MARA Students. Procedia Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 167, 256–260.

Mazrekaj, D., De Witte, K. (2019). The effect of modular education on school dropout. British Educational
Research Journal. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3569

Miller R. L., Rycek, R. F. and Fritson, K. (2011). The effects of high impact learning experiences on student
engagement. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 53–59.

Murphy, M. (2020). COVID-19 and emergency eLearning: Consequences of the securitization of higher
education for post-pandemic pedagogy. Contemporary Security Policy, 1–14.

Pattuinan, D. (Seminar Workshop Presentation). (2018, February). Qualitative Research workshop.
Schwaller, A. (2000). Technology Education and Modular Labs. The Journal of Technology Studies, 135–141.
Sejpal, K. (2013). Modular Method of teaching. International Journal for Research in Education, 2(2), 169–171.
Shernoff, D. J. et al. (2016). Student engagement as a function of environmental complexity in high school

classrooms. Learning and Instruction, 43, 52–60.
Taber, K. S. (2018). The Use of Cronbach’s Alpha When Developing and Reporting Research Instruments in

Science Education. Res Sci Educ, 48, 1273–1296.

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Teaching Setswana proverbs using E-tools
during the scourge of COVID-19 in an
Institution of Higher learning

Bridget MANGWEGAPE
Central University of Technology, South Africa

[email protected]

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the teaching of Setswana proverbs that has impact
during COVID 19. The motivation for this article is driven from the need to understand how
proverbs plays an effective role in learning through suitable specific instructional strategies.
One of the lecturer’s attempts is to take the advantage of the technology to invest the proverbs
to get effective learning of the Setswana Language through E-tools. Teaching proverbs content
via E-tools is a unique method of teaching the Setswana Language in the crisis to bridge the
educational gaps in the students' learning in the E- space of learning. The lecturer (researcher)
has identified the types of proverbs that are applicable to COVID 19 in the Setswana textbooks
and to analyze the meaning of proverbs in teaching Setswana students. This study used
qualitative method to discuss the findings of the study. Proverbs that were taken from Setswana
texts are used to show the implication of COVID 19. The findings of this study are expected to
provide benefits to students in the future.

Keywords: COVID-19, online learning, Setswana proverbs, technology

1. Introduction

Online learning can be termed as a tool that can make the teaching – learning process more student –
centred, more innovative, and even more flexible. Online learning is defined as learning experiences in
synchronous environments using different devices (e.g., mobile phones, laptops etc.) with internet
access. In these environments, students could be independent to learn and interact with instructors and
other students (Singh & Thurman, 2019). The synchronous learning environments is structured in the
sense that students attend liver lectures, there are real time interactions between lecturers and students
and there is a possibility of instant feedback.

The Setswana proverbs and sayings are a great treasure of the Setswana language and valuable
resource for language lecturers. When the current lecturers of Setswana can use them properly, there
will be great advantage not only to develop students’ interests and to progress their accomplishment
about language and broaden their knowledge, their philosophy of life and world outlook. According to
Mieder (1985) a proverb is a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth,
morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed, and memorisable form and which is handed
down from generation to generation. Furthermore, proverbs have meaning priority over their language
structures, and it provides opportunity to develop different meaningful tasks, communicative activities,
real reason for communication and for any stage of the lesson including interesting and adaptable
warm-up activities or for pre, while and post stages of the lesson (Kukiboyeva, 2019).

It is important to apply strategies that include the Setswana proverbs that are applicable to
COVID-19. The following Setswana proverbs could be introduced via online platforms as observing
the regulations of COVID-19.

• Seatla se tlhapisa se sengwe. Seboni (1962)
One hand washes the other.
With regard to the regulations of Covid-19 we are advised to no longer use handshakes as
gestures of greeting.

• Hube ga a Tshwane le setle. (Ntsime, Kruger (1993)

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A little red morsel is better than a grey nothing/ Half a loaf is better none at all
• Lemme ga le bolae, go bolaya lefifi. Seboni (1962)

A small offer does not kill anyone; what kills is dark nothing/Half a loaf is better than none
at all.
Both proverbs in 2 and 3 carry the same meaning, we are no longer encouraged to eat in the
same bowl
• Go tshega ga go tshwane le go tlhonama. Seboni (1962)
It's better to wear a smile/laugh than look glum.
COVD-19 steals our happiness, we are experiencing the loss of our beloved friends,
relatives, and families, we are miserable every day, though we need to put a brave face by
smiling even if our hearts are heavy.
• Sedikwa ke ntšwapedi ga se thata. Ntsime, Kruger (1993)
The quarry of a two-dog attack is fair game/has no hope of escaping/surviving.
• Motho ke motho ka batho ba bangwe. Ntsime, Kruger (1993)
Every human owes their being to the humanity of others.
• Bana ba motho ba kgaogana tlhogo ya tsie. Seboni (1962)
Members of a family can evenly share a locust head.
According to the regulation of COVID-19 we are not allowed to share food especially
when we have not wash our hands with water and soap or sanitize our hands.
• Motho ga a iphetse Seboni (1962)
No one person can do without the help of others.
• Moroto wa oesi, ga o ele. Seboni (1962)
The piss of one single person is not strong enough to flow on its own.
• Seatla e a re se eša , se amoganyetse ka se sengwe. (Ntsime, Kruger (1993)
When the one hand burns, the other one takes over.
• The proverbs in 8, 9, and 10 and advise us to keep social distancing.

2. Strategies for teaching Setswana proverbs via E-tools

Lecturer could ask students to read the above Setswana proverbs and explain to their peers on
online platforms, as this could be implemented via E-tools, Zoom and Teams Microsoft. The
strategy used by Ciccarelli (1996) has enhanced collaboration skill and allow students to
express themselves so as to create different virtual spaces to meet the needs of each of them. It
is significant to apply strategies that include the Setswana proverbs by presenting E- slides and
sharing relevant textbooks that entails Setswana proverbs.

The strategy shows that it affects their personality, emotionally and psychologically in a
positive way. One of the advantages of this strategy is students could get rid of their stress and
be concerned about that may come from pandemics. Students could have an advantage of the
strategy as an online game. They are able to share the proverbs with same words but different
meaning as well as from the different Setswana textbooks, as it enhances communication skills
in light of learning space.

3. Using E - tools by students to acquire more knowledge on proverbs

According to Salaberry (2020) lecturers observed that current e tools have advantages on
learning the Setswana proverbs and using the E-tools without the need for students in the
classroom. Students can use e tools by connecting to internet to create links anywhere, anytime
to access related materials and information about proverbs. The World Wide Web could
provide direct access to websites in other provinces; thus, students could find resources written

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in Setswana language. These websites contain different topics like, idioms, folktales as well as
proverbs etc. with regard to the Setswana language. Sharing proverbs via e-tools is a positive
avenue and door opener for engaging students who Setswana is not their home language.

4. Research Methodology

The present study employed qualitative approach aimed at describing and explaining the
application of Setswana proverbs using textbooks. The study is descriptive and tries to
understand the importance of online learning in the period of the scourge of COVID-19. The
possible solutions were also identified based on the advantages of E-tools. This study is
completely based on the secondary data. A systemic review was done in detail for the collected
literature.

The participants were 30 first year registered Setswana students, they were randomly
selected and were chosen based on their performance.

5. Results and Discussion

It is said that online mode of learning is easily accessible and can even reach to rural and
remote areas. Flexibility is another interesting aspect of online learning; a student could
schedule or plan their time for completion of courses available online. Combining face- to- face
lecturers with technology gives rise to blended learning and flipped classrooms, this type of
learning environment could increase the learning potential of the students. Students could learn
anytime and anywhere, thereby developing new skills in the process leading to lifelong
learning.

6. Conclusion

Teaching Setswana proverbs using E-tool during COVID-19 epidemic, is one of the most
important lesson to create a generation with the noble character and balanced in terms of
bodily, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, and social. Teaching Setswana proverbs could be used
to inspire or motivate students, they could be used as cautionary wisdom. Furthermore,
students and lecturers may recognize how these meaning of proverbs with regard to COVID-19
could help inform their own experiences.

References

Ciccarelli, A. (1996). Teaching culture through language: Suggestions for the Italian language class. Italica,
73(4), 563-576

Kukiboyeva, M. (2019). Peculliarities and Benefits of using proverbs in mastering learners’ communicative
grammatical competence. Namangan State.

Miede, W. (1985). Proverbs: A Hand. Greenwood Press.
Ntsime, J. M., & Kruger C. J. H. J. (1993). E Antswe Letseleng. Via Afrika Limited
Salaberry, R. (2020). CALL in the year 2000: still developing the research agenda. Language learning and

technology, 3(1), 104-107.
Seboni. M. O. M. (1962). Diane le Maele a Setswana. Lovedale Press
Singh, V., & Thurman, A. (2019). How many ways can we define online learning? A systematic literature

review of definitions of online learning (1988-2018). American Journal of Distance Education, 33(4),
289-306.

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The Effects of Online Course on Inclusive
Basics to the Pre-Service Teachers’ Paradigm:

Basis for Curriculum Review

Angeline P. DINORO *, Ciedelle N., GRAGEDA*, Amelia T. BUAN,
Juliet C. TERO & Ma. Faye, FAJARDO

Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines
* [email protected]

Abstract: The practice of inclusive education is still wanting in the Philippine educational
setting, despite the existing policies and laws that provide for the rights and privileges of all
children to receive quality education. For the students while in the college, a pre-service teacher
education is the primary means of enabling future teachers to learn, know and master the
concepts and skills in the practice of inclusive education. The present study compared the
pre-course and post-course responses of students (N=123) enrolled in the course Inclusive
Education for the second semester of school year 2020-2021. The objective of the study was to
determine and compare the pre-course and post-course level of knowledge, familiarity of
concepts, skills and attitude towards inclusive education. Results indicated that students
generally have a working knowledge of what inclusive education and disability means but are
not familiar with the laws and policies on special education. Also, almost all students did not
have any formal training in inclusive education, and that they generally perceive inclusive
education as difficult to practice in their classrooms in the future, especially that they are not
equipped professionally for such. The post-course results showed a marked improvement in
their knowledge of inclusive education but their beliefs and perception of their skills and
attitudes appear to be similar to their pre-course responses. Implications of the findings of the
study is to improve the design and delivery of the course to be more responsive to the needs of
the pre-service students.
Keywords: Inclusive Education, Pre-service teachers, Course review

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STRESSORS AND STRESS MANAGEMENT
OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS:
EFFECTS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL
WELLBEING

Genalyn J. HERRERA, Grace Angela E. TAYONE & Monera SALIC-HAIRULA*
College of Education, MSU – Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines
*[email protected]

Abstract: This study aimed to determine the stressors and stress management of senior high
school students and its effects on their psychological wellbeing. Consequently, this study was
conducted to investigate the relationship among stressor, stress management and psychological
wellbeing of the students. This study used purposive sampling supported by Pearson
Correlational and Regression Analysis. Results showed that there is sufficient evidence to
believe that a linear relationship exists between the stressor and stress management as well as
stress management and psychological wellbeing of the senior high students. Therefore, the
researchers concluded that the stressors experienced by the senior high school students of Iligan
City is linearly associated with their stress management or ways of coping with their stress.
Subsequently, their ways of coping stress is linearly associated with their psychological
well-being. Furthermore, the results of the study showed enough evidence to believe that the
stress management and stressor of the student significantly predict their psychological
well-being. As shown from the analysis of the gathered data, the psychological well-being of
the students has been highly related to their stressors and stress management. Students who
encounter with more stressors and have high stress management will have better mental and
emotional state of being.

Keywords: Psychological Well-being, Stressors Theory Symbolic Interaction Theory,
Transaction Model of Stress and Coping, Ways of Coping Stress

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The Development of Web-Based Learning
Model to Enhance English Language
Development based on Information
Processing Theory

Wanwisa WANNAPIPAT
Communication Arts division, Khon Kaen University International College,

Khon Kaen University, Thailand
[email protected]

Abstract: The English development for Thai higher education students is important.
Information processing theory is defined as a concept that humans process the information
received more willingly than responding to stimuli that help to remember in long-term memory
without much difficulty. This study aims to design and develop a web-based learning model to
enhance English language development based on information processing theory. The presented
data is fundamentally used in other 2 research phases. Document Analysis and Survey Research
were implemented. The instruments used are forms of analysis, synthesis, and survey in
Open-ended question with 5 Likert rating scales. The results showed that 1) Demographics- 14
males and 17 females or 45 and 55 percent respectively 2) Learning experience- all students
experience in lecturing, demonstrating, and practice but not in information processing learning
3) Media and Technology experience- results are in excellent level that they can use social
media platform and learning technology and 4) English proficiency- overall performance in
poor level. The result of synthesized designing framework and model components were found
that 1) the activation of cognitive structure based on Constructivism theory as Authentic
context, Enabling context- Problem base and Learning Task components 2) the supporting
cognitive equilibrium based on cognitivism theory as information processing theory- Learning
Resources component 3) the enhancing of knowledge construction based on Social and
Cognitive Constructivist- Collaboration Room and English Development Center components
and 4) the supporting of cognitive equilibrium- Scaffolding and Coaching room component.

Keywords: web-based learning model, English language development, Information Processing
theory

1. Introduction

As the world and technology have been changing and developing for many decades, it provides an
opportunity to people to communicate and access any type of data unlimitedly. To prepare for a
knowledge society, humans need to be adaptive and have an ability to live and learn with a new kind of
thing. A learner should be an active learner who can discover knowledge and construct their own
knowledge anytime anywhere. However, students in many parts of the world including Thailand cannot
have the efficiency to learn by themselves (Sroikiree and Prayaparit, 2007). The barrier of language is
still the problem that struggle them not to overcome and be able to compete in this changing world.
Learning English is an essential skill for Thai student which should aim to have them the ability to use
in real world, however; the testing results by the National Institute of Educational Testing Service
(Public Organization) in 2017 reveals the average score of Thai students that was not in high level. This
means Thai students do not have adequate English skills to use it correctly and appropriately (National
Institute of Educational Testing Service, 2017). English skills are necessary for students to accomplish
their study but there is not every student gets success. Moreover, EF English Proficiency Index (EF
Education First, 2016) assessed Thai English proficiency and found that in the 56th of the entire 72

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countries. Tribolet (2012) states that English language skill was the difficulty that Thai students most
confront. As that so, Thai students ought to get ready for the development of English skills.

For this reason, the language development in English for Thai students is important especially
in higher education level. In according to this challenge, the Office of the Education Council has stated
in Chapter 4 Section 22 in the National Education Act B.E. 2542 (1999) and Amendments (Second
National Education Act B.E. 2545 (2002) (Ministry of Education, 2002) that education shall be based
on principles that the learners can be learn and have self-development as being the most important. As
mentioned, English language is important for students to communicate among different countries
(Office of the Education Council, 2004) as well as use as a medium to exchange perspectives and
knowledge (Manivannan, 2006). With the importance of English that the changes have come, the
Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation of Thailand
have realized and pushed an effort on strategies development under the policy of English teaching and
reform of learning. This importance has bought an emphasis on all four skills as listening, speaking,
reading, and writing, however; there are many studies revealed that Thai students unable to use English
for communication (Tauycharoen, 2006) especially the students in higher education level that their
English proficiency was substandard (Prapphal, 2001).

Suwannarat (2011) mention that vocabulary is widely understood as the knowledge of words
and words meaning. Various studies on vocabulary have presented a link between vocabulary size of a
learner’s second language and how learner manage written (Laufer, 1989, 1992; Hu & Nation, 2000;
Nation, 2001, 2006; Laufer & Ravenhorst- Kalovski, 2010). Consequently, Miller (1956) proposed the
study of cognitive science about the capacity limits in information processing or of short-term memory
that limited to about seven units and evidenced that the learner could recall 7 plus or minus two or
roughly 7 items. Information processing theory is defined as the concept that humans process the
information which learners receive more willingly than responding to stimuli. Additionally, their
cognition works on new knowledge or information acquiring, processing, and retrieving from their
long-term memory. Those 3 principles comprise sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term
memory (Klausmeier, 1985: 103-119). Rehearsal method can help memorizing of vocabulary in
learner’s short-term memory, and the methods of chunking and elaborating through the designing like
pictures, animations, or videos are both suggested that the learner can remember in long-term memory
without much difficulty.

As mentioned above, the design and develop a web-based learning model is hypothesized that
can enhance language development based on information processing theory.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Web-Based Learning Model

Web Based Learning is defined as the learning design that integrated instructional design and
internet in order to enhance effective learning. Khan (1997) stated that web- based learning is the
platform of learning that implemented through hypermedia. The learners can usefully learn from
learning resources via internet connection. Hannum (1998) as well proposed that web-based learning
is the design and management of learning environment via internet based on learning principles and
theories systematically. The web- based learning model can then be defined hereby that is the design
and development of learning environment for the learners that allows them to be active learners and
knowledge constructors. They can have discovery learning by multimedia, online search and
resources, learner controlled that have interaction among learners, teachers, and parents.

2.2 English Language Development

English Language Development in this study based on Critical Reading and Writing course provided by
Khon Kaen University International College, Khon Kaen university, Thailand. The aim of the course is
to develop the critical thinking, and English language reading and writing skills needed to read and
write proficiently. Students are expected to be able to demonstrate that they have the critical thinking,
reading and writing skills, in English, required of an international university. The content based on

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Westbrook, C. (2014). Unlock: Reading & Writing Skills 3. 2nd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

2.3 Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory is based on the concept that humans process the information they
receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. The basic principles are to knowledge acquisition,
storage, and recalling. The 3 principles comprise sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term
memory (Klausmeier, 1985: 103-119). Miller (1956) proposed the study of cognitive science about the
capacity limits in information processing or of short-term memory that limited to about seven units and
evidenced that the learner could recall 7 plus or minus two or roughly 7 items. It is about the method of
acquiring information or new knowledge, process and retrieve from long term memory.

3. Objectives

To design and develop a web-based learning model to enhance English language development based on
information processing theory.

4. Research Methodology

The Developmental Research Type I (Richey and Klein, 2007) was employed by the following 3
phases: 1) Model Development 2) Model Validation and 3) Model Use. The purposes, target groups,
and variables are explained as the in the following table. Importantly, in this research article, the
designing and developing of the web-based learning model to enhance English language development
based on information processing theory were presented.

4.1 Purpose, target groups, and variables

Due to the different 3 research phases, information of their purposes, target groups and variables are
illustrated differently. In the following table, only presents for phase 1 Model Development.

Table 1
Purpose, target groups, and variables

Phases Purpose Target groups Variables
Phase 1 To design and 1. 3 experts to examine the 1. The design and
develop the quality of the web- development process of
web- based based learning model in terms the web-based learning
learning of content design, teaching model to enhance
model to design, and media design. language development
enhance 2. 31 random students who based on information
English registered in processing
language IC00110001 Critical Reading theory.
development and Writing course in
based on semester 1/ 2020 of Khon
information Kaen university to collect the
processing background data in learner
theory. characteristics and their
opinion for context design.
3. 1 model designer to
examine the learner
background data.
4. 1 model developer to
examine the developer

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Phases Purpose Target groups Variables
background data.
5. Critical Reading and
Writing course
instructor to examine the
teacher background.

4.2 Research design

Table 2
Research design, instruments, data collection and data analysis

Phases Design Instruments Data collection
Phase 1
Model and Data Analysis
development
pattern will Model development pattern All quantitative and
be employed
by Document will be employed by qualitative data will be
analysis and
Survey Document analysis and Survey collected and analyzed in
method for
both quantity method for both quantity and this research phrase. The
and quality
data. quality data collection. The synthesized theoretical

instruments used in this phrase and designing framework

comprised will be analyzed by

1) a recording form of the descriptive analysis and

document analysis to interpreting method

synthesize a theoretical and based on the collected

designing frameworks of the information from the

model recording research.

2) a recording form of the Moreover, the
learner’s opinion towards
background of a learner,

learning context designer, and developer

3) a recording form of the will be analyzed by using

synthesized frameworks the descriptive analysis

4) a recording forms of the and interpreting method

learner, designer, and as well while the

developer background study interviewing form will

5) an interviewing form based provide the opinion of the

on Richey & Klein (2007) that designer and developer

focuses on working process, towards the model

difficulties, and attitudes of the developing.

designer and develop towards

model development

6) a model evaluation form in

open-ended form

7) the designed and developed

web-based learning model to

enhance language

development based on

information processing theory.

5. Research Results

According to the designing framework of phase 1, the background of the students in terms of learning
context, learner profiles and key factors that affected learning environment design were mainly
explored. The studied issues are 1) Demographics 2) Learning experience 3) Media and Technology

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performance and 4) English proficiency. The results revealed that the targets consisted of 14 males and
17 females or 45 and 55 percent respectively.
5.1 Demographics

55%

45%

Figure 1. Student Demographics.

5.2 Learning experience

In order to design and develop the web- based learning model, it can be seen that the total number of 30
students or 100% have experience in lecturing, demonstration, and practicing, 18 students or 58.06%
had experience in web- based learning: while only 2 students or 6.45% owned experience in
information processing theory.

Table 3
Student Background in Learning Experience

Learning Experience Number (n = 31) Percentage (%)

Learning Theory 31 100%
12 38.71%
• Experience in lecturing, demonstration, and
practicing 18 58.06%
12 38.71%
• Experience in constructivism learning 2 6.45%

Learning Media

• Experience in web- based learning
• Experience in learning environment
• Experience in information processing theory

5.3 Media and technology performance

The study results reveal that students’ levels of using a social media platform as Facebook, YouTube,
LINE as well as an application or a software of animation and VDO were in excellent level as x ̅ = 4.48,
4.87, 4.53 or S.D.= 0.37, 0.34, 0.72 respectively while they were in good levels of using a conference
platform as Zoom meeting and audio player as x ̅ = 4.3 and 4.27 or S.D. = 0.79 and 0.39 respectively.
Additionally, their ability of using a computer, mobile, tablet was in a very good level which x ̅ = 4.93
S.D.= 0.25 and performance of learning application using was in a good level or x ̅ = 4.13 and S.D. =
0.81 as presented in Table 4.

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Table 4

Student Background in Media and Technology experience

Media and Technology Experience S.D. Performance Level

Media 4.84 0.37 Excellent
4.87 0.34 Excellent
• Able to use a social media platform: Facebook 4.53 0.72 Excellent
• Able to use a social media platform: YouTube 4.33 0.79 Good
• Able to use a social media platform: LINE
• Able to use a conference platform: Zoom meeting 4.53 0.72 Excellent
• Able to use an application or a software of 4.27 0.39 Good

animation and VDO 4.93 0.25 Excellent
• Able to use an audio player 4.13 0.81 Good
Technology
• Able to use a computer, mobile, tablet
• Able to use a learning application

5.4 English proficiency

The English proficiency test was used to evaluate their English proficiency in order to compare before

and after learning with the model. The content of the test based on the syllabus of Critical Reading and

Writing course, Khon Kaen University International College, Khon Kaen university, Thailand. Their

expected English level based on CEFR that is B2 level. It showed their overall performance in poor
level which x ̅ = 2.23 and S.D. is 0.50.

Table 5

Student English Proficiency Level

English Proficiency S.D. Performance Level
3.03 0.66 Average
English Proficiency based on Critical Reading and Writing
course

5.5 Designing Results

The results of learner background document analysis were fundamental to design the web-based
learning environment model components as: 1) the activation of cognitive structure based on
Constructivism theory as Authentic context, Enabling context in a web- based component as Problem
base and Learning Task 2) the supporting cognitive equilibrium in according to cognitivism theory as
information processing theory, the components were hence designed as Learning Resources 3) to
enhance knowledge construction based on Social and Cognitive Constructivist. Collaboration Room
and English Development Center modules were designed; and 4) Scaffolding and Coaching rooms
component was also designed based on to foster cognitive equilibrium. See Figure 2. Synthesis of
Designing Framework of Web-Based Learning Model to Enhance English Language Development
based on Information Processing Theory

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Figure 2. Synthesis of Designing Framework.

6. Conclusion and Discussion

The experiences and background of the students in terms of learning context, learner profiles and key
factors that affect designing of the model were intensively explored. The related parts are 1)
Demographics 2) Learning experience 3) Media and Technology performance and 4) English
proficiency.

The findings of Part 1 Demographics showed that most of the target are females which
represents 55 percent or 17 students while 45 percent or 14 students were male. Part 2 Learning
Experience mainly collected students’ background of learning theories as in lecturing, demonstration,
and practicing, constructivism learning; and learning media experience in web- based learning, learning
environment, and information processing theory. It was found that all students have experienced in
lecturing, demonstration, and practicing so the model design can then provide rich environment with
lecture notes, demonstration of grammar use, as well as exercises to do language practicing. As well,
most of them are practical to use web- based learning, it can explain the model component that functions
on webpage, homepage, site map, hypertext, hyperlinks etc. However, only 6.45 percent of them have
experienced in information processing theory, this can lead the model designing that it should focus on
the practicing of theory in problem bases and learning tasks. Part 3 Media and Technology performance
The study results show that their levels of using a social media platform as Facebook, YouTube, LINE
and animation and VDO applications; also, a computer, mobile, tablet are in the excellent level.
Moreover, according to the interview results, students revealed that they were assigned to study, do
homework, and discuss with classmates since they were in high school level. During their free time,
those flatforms also were used to have a conversation with families and friends to exchange ideas,
feelings, information. So that so, they are quite practical and familiar to each platform component.
Consequently, this can highlight the designing framework that they can construct knowledge based on
Social Constructivism that allows them to have collaborative learning. Also, it offers students to
assimilate their new knowledge with the prior background through via discussion. Technology helps
supporting them for having meaning making (Kwanman., T. & Samat C. (2018)). Part 4 English
Proficiency, the obvious results present that most of the students they had moderate ability in English
bases on Language Development content of the course Critical Reading and Writing. This supports the
importance of the Development of Web-Based Learning Model to Enhance English Language
Development based on Information Processing Theory. All mentioned above, the designing results can
be discussed that consisted of 1) analyzing of document in terms of theories and principles, research,
and related studies regards (1) Psychological area (2) Pedagogies area (3) Media and Technology areas
(4) Contextual area; 2) examining the instructional context; and 3) synthesizing of its designing

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framework. According to results of learner background and above mentioned, the designing framework
was thus synthesized for Web-Based Learning Model to Enhance English Language Development
based on Information Processing Theory as the following information: 1) the activation of cognitive
structure based on Constructivism theory as Authentic context, Enabling context (Hanafin, 1999) in a
web- based component as Problem base and Learning Task 2) the supporting cognitive equilibrium in
according to cognitivism theory as information processing theory (Mayer, 1995), the components were
hence designed as Learning Resources 3) to enhance knowledge construction based on Social and
Cognitive Constructivist (Vygotsky, 1925), Collaboration Room and English Development Center
modules were designed; and 4) Scaffolding and Coaching rooms component was also designed based
on to foster cognitive equilibrium (Hanafin, 1999). In conclusion, the design and development of
web-based learning model can be used to enhance English language development based on information
processing theory.

Acknowledgements

This research has been financially supported by the Khon Kaen University International College
Research Grant.

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Design the Collaborative Robot Training for
Preparing the Vocational Teacher Professional

Development

Sasithorn CHOOKAEW a* Suppachai HOWIMANPORN a, Chaiyaporn
SILAWATCHANANAIa, Piyanun RUANGURAIb, Somjai PIENPRASITc Peerasij

CHADATHORNd, Warin SOOTKANEUNGd & Woradanan HEMNITHIe
a Department of Teacher Training in Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Technical Education,

King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand
bDepartment of Mechanical Engineering Technology, College of Industrial Engineering Technology,

King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand
cResearch and Human Resource Training Center for Industry,

King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand
dFaculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon, Thailand
eFaculty of Industrial Educational, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon, Thailand

*[email protected]

Abstract: Technology is rapidly changing. No matter how good learning for teachers is, it
cannot be expected to prepare teachers for all the challenges they will face throughout their
careers. Therefore, they must receive the preparation for teaching the student-related using
technology continuously. This paper reports training courses for teachers in Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Thailand. This course was designed for the
vocational teacher to teach industrial robots based on new technology integrated new
pedagogies. The 3P module of the training process included preparing industrial collaborative
robots (Cobot) concepts, practicing the learning pedagogies, and presenting the teaching
process. This course provides vocational teachers opportunities to participate in the activities
for four days. The results showed that teachers' teachers' satisfaction towards training courses. It
is expected that this study will provide more understanding about nature industrial robot
training in Thailand.

Keywords: Vocational education, professional development, educational robot

1. Introduction

The Thai government’s National Strategy Thailand 4.0 is guiding the development of the Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) curriculum. TVET will significantly contribute to
high-value services by educating unskilled and low-skill labor with knowledge and high skills
following the government’s policy. In driving vocational education management and improving
Thailand’s vocational education quality upgrade the quality of TVET teachers with upskills/reskills
personnel training.

The Robot Institute of America uses the definition that a robot is a reprogrammable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through
variable programmed motions to perform various tasks (Wallén, 2008). Robots are essentially a
mechanism are operating under computer control and widely used in industries. They are becoming
more effective-faster, more accurate, and more flexible. They become able to do more and more tasks
that might be dangerous or impossible for human workers to perform.

The use of industrial robotics in the industry has expanded significantly over the past decade.
Many colleges open the course or cuticular of industrial robots in manufactory. It is emphasized,
especially in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), because industrial robots are
widely used in many manufacturing industries, increasing career prospects for vocational students who

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graduated. The training workshop described in this paper was implemented for TVET teachers at
different schools working in many Thailand regions.

Industrial robots are also important for tasks where the environment is harmful to humans.
Therefore, the robots need to be service-able, have high precision, operate at high speeds, and be robust
to disturbances (Fonseca & Freitas, 2018). An industrial robot's complexity of the theoretical concepts
required makes this discipline difficult for students to get deep understanding while teachers difficult to
find out learning strategy to teach with classical teaching methods. Many studies attempted to present
methodology and simulation tools based on active learning for industrial robotic education (Lopez,
Romeo & Guerrero, 2009). Many studies proposed training courses or cubiculum for teachers to
effectively teach industrial, educational robotics based on pedagogical insights and hands-on activities
(Castro et al., 2018; Sergeyev et al., 2017). Some teacher training courses have more than just building
and programming robots and expected teachers able to build on the educational benefits of robotics for
providing a learning landscape that fosters many skills for learners (Alimisis, 2019).

This study focuses on designing and implementing training courses where TVET teachers can
apply industrial robots to teach in their colleges. During this, we survey the teachers’ satisfaction
towards training courses that expected this study to provide the teacher more understanding about
pedagogies for student learning.

2. Related Work

2.1 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Thailand

In Thailand, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is an essential part of the
education system to develop workers' skills follow the industrial system's need. TVET colleges
continue to struggle to fulfill their mandate of skills development among students who will be good
workers. Therefore, professional teacher development is the first important thing for operating to
succeed in the goal. Many studies attempt to prepare professional training for TVET teachers who
wish to advance or acquire new professional skills. (Ahmed & Syed, 2021).
Chookaew et al. (2021) investigated the TVET teachers' perceptions of Thailand's industrial robotic
training course. They find that the teachers have never used an industrial robot for teaching purposes,
which is an obstacle to effectively teaching industrial robot concepts. Therefore, it is challenging to
learn new technology, so the course must be exciting and easier to understand. Because the teachers
are interested in the topic, they will be motivated to try hard or remember what they have learned.

2.2 Collaborative Robot (Cobot)

The collaborative robot (Cobot) is developed purposely for performing manufacturing tasks.
Comparing to a traditional industrial robot, the Cobot can sense the interactive force between device
and surrounded environment by using embedded joint torque sensors. With this feature, the robot can be
reprogrammed to compliance or suddenly stop when the collision is detected. Thus, the Cobot can
reduce the incidence of occupational risks among the employees, increase their safety and also improve
the performance of the entire assembly line in the industry. The collaborative robot frees employees
from potential occupational risk and the cobot implemented better assembly line performance
(Realyvásquez et al., 2019).

In this training, we used the Cobot UR5 model from universal robot©. This robot arm is
lightweight 6-DOF manipulator which can be installed on the top of movable table. In this
configuration, it is flexible to be built directly inside machinery or in other tight workspaces.
(https://www.universal-robots.com/products/ur5-robot/).

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3. Methodology

3.1 Participants

Participants were 40 vocational teachers (5 females and 35 male) recruited from Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges in eastern regions of Thailand. The workshop
training was aimed to prepare vocational teachers to integrate industrial robots for teaching in the
classroom. The age range of the teachers involved in the course was 22–65 years old. The three-day
cobot training course consists of 18 hours, including theory and hands-on activity. The learning activity
in this course consists of 3 modules, as shown in Figure 1.

Module I
Preparing the Cobot concepts

TVET teachers

Module II
Practicing the task

Module III
Presenting the learning process

Figure 1. The structure of 3P modules on the Cobot training

3.2 Cobot Training Course

In this training course, we have three training modules of a course in three days as follow:
Module I: Preparing the Cobot concepts.
In the first step, the TVET teachers were required to understand the principles of Cobot clearly.

They must understand the related to robotics and programming language that is necessary to control the
industrial robot. In addition, they can develop and improve the principles of kinematics, dynamics,
control, and how to optimize the conditions of the industrial robotic systems, solve problems in a
factory installation and maintain industrial robots in a manufacturing facility. Firstly, the industrial
robot was introduced in several types: articulated or robot arm, Selective Compliance Articulated Robot
Arm (SCARA), Cartesian and delta or parallel types. Each type has a different configuration suitable
for applications such as pick and place, arc and spot welding, inspection, etc. The definition and
application of Cobot were also introduced in this section.

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Figure 2. The introduction of the Cobot learning
This section introduces learning content and tools, including structure and components of Cobot,
configuration robot installation such as Tool Center Point (TCP), mounting and HOME configuration
after the robot gripper is installed, robot programming as shown in Figure 3, and simulation.

Figure 3. The screenshot of robot programming
Module II: Practicing the tasks
The TVET teacher is usually teaching robotics to students who have never had any experience
in this field. It challenges teachers to define appropriate learning pedagogies to help students overcome
their learning barriers. This module must select appropriate teaching and learning pedagogy and
industrial applications to support students' work readiness and 21st-century skills.
This module demonstrates that it is important to combine theory and practice and include fun
tasks that intertwine the challenges of applying theory to the problem-solving of TVET teachers. In this
process, they were divided into groups consisting of five people in order to discuss and practices the
tasks. Each group is given a specific task to complete. For example, they have learned how teach Cobot
to grasp and moving small and medium-sized workpieces. Using Cobot, each member can drag the
end-effector in different types of motion such as free motion or planar motion or orientation so that it is
easy to reach each waypoint to grasp, travel, and place the object, respectively. After that, they will
demonstrate their tasks in every group and discussion together.

Figure 4. The TVET teachers were working together during the task assignment.
Module III: Presenting the learning process
By given assignments, the vocational teachers can share knowledge and work together with the
presentation in graphical programming and robot demonstration, as shown in Figure 4. The content is
related to how the cobot picks up the bottle with the robot gripper and places it on the table at a specific

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point. Each group can choose their picking and placing points within the robot workspace. Also, they
are allowed to design the robot path and movement in order to enhance creativity.

Figure 4. The TVET teachers expanded and displayed the cobot working.

4. Results

This section presents the results of TVET teachers' satisfaction with the cobot training (Table 1). In
addition, findings from the interviews are presented participants' opinions.

Table 1
The results of TVET teachers’ satisfaction towards the cobot training

Items M SD Interpretation

Satisfaction with the training process 4.58 0.56 Highest

Satisfaction with the training activities 4.55 0.62 Highest

Satisfaction with the usefulness of the training workshop 4.62 0.49 Highest

Overall 4.58 0.53 Highest

Table 1 shows three dimensions of TVET teachers’ satisfaction towards the cobot training,

including the training process, the activities, and its usefulness. The results show that the TVET

teachers were satisfied at the highest level about the training course overall (M=4.58, SD=0.53). They

expressed the highest level of satisfaction about the usefulness of the training (M=4.62, SD=0.49) while

the training process (M=4.58, SD=0.56) and the training activities (M=4.55, SD=0.49) were also

thought to be at the highest level.

In addition, we have interviewed the teachers who participated in the training course:
“I prefer to learn with cobot thought active learning activity. However, when I come back to my

classroom, I do not have a cobot for teaching because it is expensive to provide for my
students.” (Female aged 25)
“I disliked mistakes in the programming to control cobot. However, I think simulation in the

program helped me to understand the mechanism and moves the robot arm to desired waypoints or
touch the arrow keys on the easy-to-use touchscreen tablet.” (Male aged 43)

“Everything in the training course made me learn about robot tasks; it has allowed me to be

flexible and challenge. I think that professional development can adapt the learning experience to

many different situations is more important than many pedagogies but lacks connecting. (Male aged 37)

5. Conclusion

Teacher roles are changing due to new approaches to learning, with growing attention to new
technology and new pedagogies. With the teacher becoming a facilitator of learning processes, they
should be expert knowledge transfer to students. This study reports on the collaborative robots training

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course for TVET teachers that enables them to be master the technical and pedagogical skills necessary
for using the robotic technologies in their colleges. In addition, this training enriches their teaching and
learning activities and develops their robotics activities through innovative pedagogies. Cobot training
has become a unique learning tool that arouses teachers’ curiosity and motivation to learn new
technology material that supports hands-on practice in an active learning activity.

This study suggested the educator relevant parties to ensure that the proposed policies and
strategies will produce the qualitative learning course production and improvement of skilled TVET
teachers in Thailand.

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok. Contract no.
KMUTNB-64-DRIVE-27.

References

Ahmed, A., & Sayed, K. (2021). An extensive model for implementing competency‐based training in technical
and vocational education and training teacher training system for Assiut‐Integrated Technical Education
Cluster, Egypt. The Journal of Competency‐Based Education, e01245.

Alimisis, D. (2019). Teacher training in educational robotics: The ROBOESL Project paradigm. Technology,
Knowledge and Learning, 24(2), 279-290.

Castro, E., Cecchi, F., Salvini, P., Valente, M., Buselli, E., Menichetti, L., ... & Dario, P. (2018). Design and
impact of a teacher training course, and attitude change concerning educational robotics. International
Journal of Social Robotics, 10(5), 669-685.

Chookaew, S., Howimanporn, S., Hutamarn, S., & Thongkerd, T. (2021). Perceptions of Vocational Education
and Training Teachers with regard to an Industrial Robot Training. TEM Journal. 10 (3) 1149‐1154.

Fonseca Ferreira, N. M., & Freitas, E. D. (2018). Computer applications for education on industrial robotic
systems. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 26(5), 1186-1194.

Lopez-Nicolas, G., Romeo, A., & Guerrero, J. J. (2009, June). Simulation tools for active learning in robot control
and programming. In 2009 EAEEIE Annual Conference (pp. 1-6). IEEE.

Realyvásquez-Vargas, A., Arredondo-Soto, K. C., García-Alcaraz, J. L., Márquez-Lobato, B. Y., & Cruz-García,
J. (2019). Introduction and configuration of a collaborative robot in an assembly task as a means to decrease
occupational risks and increase efficiency in a manufacturing company. Robotics and Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing, 57, 315-328.

Sergeyev, A., Alaraje, N., Parmar, S., Kuhl, S., Druschke, V., & Hooker, J. (2017, April). Promoting industrial
robotics education by curriculum, robotic simulation software, and advanced robotic workcell development
and implementation. In 2017 Annual IEEE International Systems Conference (SysCon) (pp. 1-8). IEEE.

Wallén, J. (2008). The history of the industrial robot. Linköping University Electronic Press.

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Exploring Gender, technologies and African
values in Zimbabwean Teacher education
in the New Normal Era

Shoorai KONYANAa*, Richard NYIKAb & Matolenyana Alfred MODISE c
aDepartment of Professional Foundations Mkoba Teachers College, Zimbabwe

bDepartment of Education and Training Gweru Polytechnical Collegre, Zimbabwe
cDepartment of Education and Professional Studies Central University of Technology, South Africa

*[email protected]

Abstract: Due to the prevalence of Covid-19 Zimbabwean teacher education has adopted the
integrated learning approach. This necessitated the extensive use of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs). However, Zimbabwe female student teachers’ approach
to the use of technologies while undertaking their studies is heavily influenced by their social
contexts. African values and their gendered roles seem to militate against female students’
access to and utilisation of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) available at
institutions of higher learning. This study purports to establish the influence of African values
on experiences of female students as they utilise ICTs as gender neutral tools. 20 students (10
male and 10 female) aged between 30 and 35 years from two institutions of higher learning in
the Midlands Province of Zimbabwe participated in the study. The qualitative study utilised
online focused group discussions, interviews as well as review of existing literature to collect
data. The study also used the Unified Theory of Adoption and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
and Technology Acceptance Models (TAM) to assess ICT usage by male and female students
who come to institutions of higher learning at an older age than High School leavers. The study
revealed that there are gender differences, influenced by some African values, in usage of ICT
gadgets and applications by male and female students in the institutions. The internet and other
online learning services were minimally utilised by the female students despite the availability
of computers and the equal access policy in the institutions. The study recommended that
institutions of higher learning should endeavor to increase awareness of the gender-neutral
nature of ICT gargets/ devices and encourage more hands-on practice by female students in
order to equip them with ICT skills to reduce the digital gender gap.

Keywords: African values, gender, Information, Communication, Technologies,

1. Introduction

The prevalence of Covid-19 has necessitated the integrated approach to teaching and learning in Higher
Education. The online learning part of the integrated approach heavily relies on the use of ICTs.
Technologies play a fundamental role in offering opportunities for men and women advancement in
many areas. These include education, employment and participation in politics. It was hoped that the
advent of the digital revolution would remove the discrepancies which existed in Africa when there was
a divide between women technology and men technology. Digital technology is a gender neutral that
has potential to be used by either men or women. The technology can be used as another frontier to
advance gender equality. Their use gives a platform for equitable distribution of information in society.
This can be a gateway to realisation of human rights and enjoyment of the benefits of scientific
progress. Research has shown that the digital revolution has the risk of significantly amplifying gender
divide across social and economic spheres of life. Observation also shows that there are existing
disparities in the access and use of ICTs between men and women in Zimbabwe. Women have limited
cases to and benefits to the use of ICTs. This phenomenon is referred to as gender digital divide. This
study intended to explore the views of female and male students in higher education institutions of the
reasons for gender disparities in the use and access to ICTs.

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1.1 Context of the study

In assessing the issue of gender, technologies and African values and how they impact on student
teachers’ access to and use of ICTs in Zimbabwean institution of higher learning, there is need to
understand the gendered nature of the social, economic, policy and technology systems which frame
opportunities for women in general (IDRC – Lib 1997:1). Furthermore, female students' need for ICTs
is also structured according to their gendered roles and responsibilities, which in turn influence their use
of and response to ICTs.

Female student teachers’ place in African society like other women is markedly distinct from
that of men in almost all parts of life. What female student teachers are capable of doing, their purpose
and needs are strongly held, defined by the boundaries of what African women expect of themselves
and what they are expected to achieve by the rest of African society. In other words African values
direct the way they perceive themselves. Generally, the purpose of African women is defined in terms
of marriage, reproduction and "domestic" chores. Families usually invest more into boys than girls’
education, since girls would eventually be married and move away to their new homes while the boys
marry and remain in the family contributing to the economic fabric of the family. Due to this valued
African practice, boys and men are highly valued. Therefore, more investment is made in their
education, health, and future income-earning potential (IDRC – Lib 1997:1). Along with educational
investment into boys, the boys are supported emotionally more than girls, thereby developing a lesser
sense of self-esteem and self-worthy on the part of girls. Consequently, girls and women take on
second-class status in the home, developing fewer skills used outside the home, setting more limited
goals for themselves, and gaining less access to education and health care. Therefore, there is need for
African women to change traditional attitudes, and to recognise within themselves the capability of
transcending the limits socially ascribed to them.

Musarurwa (2011) observes that the National ICT policy that was adopted in 2005 makes
significant references to the promotion of ICTs in education including their pedagogical use in
educational institutions. The policy’s vision is to transform Zimbabwe into a knowledge-based society
by 2020, while its mission is to accelerate the development and application of ICTs in support of
economic growth and development. The policy’s objectives are to promote the development of ICT
infrastructure, provide education and training programmes to produce knowledge workers and qualified
human resources, to establish relevant structures and institutional mechanisms, to promote ICTs, and to
encourage equitable access to ICTs across genders and to youth, the elderly, and people with disabilities

In Zimbabwe, most of the pre-service primary school teacher education happens in teachers’
colleges which are located in the ten provinces of the country. Zimbabwe has twelve primary school
teachers Colleges and each college is closely linked and has close ties with the community in which it is
located Kwenda (2014:3). These teachers colleges offer Diploma in Primary school teacher education.
However, universities are now also offering primary school teacher education but student teachers in
the universities study for degrees. For example pre-service Bachelor of Education (Primary) offered at
Great Zimbabwe University. Besides teachers colleges, only the Zimbabwe Open University (Z.O.U.)
offers Diploma in Teacher Education to post Ordinary level (O level) school graduates just like the
teachers colleges. However, it should be noted that while teachers colleges offer face to face lectures,
Z.O.U. is strictly virtual learning. It is an open university and learners learn from a distance through
e-learning. With the prevalence of Covid-19, all teacher education institutions were compelled to utilize
virtual learning, therefore, the need for proficiency in ICTs. All Zimbabwean pre-service
college-based teacher education is endorsed by the University of Zimbabwe (Kwenda 2014:3).
Therefore, all colleges are associate colleges of the University of Zimbabwe (Shava 2015:6). The
University of Zimbabwe, as the quality assurer of colleges uplift the use of ICTs and e-learning by
student teachers. In line with the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and
Technology Development’s recommendations in conjunction with the University of Zimbabwe, the
College under study has acquired 2 student computer laboratories and the library with a fleet of
computers for students’ e-learning purposes. The UZ’s regulation of first come first saved in the library
and computer labs (Mbambo-Thata, Mlambo and Mwatsiya 2009:68) also apply at the college.

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1.2 Technology as tool

This involves the use of a large array of hardware and software: word processors, graphic packages;
digital camera, presentation applications, database and spreadsheet, among others. These hardware and
software do not have limited educational purpose, but they are designed to help people extend their
abilities to do work. Digital science probes, for instance are more specialised. The emergency of
technology has been viewed as both culture and gender neutral, (Adera 2007). ICT shave the power to
transcend hierarchies, patriarchal and cultural ideologies which had been upheld for previous
generations. Access to ICTs enable boys and girls to link from a village to the global world. Girls and
women should take advantage of them to empower themselves. When women use digital technology, a
wide range of family and community members also benefit

1.3 Gender

Gender refers to the social meanings that are given to men or women (UNESCO 2017) the definition
focuses on social rather than biological characteristics on men and women. It defines the boundaries of
what men and women can and should do. It shapes their behaviours, roles and expectations in society
Furthermore; it sets rules, societal norms, customs and practices. In Africa, gender is defined according
to roles and functions one take in society.

1.4 Digital gender divide

Digital divide is the gap between those who have access to vital Information Communication
Technology (ICT) resources and those who do not, (Antonio & Tuffley 2014). Gender digital divide
has been cited as the most outstanding inequality brought about by the digital revolution, (Moolman et
al 2007). They argue that women constitute 25% users of internet in Africa. According to Van Dijk and
Hacker (2003) four factors namely, psychological, material, skills, usage and regulate access and use of
computers. Psychological access is when an individual has negative or little interest to gain access to
computers. The material access entails inability to have physical infrastructure. Skills access is when a
person does not have digital literacy while usage access is when one does not have time or opportunity
to access digital technology. Digital divide is a cause for concern in Africa because the prevailing
gender digital divide is a source of inequality between men and women. Hilbert (2011) argues that
naturally women are less tech savvy, more technophobic and technology has not been designed to meet
their needs. Technology has also been considered as within the purview of men and gender norms about
men’s control of technology, limit women’s opportunity to learn and benefit from technology.
Chadwick et al (2013) opine that women are trapped traditional family roles which do not allow them to
achieve more of their potential as a result, they lacy lack digital literacy skills. These roles militate
against their potential to make ample use of technology. In a study in Ghana, Kwami, (2012)
established that there is s correlation between an individual’s work environment and access to digital
technology.

2. Technology acceptance models

2.1 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

Technology acceptance model help to have complete understanding of technology use and acceptance
between men and women. This can help to understand the evolvement of digital gender divide amongst
students in institutions of higher learning. This study sought to use the Technology Acceptance model
TAM and Unified theory of adoption and Use of Technolgy UTAUT. The TAM model was introduced
by Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989) The framework is used to access how users accept and use
technology in business and suitable to access how women and men accept and use technology in
Africa,. TAM has two major variables namely, perceived usefulness of technology and perceived ease
of use. Perceived usefulness entail the degree with which a use believes technology can enhance quality
or performance of work. Usefulness is a very important determinant for user acceptance. Perceived
ease-of-use entails the ability to use and handle a wide range of computer applications for various

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purposes (Schiller 2003). The difference between perceived usefulness and perceived ease-of-use is that
perceived usefulness has a direct impact on job performance while the later relates to performance
impact related to the use of the technology. The perceived usefulness and perceived ease-of-use, jointly
influence the attitude towards the use of technology. Perceived ease-of-use has a direct impact on
perceived usefulness of technology. The attitude to use technology will in turn directly influence the
behavioural intention of an individual to use technology as shown by the following framework.

2.1.1Technology Acceptance Model (adapted from Davis et al., 1989)

UTAUT technology acceptance framework was proposed by Venkatesh et al. (2003) is another related
theory which is used to explain Technology acceptance behaviour of human behaviour. Unlike the
TAM, UTAUT has four independent variables which influence behavioural intention to use technology
namely; the Performance Expectance (PE), Effort Expectance (EF), Social influence (SI) and
Facilitating Condition (FA). The performance expectance is the degree to which an individual believes
the use of technology would enhance performance. This is similar to the perceived usefulness in TAM
.The Effort of Acceptance like the ease-of-use in TAM is the degree ease associated with usage of
technology. The Social Influence is the degree with which other individuals perceive other persons
believe he/she should use a system. The Facilitating Condition is the degree with which an individual
believes that an organisation or infrastructure exist to support the use of a system. Four moderators Age,
Experience, Gender and Voluntariness also play a role in influence acceptance of the use of technology

Research has shown that perceived usefulness and performance expectance is stronger in men
than in women Nysveen et al (2005).,Okazaki & Santos, 2012) Women have also been found to have
low ease-of use of technology because they have high levels of computer anxiety than men. However a
study by Venkatesh and Morris (2000) indicated that women tended to use technology that require less
effort therefore they had stronger effort expectance than men. A study of students in Singapore by Liaw
and Haung (2011) indicated that male students are more inclined To E-Learning than female Students

3. Methodological issues

The study adopted a qualitative approach to gather data from student teachers in two institutions of
higher learning in the Midlands province of Zimbabwe. The students were all studying for a Diploma in
Education (Primary) in the Faculty of Education department of teacher development Z.O.U Midlands
region and one primary teacher education college. Mostly students who enrol for Diploma in teacher
Education Primary are holders of General Certificate of Education (G.C.E) ‘O’ level certificates. They
would have failed to proceed to Advanced level (‘A’ level). Some of them would have acquired the
minimum required qualifications of 5 ‘O’ level passes including English language, Mathematics and
Science to train as a teacher, in more than one examination sitting. This is in line with Shava (2015:7)
who observed that “other countries like New Zealand recruit relatively weaker secondary school
graduates” to train as teachers. Generally there is stiffer completion at teachers colleges, therefore,
those who fail to secure a vacancy at teachers colleges, enrol at Z.O.U for the same programme of study.
The participants for this study were aged between 30 and 35 years.

These student teachers were in their final year after having gone through Teaching Practice
(TP). Both ZOU and the college students were on distance learning during their TP primary schools.
They were expected to write and submit distance learning assignments. Besides the assignments, they
were also expected to carry out an action research in the schools they were deployed for TP while
consulting their supervisors back at college, hence the need for internet. The researchers had observed
that mostly, female students would prefer to travel long distances from their TP schools to college in
order to consult their supervisors instead of posting their researches through the internet. Furthermore,
students performed poorly on distance assignments as compared to the assignments they researched on
while on campus.

For the purpose of this study, the researchers also observed computer usage by female and male
students in the computer laboratories and in the library. In most cases female students were found
hunched beside a male student when carrying out tasks and researching online in the computer
laboratories. Although the college enrolled more female students than male students, female students
relied on male students as they work online. Researchers had also observed that most of the late

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submissions of long distance assignments were by female students. The cover letters for late submission
pointed at one cause, financial constraints.

Besides these observations, data was obtained through structured interviews. Each of the
identified participants was approached by the authors with interview guides or a set of interview
questions which were open-ended. The interview guide had spaces at the end of each question to allow
the authors to write down reflective notes on how the participant responded. Furthermore, the
open-ended questions had the advantage of offering the participants a wider scope of flexibility. For
each question, the authors had an opportunity to follow up on any revealing leads given by the
participants. This is in line with Tshuma and Mafa (2013:127) who posits that probing the participants
further may help clear the misunderstandings and misconceptions that may arise.

Focus group discussions were also utilised to complement interviews, as it was noted that they
induce social interactions to those that occur in everyday life but in greater focus (Denzin and Lincoln
2000: 15). The focus group discussions were deemed important in that they “create a shared
understanding of the objectives of the research, create a transparent atmosphere that reduced suspicion”
Mbambo-Thata, et al (2009:68). Furthermore, focus group discussions became handy in gathering data
on female student teachers’ experiences with access to and use of computers for online learning.
Participants were given the opportunity to explore their experiences with using e-learning both on and
off campus including what they thought could be done to improve their engagements with ICTs. Due to
the need for social distancing, the focus group discussions were done on line.

4. Results

4.1 Gender and technology

Results showed that both male and female students acknowledge that there were gender disparities in
technology use and acceptance which tilt in favour of male students. Female students indicated that
although they have equal opportunities in terms of access to ICT infrastructure in the campus, male
students have an edge in terms of ease-of-use and confidence. Some female students made the following
remarks:

Even if I have the computer and Internet access, I have to seek assistance from male
counterparts on how to use a number of applications.

Naturally, men are technically minded and we cannot compete with them
Male students confirmed not only assisting students with computer application but also female
lectures. Noteworthy from the remarks was the fact that although male and female student have equal
Facilitating Conditions (FC), female students’ perceived ease-of use and performance acceptance is less
than that of male students. This confirms Hilbert (2011)’s view that women are less tech savvy and
more technophobic than men.
On the use of E-learning both male and female students felt it was requirement since on line
learning was the encouraged mode of learning. However, ease-of use on computers for e-learning was a
challenge. Many female students had problem in using online learning platforms when compared to
male students. Frequency of the use of computer ICT gadgets also varied according to gender, female
students indicated that they use computers and mobile phone for communication on social media
platforms like whattsupp and facebook. This meant that male and female students have different
perceived usefulness of computers. This could also result in differences in attitudes and behavioural
intention to use ICT gadgets. Male student had interest in research and used ICTs more often than
female students.
Students indicated that internet access was a challenge in most schools there by giving them
challenges in consulting their project supervisors online. However, the challenge of access to the
internet affected both male and female students in the same way.

4.2 Social influence on the use of ICTs by female students

Asked on what could be the source of the disparities in the use and acceptance of ICTs female students
made reference to the way they were brought.

The roles which we ladies play in society do not give us opportunity to learn more about ICTs.

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Even if the internet and other ICT gadgets are there in the home, we spend more time doing household
chores than using ICT gadgets when compared to men.

The remark indicates that even if women can have material access of technology, they do not
have the time and opportunity to use them because of culture, Van Dijk and Hacker (2003). As stated in
the definition of gender the roles and expectations of an individual in society define one’s gender. The
norms and patterns of behaviour accepted in society help to make interactions amongst people
predictable, (Jekinns 2000). This signals that men and women are cultural products. Most of what they,
do is influenced by cultural values and norms.

5 Conclusions

Female student teachers are not utilising the gender neutrality of ICTs despite some of them having the
ICT gadgets and institutions of higher learning having acquired enough ICTs to cater for both male and
female students. African values have an impact on how female students perceive themselves in terms of
accessing and using ICTs. Increased use of technology is another frontier which women can use to
enhance gender equality. Women need performance expectance, effort expectance and attitudes in
order to improve their behavioural intentions to use ICTs. African government need to pay attention in
improving women’s digital literacy and access to ICTs infrastructure.

6. Recommendations

The study revealed that African societal norms and values promote the digital gender divide that exist
between male and female students which in turn affect the smooth running of the integrated approach of
teaching and learning in the post Covid-19 era. Therefore, the researchers recommend that:

6.1 Female Students should learning to question dominant social norms and concepts, in relation to
their own actual experiences and their feelings about these. It is hoped that this will equip them and
enable them to learn to critique other current unfair and discriminatory practices.

6.2 Institutions of higher learning in Zimbabwe should also put in place a programme of education
for empowerment which aims to stimulate such reflexive awareness among female student teachers
which would provide them with a valuable life skill that could help them to protect and further their
career in a patriarchal context and society.

6.3 Higher education institutions should take a leading role in applying gender lenses to reflect on
situations and abilities of men and women with regard to the use of ICTs.

6.4 Higher education institutions and national policies should include digital gender equality in
their ICT policies.

6.5 African government need to pay attention to improving women’s digital literacy and access to
ICTs infrastructure

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Views of Teachers in Advancing Various Sport
Activities in Multicultural School Contexts of

South Africa

Gregory ALEXANDERa*, Sheila MATOTIa & Pieter VAN ZYLb
aFaculty of Humanities, Central University of Technology, South Africa

bMasters Graduate, Central University of Technology, South Africa
*[email protected]

Abstract: The participation of learners in schools’ extracurricular programmes seem to have a
positive influence on their attendance, participation, academic success and future career aspirations.
On the otherhand, it is also noted that the lack or in some cases, the non-existence of
extracurricular activities hinders learners’ growth, learning, especially in multicultural school
settings, where the basis for learners’ development has to occur in a conducive environment.
Furthermore, literature has demonstrated that learner involvement in various sport activities is
essential in boosting aspects of their cognitive-,social-,emotional-,spiritual-, moral and physical
development, especially where teachers fulfil a prominent role in motivating learners to participate in
sport activities. This paper ascertains, via an open ended qualitative questionnaire, the views of
teachers in advancing sport activities in five multicultural schools of the Lejweleputswa educational
district in the Free State province of South Africa. Research findings reveal that schools offer sport
activities to varying degrees and that some activities are non-existent at most schools. Teacher
participants appear to lack knowledge, skills, commitment, willingness and enthusiasm to encourage
learners to participate in extracurricular activities and as such, come forth as being unsure of how
extracurricular activities could possibly promote the holistic development of their learners. The study
recommends that multicultural schools in the Letjweleputswa educational district need to implement
various sport activities as to develop various traits, competencies, lifeskills and abilities amongst
learners.

Keywords: Extracurricular activities, multicultural schools, sport activities, teacher views

1. Introductory Background

The Teachers need to become creative in finding effective ways to enhance a learner’s development
(Gatens, 2014). The School Sports Policy of South Africa, stipulates that school-based teachers are
obligated to form 70% of the representation of the SSCC (School Sport Coordinating Committee). The
National Department of Education and teachers unions have agreed on 1800 working hours for teachers
in a school calendar year (Clark, 2010), whilst a minimum of 1400 hours per year should be directed
towards various aspects of learners’ development and growth. It therefore becomes crucial for teachers
to recognise the importance of their involvement in extracurricular activities, especially in various sport
codes (Mart, 2013). Learners may not always be in a position in recognising all the advantages offered
in extracurricular activities at their schools. Teachers need to become educated about the programmes
they could suggest to their learners (Metsapelto & Pulkkinen, 2012).

Teachers who participate in extracurricular activities assist in fostering healthy relations
between teachers and learners in the classroom and in the broader school community. Teachers are in
a suitable position to encourage learners to change their negative attitudes towards school and in
motivating these young individuals in effectively participating in sport activities. The place wherein
learners often find comfort or enjoyment is outside the formal classroom where teaching can take place,
in a more settled environment (Gatens,2014)- such an environment may become a place where learners
love to learn; a place they pursue when they wish to learn; and a place where learners remember fondly,
when they reflect on their learning experiences (Graetz, 2018).

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Learners in multicultural schools of the Lejweleputswa educational district may also be faced
with limited opportunities for choices and seemingly lack strong self-determination skills. As such,
teachers need to encourage learners in exploring learners’ potential interests and connect them to
various sport activities. Teachers need to realise that extracurricular activities are also applied in formal
class engagements and not only on the sports field (Patel, 2003). Thus, incorporating these activities in
class do not only promote learners’ development, growth and learning, but also widen their cognitive
abilities and broaden their knowledge (Hare, 2010).

According to Statistics South Africa (2016), there is a large percentage of learners in
multicultural schools of the Lejweleputswa educational district who experience challenges in
completing their schooling. A total of 367 out of 3134 people obtained higher education, while 1065
out of 3134 people completed their grade 12 school leaving certificate. The low level of education in
this educational district may be due to the low socio-economic status and high levels of poverty in the
community. This situation in turn could possibly translate in a lack support for encouraging learners to
participate in sport activities and as such, cause learners not to have a sense of belonging (Hart, 2016).
School-based isolation by race and class lead to social stratification whilst the unequal allocation of
educational resources and experiences of learners confine to low socio-economic backgrounds might
cause them to experience extreme challenges (Tompsett, 2017).

While this study focuses on ascertaining the views of teachers in advancing sport activities in
five multicultural schools of the Lejweleputswa educational district, a gap in the use of effective
strategies by teachers in multicultural schools of the Lejweleputswa educational district in the Free
State province of South Africa seem to exist. In some instances, schools request additional fees and
costs from parents as a mechanism of enhancing learners’ holistic development- this is fulfilled through
various sporting codes, school newspapers, literary activities, drama clubs and cultural clubs. Learners
may be introduced to various sport activities at school which may not be entirely appropriate to their
learning- this in essence may hinder their health promotion and well-being.

2. The Need for Learner Participation in Multicultural Schools

Various scholars report that the notion of multicultural education needs to be understood from a variety
of perspectives by several individuals and groups. Multicultural education is viewed as a process which
guides the total education enterprise and it embraces the recognition of a culturally pluralistic society in
an education system which is inclusive of all races and cultures (Lemmer, Meier and Van Wyk, 2010
& Tosic, 2012). A major goal of multicultural education is to reform the school and other educational
institutions so that learners from diverse racial, ethnic, and socio-economic and class groups will
experience educational quality” (Banks & Banks, 2002). Therefore, multicultural education should thus
be regarded as a procedure which guides the education initiative. Multicultural education should be a
method of comprehensive school improvement and basic education for all learners. According to
Alexander (2016), the enhancement of multicultural education, schools and society need to accept and
affirm the pluralism (racial, ethic, linguistic, economic, religious, and gender) that learners,
communities and teachers represent in order to further holistic development, even before the use of
extracurricular activities are set in place to assist these needs. Multicultural education should be
democratic to all principles of social justice (Jwan & Kisaka, 2017). This could be of particular
relevance to all multicultural schools in the Lejweleputswa educational district. Abdullah (2009)
further argues that multicultural education is an opportunity for equality, especially for learners who
have been denied an opportunity to grow and participate in various sport activities. Teachers, therefore
need to be conscious of the role of diversity in classrooms and on the sport fields when learners and
teachers participate in the extra-curricula school programme. Positive social contact between learners
should not only focus on learners from different ethnicities, but on the holistic development of all
learners in multicultural schools.

The structures of the schools in the Lejweleputswa educational district need to focus on the
promotion of a learning environment aimed at enhancing academic and sport activities. It is crucial to
focus on the holistic growth of learners by engaging with learners, and accordingly, assisting them in
understanding diversity in terms of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, socio-economic status, class and

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sexual orientation (Gorski, 2015). Social contact between learners and teachers should not only focus
on difference, but on the holistic development of all learners in multicultural schools.

Sports as an aspect of physical education and health promotion are woven together and is an
essential component of quality education (Shipley, 2016). Sport, according to the Oxford Dictionary is
an activity comprising physical action and skill in which an individual or team competes with others for
entertainment, such as soccer, rugby, or cricket. Sports need to be valued to ensure the holistic
development of learners as they develop and promote their physical, social and emotional health
(Thompson et al., 2018). As learners develop through physical education, they learn what their bodies
can do; they acquire self-confidence, thus promoting social and emotional development. According to
Brende (2015), two factors that will ensure robust sport and physical education for teachers to use in
school are: the development of aids and resources in line with the curriculum, and the capacity
development of teachers to apply a resource, such as an indigenous game of “morabaraba” in
mathematics, when teaching this subject. The applicability of physical education in the extracurricular
programme of multicultural schools is to provide quality sport activities in ensuring learner
involvement in school sports; enabling learners to develop motor an cognitive skills; providing
opportunities to develop responsibility by collaborating in groups independently of the teacher; availing
opportunities for younger learners to realise their potential in sports; developing a healthy attitude
towards physical education and developing gross and fine motor skills (Shipley, 2016 & Cherry, 2018).

3. Methodology

For this quantitative research study, a total of 129 teachers was selected from five multicultural schools
in the Lejweleputswa educational district of the Free State province South Africa. However, only 65
teacher participants completed questionnaires. The reason for involving teachers in the study was to
ascertain their views on advancing sport activities in developing learners’ traits, life skills,
competencies and abilities. An open ended questionnaire was used to investigate teachers’ views on
how sport activities can be used in multicultural school contexts to promote learner growth,
development and learning. The majority of the schools are located in the township area. These schools
are divided into the Foundation phase (grades R-3), Intermediate phase (grades 4-6), Senior phase
(grades 7-9) and Further Education & Training phase (grades 10-12). The school which is situated in the
town area (historically white area) is a combined school, from grade R to 12. It was observed that the
learners of the combined school are exposed to more opportunities to participate in various sport codes
and activities.

4. Analysis and Discussion of Results

It should be noted that the authors of this paper presented the results confined to one open ended
question in the questionnaire which probed teachers’ views on the use and advancement of sporting
activities in five multicultural schools (schools A,B,C,D & E) of the Lejweleputswa educational district
of the Free State province South Africa. In terms of the coding SAT2 (refers to School A, Teacher
Participant 2) etc.

An analysis and discussion of the results follow hereunder:
Sport participation is a familiar sight at schools and is an important socialising agent. The sports
environment reflects an appropriate setting for the development of social and moral values, particularly
for the youth (May, 2018). Therefore, it can be claimed that participation in sport activities may
strengthen an understanding and respect for cultural diversity in multicultural schools (May, 2018).

Teacher participants (SAT2, SAT3, SAT4, SAT5, SAT6, SAT7, SAT8, SAT13, SAT14, SAT15,
SBT2, SBT6, SBT8, SCT1, SCT2, SCT6, SCT7, SCT14, SCT20, SCT21, SCT22, SDT2, SDT4, SDT6,
SDT7, SET3, and SET9) revealed that learners who participate in sport and cultural activities activities
have the opportunity to meet people from different cultural backgrounds, which in turn promote
diversity and create tolerance and mutual respect between ethnicities and race groups.

SCT7: “Learners are not only learning more about cultural differences, but also experience learners

from different cultures. It’s wonderful to have such diversity of culture within a school setting, as this variety of

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experience creates tolerance and mutual respect, which may translate later into life and may even improve
academic results.”

Gill (2017) suggests that sporting activities can promote interaction amongst children from
different cultures, while also assisting individuals to maintain ties with their own cultural groups, thus
facilitating the maintenance of their cultural heritage.

SAT15: “The school comprises learners that come from different backgrounds and cultures. During the

particular activity, learners will be able to learn about other cultures’ practices and beliefs from their peers and
this may lead to tolerance of other cultures and possibly respect. This may be a result of learners being in constant
contact with one another or the ability of the teacher to foster togetherness and cooperation.”

SBT6: “Sport brings people together and allows learners to interact with different characters and it

gives them a different outlook on life and background.”

Morela, Hatzigeorgiadis, Kouli, Elbe and Sanchez (2013) reveal that participation in sport
activities may not have the strength to achieve the anticipated integration but rather provide common
ground where integration can be cultivated.

SCT2 and SCT21: “Sport as an activity knows no boundaries like race and is based on the individual’s’

merits. As a child, you need to accommodate different cultures to form part of a team culture.”

In addition to what was asserted by SCT2 and SCT21 in the above statement, SAT3, SBT7,
SCT4, SCT5, and SDT6 also had a similar view, but added that culture can be accommodated by
debating clubs, musical theatre and indigenous sporting game.

SCT14: “Debating competitions, art and cultural competitions encourage learners to learn and develop

their own cultures through public speaking, drama, music, and dance performances.”

Teacher participants SDT7 and SET3 mentioned that at school level, soccer teams are
formulated in a way of bringing the different learners of different cultures to understand one another to
achieve one common goal. The different learners of different cultures develop a sense of caring for and
accepting one another. Learners, parents, educators, and community members learn to appreciate,
respect and help one another work together as one. They should also learn to tolerate and accept the way
things are done in a multicultural community and school.

Teacher participants (SAT5, SAT7, and SET9) mentioned that learners in a multicultural school
and community can also make use of playing indigenous games to learn from different cultures.
SAT5: “Learners should mix from different schools to play indigenous games so that learners can learn about the

different cultural backgrounds in their schools.”

Teacher participants (SAT1, SAT8, SAT14, SBT2, SCT22, SDT2, SDT4, and SDT6) believe that
learners who develop and promote multiculturalism amongst their peers will be eager to participate in
extracurricular activities.

SAT2: “We have learners from different cultural families when we play sport or do any cultural

activities. The learners learn from one another’s cultures, therefore all learners learn about different
backgrounds from theirs. Motivation and regular practice of the learners help to promote multiculturalism.
Visiting different schools to play against, inviting other schools to our school to play is an important way of
learning about other cultures. Present a meeting on how we can improve sport by exchanging ideas and teaching
our learners different cultural sports.”

As revealed by SAT8 sport activities promote multiculturalism in the school and in the broader
community, because learners from varied backgrounds participate in the activities. Learners start to
share norms and values through sport. Learners meet new friends and learn different things about other
cultures in this way.

In addition to what was asserted by SAT8 in the above statement, SBT2 also had a similar view.
SBT2: “Sport and cultural activities may assist in breaking down bias and stereotypes, even gender bias. For

example, having girls make up a soccer team may help people see that females are also capable human beings.
Non-gender biased sporting codes will help learners adjust and understand different people. Indigenous games
help learners express their culture and share with others, while learning about different cultures as well.”

Teacher participants (SCT22 and SDT2) mentioned that teachers and learners do not always get
to know other learners on a cultural level. On a sports field and stage (culture), ethnicity, language and
beliefs do not matter as they form part of a bigger entity. Sport promotes multiculturalism in the group
as a whole by having to manage certain situations and work together to compete or work towards a
common goal. This contributes to unity in a school and the acceptance of one another’s cultural beliefs.
In a team it does not matter what your socio-economic status is but how well you perform/participate as
a team member.

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SDT2: “When schools participate in sports with different cultures they get to learn the culture of others

and end up getting to understand the other. Participating in sports promotes multiculturalism though sport.”

SDT6: “Using different activities in multicultural classrooms are an excellent way of fostering and encouraging

learners to share their heritage and promote the learning of other cultures.”

Sport activities in multicultural schools offer learners the opportunity to learn, deal, and
develop a sense of diversity in a multicultural setting. Diversity in multicultural schools ought to be a
variety of attributes defining humankind in physiological, psychological, cultural, personality,
sexuality, learning preferences, and nationality (Hartell & Meier, 2009). Developing these critical
attributes of humanity also accentuates the richness of Ubuntu of people and their inheritance: ‘Ubuntu,
a person is a person through other people’. The quality of being a human through participating in sport
activities is a vital part of the holistic development of people (Chibba, 2013).

5. Conclusion

The teachers in multicultural schools of the Lejweleputswa educational district of the Free State
province South Africa need to be skilled and empowered to use of various sporting activities in
promoting learners’ holistic development. Each teacher basic and enriched training in a specific sport
activity and sporting code as to effectively development learners’ traits, life skills, competencies and
abilities. Through the school structure, learners may also be motivated to participate more frequently in
sport activities and as such teachers foster a positive mind set among parents and in the broader school
community.

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Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. A.M. (Eds.).(2002). Handbook of research on multicultural Education(2nd ed). San
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Postgraduate Supervision: Revisiting Gurr’s
Competent Autonomy Concept through
Anecdotal Experiences

Alfred Henry MAKURA
Central University of Technology, South Africa

[email protected]

Abstract: The aim of this self-reflection paper is to share my postgraduate student
supervision experiences during the turbulent times presented by COVID-19 pandemic and
before. This, against a backdrop of Gurr’s (2001) concept of ‘competent autonomy’ of his
Supervisor/Student Alignment model (in postgraduate supervision). The paper argues that
turbulent times offer academics an opportunity for critical self-reflection while the
supervisee is presented with an opportunity to self-manage and ‘be their own supervisor’. I
systematically reflect on approaches to supervision, what I perceive as an effective
supervision approach, tensions and pleasures in supervision and the implications of the
supervisory process on students’ quest for ‘competent autonomy’. The anecdotal reflections
are limited to my encounters with Masters’ and doctoral candidates at several public
universities in South Africa through the action research design. Such encounters offer
invaluable ontological and epistemological insights that are critical in inculcating and
maintaining quality competent autonomy in the supervisee. Moreover, postgraduate
supervision is critical in stakeholders’ professional growth, interactions and in decolonising
the supervisory process in academe. A Community of Practice (CoP) is suggested.

Keywords: COVID-19, education management, postgraduate supervision, professional
development, reflection

1. Introduction

Universities are the most advanced institutions of learning that the world possesses, and it is the duty of
their academics and students, particularly postgraduate students to serve the interest of humanity
through inquiry and advanced studies (Lewis, 2010; Maxwell & Barnett, 2007). This can be achieved
through supervision. Academics are generally preoccupied with the supervision and management of
postgraduate candidates, chiefly, master and doctoral students. Postgraduate candidates are thus
supported and regularly monitored by supervisors who are themselves researchers (Pole, 1998). This
presupposes that the supervisor is someone well versed in active research processes and culture if
supervision is to serve humanity. It is also presumed that the supervisee is able of self-supervise
especially in turbulent times. But does he or she know what supervision is or entails?

2. Aims of the study

This self-reflective enquiry was guided by Olivier’s (2007:1130) strategy by seeking a two-pronged end
(a) integrating my ontological values into supervisory practice with view to emancipate postgraduate
students through promoting independence and becoming competently autonomous candidates (b) offer
insights to fellow supervisors to consider for effective and efficient postgraduate supervision

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3. Supervision

Supervision is a dynamic process, wherein supervisors aim at creating critical consciousness in their
students. i.e., making a student aware of his or her objective reality and circumstances. Olivier (2021)
views it as the practice of overseeing and managing a distinctive pedagogic practice aimed at guiding
postgraduate students to become independent researchers after completing their studies. The role of the
supervisor, for instance, is that of creating a student who is aware of oppressive and racial or
xenophobic tendencies in the institution he/she is operating including being self-aware of one’s
objective realities through quality guidance. Some oppressive tendencies encompass structural
inequalities, corrupt practices and ethical aspects that enhance or curtail learning. A critically conscious
student should adopt newer modes of learning by dismantling any retrogressive beliefs and practices
including self-hate. Hence, Henning (2004) has advocated for the adoption of critical theory in creating
critical consciousness in students to dismantle ideologies that promote oppression. Rispel (2021) views
such development as professional empowerment and a way of decentring power from the supervisor.
To this end, the role players create a free, secure and trustworthy relationship (Chikasha, 2013), one not
prone to curtailment emanating from the either party. The role of the supervisor, in this instance, is that
adopting best and effective strategies that mitigate the challenges presented by COVID-19 pandemic.

4. Gurr’s Supervisor/Student Alignment supervision model

Gurr (2001) argues that any postgraduate supervision endeavour especially doctoral should ultimately
lead a candidate to develop “competent autonomy”. The candidate, he argues, is expected to single
handedly assess one’s plans and actions against disciplinary norms and standards and ultimately
self-supervise. The supervisor’s style in handling the ensuing interactions should balance with the needs
of the candidate. The candidate is gradually weaned with the expectation that he/she will be
competently autonomous. In illustrating his argument, Gurr (2001) suggested two dimensions namely
“direct/indirect” as well as “active/passive” from which he developed four modes or categories of
behaviour in the supervision matrix (Direct active; Indirect active; Indirect passive and Passive).
The “Direct active” category is synonymous with the “traditional approach”. In the supervision
relationship the supervisor’s behaviour is characterised by initiating, telling and directing the candidate
(Delany & Watkin, 2009). It is more inclined to the colonial and authoritarian behaviour which assumes
that the candidate has ability shortcomings and must be assisted. Under the “Indirect active” behaviour,
the supervisor elicits supervisees’ opinions and suggestions through asking and accepting and
interrogating them. Thus, the student has leeway to make a stand on an opinion or episteme. The third
behaviour, “Indirect passive” the supervisor predominantly listens while the candidate proffers the
candidate’s ideas and suggestions. This behaviour is described by Poole (2010) as “introspective
reflexivity”. The candidate processes information and engages in self-reflection and the supervisor will
comment later. The final behaviour is the “Passive” wherein the supervisor makes no input and does not
respond to a candidate’s input. The central thesis in Gurr’s (2001) submission is that the supervisee on
completion must have gradually transformed from being the inactive dependent mode to competent
autonomy. This realisation will achieve and ensure quality (Olivier, 2007) notwithstanding impediment
on that terrain. One of the contemporary challenges to education processes is COVID-19.

5. Challenges presented by COVID-19 and learning institutions

The advent of the global pandemic, COVID-19 appear to have the compounded the supervisory woes in
many instances. This is in addition to well documented challenges in the supervisory journey. An
appreciable body of literature on the impact of the pandemic on postgraduate supervision is slowly
emerging (Börgeson, Sotak, Kraft, Bagunu, Biörserud, & Lange, 2021; Corbera, Anguelovski,
Honey-Rosés, & Ruiz-Mallén, 2020; Ghani, 2020; Lasater, Smith, Pijanowski, & Brady, 2021;
Madikizela-Madiya & Atwebembeire, 2020; Motala, & Menon, 2020; Suparman, 2021).
Madikizela-Madiya and Atwbembeire (2020) indicate that research activity in South African
universities for instance, has been halted or postponed due to campus closures, researchers isolated and

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unable to work in facilities, time lost and research funding for projects reduced. Referring to a South
African university, Motala and Menon (2020), opine that because of the disruption, students’
conceptual understanding through remote learning and teaching is curtailed during COVID-19
lockdown while research activities have been suspended. The authors lament noting that:

The disruption from the pandemic raises multiple threats for postgraduate scholarship including
potential deterioration in the quality of research projects because approved methods have to be changed
or abandoned, declines in the productive persistence of the student as their anxiety and stress increases
because their project is delayed or changed, changes in the mode of supervision, and the inability to use
alternative methods because there is a lack of expertise to supervise the project, and delay in time to
completion. (pg. 91)

In addition to the challenges outlined above Ghani (2020) has listed technical related challenges
such as space, connectivity, noise and safety. Such challenges have reportedly prompted institutions to
adopt alternative modes of teaching and postgraduate supervision. In the case of Indonesia, Suparman
(2020) has bemoaned the reduction of the meeting time (of supervisor and student) and had called for
stronger online-paper based supervision and paper mentoring. But it is not only COVID-19 that has
presented pedagogic challenges. A study by Erichsen, Bolligerb and Halupa (2014), demonstrated that
students completing doctoral studies through the distance model encountered more challenges through
that mode than those learning through blended models. They were thus less satisfied with the
supervision. Males were more satisfied with the supervision than females. For these to happen, it is
imperative that the supervisor invests more time and effort into postgraduate supervision as well as
adopting effective supervisory models.

A Chinese study by Gu, He and Liu (2017), demonstrated that creative self-efficacy influenced a
student’s intrinsic motivation by prompting them to be creative indirectly. Such students were likely to
be critical thinkers if they pursued autonomous learning. Moreover, supervisors could thus help the
students to develop and master creative skills during and after the supervisory encounters. Some
students are endowed with academic ability but have the proclivity of drifting into laziness. The use of
an appropriate distance learning mode such as online learning may compel such candidates to take
ownership of their studies. But Manyike (2017) warns of the practice related to the arbitrary allocation
of students to supervisors, lack of academic writing support and the perennial ODL challenges
stemming from their insistence of written communication (with its negative ramifications on weaker
learners).

Some of the tensions in the supervision journey, it is claimed, emanate from the proclivity by
supervisors towards using the traditional supervisory approach (Malfroy 2005; Snow-Goreno 2008; Lea
& Stierer 2009; Blitzer & Albertyn 2011; Carter & Kumar 2017; Hutchings 2017; Olivier, 2021). Such
approaches are not always appropriate for the contemporary context in which we find ourselves in.
Olivier (2021) submits that the focus of traditional approaches is more on training people to amass
knowledge with view to enhance their practice. It is the role of the supervisor to decolonise
(Manathanga, 2010) the traditional supervisory process in academe.

6. Methodology

I adopted action research as my preferred design. This design enables supervisors to take ownership of
their practice systematically through self-reflection (Olivier, 2007). Additionally, action research is a
form of instructional supervision meant to engage teachers in reflective practice and interrogate factors
impacting on student success (Glanz, 2005). It assists practitioners to be alive to the practical
challenges they encounter and thus offering them insights in tackling them using evidence. In reflecting
on my supervisory practice, I am cognisant of the pedagogical values I hold in high esteem. These, in
addition to critical consciousness, diligence and honesty, relate to the need to emancipate the
postgraduate candidate by making him or her acquire what Gurr (2001) calls competent autonomy. I
have supervised to completion over ten Masters’ and doctoral candidates at two higher education
institutions in South Africa. My interactions with them through many modes offered the much-needed
reflection which are the basis of my narrative. Thematically, I reflect on approaches to supervision and
what I perceive as an effective supervision approach, tensions and pleasures in supervision and end the
discussion on the implications of the supervisory process on students’ quest for ‘competent autonomy’.

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7. My anecdotal reflections on postgraduate supervision

7.1 An Effective Approach to postgraduate supervision?

Basing my reflection on Gurr’s (2001) modes outlined earlier on, I personally favour the ‘indirect
active’ mode of supervision. This is where the supervisee is directed to take ownership of his or her
learning (i.e., self-regulated learning or learning through discovery). This mode is also like the
apprenticeship model where the learner learns from the wise counsel of the role model. It is a technique
I use frequently when supervising my postgraduate students. I always pose problem-solving questions
each time a candidate submits written or verbal work. I cause a candidate to think deeply on any aspect
of submitted work. I train students not to be gullible but to be critical of his or her work. But in
instances where a student slackens, I may resort to the “Direct active” mode. The COVID-19 pandemic
has limited face-to-face interaction and, in the process, presented unique pedagogical challenges. Most
candidates are mature with heavy national and domestic(family) responsibilities. Their being confined
to their homes during the turbulent era of COVID-19, has slowed their academic progress. Most
reported connectivity/technical challenges in addition to unconducive learning home environment. I
have also been overwhelmed by online tasks from the competing demands of other students and have
struggled to offer meaningful feedback to all constituencies.

7.2 Tensions and pleasures in supervision

The supervision journey, like any other pedagogical undertaking, is fraught with impediments. In my
view conflicts emanate from varying perceptions regarding how knowledge ought to be constructed.
Most candidates acquired their education through the traditional supervisory approaches. Some still
believe that should be treated as children that need to be handled and leashed along the ‘formal’
academic journey (paternalistic tendencies). Such approaches are akin to the “Jug-Mug theory” where
the student believes to be devoid of research knowledge, hence need to be assisted through being
dragged along and knowledge ‘poured’ into their heads! Such craving for a rigid patriarchal approach is
fertile ground for conflicts between supervisor and supervisee.

Rademeyer (1994) cited in Lessing and Schulze (2002) argues that good supervisors do not
focus on issues that are peripheral to their research expertise. However, some students want to depend
on me as supervisor instead of taking ownership of their studies. Hence, Bogo and Dill (2008) submit
that traditional approaches reinforce notions of the superiority of the supervisor’s knowledge. Some of
my supervisee perceive themselves as incapable of journeying alone. Some struggle to conceptualise a
topic let alone processing data. Adopting the traditional approach to supervision has never been on my
plate. My desire is that of churning a postgraduate student who is a competent researcher, one has
mastered technical skills and competencies. And talking of technical skills, I have come across
candidates who cannot format a document let alone type at a rate (fast) commensurate with the demands
of postgraduate level. This challenge tends to persist to completion. A potential source of tensions in
postgraduate supervision is co-supervision.

A study by Wichmann-Hansen, Thomsen and Nodernteft (2015) identified collective
supervision as one of the strategies in higher education postgraduate supervision. They however
stressed that such an approach was fraught with challenges. Three critical challenges confronting
supervisors were identified: The challenges of providing uniform assistance to a heterogeneous group
of students, maintaining a balance during student participation of students and developing student’s
analytical skills. While division of labour is encouraged, I found it, in certain instances to be
retrogressive. One of the supervisors may work in cross-purposes in assisting the candidate. I have often
seen the development of two or three camps among three people! (e.g., a co-supervisor conniving with
the candidate or vice versa, or each person being a camp unto themselves). This is evident during
communication among the stakeholders. Conflicting messages may be sent to the candidate with the
effect that the candidate ends up confused or siding with one of the supervisors. It is necessary that the
main supervisor be the point man or point woman for tracking and professional or ethical reasons. This
form of group supervision enriches the candidate if managed well. Chikasha (2013:268) opines that
mono-supervision wherein a “tri-pedal relationship between the student, supervisor, and institution in
promoting research” should be pursued.

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8. The implications of the supervisory process on students’ quest for ‘competent
autonomy’

If postgraduate candidates remain independently focused while upholding the right ethical standards
and practices, they can achieve competent autonomy. I believe in academic reciprocity wherein all role
players have much to offer in creating a knowledgeable candidate. It is in this context that group
supervision becomes imperative. Hence, Pyhältö, Vekkaila, and Keskinen (2015) and Chikasha (2013),
have suggested group supervision. Their view is that collective supervision strategies are more
efficacious and less prone to challenges than individualised forms. This means the supervisor should
engage and manage the postgraduate student so that they can proficiently and meritoriously use their
intelligence to build upon their extant intellectual capacity. Leshem and Trafford (2007) cited by
Vincent (2013) opine that the process of developing a conceptual framework within a doctoral journey
is a “maturation process for the researcher” which assists not only in research decisions but “impacts on
ways we see world around us”. Wisker (2009) also cited by Vincent (2013) suggests that undertaking
the doctorate can lead to “ontological change” for the researcher. The candidate develops new ways of
thinking and viewing the world. Old thought patterns may be discarded, and new ones adopted. The
supervisees learn to take a position and defend that position. Such ontological and epistemological
premises are fraught with power dynamics which must, nevertheless, be mitigated. The student and
supervisor need to possess clarity regarding their roles and responsibilities. Hence, the supervisory
process ‘demands competent and accessible supervisors’ (Lessing & Schulze 2002: 139).

As supervisors, we need to contain any challenges that might arise. Given that they will be
researching on ‘animal subjects’ of which human beings are part, it is important that they be aware of
ethical issues. The doctoral journey, as a process of identity formation (conceptual framework…
changing the way you look at the world). The journey begins with both the supervisor and supervisee
walking side by side as ‘learners.’ For, Tichapondwa (2013:25) “the supervisor immediately becomes a
student along with the student”. The supervisee needs to be guided systematically to create knowledge
and developing competent autonomy. Regular feedback and constant monitoring are critical aspects in
that journey. In my practice, I always remind my candidates of the need to remain focused while
upholding the right ethical standards and practices. It is through such an approach that the student can
develop “competent autonomy” which Gurr (2001) advocated.

9. Recommendations

Given that the supervisory practices have taken a knock from the turbulence of the COVID-19
pandemic, it is imperative that supervisors and candidates re-strategise but still focus on churning a
competent and quality graduand. One way is to draft formal academic contracts with specific timelines
and deliverables. Such contracts should take cognisance of the set quality assurance standards at the
respective educational levels. Contracts are formal and legal academic documents which, if adhered to,
will obliterate some endemic challenges such as academic truancy. Secondly, offering supervisors
constant training (Brew & Peseta, 2007; Makondo, 2012) and alternative forms of postgraduate
supervision (Bitzer & Albertyn, 2011) can be a noble undertaking. Makondo (2012:105) was correct
when he observed that “the calibre, attitude and mindset of lecturers in institutions of higher education
need drastic improvement and change if academic excellence is to be attainable and sustained in the 21st
century”. Hence, the content of the training regime on postgraduate student supervision that I envisage,
should focus on supervisors’ epistemes and how they can capacitate their clientele. Areas such as
notions of supervision, epistemology, feedback, contract, supervision best practices and the research
process spring to mind. A conceptual change approach in how supervisors frame teaching and learning
(Ho, Watkins and Kelley 2001) especially regarding supervision is what is required in my opinion. A
Community of Practice or co-supervision should be encouraged in the spirit of professional
development (Makuye 2012).

Given that the prevalent form of supervision in some higher education institutions is ad hoc and
has side effect on students' learning, it is imperative that staff and students be assisted to concentrate on
supervisory practices that enhance students’ concept mastery. Gibbs (1999) advocated the need for
teachers to re-conceptualise supervision as 'learning criteria' by harnessing assessment for learning in

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the supervision equation. Students’ perceptions and conceptions of supervision have a positive bearing
on their academic performance and ultimately throughput rates. Our role as members of the CoPs
becomes that of quality assurer, courtesy of implementing best supervisory practices. The CoP concept
is synonymous with what Manathunga (2010) calls intercultural supervision, including cross-cultural
supervision as suggested by (Adams & Cargill, 2003). and The intent is to have quality products
(supervisors and supervisees) particularly in the South African higher education context and elsewhere.

10. Conclusion

This paper has attempted to present a self-reflective enquiry I undertook in interrogating my
supervisory practice at postgraduate level in my quest to develop a candidate possessing ‘competent
autonomy’. The paper noted the multifarious notions of supervision and outlined COVID-19 induced
challenges that impact on the supervisory process. The paper advocates Gurr’s ‘Indirect active’ mode of
supervision. I also advocated a strategy that integrates my ontological values of critical consciousness,
honesty, and diligence into my supervisory practice. I also offered insights to fellow supervisors to
consider for effective and efficient postgraduate supervision. To that end, a Community of Practice
strategy was proffered. These insights are perceived to positively impact on postgraduate supervision
and its quest to produce postgraduate students possessing competent autonomy. For the supervisor, it is
a maturation process. Maintaining these academic qualities is possible even in turbulent times.

Acknowledgements

I would like to that the TAU programme and my institution for supporting all activities which led to the
conceptualization of this paper.

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A Development of Immersive Learning System
for Emergency Response Training

Pongpon SEPRUMa,b, Charoenchai WONGWATKITa,b*, Prapamon SEEPRASERTc,
Chiu-Lin LAId & Nikorn RONGBUTSRIa,b

aSchool of Information Technology, Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand
bMFU Learning Innovation Institute, Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand

cSchool of Health Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand
dGraduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education,
National Taipei University of Education, Taiwan
*[email protected]

Abstract: Emergency Response (ER) knowledge is necessary for preventing and reducing the
damage in an emergency event to the related emergency staff and future staff. However,
real-life emergency response drills are still having many limitations, for example, the cost of
budgets, equipment, resources, time, place, and staff. Therefore, the Immersive Learning
Environment (ILE) is an effective tool that can be used to provide an interactive virtual
environment that is similar to real-life training to the learners. Furthermore, this study also
applies personalized learning to provide a suitable learning environment to the learner
according to the learners’ performance for better learning outcomes, learning motivation, and
learning engagement. Moreover, the learner will be able to train and practice for handling with
the fire emergency and chemical emergency in various scenario, for example, dealing with the
leaked dangerous chemical or leaked oil on the road which is inflammable in the damage-freed
and trial-and-errors learning environment. Importantly, the major contribution of the system in
this study is the providing of ILE in learning and training in Emergency Response to the
learners. Additionally, the ubiquitous/mobile learning of the proposed system allows the
learners to train and learn the emergency situation prevention from anytime and anywhere as
the learners feel convenient.

Keywords: Immersive Learning Environment, Personalized Learning, Emergency Response,
Virtual Reality

1. Introduction

The Emergency Response (ER) knowledge is necessary for the staff and related individuals to prevent
and reduce the damage in an emergency. It could also help to prevent unexpected losses and unexpected
events from the process of dealing with those events of the staff. Meanwhile, the knowledge from the
ER is generally about the process and procedure of dealing with emergencies, for example, fire
emergency, chemical emergency, disaster emergency, and others. Accordingly, there are chances and
opportunities of training damages occur during the drill toward students, equipment, staff, and
surrounding environment especially in the situation that must handle with fire and chemicals.
Furthermore, it would be much better to reduce the chances of damage occurring in emergency drills
situations. Therefore, the emergency staff and future staff require training that can simulate the situation
to be as close as and as often as possible to the real emergency. The repetitive training and virtual
training could be addressed by applying the Immersive Learning Environment (ILE) with the ER
content that could provide a safe training environment to the learners. Moreover, the ILE allows the
learners to learn in the interactive learning environment, engaging environment, and trial-and-error
learning environment, the immersion that this ILE approach provides to the learners could be
considered as similar to the real-world context.

There are many limitations in the existing ILE system with ER content. The number of studies
that apply ER content with ILE is quite low globally, for example, Wu et al. (2021) showed that from
the technology-enhanced chemistry learning paper reviewing studies which are considered as one of the

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ER learning topics that the number of studies applied in VR and wearable devices is just two studies
from sixty studies between 2010 – 2019. Also, there are several more ER-related studies in ILE (S. Y.
Chen et al., 2020; Kwegyir-Afful, et al., 2021) that applied the ER content into the ILE for providing an
interactive and immersive learning environment for enhancing learners learning knowledge and
attitude. However, there are not many applications of ILE and ER together besides these mentioned
studies. Moreover, those existing systems require the monitoring of the researchers or lecturers for
assessing learning performance or learning outcomes. For example, Markowitz et al. (2018) provided
the immersive virtual reality for virtual field trip learning to the students, the researcher is required to
monitor and conduct the progress of the students individually. However, this limitation may cause a
hard time for lecturers to be able to monitor and assess all of the learning outcomes for a large number
of learners.

In the present, the critical from disasters still has a huge impact on many people globally in both
direct and indirect ways. Also, its damage has been continuously increasing since the past due to many
factors (Dalley, 2017), for example, an increasing number of human populations causes more resource
consumption multiply and results in extreme weather. The occurred disasters and accidents in factories,
for example, fire, explosion, chemical leaking, or toxic gas, these dangerous situations could be very
harmful to humans, animals, the environment, and resources. For this reason, ER has been applied and
used to train many individuals as the learning topic in various learning disciplines (S. Y. Chen et al.,
2020; Kwegyir-Afful, et al., 2021; Skryabina, et al., 2020) to prepare the skills and readiness of the
individuals who related with the emergency handling including both students and working staff.
Additionally, those learning topics usually relate to fire emergency, chemical management, natural
disaster drill, and more. Therefore, the objectives of ER learning and training are to simulate the
training environment which should be as realistic as possible to the learners to enhance the skills for
preventing the damage and take an action immediately once the situation occurs (Engelbrecht et al.,
2019). Meanwhile, the Immersive Learning Environment or ILE has been used for providing a realistic
and immersion learning experience to the learners. ILE is referred to the use of technologies,
techniques, and software to give the virtual interactive learning experience in learning (Jantakoon, et al.,
2019). Many forms of ILE could be provided to the learners, for example, Augmented Reality (AR),
Virtual Reality (VR), Mixed-Reality (MR), game-based learning, simulation-based learning, and
virtual 3D environment (Ip, et al., 2019). Moreover, ILE could offer an interactive, engaging,
trial-and-error, and damaged-free learning environment for giving playful learning that can motivate the
learning activities and encouraging a long retention rate of learning (Bhattacharjee, et al., 2018; Gloy, et
al., 2021; Guan, et al., 2021).

The idea for the development of the proposed system is the applying of ILE in ER learning and
training together with a personalized learning approach. The application of ILE in ER learning is to help
individuals for gaining the knowledge required for preventing damage in real-world training. Also, ILE
could provide a ubiquitous and mobile learning environment that allows the learners to access the
proposed system from anywhere and anytime that the learners convenient, together with the interactive
and engaging learning activities which could enhance the learning process for increasing knowledge
retention rate. Additionally, the smart personalized learning system is applied to provide a personal
flexible, and dynamic learning environment that is suitable with learning behaviour to enhance learning
performance and learning attitude of the individuals.

2. Related Study

The critical and damage from the disasters still have a huge impact on many people around the world in
both direct and indirect ways. Moreover, many factors have resulted in continuously increasing the
disaster damage, for example, an increase in the human population causes more consumption of the
resources and creating more pollution multiply result in extreme weather (Dalley, 2017). An emergency
situation is the happening of an unexpected accident, the same goes with the accident in factories. The
main reason for the accident in the factory came from the dangerous gas or chemical leaking that can
cause the fire, explosion, and toxic gas to the workers. These problems are very harmful and dangerous
to humans, animals, and the environment which includes chemical terrorism that is caused by human
activity (Feng & Cui, 2021). Therefore, the application of Emergency Response has been one of the

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learning topics in many learning disciplines around globally to prepare the readiness for the students
and staff (Chen et al., 2020; Kwegyir-Afful et al., 2021; Skryabina et al., 2020). The learning topic,
knowledge, and content of Emergency Response are about fire emergency, chemical management,
natural disaster drill, and etc. Additionally, Wu et al. (2021) showed that from the technology-enhanced
chemistry learning paper reviewing studies which considered as one of the ER learning topics that the
number of studies applied in VR and wearable devices is just two studies from sixty studies between
2010 – 2019. The core knowledge principle of Emergency Response is about training and preparing the
learners by providing the most realistic simulation as close to real-situation as possible (Engelbrecht et
al., 2019), due to the fact that the emergency staff has to work under life and death situation (McCreight,
2019; Skryabina et al., 2020).

An Immersive Learning Environment is the use of technologies, techniques, and software for
providing interactive learning with a scenario that could provide a virtual interactive learning
experience to the learners (Jantakoon et al., 2019). It could be presented in many approaches of learning
media, for example, Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), Mixed-Reality (MR), game-based
learning, simulation-based learning, and virtual 3D environment (Ip et al., 2019). Furthermore, ILE
allows the learners to learn through interaction, activity, and action or learning by doing which can
provide long-term knowledge retention (Bhattacharjee et al., 2018; Gloy et al., 2021). Moreover, the
learner can learn in a playful and active learning experience with ILE for learning in an enjoyable way
and it also encourages self-learning activity to the learners (Guan et al., 2021). Importantly, ILE could
provide a low-cost training environment to the learner as they can train through the virtual world with
less training cost and a more secure approach as the damage would have occurred in the virtual world
that allows the learner to learn through trial-and-error. Moreover, the study indicated that the
applications of ILE approach are continuously increasing over years (Cheng & Lai, 2020; Seprum &
Wongwatkit, in press).

Personalized Learning (PL) is referred to as the approach or technique in learning that provides
a dynamic and suitable learning experience that fits each learner. Accordingly, each learner has
different learning styles, preferences, cognitive, and perceptions. Moreover, each leaner should be
provided with a personalized learning experience to make the learning outcome of each individual
better according to the learning performance of the individuals. Generally, there is various way to
provide the personalized learning experience to the learner. for example, manual personalization
requires the instructor, teacher, or lecturer to be the one who monitors the students’ learning
performance and adapt the learning content, process, or material to be suitable for each student.
Besides, smart personalization is one of many ways to applied personalized learning to the students, but
this method requires system development with a database to use the behaviour data as the factors for
analysis with fixed algorithms or artificial intelligence and machine learning (Tang, et al., 2021). With
the ability to provide dynamically learning environment to the students, the learning system could
provide enormous benefits to each student specifically (Wongwatkit et al., in press).

3. System Development

The proposed Immersive Learning Environment in this study is the use of Virtual Reality (VR)
technology for Emergency Response training. The purpose of this system is to provide a realistic
training experience as much as possible to the learners. As the benefits are that the learners could learn
through trial-and-errors in this immersive environment and the training experience in the form of
interactive learning using the personal smartphone for the ease of access from anywhere and anytime.
Additionally, there is also a personalized learning system applied in this study. The personalized
learning which is embedded as a part of this system will provide a learning experience suitable for each
individual. As the reason that each learning performance in each person is different, so this study will
provide a personalized learning system to answer each individual learning performance. In this system,
the content will be the topic about Emergency Response training which originally was a fire drill in a
real place. Hence, to provide a flexible, easy to access, and interactive training situation which could
reduce the damage, cost, and preparation in the real place training, this study offers an immersive
training system to the learners.

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