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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
The Development of Econ Board Game to
Promote Knowledge of Economic Resource
Allocation for Youth
Saksit HUSMIN*, Benchawan PHOMSANSRI
& Nujaree CHERDCHUBUNDIT
Khon Kaen University Demonstration School, Faculty of Education,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
*[email protected]
Abstract: The objective of this research is to develop the Econ board game to promote
knowledge of economic resource allocation for youth. The research is conducted by adapting
the concept of Design Thinking (2006) and developing educational innovation by Khemmani
(2016) into 5 steps of board game innovation development. The steps consist of 1) basic
research, 2) prototype creation, 3) implementation, 4) reflection and 5) development. The target
group is a total of 50 people consisting of 40 grade 11 students and 10 secondary school and
student teachers. The research instruments used in the reflection are observation, evaluation
form, focus group discussion and test. The results discussion is a descriptive analysis.
Reflection results for the Econ board game which was developed according to the 5
steps, consisting of the board game, game manual, game cards, equipment and game box is that
46 players are very satisfied (92%), 40 players have knowledge and understanding in efficient
economic resource allocation at a high level (90%) and 50 players achieved planning skills
while playing (100%). Test results on economic resource allocation after playing the Econ
board game found that 80% of players passed the set criteria of 70/70.
Hence, the Econ board game innovation should be disseminated for youths to promote
knowledge about resource allocation in economics, planning and analytical skills to be applied
in daily life, in order to keep up with the world that is ever changing in the 21st century.
Keywords: board game, development, economics
1. Introduction
Amidst the nation’s development in the present time, there are circumstances that require us to
adapt to any situation, which in turn affects the rapidly changing economy. Therefore, we must prepare
ourselves, especially the youth. State organizations and responsible sectors should provide development
activities for the youth that aim to boost living quality and to construct the skills that are needed for
living in the 21st century. (UNICEF Thailand, 2019) The change in schools where there are Economics
taught as a subject, there are two standards assigned; Standard Sor.3.1: understanding and being able to
manage resources for production and consumption. Using the limited resources effectively and
worthily, including understanding the principle of Sufficiency Economy in order to live hormonally;
Standard Sor.3.2.: understanding economic systems and institutions, the economic relations and the
necessity of economic cooperation in the global society. According to the proficiency test, the Ordinary
National Educational Test (O-NET), of Grade 12 students, academic year 2019, the mean score
( ) of economics is 31.64, which is lower than other subjects in the field of social, religion and culture
education (National Institute of Educational Testing Service, 2019). This information proves that the
formatting of educational activities in economics education should be more diverse in order for the
learners to achieve the skills in the standards.
Board game is an interesting innovation which is suitable to be a learning tool – to change
individuals behavior, resulting from practice or experience of game mechanics which can neatly and
smartly stimulate the system from the real world because a board game has been developed as a
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learning tool (Thaipost, 2018. Online), resulting in the emerging of educational innovation called
game-based learning. In creating board games, in addition to helping the players to develop cognitive
skills along with emotional skills, board game designers and developers must be creative, have
analytical skills and correct logic in thinking and making decisions, being able to see through the
situation from the beginning to the end, in order to finally reach the destination, all of which are
essential skills for youth in the 21st century.
According to the concept mentioned above, the researchers realized the importance of
developing the board game ‘Econ’ which empowers players to acquire the skills they need in the 21st
century, as well as continuing the concept based on the PLC process which plays a part in the
development of innovative educational learning for youth and those who are interested.
Research Objective
To develop the ECON board game to promote knowledge of economic resource allocation.
Research Conceptual Framework
The following framework was used for the development of Econ
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of Econ
to promote knowledge of economic resource allocation for youth.
2. Research Methodology
2.1 Target group is 40 Grade 11 students and 10 secondary school teachers and student teachers,
a total of 50 people.
2.2 Research instruments. The following instruments are used in data collection:
2.2.1 Observation. Non-participant observation was conducted to observe board game players.
2.2.2 Evaluation Form. An evaluation form was used to survey the satisfaction from playing. It
is divided into 3 levels, which are low, medium and high. It is calculated by percentage of all players
with a total of 10 topics.
2.2.3 Focus Group Discussion. A form to record Focus Group Discussion of players was
created. The players are separated into 2 groups, each group consisting of 10 people. The target is to
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analyze data retrieved from the reflection and use it to further develop the board game. All players have
a chance to discuss, ask and provide suggestions, in order to follow the research objective.
2.2.4 Test. The test contains 10 multiple choice questions with 4 choices, used to test planning
and analysis skills in economic resource allocation after players have finished playing the board game.
2.3 Data collection and presentation
This study collected data from relevant documents, concepts, theories and research, as well as collected
data from the target group using the 4 research instruments, consisting of non-participant observation,
survey, focus group discussion and test. Data from the reflection is analyzed, processed and arranged
into a descriptive analysis with illustrations according to the research objective.
2.4 Methodology
Design thinking (2006) and educational innovation development by Khemmani (2016) was adapted
into the board game development process, consisting of 5 stages which are 1) basic research, 2)
prototype creation, 3) implementation, 4) reflection and 5) development.
3. Research Results
The results of the development of Econ board game to promote knowledge of economic resource
allocation for youth are as follows:
Stage 1 Basic Research
Knowledge on board game development was provided by the board game development team of Khon
Kaen University Demonstration School Secondary Section. Relevant documents were also studied to
be used in developing the game’s format and mechanisms. Data was collected in 3 topics, consisting
of 1) economic resource allocation, 2) design thinking concept and board game development and 3)
relevant concepts, theories and research. The data was collected mainly from online sources, libraries,
Faculty of Economics library and interviewing personnel related to economics and board game
development.
Stage 2 Prototype creation
In creating the prototype board game, knowledge obtained from Stage 1 is studied, analyzed and
synthesized in order to find the game’s main goal which is for players to have knowledge and
understanding of economic resource allocation. Then, the game’s goal is used to create mechanisms
through the process of game playing. When the board game prototype is ready, advice is sought from
5 experts including experts from 2 fields 1) economics and 2) game mechanisms, in order to improve
the game. The Econ board game’s main equipment contains:
1. Game manual, containing the objective, equipment, playing method, how to end the game and
how to count points.
2. Econ board game is the main board game used to locate the players’ industrial factory, consisting
of the buying price, location of the school and return of factory construction. There are the following
areas: low plain, community, mountain, airport and industrial estate.
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Figure 2. Econ main board game.
3. Resource cards, 30 cards for each type, consisting of plastic pellets, metal, stone, wood, fuel,
battery, chemical substance, agricultural produce, machine, and labor.
4. Product cards.When players have collected enough items, they can buy products to plan their
farther gameplay. The numbers on the cards shows 1) Points when the game finishes at the top, 2)
Items required to buy and 3) Price when selling it to the market
5. Special cards. They can only be used by players when it is their turn. There are Buy
Prohibition, Factory Confiscation, Stop Play 1 Turn, Ask for 2 Items From Other Players, Goods
Confiscation, Self-Defense, and Ask For 1 Item From Another Player.
6. Situation cards. The cards show various situations for the players.
7. Money cards. They are used in buying-selling, exchange, invest and bidding. The currency is
Cone.
8. Minerals cards. It is used to collect points, consisting of Ametrine, Garnet, Sunstone and
Unakite.
9. Various items used in the game are 1) Dice to decide the order of players – the player with the
highest result starts the game, 2) Personal factory locator and 3) Personal auction token.
Stage 3 Implementation
Fieldwork was conducted in order to experiment Econ with the target group according to the research
plan. The first trial was on 28 January 2021, the second on 4 February 2021 with 20 Grade 11 students
and 5 teachers and student teachers, a total of 25 players, in both rounds of trials. The trials were held
at the secondary school library of Khon Kaen University Demonstration School. The process consisted
of the following steps, 1) introduction, 2) activity and 3) conclusion.
Figure 3. Implementing Econ board game to test with students, secondary school teachers
and student teachers.
Stage 4 Reflection
The Econ field experiments were conducted according to the research plan and post-game reflection
was carried out, as follows:
4.1 First Reflection The first group of players was reflected on, with the following results:
4.1.1 Non-participant observation was used to observe Econ players. Notable results are:
4.1.1.1 There are players that dare to invest and are able to manage returns to buy
product, in order to earn benefits
4.1.1.2 Players auctioned minerals with reason.
4.1.1.3 Factories were constructed in airport areas, low plains and mountains and in the
last round, players plan more to collect the most points they can
4.1.2 Evaluation. The evaluation form of Econ board game is divided into 3 levels; low,
average and high. The results are calculated in percentages. The study found that;
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Table 1
Results of Players Evaluation
No. Topic Level
Average
Low Amount % High
8 32 Amount %
Amount % 20 80
28 17 68
1 Game duration 5 20 4 16
7 28 23 92
2 Game is complex and difficult 14 3 12 20 80
18 72
3 Game provides knowledge and is fun 28 22 88
28
4 Game mechanics is challenging 25 100
25 100
5 Game cards is beautiful and suitable 23 92
23 92
6 Contains knowledge on resource
allocation
7 Resource use planning
8 Analytical skills
9 Learning skills
10 Play satisfaction
From this Table 1 Results of players evaluation, the study found that results for resource use
planning and analytical skills is at 100%. This means the Econ board game is able to promote planning
and analytical skills for players at a high level. The game card’s aesthetic and suitability is evaluated at
an average level at 28% and at a high level at 72%. This reflects that the game cards need to be adjusted
before the second trial.
4.1.3 Focus Group Discussion. One group has 10 members. The target is to take the data to
analyze and synthesize information. All members have a chance to discuss, ask and provide suggestions.
The study found that;
4.1.3.1 Game Duration. The duration of each Action is appropriate, so the game is
fun, not boring, and motivating. The game difficulty level is also appropriate.
4.1.3.2 The game mechanics was found to be unclear and players should be able to
sell factories.
4.1.3.3 Game cards should have explanations. Item card and special card is rather
large but is good because it makes the game enjoyable, but the picture is unclear.
4.1.3.4 Which Action in the board game impressed the players? Why? It was found
that 1) players liked to auction because they get to compete, 2) players like the situation cards because
they had to anticipate the incoming impact and 3) players like to construct because it makes players
think and analyze about the compensation, if it is worth the investment or not.
4.1.3.5 Which Action should be improved? Why? It was found that minerals auction
needed more incentive so that the game will be more fun.
4.1.3.6 What did players feel before playing? It was found that they thought the game
mechanism is going to be difficult and boring but when they tried to play, the game was more fun than
they had expected, and the game is too academic.
4.1.3.7 This board game enables players to have knowledge and understanding in
allocating resource to be most efficient according to economics. It was found that players can choose
what area to invest in, which area will have the highest return or which area has the lowest risk and
players need to manage their resources for the highest efficiency.
4.1.3.8 Does this board game allow players to have planning skills or not? How? It
was found that after players have played in the first round, players will gain understanding, allowing
players to change their playing method in the next round, creating different planning skills in each turn.
Game planning occurs in all Actions.
4.1.3.8 Does this board game allow players to have analytical skills or not? How? It
was found that analytical skills are created from managing one’s own resource to exchange into a
product in the most beneficial transaction in investment and players have to analyze whether
constructing a factory would be worth the investment or not.
4.1.3.10 Does this board game allow players to have learning skills or not? How? It
was found that investments make good return, but all investments have risks. Players also know how to
solve issues impacted from situations.
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4.1.3.11 Satisfaction in playing ECON : The Board Game. It was found that the play
is fun and challenging. Players can discuss and exchange opinions in each Action, building
conversational skills.
4.1.3.12 Suggestions. 1) The game map should be readable from two sides and should
be larger for easier viewing. 2) The pricing of the items is unreasonable. The numbers should be
adjusted because some products only use items to exchange but have different selling prices. If the
player loses the auction, they should receive a penalty, or the auction will be too easy.
When the process was completed and reflected with all 3 instruments, the data from the trial was
analyzed and synthesized in order to improve the board game before testing the game with the second
target group in the next step.
4.2 Second reflection
The second reflection was carried out with the group of Grade 11 students, teachers and student
teachers using the following instruments: non-participant observation, evaluation form and focus group
discussion. The results are as follows:
4.2.1 Observation. Non-participant observation was used to observe Econ players. Notable
results are:
4.2.1.1 Players especially like Actions where they can use Special Cards and
Situation Cards.
4.2.1.2 Players plan factory construction by analyzing whether it is worth the return
or not
4.2.1.3 In the middle phase of the game, players start to understand the duties of
various rules so they are able to plan their investment for the next turn, enabling the game to be more
agile.
4.2.2 Evaluation. The evaluation form of ECON board game is divided into 3 levels; low,
average and high. The results are calculated in percentages. The study found that;
Table 2
Results of Players Evaluation
No. Topic Level
Low Average high
Amount % Amount % Amount %
1 Game duration 14 56 11 44
2 Game is complex and difficult 18 72 7 28
3 Game provides knowledge and is fun 8 32 17 68
4 Game mechanics is challenging 4 16 21 84
5 Game cards is beautiful and suitable 4 16 21 84
6 Contains knowledge on resource 7 28 18 72
allocation 25 100
7 Resource use planning 25 100
8 Analytical skills 5 20 20 80
9 Learning skills
10 Play satisfaction 2 8 23 92
From Table 2 Results of players evaluation, it can be seen that planning and resource use and
analytical skills are still 100%. This shows that Econ is able to build planning and analytical skills to
players at high levels as often as twice. The suitability and aesthetic of the game cards have improved
from the first trial when the score for the average level was at 28% but decreased to only 16%, with
the high level increasing from 72% to 84%. This means the changes made to the game cards has very
good results, as evidenced by the numbers.
4.2.3 Focus Group Discussion. One group has 10 members. The target is to take the data to
analyze and synthesize information. All members have a chance to discuss, ask and provide suggestions.
The study found that;
4.2.3.1 Game Duration. It was found that the number of players affect the time of
each Action. If played in pairs, the thinking and decision making will take longer. There should be rules
for set times or sounds symbolizing the time for each Action.
4.2.3.2 The game mechanics should be explained clearly, to prevent confusion
between Action and the management order in each Action to be clearer.
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4.2.3.3 On the game cards, the word “point” should lessen in size on the Product card
and the colors of Product cards are too similar to each other, making it hard to make them apart.
4.2.3.4 Which Action in the board game impressed the players? Why? It was found
that 1) All players like all Actions in the game because they trigger continuous thinking, creating a chain
of impacts, 2) Players like the Situation Cards because they has a lot of effect, making players have fun
with investing and 3) Players like Special Card since they make the games not boring.
4.2.3.5 Which Action should be improved? Why? It was found that all Actions were
fun because players have to think all the time and players would like to play again.
4.2.3.6 What did players feel before playing? Players wanted to play but fear that the
game would be boring or not fun.
4.2.3.7 This board game enable players to have knowledge and understanding in
allocating resource to be most efficient by thinking about how to make money in the game, and how can
they exchange the resources they have.
4.2.3.8 Does this board game allow players to have planning skills or not? How? It
was found that the game mechanism allowed players to plan in every Action.
4.2.3.9 Does this board game allow players to have analytical skills or not? How? It
was found that the board game promoted analysis and could be used as an instructional media for
analytical skills building.
4.2.3.10 Does this board game allow players to have learning skills or not? How? It
was found that players receive planning and analytical skills.
4.2.3.11 Satisfaction. It is very good and is a game that will open more paths to
playing board games in the future.
4.2.3.12 Suggestions. There should be a video demonstrating the playing method and
rules.
4.2.4 Test. After both reflections have been carried out, players sit a 10-question multiple
choice test on planning and analysis related to efficient economic resource allocation. It was found that
after playing ECON, 50 players from the target group of both trials passed the 70/70 criteria at 80% of
players.
Stage 5 Development
After the process of trial and reflection using the 4 research instruments was completed, the data
collected is analyzed and synthesized in order to improve and develop the board game to be more
efficient, until the game is complete and ready for youth to play in order to fulfil the research
objective.
5. Research Discussion
The discussion is divided into 2 topics, as follows:
5.1 Developing Econ board game to promote learning of economic resource allocation for
youth was operated in steps, including studying prototype game creation, implementation, reflection and
development, especially the step of implementation. There were 4 instruments used in the field research
which are non-participant observation, evaluation form, focus group discussion and test, in order to
know which points to improve and develop the innovation. This is in accordance with the concept of
educational innovation development by Khemmani (2016) in innovation development which consists of
1) problem 2) objective 3) constraints 4) innovation 5) experimentation and 6) dissemination. In the
experimentation phase, Khemmani (2016) said that when an innovation has been invented,
experimentation is a very important and necessary phase, which consists of experimentation, evaluation
and improvement. Experimentation is to study whether that innovation can be used and how effective it
is. The experimentation results help the developer know which points to improve and if a solution is
found and implemented before dissemination many times until certain that the innovation can be used, it
will help make that innovation more successful. In addition, Econ board game development is also a
way to create an interesting learning innovation in the present which promotes players to take on various
roles according to the game mechanisms, as designed to promote knowledge and skills in players while
playing. The 10-question multiple choice test results on planning and analytical skills on efficient
economic resource allocation found that after playing, 50 players from the second experimentation
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passed the 70/70 criteria at 80%. This is in line with Thaipost (2018. Online) that stated that board games
are interesting innovations for learning the behavioral changes of individuals as a result of training or
experiencing the game mechanisms that has modeled real world systems in a complex and intelligent
manner. This is because a board game has been developed as a learning tool which turned into a new
format of educational innovation called game-based learning. Other than allowing players to develop
hard skills together with soft skills very well, board games are made to be suitable for certain ages, with
suitable time, suitable complexity and in accordance with the game objective. This is in line with
Saduakkan (2000) who explained the characteristics of game development for learning that they are 1)
easy and not complex, 2) mentally challenging, 3) fun and intriguing, 4) suitable for the students’ age
and ability and 4) can be self-learned, then the game will be able to sustainably promote learning.
5.2 Satisfaction towards the Econ board game in promoting knowledge on resource allocation
for highest economic efficiency for youth. From developing the board game, other than promoting such
knowledge, players also build planning and analytical skills during the game. This is in accordance with
results from evaluation forms and focus group discussions after playing. It was revealed with 100% of
players received resource planning skills and analytical skills during playing. Reflections
post-experimentation also showed that after playing for one round, players will gain understanding,
causing players to change their playing method. This builds different planning skills in each round and
planning occurs in all Actions. Players build analytical skills from management their resource to
exchange them into products most worth their investments.
6. Suggestions
6.1 Suggestions for implementation
6.1.1 youths play the board game to promote knowledge and understanding on resource
allocation for highest economic efficiency.
6.1.2 Give the developed board game to schools or organizations that can make further use of
the game.
6.1.3 Hold a Professional Learning Community with the board game development process with
other schools or interested organizations.
6.2 Suggestions for further research
6.2.1 Develop various mechanisms within the game to be more complex.
6.2.2 Develop the game format to be more diverse with more mechanisms and playing methods.
References
National Institute of Educational Testing Service (NIETS). (2019). O-NET Test Results of Grade 12
Students,Academic Year 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2021, from https://www.niets.or.th/th/catalog
/view/2989.
Saduakkan, P. ( 2000). Learn to Tie to Solve, Thai Wisdom In Accordance With Constructivism.
Bangkok: Education Revolution.
Thailand Creative & Design Center ( TCDC). (2 0 1 6 ( . Decode Design Thinking of King Rama IX.
Creatve Thailand, 8(3), 6.
Thaipost. Board Game Innovation Promoting Youth Money Skills. Retrieved June 15, 2018 at 00:01
am. 2018 from https://www.thaipost.net/main/detail/11435
Khaemmani, T. (2016). Teaching Science: Knowledge for Efficient Learning Management. (20th ed.).
Bangkok: CU Printing House.
UNICEF Thailand. (2019). Online. Annual 2019. Retrieved October 5, 2020, from https://www.unicef.
org/thailand/media
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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
Investigating the Formulation of Learning
Objectives for the Lesson on the Identification of
Outliers by the Student Teachers in Statistics
Lukanda KALOBO
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
[email protected]
Abstract: Teachers who better understand the relationship between learning objectives and the
planning and delivery of educational activities can help learners receive more from their
education and training. Developing student teachers paying attention to the planning of lesson
objectives is crucial in teacher training. The purpose of the study was to investigate the
formulation of learning objectives for the lesson on the identification of outliers by the student
Teachers. Purposive sampling was used to select six one (61) accessible participants from the
student teachers at a South African university. In this paper, the mathematics task was used for
data generation. Upon quantitatively and qualitatively analysing the data, the students’
formulations of learning objectives have been spotted, and categorized. The endings revealed
that formulating lesson objectives is not easily done with most of the participants providing
inappropriate learning objectives. Furthermore, it was found that no student teachers provided
reasons for identifying the learning objectives in the context of boxplot and scatter plot. Other
student teachers provided learning objectives for other statistics concepts instead of the boxplot
and scatter plot due to a limited Statistical Knowledge for Teaching. Student teachers, as future
drivers of education should be developed in the formulations of learning objectives in statistics.
Suggestion on how to formulate learning objectives have been projected. We recommend that
teachers consider these suggestions as they plan their lessons.
Keywords: Content in statistics, engagement, learning objectives, planning of lessons
1. Introduction
Teaching is an intentional and reflective practice where planning plays a fundamental role (Paredes,
Cáceres, Diego-Mantecón, Blanco, & Chamoso, 2020). Critical issues that need to be addressed during
the planning process are the lesson objectives, the possible introductory strategies, learning activities,
resources, assessment strategies as well as time allocation (Umugiraneza, Bansilal, & North, 2017). This
paper focused on the formalization of lesson objectives from Mathematics tasks involving statistics
problems. Correct formulation of the learning objectives involves both the content and the language.
Carefully working through the formulation is one good way of clarifying exactly what the learning
objectives should be not only for you, but also for colleagues, students and those involved in the
examination. Learning objectives, although written for the teacher, are expressed from the learner’s
point of view. In other words, objectives identify what your learners will learn from your instruction.
Mathematics tasks are often seen as any activity carried out to learn mathematics regardless of
its nature and application. In this sense, we present an exploratory analysis with 56 student teachers who
were requested to solve mathematics tasks involving the identification of outliers in the context of box
plot and scatter plot to formulate learning objectives. According to Routledge, Taylor, & Francis (2008)
researchers suggest that when dealing with statistics concepts, teachers need Statistical Knowledge for
Teaching (SKT). Mathematics tasks can be, for example, used for introducing topics, relating
knowledge, verifying theorems, or reinforcing concepts (NCTM, 2000; Watson et al., 2013).
Thanheiser et al. (2016) revealed that in the same way that mathematics knowledge is better acquired
from tasks related to the solvers’ contexts, professional knowledge increases when pre-service teachers
are trained through tasks related to their future context.
169
In South Africa, the poor outcomes in mathematics have received much attention in recent
times (Department of Basic Education (DBE), 2016). In looking at how mathematics teaching could be
made more effective, a crucial issue is that of the actual methods of teaching employed by teachers to
facilitate mathematics (Umugiraneza, Bansilal, & North, 2017). Khumalo (2012), in his study with
Grade 10 mathematics teachers in rural Kwa Zulu Natal, in South Africa, found that the teachers did not
engage in written planning for individual lessons. None of the four teachers produced any evidence of
substantial engagement with the content or activities beforehand, with no written plan or guide about
how they were going to proceed with the lesson. This study was carried out with student teachers to
improve their understanding in the formulations of learning objectives. Furthermore, this study raised
our own awareness of the realities of the student teachers’ SKT during teacher training.
To investigate student’ formulations of learning objectives of the lesson on the identification
of outliers, the following question was formulated: How do students teachers formulate learning
objectives of the lesson on the identification of outliers?
The answer to this investigation is part of the strategies to be used by student teachers to
enhance the formulations of learning objectives in statistics.
2. Literature Review
The purpose of this literature review is to understand the formulations of learning objectives and the
knowledge for teaching statistics. Furthermore, the literature review describes the types of outliers, the
box plot, the scatter plot, and the methods for identifying the outliers.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
This study used a framework based on the work of Nieman and Monyani (2006, p. 7) who propose
assumptions underlying constructivism namely: “Knowledge is constructed from experience; learning is
a personal interpretation of the world; learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on
the basis of experience; learning should take place in a realistic setting with testing to be integrated with
the task, not as a separate activity”. From the constructivist perspective, the success of teaching and
learning succeeds or fails by the teachers’ ingenuity in creating a climate that is conducive to active
participative learning (Jacobs, Vakalisa, & Gawe, 2004).
2.2 Roles of learning Objectives
When planning a session or programme, paying attention to how the objectives will be achieved,
assessed, and evaluated requires active and overt consideration of the educational process: the
interaction of teachers, students, and knowledge (Mckimm, & Swanwick, 2009). Morrison, Ross,
Kalman, and Kemp (2011) revealed that student learning objectives serve two purposes: to offer a
means for the educator to design specific, appropriate, and organized instructional activities that
facilitate effective learning and to provide a framework for devising ways to evaluate student learning.
Striggins, Arter, Chappuis, and Chappuis (2006) explained that using clearly defined objectives offers
many benefits to teachers, students, and parents such as: Clear statements of what to assess;
Well-defined instructional activities; A balanced direction of depth of instruction; And a documentation
for accountability. Jadama (2014) mentioned that without learning objectives planned beforehand, the
lesson may not be well focused and may be problematic for learners to identify what they are supposed
to be learning. Hence, Webb, Naeger, Fulton, and Straus (2013) enlightened that learning objectives
fundamentally allow communication with others about the content and intent of a teaching activity or
curriculum.
Traditional educational theory has outlined three types of objectives that vary in specificity:
global, educational, and instructional. In this paper the focus is on the instructional objectives.
Instructional objectives are the most specific in scope. These objectives are to be developed by the
teacher and generally guide daily and weekly teaching in the classroom. Kern, Thomas, and Howard
(1998) revealed that when designing objectives, an educator should consider the following: Decide what
is critical for the students to take away from the session or course; Consider the depth of understanding
(level of Bloom’s hierarchy) that is appropriate for the audience level; Refer to Bloom’s taxonomy to
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help guide the language of the learning objective by choosing a measurable action word from the
appropriate level; And use the following formula to generate the learning objective: Who will be able to
do how much (how well) of what by when. Webb, Naeger, Fulton, and Straus (2013) describe: The
‘‘who’’ as the student or learner; The ‘‘to do’’ as the measurable action word selected from Bloom’s
taxonomy; ‘‘How much’’ or ‘‘how well’’ can be used in some cases to quantify the expected result or
address the criteria for acceptable performance; The ‘‘what’’ as the relevant critical information or skill,
and the ‘‘when’’ allows us to set an expectation as to when this objective is reasonably achieved.
According to Webb, Naeger, Fulton, and Straus (2013) using this format it is easy to both generate
proper learning objectives and recognize faulty ones.
2.3 Bloom Taxonomy
Bloom’s taxonomy contains six categories of cognitive skills ranging from lower-order skills that
require less cognitive processing to higher-order skills that require deeper learning and a greater degree
of cognitive processing (Adams, 2015). These levels are: ‘knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.’ Bloom also specified action verbs classified in accordance with the
levels above including ‘define, explain, translate, distinguish, compose, judge,’ etc. These can help
teachers distinguish the different purposes of tasks. Blooms emphasizes that these verbs are intended to
measure and observe the performances expected by learners. In this paper, the mathematics tasks used to
formulate learning objectives involved the concepts of scatter plot and boxplot.
2.4 Methods for identify outliers
An outlier in a data set is a value that is far away from the rest of the values in the data set
(Jenkin, van Zyl, & Scheffler, 2012). There are four basic ways of handling outliers:
Accommodation, incorporation, identification, and rejection (Barnett, 1978). In this paper the
mathematics task focused on the identification of outliers as it is recommended in the
Mathematics Curriculum in South Africa (DBE, 2011).
2.4.1 The Univariate outliers’ methods
The univariate methods include the Tukey Method, Histogram, and the box plot. The South African,
Mathematics Curriculum uses the Tukey method and the box plots to identify the outliers (DBE, 2011).
The Tukey method uses interquartile range to identify the outliers. The formula here is independent of
mean, or standard deviation thus is not influenced by the extreme value. A box and whisker plot also
called a box plot displays the five-number summary of a set of data. The five-number summary is the
minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and max. The box is drawn from the first quartile to the
third quartile. A vertical line goes through the box at the median. The whiskers go from each quartile to
the minimum or maximum (Dawson, 2011). The Box plot uses the interquartile method with fences to
find outliers. According to Dawson (2011) the box plot is an excellent way of representing the statistical
information about the median, first quartile, third quartile, and outlier bounds.
Figure 1. An indication of how outliers are defined by Tukey’s fences (Jaskoviak, 2018).
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The IQR is used to create an upper and lower limit for a given boxplot. Points that beyond this
limit (whiskers) are considered outliers and are generally represented by discs (Jaskoviak, 2018).
2.4.2 Multivariate Outliers methods
Within the multivariate cases, we will consider the situation where the population is assumed to
have two variables. In South Africa, the CAPS document stipulates that the Grade 11 learners
do not need to learn how to draw the scatter plots, but they should be able to identify outliers on
them. A scatter plot is a graph that shows the relationship between two random variables. We
call these. data bivariate (literally meaning two variables) and we plot the data for two different
variables on one set of axes (Jenkin, van Zyl, & Scheffler, 2012). Figure 2 shows the scatter
plot. The study time (minutes) is the first variable, and its value is plotted along the horizontal
axis. The mark (percentage) is the second variable, and its value is plotted along the vertical
axis. The data values are shown on the plot below.
Figure 2. Scatter plot with outliers (Jenkin, van Zyl, & Scheffler, 2012)
The plot shows a point circled that lie far away from the main data distribution. This point
represents an outlier. In solving problem involving the identification of outliers in the context of boxplot
and scatter plot, the student teachers need the KTS.
2.5 Teachers’ knowledge for teaching statistics
Statistics Knowledge of Teaching (SKT) encompasses more than just statistics subject matter
knowledge; it also includes pedagogical content knowledge (Growth, 2017).
2.5.1 Subject matter knowledge
The subject matter knowledge consists of common content knowledge (CCK), specialized content
knowledge (SCK), and horizon knowledge (HK) (Hill, Ball, & Schilling, 2008). The CCK relates to
competencies developed in conventional mathematics courses, such as computing accurately, making
correct mathematical statements, and solving problems (Groth, 2013). This knowledge includes
accurately reading graphs, constructing survey questions, computing descriptive statistics, and choosing
an appropriate descriptive statistic for a given context. Groth (2007, p. 428) revealed that SCK is
developed by carefully attending to mathematical issues and dilemmas that arise in teaching contexts. It
relates to such tasks as providing understandable explanations, appraising students’ unconventional
methods for solving problems, and constructing and evaluating multiple representations for concepts.
This knowledge includes understanding challenges students may encounter reading different types of
graphical displays, identifying properties of the arithmetic mean students may have difficulty
comprehending, and realizing that students may compute a statistic without consideration of context.
The HK entails knowing statistics beyond the prescribed curriculum. Such knowledge can help teachers
guide students’ investigations in productive directions and provide a foundation for learning in later
grades (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008).
2.5.2 Pedagogical content knowledge
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The pedagogical content knowledge consists of knowledge of content and students (KCS), knowledge
of content and teaching (KCT), and curriculum knowledge (CK) (Hill, Ball, & Schilling, 2008). Hill,
Ball, & Schilling (2008, p. 375) explained that the KCS allows teachers to anticipate students’
problem-solving strategies and to understand difficulties associated with learning concepts. According
to Zawojewski and Shaughnessy (2000a) understanding differences between how students read box
plots and dot plots could be categorized as KCS because children often have greater difficulty reading
condensed displays such as box plots as opposed to displays that show each individual data value, such
as dot plots. The KCT, which allows for the selection of pedagogical strategies that leverage existing
student understandings and address their common misunderstandings. Franklin et al. (2007) and
Burgess, (2011) revealed that using the process of statistical investigation as a teaching strategy could be
indicative of KCT. The CK allows teachers to perform tasks such as appropriately sequencing the
introduction of statistical ideas (Godino, Ortiz, Roa, & Wilhelmi, 2011; Langrall et al., 2017). Groth
(2017) discussed forming an opinion on when to introduce conventional statistical representations
within a sequence of lessons as part of the development of CK. As with all the knowledge categories
discussed thus far, it should be noted that these three categories have a degree of overlap with others. For
example, SK and KCT both involve making subject matter comprehensible to students. Additionally,
KCT and CK both involve using specific strategies to facilitate student learning.
3. Methodology
3.1 Sample and Sample Techniques
The population of this study was the first year Mathematics Education students at one of the University
of Technology in South Africa. The sample of the research were 56 first year Mathematics Education
students derived through a convenience sampling technique. according to their availability and the
speediness with which data could be gathered.
3.2 Research Instrument
The data for this study were drawn from a mathematics task consisting of three questions. The first
question involved a problem on scatter plots, the second question concerned the box plot, and the last
question involved the formalizations of learning objectives of the lesson on the identification of outliers
in the context of Scatter plot and box plot. Issues related to the identification of the outliers using the box
plot and the scatter plot were used to build the mathematics task. For the box plot, the core issues
involved students’ abilities to represent the statistical knowledge about the maximum, minimum,
median, third quartile, first quartile, outlier bounds and display the data using the box plot. The core
issues in a scatter plot focused on students’ abilities to make sense of statistical knowledge, make
interpretations, and identify the outliers.
4. Results
Data analysis was accomplished through quantitative and qualitative analysis of 61 participants’
responses to the test. The quantitative results speak to whether participants succeeded in identifying the
outlies using the scatter plot and selecting the correct boxplot. Subsequently to this, a qualitative
analysis is presented to identify participants reasons for identifying the outlier(s) and the formalization
of the learning objectives in the context of the scatter plot and in the boxplot.
4.1 Scatter plots
4.1.1 Participants’ performance in identifying the outliers.
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The researcher analyzed participants performances in identifying the outliers on the scatter plot in
Table 1 using question 1.1. The results for question in Table 1 are represented descriptively as
frequencies and percentages.
Table 1
Participants’ test results (N = 61)
Result Question 1.1 Question 2.1
Pass 37,7% (23) 0% (0)
Fail 62,3% (38)
100% (61)
From analysis of responses, it is clear from Table 1 that 37,7% of participants were able to
identify the outliers in question 1.1, although 62,3% failed. This shows participants understanding of
outliers might be a challenge. Thus, analysing the participants’ reasons for identifying the outliers is
crucial.
4.1.2 Participants’ reasons for identifying the outliers
The participants responses in question 1.2 were coded according to different categories. Pertaining the
category ‘points are farthest/ far away’ the following were mentioned: Participant 25: ‘A, both points are
the farthest from the regression line’/ Participant 45: ‘C, because the points are far away from the other
plotted points on the graph’. Regarding the category ‘Very low/ scored lower’ participants hold the
following opinions: Participant 7: ‘B & C, they have a very low percentage and, they are far away from
other points’/ Participant 53: ‘A, these states scored lower than other states with similar participation
rates.’ This is a matter of concert participants were not able to list all the outliers giving the correct
reasons.
4.2 Boxplots
4.2.1 Participants’ performance in choosing the correct boxplot diagram.
In question 2.1 participants were asked to choose the correct boxplot diagram. This could be done only if
the participants were able to draw the boxplot using the Tukey method. It is evident from Table 1 that
100% of participants were not able to choose the correct boxplot diagram. Thus, in drawing the boxplots
there are several features that present challenges to participants.
4.2.2 Participants’ reasons for the identification of outliers
Question 2.2 aimed at capturing responses on identifying any outlier and giving reasons. The answer
was ‘Yes, there are two outliers, 40 and 42, because 40 and 42 [12,75; 38,75]’. There were few
participants who responded with a ‘No’. Regarding participants who responded with a ‘Yes’ the
following were mentioned: Participant 51: ‘D, yes, there is an outlier in the boxplot, 42 is far from other
numbers on the boxplot. The lower outlier = 22,5 9,75 =12,75; The upper outlier 29 + 9,75 = 38,75’.
Hence, most of participants struggled to interpret that any data lying outside the upper or lower fence
lines is an outlier.
4.3 Formulation of the learning objectives
174
In this study, student teachers were asked to write down learning objectives they thought would be
appropriate after solving the mathematics task that was given to them. Student teachers’ responses were
grouped into two categories: Learners’ performance in the formulation the appropriate learning
objectives and inappropriate learning objectives.
4.3.1 Student teachers’ formulation appropriate learning objectives
In question 3 participants were asked to formulate the learning objectives for question 1 and 2. This
could be done after the participants were able to solve these two questions. Appropriate objectives are
characterized by statements of what learners will be able to do when they have completed instruction.
There were few student teachers who presented clear learning objectives for these two questions using
appropriate verbs such as ‘analyse, calculate, determine, detect, draw, identify, interpret, and plot”
(Bloom, 1956). Pertaining the category ‘determine, identify, draw, analyse, detect’ the following were
said: Participant 44: ‘After the lesson learners should be able to determine the mean, the mode, the Q1 &
Q2, and make their own box plot on their own’. Participant 28: ‘By the end of the lesson learners should
be able to identify outlier on a scatter plot’. Participant 6: ‘At the end of the lesson, I want my learners to
be able to draw the boxplot’. Participant 53: ‘At the end of the lesson, my learners should be able analyse
the scatted plot’. Participant 10: ‘By the end of the lesson, learners should be able to detect the outliers
from the scatter plot’.
Chatterjee and Corral (2017) discussed that a learning objectives are clearly written, specific
statements of observable learner behavior or action that can be measured upon completion of an
educational activity. In this study, even though few student teachers tried to set appropriate learning
objectives using appropriate verbs, the student teachers need to see the value of indicating these
conditions in which the learners will do the given activity.
4.3.2 Student teachers’ formulation of inappropriate learning objectives
Most of the participants gave irrelevant statements of what learners will be able to do when they have
completed instruction. Participant 18: ‘Use statistical summaries, scatter plots, regression, and
correlation to analyse and make meaningful comments on the context associated with given bivariate
data and discussion on skewedness’. Participant 29: ‘Learners should be able to collect, organize,
display, analyse, and interpret the information; To develop a sense of how mathematics can be used to
manipulate data and represent patterns; To Distribute resources according to race and gender’.
Participant 46: ‘At the end of the lesson, students should be able to use summary descriptive to help
determine the shape of a continuous variable’s distribution; At the end of lesson, learners should be able
to create and interpret stem-and leaf plots to help determine the sharp of a distribution and identify
outliers; At the end of the lesson, learners should be able to conduct and compare t-test on data with
outliers and data without outliers to determine whether the outlier have an impact on the results’.
In this study, even though most of student teachers set inappropriate learning objectives, the
student teachers need to see that it is important of generating proper learning objectives and recognize
the wrong ones (Webb, Naeger, Fulton, & Straus, 2013).
4.4 Statistics Content for Teaching and formalizations of outliers
We found that participants gave explanations related to the learning objectives using wrong statistics
concepts. Furthermore, no participants gave learning objectives related to the reasons for identifying the
learning objectives in the context of boxplot and scatter plot. These learning objectives were wrong
because question 1.1 was about identifying outliers on the scatter plot and question 1.2 was about giving
reasons for the choose of these outliers. Furthermore, question 2.1 was about drawing the boxplot and
question 2.2 was about giving reasons for the choose of these outliers. Some examples of these kinds of
responses included: Participant 28: ‘By the end of the lesson learners should be able to draw scatter plot’.
Participant 29: At the end of the lesson student should Know how to draw the scatter plot graph.
Participant 53: At the end of the lesson, I want my learners to be able to plot and analyse the scatted
plot/graph on their own. Participant 57: Being able to plot and interpret scatter plot. Analysing data
according to statistics. These wrong formulation of learning objectives may be due to a limited SK, KCT,
and CK that provides student teachers’ ability to shape their statistics concepts of scatter plot, boxplot,
and Pedagogic knowledge of identifying learning objectives. It is important for student teachers to make
175
connections concerning what learners are intended to learn, and how and why they are supposed to learn
it [46].
5. Discussion and Conclusion
This study was set up to investigate student teachers’ formalization of learning objectives in the context
of boxplot and scatter plot. We explored how student teachers might frame the learning objectives after
solving the mathematics task. The findings revealed that most student teachers could not provide
appropriate learning objectives. Furthermore, no student teachers gave reasons for identifying the
learning objectives in the context of boxplot and scatter plot. Other student teachers, instead of
specifying lesson objectives in the context of boxplot and scatter plot, provided objectives for other
statistics concepts not involved in the mathematics task.
Instructional objectives specify exactly what is supposed to be learned and that they are
helpful to the teacher as well as the learner (Board, 2016). The success of any activity is largely
dependent on identifying beforehand what the intention of the activity is. Since the main task of a
mathematics teacher is to help learners learn mathematics, it is crucial that teachers plan beforehand
what they intend to achieve at the end of a lesson. The identification of learning objectives helps
teachers to focus their lessons but also helps their learners by communicating the teachers’ intentions to
them. Thus, objectives allow them to give learners information that can better direct their learning
efforts and monitor their own progress (Mogari, 2014). Teacher training needs to focus on aspects of
SKT [Burgess, 2008; 2009). Many studies suggest teachers should hold a sufficient SK, KCT, and CK to
be able to identify learner misconceptions, design suitable teaching material and judge the
appropriateness of using examples based on the concept (Shulman, 1987; Suffian, 2010; Botha &
Reddy, 2011; Ijeh, 2013). More specifically, we recommend that teacher training focus on helping
student teachers improve their skills in terms of formalizing learning objectives in statistics.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all the people who prepared and revised previous versions of this document.
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Exploring the Experiences in Using Technology
by Student Teachers from Disadvantage
Communities at University of Technology
Paseka MOLLO* & Lukanda KALOBO
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
*[email protected]
Abstract: Massification of higher education is a worldwide phenomenon. In South Africa over
the past years there has been a commitment to increase participation in higher education. This
includes an increased consciousness of disadvantaged group. The changing context of higher
education in an era of rapid technological changes presents new challenges for disadvantages
students from realizing their full potential. This paper explores computer science education and
mathematics education students’, from disadvantaged backgrounds, experiences in using
technology at the university. An interview containing six open-ended questions regarding
the use of technology, was conducted with eighteen third year Computer Science Education and
Mathematics education to gather data. Upon qualitatively analysing the data, the students’
challenges were spotted, and classified in groups. Findings highlighted the effectiveness of the
technology, indicating benefits arising when students used the entire range of tools.
Suggestions on how to confront these challenges have been projected. We recommend that the
University consider these challenges as they register more students from disadvantage
communities.
Keywords: Computer Science Education, Mathematics Education, Disadvantage student,
Technology
1. Introduction
As confirmed by numerous studies, students’ socioeconomic status is a variable that noticeably affects
students’ educational outcomes (Gregg & Machin, 2001; White, 1982). Educational disadvantage
starts in the womb free maternal and child health care are an education imperative (Global Monitoring
Report, 2010; UNICEF, 2007). Several factors can however potentially limit a child’s academic
achievement. The factors affecting the academic performance of socially disadvantaged students can
be personal, family-related, institutional, or systemic (Castejón & Zancajo, 2015).
In South Africa, education system is still deep in the throes of reform since 1994. However, it
is marked by underachievement of students at each level of the system. Poor communities, those of
rural Africans, bear the brunt of the past inequalities, and these continue to be reflected in the national
results of the final year examinations in Grade 12. This may be the case at several universities. Equity
and access to the South African government’s priority list for the country’s education system, which
accommodates approximately 12.3 million students (50.5% female). In the United State, it is well
documented that students who are educationally or economically disadvantaged are less likely to enroll
in postsecondary education, and if they do enroll, they are less likely to receive a degree. The student
experience is widely being researched as researchers realize that the student experience is linked to a
range of important outcomes. These outcomes include student engagement, satisfaction, quality of
education, growth in knowledge and personal development, academic success and persistence,
retention, and employment (Benckendorff, Ruhanen, & Scott, 2009; Dey & Hurtado 1995; Terenzini &
Reason, 2005). Despite all this research and efforts in higher education to improve the student
experience little improvement has been noted in graduation rates, especially for historically
underrepresented, low-income, and first-generation students (Rollnick 2010; Terenzini & Reason
2005).
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Reneé (2012) revealed that many students enter higher education institutions with the product
of what still amounts to inadequate schooling, and experience great difficulty with their studies.
Understandably, there are concerns around these gaps in skills and conceptual knowledge that students
bring with them (Reneé, 2012). This study focuses on disadvantage students’ experience in using
technology at the university. The term ‘student experience’ refers not only to the academic aspects of
teaching, learning and curriculum. It also includes student lifestyle and extracurricular activities,
academic advice, support and mentoring, and work experiences (Harvey, 2013). The undergraduate
student experience is widely being researched as researchers realize that the student experience is
linked to a range of important outcomes. These outcomes include student engagement, satisfaction,
quality of education, growth in knowledge and personal development, academic success and
persistence, retention, and employment (Benckendorff, Ruhanen, & Scott, 2009; Dey & Hurtado, 1995;
Terenzini & Reason, 2005). The student experience is shaped by regular mutual interaction with people,
objects, and symbols within his/her environment over extended periods of time. The ongoing reflection
on education and technology points to the diverse effect of technology on education. Therefore, this
paper will identify both possible challenges and the effectiveness of technology at University,
indicating benefits arising when disadvantage students use the entire range of technological devices.
2. Research questions
The research questions asked in the study reported here were:
• What individual, institutional, or collective resources (cultural and/or material) do the
• Computer Science Education and Mathematics Education disadvantage students resort to
in the process?
• How do the Computer Science Education and Mathematics Education disadvantage
students negotiate their success at university?
• How does the University mediate this process?
3. Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework is based on the work of Bandura (1997) on Self-Efficacy Theory and
Institutions. Bandura (1984: p. 243) revealed that when people make a self-efficacy judgment, they not
only judge their personal capability to perform a task, but they also judge the role that institutions play
in their performance: Self-appraisal of efficacy is, therefore, a judgmental process in which the relative
contribution of ability and non-ability factors to performance success and failure must be weighed. The
extent that people will alter their self-percepts of efficacy from performance experiences will depend
upon such factors as the difficulty of the task, the amount of effort they had to expend, … the amount of
external aid they receive, the situational circumstance under which they perform, the quality of the
apparatus.
4. Literature Review
4.1 The use of technology in higher education
Information Communications Technology (ICT) has become one of the newest strategies to support
learning at higher education institutions. The increasing use of technologies has also become
indispensable more especially during the Covid-19 pandemic. The term ICT is used to describe the
range of hardware, which includes radio, television, desktop computers, portable computers, laptops,
iPads, projection equipment, cellular phones; software applications, which include generic software,
specific software, multimedia resources, ‘apps’; and connectivity, which is the Intranet and Internet.
The above resources are used for communication, creation, dissemination, storage, and management of
information (Nyambane & Nzuki, 2014; Kozma, 2005). Some authors refer to these as digital resources,
but this study prefers to use the term ICT.
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The infusion of ICT in education is a given and not a debate anymore (Glazzard, Denby, &
Price, 2014; Nyambane & Nzuki, 2014). The use of computers and personal computers is high in both
organizations and households, respectively (Nyambane & Nzuki, 2014). Mobile technology and its use
have become an indispensable part of every person’s life. Internet use and mobile Internet penetration
are very high as people are using the Internet through computers, tablets, and mobile phones. Through
all these, ICT has become the central feature of university education (Glazzard, Denby, & Price, 2014;
Liu, 2012).
The above situation has influenced governments to come up with legislation for ICT. The
policy objective of the Department of Higher Education Science and Technology (DHEST) is to have a
higher education system that is responding to individual citizens’ needs; the needs of employers in the
public and private sectors; and to develop and respond to the objectives of the broader society (DHET,
2014). Looking at this policy requirement, higher education institutions are expected, by the
government, to produce teachers that will assist citizens in both the public and private sectors to cope
with the demands of both 21st-century living and the Fourth Industrial Revolution (DHET, 2014;
Glazzard, Denby, & Price, 2014).
Lately, ICT is seen as an integral part of educational reform processes geared towards the
improvement of access to education and the advancement of the quality of education (Van Wyk, 2015).
ICT is not just a tool to replace existing teaching strategies, but an important instrument or mechanism
utilized to advance new ways of teaching and learning (Nyambane & Nzuki, 2014). ICT is an integral
part of education because it ensures that education fulfills its social justice role.
4.2 Recent Technologies Used in Higher education
Technology usage has become an indispensable part of university life in recent years. The role of
e-learning and educational technology has become part and parcel of universities. The trends in the
evolution of these technologies have ensured that universities adhere to the prescripts of social justice.
More especially in addressing the need of students from disadvantaged communities. Below are ICT
and educational technology trends that advance quality education and social justice.
4.2.1 Flipped classrooms model
One recent trend in ICT in education is the flipped classroom model. The flipped classroom is a
pedagogical model that swaps the elements of classwork with those of homework (Du, Fu & Wang,
2014). With this model, students at home view a short video prepared by the lecturer, of the topic to be
discussed in class. Students are assisted with lessons at home or discuss with peers and the time they
have in the classroom is dedicated to discussing assessment activities and/or projects given by the
lecturer (Schmidt & Ralph, 2016; Johnson, et al., 2015; Du, Fu & Wang, 2014).
4.2.2 Mobile learning (m-learning)
Mobile learning has risen because of the increased number of learners possessing electronic mobile
devices, and advances in wireless, 3G, and 4G technologies (Booyse & Du Plessis, 2014). These
hand-held ICT devices have penetrated education and have influenced teaching and learning.
M-learning refers to the usage of wireless or mobile gadgets by learners while they are in motion
(Booyse & Du Plessis, 2014). Devices that are frequently used for these purposes are mobile phones,
palmtops, tablets, PCs, laptops, personal media players, etc. (Park, 2011).
M-learning is characterized by using the above-mentioned devices connected and
independent of classroom time, space, and sometimes teachers (Booyse & Du Plessis, 2014). Just like
face-to-face teaching and learning, M-learning can deliver almost any educational experience.
Learners can use mobile technology to facilitate meetings with peers all over the world through video
conferencing. It can also be used by learners to share documents or projects using cloud computing
(Booyse & Du Plessis, 2014; Park, 2011).
4.3 The changing role of teachers in the classroom
The above discussions show the high expectations regarding the roles of teachers in the 21st-century
classroom. Among the expected roles, teachers must cope with the rapidly ever-changing educational
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technology and the needs of this new breed of learners, the so-called Millennials. As schools are among
the core drivers of social justice, the tasks that teachers must perform are increasingly becoming
important to the 21st-century classroom (Roberts, Newman, & Schwartzstein, 2012; Mokoena, 2015).
As the major role-players within this ever-changing digital world, teachers have the role to
foster coherence and discipline in thinking. They also should ensure the availability of different sources
of information to benefit and advance critical thinking within a society (Watson & Watson, 2011).
Again, the role of teachers, in this information explosion, is to teach learners to retrieve,
analyse and disseminate information and to retain coherence when developing arguments (Watson &
Watson, 2011). Teachers must also show learners how to integrate information from different
disciplines and to be able to think in interdisciplinary modes as they construct their meaning (Johnson,
et al., 2015).
The Internet is useful to education, but it can also be harmful. It provides learners with
different kinds of content that can be of help to their studies but can also distract them. For example,
sex and pornography are trending in the digital space. Identity theft is rife, and rumours and gossip
have invaded the social networking space. All these are causing ethical dilemmas and so teachers have
the role to teach learners the ethics of the digital world (Chen, 2013). Here, the teacher's responsibility
is not to disadvantage learners from acquiring information but to provide them with competencies and
knowledge to have a choice between right and wrong or between good and bad. Teachers need to teach
learners ethics to adhere to for the benefit of themselves and society (Chen, 2013; Du, Fu, & Wang,
2014).
ICT has made it possible for learners to have access to information about an array of choices
in almost all aspects of life (Krelja, 2016). Teachers have the role to guide learners on how to cope with
the challenge of unlimited choices. This involves the skill to cope with choices to make about life in
general, careers, businesses, studies, etc. (Chen, 2013; Du, Fu, & Wang, 2014). Learners are supposed
to be guided to act responsibly and decisively without succumbing to pressure of doing wrong.
Therefore, access to information must be used to better livelihoods of learners and the community they
live in (Connell, 2009; Du, Fu, & Wang, 2014; Krelja, 2016).
Another role of teachers in the 21st century classroom is to inspire learners to be originators
of new knowledge (Pritchard, 2007; Karsenti, 2013). The latest educational environments in which
learners find themselves call for them not to be just recipients of knowledge and information but to also
be creators of it (Karsenti, 2013; Du, Fu, & Wang, 2014). For example, realizing intellectual property
as OER for usage and adaptation under Creative Commons is a way of encouraging creativity from
learners to globalize education and encourage information sharing (Hylén, 2006; Krelja, 2016).
Lastly, creativity and design elements have become indispensable to the 21st-century
classroom (Connell, 2009; Du, Fu, & Wang, 2014; Krelja, 2016). Teachers are expected to have
abilities to create and design resources in different forms. The digital world requires teachers to be
creative (Du, Fu, & Wang, 2014). This creativity is needed for the development of among others,
digital lessons, OER, flipped classrooms, mobile teaching, etc. (Chen, 2013; Stott & Neustaedter, 2013;
Du, Fu, & Wang, 2014; Krelja, 2016).
5. Research Methodology
Qualitative methods were used for this research study. A qualitative methodology was chosen because
it uses words rather than numerical data (quantitative methods) and flows predominantly from
concreteness to abstractness (Joubish, Khurram, Ahmed, Fatima, & Haider, 2011).
Following the chosen methodology and paradigm, instruments for data collection for this
study included interviews and document analysis. Qualitative research prefers the use of interviews as
an instrument for the collection of data (Silverman, 2013; Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011; King &
Horrocks, 2011). Interviews were chosen because they helped the researchers identify patterns and
relationships. Individual interviews were conducted with student teachers to determine the level of
technology usage at the university of technology.
This study used a purposive sample because purposive sampling allows a researcher to
choose a representative sample group based on the knowledge of the researcher (Denzin & Lincoln,
2011; Creswell, 2007). Data was collected from seventeen (17) participants’ responses to the
semi-structured interview schedule with six (6) open questions. These were student teachers
specializing in Computer Science Education and Mathematics Education at the university of
182
technology. The average time for each interview was Thirty (30) minutes. All interviews were
conducted at the participant’s convenience and were telephonically audio-recorded and fully
transcribed by the researcher.
The acquired data was reduced and analysed by determining themes, looking at emerging
patterns and noting the reflections. Also, codes organized the information drawn from interviews and
information from different sources. Lastly, patterns were identified, noting generalisations,
commonalities, and differences (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
6. Results
In this section the results are presented and discussed according to research questions raised in this
paper. The respondents are referred to as Participant 01, Participant 02, …, Participant 17.
6.1 Participants’ experience on the use of individual technological devices
In response to the interview first question stated “What has been your experience in using technologies
such as computers, cell phones, cameras, internet and television? Did you have access to or made use of
an Internet Café or public telephones?”, different responses were reported. The responses to this
interview question were divided into three categories: ‘no experience with technology, no experience
with computer, no experience with the cell phone’. Pertaining the category ‘no experience with
technology’ the participants articulated the following views in this regard: Participant 01: ‘Well, where I
grow up not much technology. I have no, much experience with technology’/ Participant 03: ‘I didn’t
know how to use the computer and technology to apply. We were not exposed to them’. Moreover, this
interview question was divided into three categories: ‘expose to technology, have experience with laptop,
have experience with cell phone, have experience with cell camera’. Regarding the category ‘ I was
expose to technology’ the following were mentioned: Participant 04: ‘So, with technology, I have
always been, aaaah exposed to technology growing up’ / Participant 06: ‘I have a privilege of using
technology at a very young age. They have paved my way to where I am today’. Concerning the
category ‘have experience with laptop’ the resulting was revealed: Participant 06: ‘They was a laptop in
the house’. Relating to the category ‘have experience with cell phone’, the following were indicated :
Participant 16: ‘As I grow up in Ekurhuleni, in Gauteng, Germiston I grow up out using my cell phone’
/ Participant 05: ‘Any experience how? Like me using them or? Yeah, I have experience with cell
phones, …’ laptop computer, and the cameras aaah’. With regards to the category ‘have experience with
camera’, participants stated: Participant 05: ‘I have experience with the cameras.’ The above responses
affirm the prevalence of few participants who have experience in using technologies such as computers,
laptop, cameras, and internet from home or their community. This might be because most of those who
participated do not have experiences in using these technological devices.
In response to the second question of the interview, which stated “What kinds of technological
devices (e.g., computer/laptop, cell phone, camera, etc) do you make use of on campus? Do you have
access to computer labs on campus? Do you make use of them? If not why?”, it was found that responses
were divided into four categories: ‘Computers, the laptop, the cell phone, access to computer lab’.
Considering the category ‘Computers’ the following were revealed: Participant 1: ‘Ok. We are using
computers like our technology. Yes, we use the laptop’ / Participant 9: ‘I use, I some time use computer.
I also did have laptop’. Pertaining to category ‘Cell phone’ the following were mentioned: Participant 15:
‘Ok, and there are points where you can charge your cell phone on campus’/ Participant 17: ‘… and a
cell phone on the campus’. Concerning the category ‘The computer lab’ the subsequent were
highlighted: Participant 5: ‘Ok, the lab computer, the computer lab in the library’ / Participant 16: ‘I was
also using the computer lab, but some time is difficult to find an internet connection…’. Relating to the
category ‘laptop’ the participants indicated the following: Participant 7: ‘The laptop…’ / Participant 9:
‘I also did have laptop…’ The above participants responses affirm that most of the participants use
different technological devices on campus. From the discussion in this section, it is a matter of concern
that most of the participants mentioned the use of the computers, the laptops and cell phone.
6.2 Participants’ experiences negotiating their success using e-learning.
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In response to the interview third question, which stated “Do you use technology in your interaction
with your lecturers? Explain”, different responses were reported. This interview responses were
divided into four categories: ‘laptop/ tablet, ethuto, cell phone’. Pertaining the category ‘use the laptop’
the participant stated the following: Participant 1: ‘Yes, we use the laptop...’ / Participant 6: ‘Lecturers
use power point (laptop). All my lecturers do use technology’ / Participant 14: ‘Yes, I use a tablet in
class’. Considering the category ‘ethuto’ participants revealed the following: Participant 8: ‘Yes, I do
use ethuto. We submit assign on ethuto. We also write the online test’ / Participant 11: ‘Yes, we use
ethuto and Wi-Fi, between the lecturers we are using ethuto everything goes around the computers).
With regards to the category ‘cell phone’ the following was indicated: Participant 13: ‘Yes, I do use
technology like I am doing just now, cell phone’. It appears that there are technological devices used in
their interelation with lectures. It is a matter of concern that most of the participants could not list all the
technological devices used in their interelation with lecturers.
In response to fourth main question of the interview which stated, “What kinds of technology
does your lecturer use in the classroom?”, it was reported that responses were divided into eight
categories: ‘Projector, laptop, ethuto, emails, memory stick, microphone, WhatsApp group, smart board
and marking pen, technologies helped’. Contemplating the category ‘Projector’ the following were
uncovered: Participant 8: ‘The lecturers use the projector’ / Participant 9: They use technology most the
time they project notes…’. Examining the category ‘laptop’ the following were exposed: Participant 12:
‘ok, mostly in the classroom they use lecturer the laptop ….’ / Participant 14: ‘They do use the laptop…’.
Considering the category ‘ethuto’ the subsequent were revealed: Participant 15: ‘They do use ethuto, …’
/ Participant 16: ‘They use ethuto and WhatsApp group’. With regard to the category ‘Emails’ the
following was exposed: Participant 6: ‘They do use emails. We communicate well with emails.
Examining the category ‘Microphone’ the following was exposed: Participant 15: ‘Some time you
cannot hear what the lecturers say the use the microphone and it does help a lot’. Regarding the category
‘WhatsApp group’ the following was mentioned: Participant 6: ‘They use WhatsApp group’. Pertaining
the category ‘Smart board and marking pens’ the following was mentioned: Participant 14: ‘Some of
them are just like using smart board and marking pens. In response to fourth question of the interview,
which stated “Do these technologies help you in your studies? Explain challenges and ways of
overcoming them Prompts”, it was reported that responses were the following: Relating to the category
‘Technologies helped’ the following were articulated: Participant 3: ‘The lecturers are using the
projector and the laptop. They are using it in the class. These technologies are help because after the
lecturer you can see it on ethuto, or the lecturer can ask you to bring the memory stick so that you can get
more information’ / Participant 12: ‘ok, mostly in the classroom they use lecturer the laptop …. yes, yes,
they do help’ / Participant 17: ‘They use technology most the time the projector. The technology does
help, help a lot’: Investigating the results revealed from the participants that most the lecturers used only
the laptop and the projectors. It is a matter of concern, that the University of Technology lecturers are
limited in their use of technological devices.
6.3 Participants’ experiences on how the university mediate in their use of e-learning
In response to the interview fifth question stated “What difficulties have you experienced in relation to
the above issues (e.g. technology use, interface with lecturers, etc.)? different responses were reported.
These responses were divided into six categories: ‘Not enough computers/no working, when using
ethuto, not familiar with technology, no internet access, computers are slow, things do not work for
lecturers’. Considering the category ‘Considering the category’ the following were exposed: Participant
1: ‘aaah, here the computers are not enough in the computer lab, it pushes us to go to the computer Lab
is that the Wi-Fi is very slow on the campus / Participant 15: ‘Some time, it is difficult to find an
accessible computer in the computer Lab’ / Participant 8: ‘Sometime in the library the computers are not
working and few of them, they are not working there’. Pertaining the category ‘when using ethuto’ the
following was stated: Participant 2: ‘Ok when it comes to technology when you are using ethuto or you
are also using an image you may not sure if it meets the destiny. But if you submit using your head you
will be sure that you have submitted your assign. Sometime after a while that are the challenges when it
comes to technology’. Relating to the category ‘not familiar with technology’ the following was showed:
Participant 5: ‘I have a very bad experience when I when to CUT. I was not familiar with the computer
and the laptop didn’t know any think about technology, such computer and laptop’. About the category
‘no internet access’ the following were disclosed: Participant 9: ‘There is no internet access. The
computers are working well. But also, you cannot get a computer to use in the lab’ / Participant 13: ‘The
184
computers at library they are very slow. You get that 50% of the computers are offline. Some of them are
not working’. Regarding the category ‘things do not work for lecturers’ the following was showed:
Participant 15: ‘Aahh, I will say the most challenging is when lecturers are to conduct lectures things are
not working, cables are faulty’. In this section, the data revealed that most participants have experience
difficulties in relation to the use of technological devices on campus. It is alarming that participants
spoke about: the inaccessibility of computers in the computer lab, problems with the internet
connections, computers that are slow, not being familiar with the technology and lectures struggling
with their devices due to technical issues.
In response to sixth main question of the interview, which stated “How have been able to cope
with these difficulties?”, it was reported that responses were divided into three categories: ‘repeat the
module, have tutorials, work in the residence, choose a nice spot’. Pertaining the category ‘Repeat the
module’ the following was stated: Participant 5: ‘I have to repeat class I have to repeat the module, but I
also have tutorials, that did help me’. Considering the category ‘choose a nice spot’ the following was
exposed: Participant 13: ‘Eeeeeeh is, sometimes, if we are doing a group work, someone with the laptop
can come with a laptop. We choose a nice spot where ther e is a Wi-Fi connection that we can connect
with the lap top the Wi-Fi’. With regard to the category ‘Have tutorials’ the following was exposed:
Participant 5: ‘…, I also have tutorials, that did help me’. Relating to the category ‘Work in the
residence’ the following was exposed: Participant 8: ‘I will go back to my residence and work and
submit my assignment’. It seems most of the participants find their own way of coping with difficulties.
It is a matter of concern that one participant taught that repeating a module was a way of coping with the
difficulties. This might be because the participants were not well informed about the support they may
get from the University or ether there is no support mechanism at all.
Furthermore, in response to sixth question, participants were asked “What the institution can
do to fix problems?”, the responses to this question were divided into three categories: ‘Fix the
computers, upgrade, fix the technology used by lecturers’. Pertaining the category ‘Fix the computers’
the following were stated: Participant 1: ‘Aah, the computers need to be fixed the computer lab. That
will be a better solution. The computers are already there’ / Participant 2: ‘Fix the computers that are
not working in the computer lab’. Relating to the category ‘Upgrade’ the following was revealed:
Participant 16: ‘Upgrade the system because the Wi - Fi is too slow. If they can fix the Wi-Fi. It will
help for us not to go to the computer lab so that some of us can use our own laptop than going to the
Lab’. Concerning the category ‘fix the technology used by lecturers’ the following was revealed:
Participant 4: ‘If the institution can pay attention to some of technology that the lecturers are using just
to help them up. The best way is to fix these problems I think monthly service will help’. Finally, from
our discusssion in the above section, it is a matter of concern that most of the participants responses
revealed the needs for the maintenace of the divices, the upgrading computers and the internet.
7. Discussion and Conclusion
This study sought to explore the experiences in using technology by student teachers from
disadvantage communities at university of technology. The findings revealed that most student
teachers were not involved in using technology prior to tertiary study. The findings also revealed that
most student teachers could not provide all the technological devices they experience on campus. They
were limited on their experience in using the computer, laptop, cell phone, internet. Furthermore, most
of the student teachers have experienced the lectures only using the laptop and projector. Other, student
teachers revealed difficulties they have experienced in relation to the above issues: Not enough
computers working, when using ethuto, not familiar with technology, no internet access, computers are
slow, things do not work for lecturers. Moreover, the findings revealed that student teachers have been
able to cope with their difficulties by their own way. The findings showed that there is a need for the
maintenance of all the technological devices, the upgrade of the internet and other devices. No students
spoke about assisting students who are not familiar with the use of technological devices.
However, these findings may in part explain the challenges for disadvantages students from
realizing their full potential. The findings may also suggest that part of the solution in developing the
sound knowledge and skills base of students lies in interventions related to the use of different
technological devices at both the student level and the lecturer level. According to Wan and Niu (2020),
Aznar, Cáceres, and Romero (2019) the use of technology by students involved in the teaching and
learning process becomes a challenge because an average level of technological competence is
185
required. Therefore, students and lecturers need to be trained in the use of the various technological
devices (Aghababaei & Ardani, 2018). Further to that, awareness and dusting skills training is highly
recommended as part of the orientation programs of newly hired lecturers and first year students.
The accessibility to online resources enhances effective use of technology. Radović and
Passey (2016) revealed that technology can allow a focus on essential learning concerns: practice;
revision; identification of successes and issues; reflection; and refocusing. This is supported by
Mpungose (2019), Selwyn and Stirling (2016) who suggests that e-learning is only possible provided
students have access to online resources ranging from emails, software applications, learning
management systems, social media sites and others. While it is valuable for students to have access to
technological devices like laptops, smartphones, Wi-Fi routers and others, but affordability to possess
such resources remains a question because of poor socioeconomic background. Thus, this remains the
burden of the university to provide technological devices and necessary supports in the use of
technological devices to students (Makumane & Khoza, 2020).
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all the people who prepared and revised previous versions of this document.
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187
Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
Designing of Learning Matrix Activities to
Target Chemistry Core Competencies: A Case of
Polymer, Plastic, and Circular Economy
Banjong PRASONGSAPa, & Niwat SRISAWASDIb*
aLahan Sai Ratchadaphisek School, Buriram, Thailand
bFaculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
*[email protected]
Abstract: This paper focuses on designing the learning matrix activities of polymer, plastic,
and circular economy topic to target chemistry core competencies. This study followed
4D-procedure, yet this paper only presented up to the second step (i.e., define and design).
Based on China Senior High School Chemistry Curriculum (Wei, 2019), there are five
chemistry core competencies: 1) macroscopic identification and microscopic analysis, 2)
changes and equilibrium, 3) evidence-based reasoning and modeling, 4) scientific inquiry and
innovation, 5) scientific attitude and social responsibility. Furthermore, due to the pivotal
chemistry three representation levels (macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic), researchers
generated the sixth competencies (i.e., the link between macroscopic, microscopic, and
symbolic). These activities are designed for two weeks of summer camp. Many learning
strategies are used in this learning matrix activities, such as interactive lessons, hands-on
activities (e.g., stop-motion projects), laboratory experiments, citizen inquiry, field trips, and
exhibitions. Besides, various technologies are used in this learning matrix activities, such as
video and nQuire toolkit. This learning activity is expected to promote students’ chemistry
competencies, especially on polymer, plastic, and circular economy topics.
Keywords: Secondary School, Learning Matrix , Polymer
188
Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
The Study of the Problem Solving Ability and
Learning Outcomes through Web-based
Problem Solving Learning Environment with
the Professional Learning Community of
Primary Three Students
Pawanan NUNKLANG *, Sirisukr SIRICHOKCHAITRAKOOL , Sarawut JACKPENG , Sunisa
SUWANNACHAI , Naphaporn WORANETSUDATHIP , Manutchaya SRICHINDA ,
Prakaifon BUNDASUKPAISAN , Wimonlak CHANTANAPIM ,
Puttachat CHUMWANGWAPEE , Kitiyada PUAPANITCHAYAKOOL ,
Pecharat JONGNIMITSATHAPORN , Piyanun BOONPO , Tipruthai KRISRIWATTANA ,
Oranut KITTISIRIWATTHANAKUL , Nuchanart NESUSIN ,
Nariean NAMBOONRUANG , Wipavadee BOONCHAISEE & Nantikarn SIRIWARIN
Khon Kaen University Demonstration School, Khon Kaen, Thailand
* [email protected]
Abstract: This research aimed to 1) study the problem-solving ability through the web-based
problem-solving learning environment and 2) study the learning outcome using the web-based
problem-solving learning environment. The sample group consists of 27 primary three students
in C2 class, group two, Demonstration School of Khon Kaen University, Elementary Section
(Suksasart). The sample group was selected using Simple Random Sampling (SRS) through the
drawing method, basing on the classes as the unit in the sampling. This research is a Pre
Experimental Research Design with One-Shot Case Study. The tools used for the research were
1) Web-based Problem Solving Learning Environment, 2) Quiz to measure the
problem-solving ability, and 3) Quiz for the learning outcomes. The statistics used for the
analysis of the data were percentage and average. The result of the research showed that 1) the
result from the study on problem-solving ability through Web-based Problem Solving Learning
Environment showed that 21 students passed, which equals 77.78 percent, with an average of
15.00 points, 75.000 percent higher than the specified threshold and 2) the study of the learning
outcome through Web-based Problem Solving Learning Environment showed that 20 students
passed, which equals to 74.07 percent, with the average of 22.70 points, 75.68 percent higher
than the specified threshold.
Keywords: Web-based Problem Solving Learning Environment, problem-solving, learning
outcome
189
Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
Online Recorded Video Lectures: Effects on
Grade 7 Learners’ Achievement and
Retention Levels in Algebra
Monneerah BINT-USMAN * & Douglas A. SALAZAR
Mindanao State University- Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines
*[email protected]
Abstract: This experimental study investigates whether learners in Grade 7 achieve higher
levels of achievement and retention through online recorded video lectures or online lectures
during a pandemic COVID 19 time. A pretest-posttest-retention test control-experimental
group design was used to two (2) groups of Grade 7 learners in algebra. T-tests were used to
determine whether there was a significant difference of groups means scores at 0.05 level of
significance. The t-test for achievement level revealed a significant difference in the mean
scores between the control and experimental groups. However, although the control group had
higher mean gain score than the experimental group, on the average both groups revealed a no
significant difference in terms of gain scores. Furthermore, results revealed that there was no
significant difference between the control and experimental groups in terms of retention levels.
This indicates that both Online Lectures and Online Recorded Video Lecture contributed
almost the same amount of information retained. However, learner’s perception from Math
Journals and Interview results showed that learners exposed to Online Recorded Video
Lectures appreciated the teaching strategy for giving them equal opportunity to learn.
Therefore, Online Recorded Video Lectures is recommended to learners who do not have
stable internet connection.
Keywords: Achievement Level, Online Lectures, Online Recorded Video Lectures and
Retention Level
190
Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
The comparison of self-determination regulators
between high school students attending ordinary
and tutorial schools in Thailand
Sirimongkol TORUDOMSAK a* , Pawich BURANAROM a,
Teeradej THUMMACHOT b, Jittawat PANTHONG b
aAssumption College, Bangkok, Thailand
bSuankularb Wittayalai School, Bangkok, Thailand
*[email protected]
Abstract: A large number of Thai high school students are currently enrolled in more tutorial
institutions alongside their regular study in their school. Many studies have found that a variety
of factors might influence high school pupils' motivation to choose to study at tutorial and
ordinary schools. In this study, we created an online survey to investigate using
self-determination theory (SDT), which outlines several motivational regulations that
encourage students to enroll in tutorial and regular schools. Amotivation, extrinsic motivation
(i.e. external, introjected, identified, and integrated regulations), and intrinsic motivation are
three major forms of regulations that lead to those reactions, according to SDT. The result
showed that integrated regulation is the major motivating regulator affecting students to study
more in tutorial schools; whereas, external regulation is the major reason for attending ordinary
schools. In addition, we found that the level of non-internalised motivation (amotivation and
external regulation) in ordinary schools is greater than that in tutorial schools. However, tutorial
schools attract a higher amount of internalised motivation (integrated and intrinsic regulation)
than their counterparts. This raised some awareness for educators that in general high school
students seem to find tutorial education more useful and more interesting than their ordinary
education. Teachers in formal education are encouraged to revisit their curriculum and
instruction can serve its function more effectively
Keywords: Self-determination; Motivation; Ordinary school; Tutorial school; High school
student
191
Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
Developing Basic Protective Kit Utilizing
Contextualized STEM-Online Learning for
Grade 10 Learners
Lea May AGAD *, Monera SALIC-HAIRULLA, Amelia BUAN & Rica Mae GUARIN D
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines
*[email protected]
Abstract: Basic health protection is a major priority in the Philippines worldwide, especially
since the COVID-19 pandemic happened. This includes the implementation of personal
protective items and hand hygiene to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Hence, this
study aims to develop a basic protective kit utilizing contextualized STEM-online learning for
Grade 10 learners. It intends to generate a student-centered approach in teaching science in the
new normal through online learning and STEM-based lesson. The study employed a
pretest-posttest one-group design with qualitative support. The methods used to involve three
stages-development, validation, and implementation. The development stage includes
analyzing the student-respondents based on their internet accessibility, identifying the learning
competency anchored on the Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) on Science K-12
curriculum, developing the contextualized STEM online lesson, and validating the developed
lesson based on the ratings and comments or suggestions of the evaluators. The developed
lesson was then implemented to the selected Grade 10 students in Maquilao Integrated School.
Results showed that there is a significant difference between the students' pretest and posttest
scores. Hence, it indicates that the developed lesson resulted in improved performance as it
fostered scientific literacy among the students. Results also showed that these students could
produce quality outputs as their basic protective kit to address the global crisis in mitigating the
spread of infectious diseases such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, the developed STEM
activity is highly relevant to every student.
Keywords: Education Development, Health Education, Integrative STEM Education, Online
Learning, Scientific Literacy, STEM Education
1. Introduction
In the past decade, it is had been observed that a learner-centered classroom has been an effective
environment for enhancing students' learning experience (Bishop et al., 2014). Literature revealed that a
learner-centered approach can significantly improve the learners' performance. To promote
learner-centered learning, many authors recommend using media and technology (Wang & Woo, 2007).
With the current crisis of COVID-19, schools shifting to use online learning platforms is among the
alternative ways of teaching and learning. The pandemic has presented a changing culture to reach
students, and schools need to adapt to this culture (Westine et al., 2019). In the Philippines, some
schools are using self-learning modules (SLMs), and some are doing online activities. According to
Dhull & Arora (2019), online learning is an excellent option in education, mainly when there are
hindrances to traditional learning situations. Using technology to implement remote instruction is
beneficial for it includes student engagement, access to the latest information, sharing of content, and
communication (Mathew & Iloanya, 2016). Hence, web-based learning accommodates shift schedules
and distance learning. It is easily expanded and modified, facilitates assessment, encourages
self-directed learning, and is inherently learner-centered (Cook and Dupras, 2003).
On the other hand, the low achievement rates of Filipino students in science have been recorded
for many years now. The results of the PISA 2018 showed that the country has the second-lowest test
scores in math and science (OECD, 2019), The country also ranks 76th out of 137 countries regarding
the quality of science and math education in the Global Competitiveness Report 2017-2018 (Schwab,
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2017). In 2003, the Math and Science scores in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) of selected countries revealed that among the 45 countries that participated in the
TIMSS for eighth-grade students, the Philippines ranked 41st in Math and 42nd in Science (Mendoza,
2020). In the National Achievement Tests, the results showed that science continues to be the most
challenging field of study in primary education in the Philippines. This low performance in international
and national assessments is a significant challenge that the country faces in science education.
One of the current education trends that is essentially learner-centered and project-based
engaging students in collaborative activity is STEM-based learning (Yuenyong, 2019). It involves
integrating science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. It aims to develop the profoundly
mathematical and scientific underpinnings students need to be competitive in the 21st-century
workforce (Jolly, 2014). Finding the balance between student understanding of abstract science
concepts and grounding those concepts in a contextualized world have relevance, meaning and maintain
the sense of wonder that often leads students into STEM careers (Giamellaro, 2014).
With the current situation of the country, there is also a need to strengthen hygiene practices at
all levels of learning. Such preventive measures can improve hygiene to mitigate infectious disease
transmission (Lee et al., 2003). The Philippines still recorded about 400, 000 confirmed cases of
COVID-19 after the Department of Health (DOH) reported on December 2021. Hence, this study has
been created to encourage other educational scholars to build and generate research evidence how to
cope with the current pandemic that has transformed the functioning of educational systems around the
world. Consequently, the educational system should prioritize literacy to adeptly deal with a future virus
outbreak (Toquero, 2020).
1.1 Research Objectives
1. Develop a basic protective kit utilizing contextualized STEM-online learning;
2. Investigate the scientific literacy of the learners on the specific lesson and concept;
3. Determine the perception of the students on the developed lesson.
1.2 Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of the study using the IPO model. The study has
undergone several phases with its corresponding processes to come up with its desired outputs. The
inputs that were used in the study are the learners’ prior knowledge and their accessibility to online
learning. These variables influenced the result of the study. Developing the contextualized
STEM-online understanding was based on the K to 12 curriculum guide's learning competencies
mandated by the Department of Education. The evaluators validated the developed Contextualized
STEM-Online learning. The developed STEM-Online lesson that affects learners’ scientific literacy as
anchored in the OECD Framework had three forms of scientific knowledge: content, procedural and
epistemic, and learners’ perceptions towards implementing the lesson served as the expected output in
the implementation.
Input Process Output
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study
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2. Methodology
This study employed a pretest-posttest one-group design with qualitative support. The same
independent variable is measured in one group of participants before (pre-test) and after (post-test)
treatment is administered. The independent variable of the study was the developed contextualized
STEM online lesson. Meanwhile, the dependent variable was the content knowledge measured through
the achievement test consisting of pre-test and post-test. On the other hand, the qualitative data were
collected and analyzed from the students' responses and the evaluators' comments and suggestions.
The developed basic protective kit as an activity and the contextualized STEM-online learning
was participated by the Grade 10 learners enrolled during S.Y. 2020-2021 in Maquilao Integrated
School (MIS). The researcher purposely selected the thirty (30) student-respondents in the class based
on certain qualifiers which include: (1) Grade 10 student-respondents who are residents of Tangub City,
Misamis Occidental and (2) Grade 10 student-respondents who have gadgets and internet connectivity.
The in-service teachers in the school also identified and classified the students who have internet
accessibility.
Meanwhile, during the development stage, evaluators composed of in-service teachers from
Maquilao Integrated School (MIS) and other teachers in any school evaluated the said instructional
material who are experts in science. There were also IT experts from the MSU-Iligan Institute of
Technology who evaluated the developed online lesson material.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Process of the Development of Contextualized STEM-Online Lesson
There were numerous steps involved in developing the contextualized STEM-online lesson. The initial
stage was to assess the students' internet connectivity which includes their gadgets and internet
connection. The learning competency was then determined using the K-12 Curriculum's Most Essential
Learning Competencies (MELCS). It was then followed by the development of the STEM-Online
lesson, which the evaluators then validated.
Figure 2. Process of the Development of Contextualized STEM-Online Lesson
3.1.1 Analyzing the Learners’ Internet Accessibility
Before it was implemented, an online learning accessibility survey was conducted to determine the level
of internet accessibility of the Grade 10 student-respondents.
Table 1 presents the devices that are available at home. Out of 30 student-respondents, there
were 30 of them who had smartphones, 3 had laptops, 1 had desktop computer, and 1had a tablet. This
finding revealed that students had the tools to link to the internet since they all had smartphones and
other devices available at home. Notably in 2019, it was recorded that 70.7 million people accessed the
internet through their mobile phones in the Philippines (Sanchez, 2020).
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Table 1
Students’ Devices Available at Home
Devices Basic Cellular Smartphone Tablet Desktop Laptop
No. of Students Phone 30 3 Computer 3
4
1
Also, table 2 shows how the students connect to the internet. Their smartphones' availability
shows that they can connect to the internet through their mobile data. Few of them have their own
broadband internet connection and goes to the internet café and free public Wi-Fi. This finding revealed
that students had the means and the initiative to connect to the internet.
Table 2
Students’ Connectivity to the Internet
Internet Connectivity Own Internet Own Mobile Internet Cafe Free Public
No. of Students Connection Data 4 Wifi
30 2
2
Moreover, the students’ level of confidence in handling tasks that require the use of computers,
mobile phones, and other digital technologies was also determined. The result revealed that students
have 62.5% confidence in doing tasks at home using digital tools. Most of them responded that an
unstable internet connection might prevent them from doing schoolwork at home. According to the
Digital Quality of Life Index 2020 report, the Philippines has hit 77 in broadband and mobile download
speeds and stability, making it one of the countries with the slowest and least reliable internet.
3.1.2 Identifying the Learning Competency from the Most Essential Learning Competencies of
the K-12 Curriculum Standards
The learning focus and prescribed competency where aligned in making the activities. The selected
topic in this study is based on the K to 12 MELCs (Most Essential Learning Competencies) as part of
DepEd’s response to develop resilient education systems, especially during emergencies.
In this stage, the topic identified is the effects of lifestyle on the functioning of respiratory and
circulatory system stipulated in the K-12 Most Essential Learning Competencies MELCs. This topic
was chosen since COVID-19 crisis is still evident today. Subjects should include health education, such
as hygienic practices (Toquero, 2020). Integrating health literacy into education has never been more
crucial than now (Abel & McQueen, 2020). The developed lesson plan could be highlighted below.
Table 3
Lesson Plan on Basic Protective Kit Activity on STEM Education Learning Approach
STAGE ACTIVITIES
1.Identification of
social issues 1. Show a video presentation of the country’s shortage of protective
supplies due to COVID 19 pandemic from ANC NEWS, 2020.
2. Identification of 2. Students answer the following guided questions.
potential solution
o When you hear the word ‘protective/safety kits,’ what are the first
thoughts that come into your mind?
o What could be the consequence of the lack of availability of safety
kits in your community (Brgy. Maquilao, Tangub City)?
o How does the crisis of COVID-19 have an impact on you and your
local community?
1. Watch the video and think of possible solutions to prevent COVID -19
and other circulatory and respiratory diseases by answering the reflection
questions.
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STAGE ACTIVITIES
o What have I learned from the video?
o What can I do with the lack of protective supplies?
o Can I make a basic protective kit at home?
2. Students may think of possible product/ basic protective kit regarding
the five capitals: physical, financial, social/technology, human and natural
capitals.
Physical – Students can interview or ask help/tap people from their
community including medical/health workers, teachers and parents.
Financial – reducing the cost
Social/Technology – Material selection using appropriate materials, find
ways to solve the problem, collaboration with local people
Human need – The safety of the product, usability of the product, aesthetic
aspect, cheaper cost
Natural – The use of organic ingredients available in the community,
3. Need for utilization of local raw materials
1. Show a video presentation, “How to start a healthy lifestyle”.
Knowledge 2. Recognize practices that promote a healthy lifestyle. Do the following:
o Activity 1. Good or Bad. Describe pictures that shows lifestyles.
Decide if it's either good or bad for your respiratory and circulatory
system. Explain answer briefly.
o Activity 2. Positive or Negative
Identify items which has a positive impact on the individual.
4.Decision-making 1. After the students have the knowledge and education activities, the
students can choose a group to plan the design of the product.
2. Each group will finalize their design. Plan three (3) items as a basic
protective kit. Select materials that are needed. Materials to be used must
be readily available that is low cost and made from recycled materials or
local raw materials.
5. Development of the 1. Develop the products based on what they are designing. Clear tasking of
product the assigned development of each required products for Basic Protective
Kit.
2. Students may ask help/ tap people in the local community.
6. Test and 1. Students have to provide the methods, materials/equipment appropriate
Evaluation of the for justifying their products. (See Rubric).
Solution
Criteria Product Product Product Total
A B C Score
Used of appropriate materials that
are low cost and made from
recycled/local raw materials
Demonstrated the steps efficiently on
how to make the product at home
Made functional/wearable and
feasible
Explained the impact of product use
on disease prevention in a
comprehensive manner
Designed the product creatively and
showed a unique presentation of the
designed protective kit
• 7. Socialization and 1. Exhibit the output to the community and promote the designed
Completion Decision protective kit to address the shortage of protective supplies in preventing
the spread of COVID 19 and other circulatory and respiratory diseases.
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3.1.3 Development of the Contextualized STEM-Online Lesson
The researcher constitute a storyboard for the elements included in each page in the website entitled
“Safety Starts With Me”. It is parallel to the concept of a Context-based STEM education learning
approach; regarding Sutaphan and Yuenyong (2019), the context-based STEM education learning
approach included (1) Identification of social issues, (2) Identification of potential solution, (3) Need for
knowledge, (4) Decision-making, (5) Development of prototype or product, (6) Test and evaluation of
the solution, and (7) Socialization and completion decision stage.
3.1.4 Validation of the Contextualized STEM-Online Lesson
A panel of evaluators comprised of eight (8) in-service science teachers, eight (8) STEM experts who
have designed and implemented a STEM Lesson, and (6) ICT experts evaluated the developed activity
and contextualized STEM-online lesson for Grade 10 learners.
Table 4 presents the summary of rating of the evaluators to the developed lesson material. As
shown in the figure, the evaluation was categorized into five components. In the Learning Objective
component, it was rated excellent where it was characterized as specific, measurable, attainable,
relevant, time-bounded (SMART), expressed in behavioral terms, and appropriate learning
goals/objectives. The component of learning content was also rated excellent, which was characterized
as clear, concise, detailed, and accurate description of the lesson concept, organization of content is in a
logical order and based on the students' context and developmental level. In the degree of
contextualization, it was rated excellent comprised of creativity and connected to "real world" problems
or scenarios, links new content to local experiences familiar to the students, and accommodates the
chosen locality's unique contexts (Tangub City). In terms of its incorporation in essential values of the
chosen locality, it was rated very good.
Meanwhile, five of the STEM stages (Appendix M) by Chokchai and Sutaphan (2018) were
rated excellent, and two of the stages were very good by the panel of experts, which indicated that it
satisfied each STEM stage's specifications as described by Chokchai and Sutaphan (2018). Lastly, in the
component of the developed online lesson, it was rated excellent. The selection and application of
technologies were appropriate for the learning environment and outcomes; the content was well
organized and was presented in a clear manner that was easy to follow, and the layout and design were
visually striking. All links and pages were complete and working.
Table 4
Evaluation of the Developed Lesson
Component Mean Rating Descriptor
Learning Objective 3.65 Excellent
Learning Content 3.28 Excellent
Degree of Contextualization 3.35 Excellent
3.37 Excellent
STEM Stages 3.52 Excellent
Online Lesson
In totality, the teaching-learning material got a rating of excellent. However, to further improve
the developed Contextualized STEM-Online Lesson, the researcher asked for comments and
suggestions from the panel of experts. The pages with the corresponding STEM stages were revised as
commented and suggested by the panel of experts
3.2 Investigating Scientific Literacy of the Students
According to the OECD Framework, scientific literacy is composed of three scientific knowledge. This
research aimed to investigate content knowledge, procedural knowledge and epistemic knowledge of
the performance of the students.
197
3.2.1 Students’ Performance on the Content Knowledge
The summary of the performance of the student-respondents on the content knowledge in the pre-test
and post-test is shown on the table below. Table 5 shows the mean scores of the students during the
pre-test as well as the post-test with its standard deviation. During the pre-test, the mean score is 12.80,
and the standard deviation is 2.86. Meanwhile, during the post-test, the mean score is 18.23, and the
standard deviation is 2.24. Based on given the data, the post-test scores are way better than the pre-test
scores and are closer to the mean than the pre-test scores.
Table 5
Achievement Test Result during the pre-test and post-test
Group Mean SD
Pre-test 12.80 2.86
Post-test 18.23 2.24
In addition, table 6 illustrates the paired t-test results between the pre-test and post-test scores of
the respondents. It shows that there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test in the
achievement level of the content knowledge of students. The data show a highly significant difference
in the achievements scores for the developed lesson in the pre-test and post-test (M = -5.43) conditions;
t = -10.920, p < 0.001. Hence, the research hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the
pre-test and post in the achievement level of the students in the implementation of the developed lesson
was accepted. This further shows that the student-respondents got a lot better in the post-test results
using the developed contextualized STEM-online lesson material. There was an improved
understanding of the students in using the developed learning material.
Table 6
Paired t-test Results of the Test Scores
Group Df t-value p-value
Pre-test-Post-test -5.43 -10.920 .001
Significant at
3.2.2 Students’ Performance on the Procedural Knowledge
The summary of the learners' responses during the implementation of the basic protective kit activity
contextualizing STEM-Online Learning in each stage is shown. This includes the learners'
understanding of the different lesson activities, such as reflections, observations, insights in constructing
and presenting their ideas and tasks that are performed within the STEM-Online lesson.
As shown in table 7, students recognized the social issue that the community faces, a lack of
protective supplies during global health crisis. They were able to define protective kits and their
implications to our lives. They responded that protective kits are materials that can slow down the
spread of many illnesses, especially COVID-19, such as face shields, face masks, alcohol, hand
sanitizer, and other items. They also realized the consequences of the lack of protective kits in their
community, the manifestations in the community, such as panic buying, hoarding, and misuse of
materials leading to the untoward spread of diseases, and the severity of these which could lead to an
increase in deaths.
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Table 5
Identification of Social Issues Responses
Questions Responses
1. When you hear the word L3: “When I heard the word 'protective/safe kits,' the first thought that
‘protective/safety kits,’
what are the first thoughts comes into my mind is that we're all experiencing a shortage of
that come into your mind?
protective supplies. This had been one of the biggest problems in our
2. What could be the
consequence of the lack of country.
availability of safety kits L22: “My first thoughts that come into my mind in the word of
in your community (Brgy. protective/safety kits it can help us to be safe during the pandemic.”
Maquilao, Tangub city)? L-18: “The consequence of lack of availability of safety kits in my
3. How does the crisis of community are Covid-19 may even spread, and the severity of it can
covid-19 have an impact
on you and your local lead to an increase in deaths. Therefore, having an emergency plan
community?
for the community is very important because developing a plan has an
advantage. Lacking an emergency plan could lead to severe losses
such as multiple casualties and financial collapses.”
L1: "The crisis of COVID-19 have a big impact on me because
sometimes I feel lonely of being a distance from each other, anxiety
related to the economy due to lack of wages, and many people lost
their work, school closure, etc."
L7: "It has a big impact in mine and my community because many
people have no clear income and struggled with what they are going
to do to fight this pandemic."
3.2.3 Students’ Performance on the Epistemic Knowledge
During this study, the seven (7) stages of Sutaphan and Yuenyong (2019) context-based STEM
education teaching approach guided learning activities from identifying the social issues until the
development of outputs to address the social problem. In this activity, students were allowed to address
the current crisis to mitigate the spread of infectious disease and the lack of protective kits. Below is the
sample photo of the students' output in developing the basic protective kit.
Figure 3. Photo of Students Output
3.3 Students’ Perception on the developed lesson material
Figure 4 shows the points of view regarding the developed Basic Protective Kit Utilizing Contextualized
STEM-Online Learning activity. The said perception questionnaire assessed the self-efficacy,
enjoyment, usefulness, and behavioral intention in using the developed material as a teaching-learning
tool after the intervention. The students strongly agreed and agreed on the second statement which
shows that they were satisfied with the learning contents using the developed learning material. This
199
indicates a great satisfaction to the learning contents with the STEM-based lesson in teaching effects of
lifestyle to the functioning of circulatory and respiratory system. This also includes the common
circulatory and respiratory diseases and the focus topic is about COVID 19 which is timely and relevant
to the students and to the community. There also strongly agreed and agreed to the third statement which
shows that they enjoyed the multimedia instruction. Although multimedia does not necessarily improve
learning, it improves satisfaction with the learning experience (Bell et.al 2000).
Figure 4. Perception on the developed lesson material
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
The development of the contextualized STEM-Online lesson was evaluated by the panel of evaluators
with a rating of excellent. This indicated that the developed lesson is ready to be applied in science
education as a teaching-learning instruction specifically on the effects of lifestyle on the functioning of
respiratory and circulatory systems. Moreover, the evaluators found this strategy relevant, especially in
this time of the pandemic. This activity was implemented to the select thirty students. As shown by data,
these students manifested scientific literacy as shown in their performance on the content knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and epistemic knowledge-the results showing a significant difference in the
pre-test and post-test in their achievement test results. There were evidences on the procedural
knowledge and with their quality output on epistemic knowledge. Students utilized the developed
learning material which resulted in their improved performance and product development. Most
students showed a strong positive satisfaction and usefulness on the developed lesson material. The
educational tool was interactive in terms of its multimedia instruction. It was regarded as a motivating
tool since learners enjoyed while learning. However, some limitations would serve as opportunities for
improvement, such as internet instability.
The study recommends that: (1) Evaluators rated the developed contextualized STEM-Online
lesson and the researcher made some improvements based on comments and suggestions. With the steps
of fine-tuning and refinement undertaken, science teachers may utilize this developed basic protective
kit utilizing contextualized stem-online learning to high school students. (2) It is recommended that this
developed lesson be implemented in order to help students foster scientific literacy based on the OECD
Framework. Also, students may be helped to strengthen their hygiene practices and adeptly deal with a
future virus outbreak. (3) In addition, it is recommended that schools heighten the design and utilization
of STEM lessons and online learning to deliver quality education as tools for remote instruction. This
would greatly motivate students having distance learning, making them enjoy at the same time in
learning concepts. (4) Future research may also explore other factors related to students’ motivations in
taking online activities that were not covered in this study. (5) It is recommended that schools may
require teachers to attend training and seminars on improving teaching techniques utilizing STEM and
online learning enabling teachers to not only capable of conducting distance learning methodologies but
also in providing a successful educational experience.
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Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Department of Science and Education – Science Education
Institute (DOST-SEI) for the research funds.
References
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International, 35(6), 1612–1613, https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daaa040
Beile, P. M., and D. N. Boote. 2002. Library instruction and graduate professional development: Exploring the
effect of learning environments on self-efficacy and learning outcomes. Alberta Journal of Educational
Research, 48 (4), 364–67.
Bishop, C. F., Caston, M. I., & King, C. A. (2014). Learner-centered environments: Creating effective strategies
based on student attitudes and faculty reflection. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning,
14(3), 46–63, https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v14i3.5065
Dhull, I., & Arora, S. (2019, May). Online Learning. Retrieved from ResearchGate
website:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332833360_Online_Learning
Mathew, I. R., & Iloanya, J. E. (2016). Open And Distance Learning: Benefits and Challenge of Technology
Usage for Online Teaching and Learning in Africa, from http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/2543
OECD (2019), PISA 2018 Results (Volume I): What Students Know and Can Do, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris,
https://doi.org/10.1787/5f07c754-en
Ryshke, R., (2012). Making the case: A new high school in East Lake. Retrieved June 4, 2013. from
http://www.newtechnetwork.org/sites/default/files/
Sutaphan, S., & Yuenyong, C. (2019, in press). STEM Education Teaching approach: Inquiry from theContext
Based. Journal of Physics: Conference Series
Toquero, C. M. (2020). Challenges and Opportunities for Higher Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: The
Philippine Context. Pedagogical Research, 5(4), em0063. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7947.
Yuenyong, C. (2019). Lesson learned of building up community of practice for STEM education in Thailand. AIP
Proceeding, 2081: 020002-1- 020001-6.
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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
Pre-service Teachers’ TPACK of Augmented
Reality-infused Science Learning in
Case-based Intervention Program
Phattaraporn PONDEE & Niwat SRISAWASDI*
Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
*[email protected]
Abstract: Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge )TPACK( framework is
essential for teachers to be thoroughly familiar with using technology effectively in their
teaching. In teacher preparation research, pre-service teachers skilled with digital technology
are recognized to be highly qualified teachers in the 21st century. This study examined
pre-service science teachers’ TPACK comprehension of using augmented reality after
participating in a case-based science learning program. There were 94 pre-service science
teachers, 75 females and 19 males, enrolled in the science course classroom management and
learning environment. The learning module was divided into three steps of instruction
regarding case-based learning. A one-group pretest-posttest design was used to investigate
TPACK comprehension. Before the first step and after the last step of the learning module, the
participants were asked about the TPACK test for ten minutes for pretest and post-test. This
study focused on only four technology-oriented TPACK constructs (TK, TPK, TCK, and
TPACK(. A Wilcoxon signed-ranks test was conducted. It is used to compare difference scores
between pretest and post-test. The result illustrated that there was a significant difference
between pretest and post-test mean scores. It indicated that pre-service science teachers’
post-test scores were more remarkable than pretest scores.
Keywords: Pre-service science teachers, case-based learning, augmented reality, TPACK
202
Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
The Investigations of Pre-service Science
Teachers for Understanding of Nature of
Scientific Inquiry
Wacharaporn KHAOKHAJORNa & Niwat SRISAWASDIb*
aDepartment of Science, Faculty of Education, Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University, Thailand
bFaculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
*[email protected]
Abstract: With the benefits of the inquiry-based learning environment provides opportunities
for pre-service science teachers to inquire knowledge in a procedural way by using technology
in science classroom. Similarly, nature of scientific inquiry (NOSI) is the fundamental
understandings of scientific inquiry in which learners should know how to do practice to obtain
scientific knowledge. The aim of this study was to investigate understanding about nature of
scientific inquiry for enhancing pre-service science teachers. A total of 27 participants were
local public in the northeastern part of Thailand. VASI questionnaires were used for data
collection. Data were analyzed and three researchers about level of understandings of NOSI, by
qualitative method. This research results showed that the pre-service science teachers lack
multiple method aspect of nature of scientific inquiry. Consequently, the findings of this study
further exposed that to plan a module integration with technology that enhances an
understanding about the nature of scientific inquiry of pre-service science teachers in the
classroom.
Keywords: nature of scientific inquiry, technology, inquiry-based learning, pre-service teacher
203
Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University
Examining the Latent Factor Structure on
Teachers’ Reluctance in Implementing K to 12
Curriculum Program
Dian SILACANa*, Justine Israel TALASANa, Sonny Boy GABULE IIa,
Rizalina GOMEZb & Imelu MORDENOb
a Graduate of Bachelor of Elementary Education Major in English,
Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines
b Professor, College of Education, Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology,
Philippines
* [email protected]
Abstract: This study presents the construction and validation of the Teachers’ Reluctance
towards Change Scale. The researchers have initially generated three hundred eighty (380)
items from the qualitative data of Bugas and Gellica (2017) using the Grounded Theory
Methodology (GTM) and applied thematic analysis as study 1. The items generated were face
validated for readability, clarity, and understandability and subjected to content validation
resulting in the reduction of items to two-hundred twenty-eight (228). The instrument with the
content validated items along with various scales was administered to four hundred
seventy-two (472) public school teachers implementing the K to 12 curriculum for construct
validation. The data from the two-hundred twenty-eight (228) content validated items were
subjected further to Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) utilizing the Exploratory Structural
Equation Modelling (ESEM) package and was reduced to 35 items. The results show construct
and criterion-related evidences of validity. The Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) yielded
7-factor model which includes Lack of Classroom Facilities, Lack of competency in the use of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Difficulties in workload, Lack of
Government support, Problem with Learners’ motivation, Lack of Support for Teachers and
Lack of support from stakeholders. In criterion-related evidence for validity, it was found out
that all the factors were significantly related to the two scales namely: Classroom Teachers’
Perceptions of Organizational Change (CTPOC) and Dweck's Measures of Malleability of
Beliefs (DMMB) which implies that the beliefs and attitudes of teachers toward organizational
change could highly affect their implementation of the curriculum.
Keywords: K to 12 curriculum, latent factor structure, organizational change, reluctance
1. Introduction
The K to 12 Curriculum Program has been implemented for pre-tertiary education all over the world
(Sarvi, Munger, & Pillay, 2015). It allows keeping abreast with the requirements of the 21st Century
(Southeast Asian Minister of Organization Regional Center for Educational Innovation and Technology
(SEAMEO-INNOTECH), 2012). The Philippines, as one of the remaining countries to have the shortest
basic education cycle (Yap, 2011), adopted K to12 as its educational system, with ten years of basic
education and two years of senior high school. With the recently adopted reform, the implementation of
the K to12 depends on teachers who facilitate the teaching-learning process (Corpuz & Salandanan,
2015).
Change is always accompanied by emotion (Hargreaves, 2005). Due to the drastic change in the
curriculum, teachers may show reluctance due to lack of skills in teaching content subjects (Fisher,
2007), repetitive change, and practices that may be dismissed because of what the change requires
(Terhart, 2013). Although, several studies indicate factors contributing to teacher’s reluctance to change
such as teacher training, teachers’ experience, gender, type of disability, physical environment,
materials and resources, and class size (Singal, 2011; Coşkun, Tosun, & Macaroǧlu, 2009; Ernst &
204
Rogers, 2009). To the author’s knowledge, there is no study being conducted on the development and
validation of teachers’ reluctance to change scale.
There is a paucity of empirical data (Montebon, 2014) to assess the latent factor structure of the
new curriculum's implementation, particularly in terms of teachers' reluctance. A valid and objective
assessment is imperative to address the definite concerns of teachers in the K to12 implementation.
Hence, this study aims to develop a scale that assesses teachers’ reluctance on implementing the new
curriculum. Examining the factors of teachers’ reluctance will further address the issues encountered by
the teachers and may suggest to the government more ways of intervention to ensure the success of the
implementation.
2. Methodology
The researchers created items using the qualitative data gathered from the study of Bugas and Gellica
(2017). Its creation was based on the premise that the teachers’ perception of what is important to the
teaching and learning process can influence the implementation of a new curriculum or change. Hence,
the items are related to what is most likely preventing teachers from implementing the K-12 curriculum.
The initial generated items were face validated for readability, clarity, and understandability
using a rating scale. Three education professionals were asked to rate each item by checking if it was
easy to understand and crossing it out if it needed revision. There was space set aside for suggestions on
how the items should be revised. It was followed by content validation wherein items of the same
thought were fused and double-barrelled items were broken into two or more items. Hence, a new set of
items were derived and considered "content validated items".
Written requests were sent to the Superintendents and principals of the divisions and schools
identified to try-out the “content validated items” for testing its readability. Five hundred secondary
school teachers from the province of Lanao del Norte, Misamis Oriental, and Misamis Occidental were
randomly chosen for try-out purposes. Hence, a new set of constructs emerged and came up with the
initial of the attitude scale on teachers’ reluctance in implementing the K-12 program.
To measure internal consistency, Cronbach Alpha was used to measure the reliability of the
instrument. Specifically, it measures how closely related are the factors as a whole. The Cronbach's
alpha reliability coefficient of the attitude scale on teachers' reluctance in implementing the K-12
program was determined to check whether the scale is reliable or not. A useful rule of thumb says that
reliability should be at least .70 and preferably higher (George & Mallery, 2003).
The items were tested for construct validity. According to O’Leary-Kelly and Vokurka (1998) it
assesses the degree to which how well a measure measures its targeted variables. It is done through
presenting correlation between the instrument made and other assessed instruments supporting the
theory being tested (Westen, Drew, and Rosenthal, 2003). The researchers employed the Exploratory
Factor Analysis (EFA) utilizing the Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling (ESEM) package
implemented in Mplus version 7.1 (Muth’en & Muth’en, 2013). EFA is recommended for data reduction
or extraction of a large sum of data. Through extraction, it identifies the underlying factors from the
observed variables. In the ESEM process, the data extraction was based on which items could not give
improvements to the fit index of the scale and at the same time items which were incoherent with the
theoretical structure of the factors of the scale were eliminated. The researchers used the following
research instruments:
● Inventory of Attitude towards Change (IATC). This scale contains eighteen (18) items and three (3)
subscales: cognitive, affective, and behavioral tendencies. In each subscale, there were six (6) items
composed of positive and negative statements. A five-point Likert type scale was employed
ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). Overall, research indicates the scale
displays reliability of 0.73.
● Teaching Satisfaction Scale (TSS). The TSS contains five (5) items asking the teacher how he/she
feels about his/her job satisfaction in various ways. These items were derived from the Life
Satisfaction Scale (LSS) by changing the wordings to fit for teaching. A five-point response scale
was employed ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) with a Cronbach’s alpha of
0.77.
● Student - Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS). The STRS was used for assessing teacher’s
perceptions of their relationship towards the learner inside the classroom. Teachers rated fifteen (15)
items corresponding with two (2) subscales: Closeness and Conflict and has excellent psychometric
205
properties across multiple studies (Pianta & Steinberg, 1992). All items are reflected in the degree
to which each of the following statements applies to his/her relationship with the learner from 1-5
where 1= definitely does not apply and 5=definitely applies. The internal consistency reliability
reported in Koomen, Verschueren, van Schooten, Jak, & Pianta (2012) was from .86-.89.
● Classroom Teachers’ Perceptions of Constructivist Curriculum Change (CTPCCC). The CTPCCC
scale was a five-point Likert type agreement scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly
agree) and consists of four (4) subscales namely, student-centeredness of curriculum with a
Cronbach’s alpha of .80, usability of the curriculum with a Cronbach’s alpha of .65, general view
of the curriculum with a Cronbach’s alpha of .72, and perceptions of change with a Cronbach’s
alpha of .69. Overall, the four subscales have Cronbach’s alpha of .89.
● Classroom Teachers’ Perceptions of Organizational Change (CTPOC). The items were used in a
five-point Likert type scale on which 1= total disagreement and 5= total agreement. The first factor,
Cynicism to Change, clearly reflects opposition and cynicism with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.95, the
second factor, Fear Beliefs, also describes a negative attitude to change, is closely linked to beliefs
and personal fears associated with change with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88 and the third factor,
Favorable Attitude to Change, covers positive beliefs and behavior in relation to organizational
change with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83.
● Dweck's Measures of Malleability of Beliefs (DMMB). The DMMB scale was a six-point Likert
scale format ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 6 (strongly disagree) which consists of eight (8)
items. The complete scale contains 4 incremental items and assesses general beliefs. The four
incremental scale items were then reverse scored and all eight items were summed with higher
scores. Overall, research indicates the scale displays good internal consistency of .82 to .97 and
test-retest reliabilities of .80 to .82 (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995).
The aforementioned instruments were used to conduct criterion-related validity.
Criterion-related validity has been used to estimate current or future performance by correlating test
results with another criterion of interest (Burns, et al., 2017).
The scale developed consists of positive and negative statements typical of a diagnostic
instrument. The responses of the teachers to the statements were scored as follows: strongly agree (6),
somewhat agree (5), agree (4), disagree (3), somewhat disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1).
3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Generated Items on Teachers’ Reluctance Towards Change Scale (TRTC)
The researchers managed to produce three hundred eighty (380) items based on the qualitative data from
the study of Bugas and Gellica (2017). The evaluation form's suggested revisions and comments were
considered for face-validity and have become the foundation of this process. Items were being assessed
and fused. Due to redundancy, some statements have been discarded. Some questions were incoherent
based on the sentence stem, which is "I feel reluctant with the K to 12 change because…" statements like
"I use my own money to provide most of the necessities in the classroom". Statements with this stem
were rewritten. The researchers also discovered items that were off-topic, grammatically incorrect, and
unstructured sentences, such as if the verb was in the past or negative form. As a result, three fifty-nine
(359) items were left, yielding a set of items referred to as "face validated items."
For content validation, items of the same thought were fused and double-barreled items were
broken into two or more items. In this process, there were only a few double-barreled statements. As a
result, two hundred twenty-eight (228) statements remained. Researchers referred to the remaining
items “content validated items”.
3.2 Construct Validity of the Instrument
The two-hundred twenty-eight (228) content validated items along with IATC scale, TSS, STRS,
CTPCCC scale, CTPOC scale, and DMMB scale were administered to four hundred seventy-two (472)
teachers who are subject of the scale development.
The data from the two-hundred twenty-eight (228) content validated items were subjected to
EFA. The two-hundred twenty-eight (228) content validated items decreased to thirty-five (35) items.
The factors that are identified were lack of classroom facilities, lack of competencies in the use of ICT,
206
difficulties in workload, lack of government support, problem with learners' motivation, lack of support
for teachers, and lack of support from stakeholders.
3.3 Reliability of the Instrument
Cronbach Alpha was used to measure the reliability of the instrument. The individual scores of the
factors are all good in consistency. The first factor, Lack of Classroom Facilities, had a value of 0.808.
Lack of Competency in the Use of ICT, Lack of Government Support, and Lack of support for Teachers
had a score of 0.87. Difficulties in Workload scored 0.81. Problem with Learners’ Motivation had a
value of 0.866 Lastly, Lack of Support from Stakeholders scored least with 0.79. The seven (7) factors
that were identified have a total value of 0.926 which implies that it is highly consistent (reliable) to
measure reluctance.
3.4 Extraction of Factors from Generated Items using Exploratory Factor Analysis
Eigenvalues of the factors together with its percent of variance show that the factors are qualified to be
retained with its value > 1. With this, the factor loading of each item suggests that there are seven (7)
underlying factors. Each factor is loaded with five (5) items making the total extracted items thirty-five
(35). In Table 1, the thirty-five (35) items are sorted by its designated factor. The researchers referred to
the thirty-five item scale as Teachers’ Reluctance Towards Change Scale (TRTCS).
Table 1
Extracted Factors from Generated Items using EFA
Factor loading
Factor 1: Lack of Classroom Facilities (F1)
F1_33. There are insufficient learning resources. 0.767
F1_11. Lockers need repair. 0.969
F1_15. There is scarcity of writing materials for black/white boards. 0.874
F1_8. There is scarcity of furniture in the laboratory rooms. 0.905
F1_3. Classroom size are too small to accommodate my learners. 0.653
Factor 2: Lack of Competency in the Use of ICT (F2)
F3_7. I am inefficient in using various technology tools. 1.149
F3_9. I am incapable of solving problems concerning ICT. 1.079
F3_20. I have difficulty to catch up the latest software application for my lesson (eg. 0.778
Microsoft Office Apps, Google Suite, Adobe Photoshop).
F3_18. I am unaware of the new ICT tools for a better student-teacher interaction. 0.792
F3_3. I find it hard to use new technology because I am already comfortable with my 0.971
way of teaching.
Factor 3: Difficulties in Workload (F3)
F6_11. Some ancillary functions in school drains me (extra jobs like coordinators or 0.999
adviser of clubs).
F6_13. I find it hard to balance my teaching duties and administrative functions. 0.819
207
Factor loading
F6_12. It is difficult to teach new subjects which are unrelated to my field of 0.946
specialization.
F6_10. I find it difficult to teach different subject areas. 0.861
F6_17. Due to the exigency of service, I am obliged to teach various subjects which 0.633
are burdensome in my part
Factor 4: Lack of Government Support (F4)
F4_5. There are inconsistencies in the monitoring for the progress of the program. 0.757
F4_16. The government less likely monitor the progress of the program 0.78
implementation
F4_11. The government lacks functional monitoring system 0.676
F4_24. There are only a few means of finding out the progress of the 0.682
implementation.
F4_15. The government takes delayed action with the inadequacy of materials that 0.624
are already indicated in evaluation.
Factor 5: Problem with Learners’ Motivation (F5)
F5_15. Some learners choose to skip classes rather than showing up to class. 1.021
F5_2. Learners are less responsive. 0.605
F5_13. Learners are unable to solve daily problems. 0.75
F5_17. There are learners who misbehave when bored during class. 0.722
F5_10. Lessons are trivial for the learners. 0.493
Factor 6: Lack of Support for Teachers (F6)
F6_18. I feel the need to be exposed for more training. 0.841
F7_26. There is a need to increase the salary of teachers to meet the required 0.663
standards of the K to 12 curriculum
F6_23. There is a need to hire competent teachers. 0.65
F4_22. There is a need for surveys of the progress of implementation. 0.581
F7_15. There is a need for unity among people in the Department of Education. 0.52
Factor 7: Lack of Support from Stakeholders (F7)
F8_3. Parents doubt the implementation if it is going to be effective. 0.751
F8_22. Community doubts the effectiveness of the program for the society. 0.702
F8_18. The community is passive about the changes in the program. 0.651
F8_12. There are parents left uninformed of the program. 0.612
F8_9. It is anxious for the parents to have two more years of schooling for their 0.637
children.
208
3.5 Criterion-related Validity of the Instrument
Criterion-related validity has been used to correlate test results with another criterion of interest to
estimate current or future performance (Burns, et al., 2017). This measurement is currently provided by
administering Classroom Teachers’ Perceptions of Organization Change Scale (CTPOC) and Dweck’s
Measures of Malleability of Beliefs Scale (DMMB).
The relationship of malleability of beliefs particularly entity (ENT) is highly correlated to the
factors of TRTC, specifically to the Lack of Classroom Facilities (F1); Lack of Competency in the use of
ICT (F2); Difficulties in workload (F3); Lack of Government Support (F4); Problem with Learners’
Motivation (F5) and lack of Support from Stakeholders (F7). Those who believed that Kto12 can’t
change the educational system, will more likely become reluctant considering the factors mentioned. On
the other hand, the subscale incremental (INC) is highly correlated to the factors of TRTC, particularly
on F4 and Lack of Support for Teachers (F6). This implies that teachers who believed that K to 12 can
change the educational system will more likely become reluctant if there’s a lack of government support
and support for teachers
Figure 1. Correlation of DMMB and CTPOC to the Factors of TRTCS
Regarding the correlation of the factors with one another, the Attitude of Cynicism (CYN) to
Change which reflects opposition shows a very high correlation to all factors except F6. If teachers have
opposing stance against the curriculum change, more likely, they will feel reluctant implementing the K
to 12. The second subscale of DMMB, Attitude of Fear/Uncertainty (FEA) is highly correlated with the
factors of TRTC. This implies that the more they doubt about the implementation and their ability to do
so, the more they will feel reluctant to continue participating in implementing the new program. Lastly,
Favorable Attitude to Change (FAV) is also highly correlated with the factors of teachers’ reluctance
towards change due to the fact that having positive beliefs and behavior related to K to 12 curriculum,
teachers are more likely to be reluctant since there are no benefits of change such as opportunities for
personal and professional growth as a commitment towards change. Overall, CTPOC Scale and DMMB
Scale have a strong significant correlation with factors of teachers’ reluctance. This implies that the
more the classroom teachers’ perceptions of organizational change, the higher their attitude towards
change and the more they are reluctant in implementing K to 12 Curriculum.
3.6. Discussions
The identified factors discussed what may cause teachers to be hesitant to implement the new
curriculum. As it is still relatively new, studies and reports have revealed that there are some issues that
must be resolved to ensure the success of implementation.
Lack of classroom facilities topped the list of the factors. School facilities, according to
Abulencia (2015), are viewed as a support system in the teaching-learning process. Unfortunately,
reports indicate that schools lack the classroom itself, armchairs, teachers’ desks, and computer
packages (Umil, 2017; Abulencia, 2015; Jones, 2017). Some schools from the hinterlands do not have a
water supply and electricity (Alcober, 2018). These facilities are deemed important as it makes the
classroom conducive to learning and has an impact on teachers’ motivation (Nadeem et al., 2011).
K to12 aims to help learners develop 21st Century Skills which includes information, media,
and technology skills (Cabansag, 2014). Hence, teachers must be trained in the use of ICT in the
classroom (Dela Rosa, 2016). Based on the findings, teachers in K to 12 struggle completing tasks using
ICT. Research shows that they are neither undertrained or have no training at all (Lorenzo, 2016;
Pa-alisbo, 2017; Correos, 2014). According to Medley (1982), competency is associated with school
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Strategic Leadership of School Administrators Under the Office of the Basic Education Commission, Thailand
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