Strategic Leadership of School Administrators Under the Office of the Basic Education Commission, Thailand

Assessment should not focus only on knowledge, but should also evaluate skills, attitudes and values –
this is supported by Ambrose et al. (2010), who state that learning should change what learners know,
their beliefs, behaviours and attitudes. Learners need to be assessed regularly with different types of
questions and forms of assessment. This claim is supported by Killion and Hirsh (2011), who report that
active professional curriculum practice can be achieved when assessment is done continuously.
Teachers need to provide learners with expanded opportunities, by giving them additional assessment if
they did not perform well. Teachers can mark learners’ work to identify areas where they need support.
Assessment results are used to inform re-teaching, and Wiliam (2013) asserts that assessment is central
to achieving active professional curriculum practice. Booyse and Du Plessis (2014) and Wylie and
Lyon (2012) also highlight that assessment should be used to inform and adapt teaching and learning.

Strategies to achieve active professional curriculum practice in the learning environment
Quality teaching, learning and assessment should take place in the learning environment. This can be
achieved by linking teaching and learning content to what learners already know. Assessment should be
based on what learners have been taught and should focus on skills and knowledge.

I think we need to ensure that there is quality teaching, learning and assessment.
Sometimes these learners, when they come to class, you know already they are in possession of a
particular knowledge about the kind of concepts that you are teaching them, especially in the classroom.
And then, I think your role and responsibility as the teacher, even before you could start imparting
knowledge; now my argument would be, I could apply it the other way around as a way of mining out
the kind of experience that learners are already in possession of. I am assessing them on a particular skill
and knowledge and perhaps experience that they are already in possession of, and then, based on the
kind of understanding, based on their experiences, I would try and introduce the lesson and formally
assess them.

For learners to perform well, assessment activities should be planned well and should be presented at
the level of learners. Learners should be assessed regularly, to reinforce what they have learnt.
Assessment activities should progress from simple to difficult activities, and from lower-order
questions to higher-order questions. Assessment activities should afford learners opportunities to
demonstrate knowledge, skills and values.

So, I wanted to also input to say, even the selection of assessment activities plays a critical role.
And then learning is a process, you can’t expect immediately after you have taught one lesson that your
learners will be in possession of a higher skill order and knowledge, so it’s a process, you need to at
least select activities that are within their reach and understanding. Select those that are easy – you start
from simple, and then you narrow and then to a broader perspective, your teaching such that once you
get to assess those that are at the higher-order leve,l at least you know that you have infused some of the
skills that are necessary for them to be able to perform and answer effectively the questions that are at
the order level.

To demonstrate that… to demonstrate the skills, the knowledge, the attitude, the values that
they have acquired, I think we must be specific, because if we just say “effective teaching” we are not
specific, so they must be able to demonstrate those things.

Teachers should give learners additional assessment activities when learners are unable to
perform well in a particular assessment activity. A different form of assessment can be used for this
purpose. This is a way of expanding learners’ opportunities.

I think the other approach could be that, instead of no giving them… instructing them to do
corrections, we can give them expanded opportunities. Give them another exercise, another activity… a
different activity, but in a different, that assesses the same information, the same content, but in the
different form. Because now it may be done that… it could be that [eh…] these learners were not able to
answer these questions because they… you know, the form of assessment was a bit difficult or
ambiguous, or you know… for them. But if you use other forms of assessment, they may get it right;
instead of doing corrections on the same test, you see, you can use expanded opportunities.

When teachers mark learners’ work, they can get an understanding of the challenges that
learners experience with the subject content. Marking can guide teachers, so that they can give learners
the support they need, and get to know the needs of different learners. Teachers can do this well in a
classroom that has fewer learners. Teachers ought to assess learners after every lesson, to determine
whether active teaching and learning took place. If learners encountered problems, re-teaching should
take place.

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But then, critical for placing the teacher, the role where he is the one supposed to be marking the
learners, once you mark the learners, you are able to know and track the performance of an individual
learner, knowing exactly to say, this, within my class if I am having thirty-two learners… these are the
learners who are challenged with understanding a particular concept. So, you don’t get to conclude your
learners as numbers and the likes, so you are sure. When they are saying… if let’s suppose a person is to
come and ask you, “who is giving you the challenge with regard to academic performance in your
classroom?” you are able to identify to say “is not doing well on one, two, three, four, five”, and then
you can only be able to track down that. Provided that you mark the learners’ script, you can see that
these ones, at least, are performing at thirty percent level, and then you group them and then you devise
separate strategies of intervention. And then, those that are performing at either forty, fifty… because I
believe that once you apply remedial strategies, let it not be the same, because these learners do
differently, and then they understand concepts differently, and then even your approach and styles of
teaching them. It needs to be differently, to also try and accommodate their different needs as well.
Because once you apply one strategy for all, one size fits all… I think it’s not working for us.

Efficiency of written work, then learners should be given written work more often than, and a
big class, it’s not going to be possible for the teacher to control, they will mark themselves, give
themselves rights where they’re wrong, but then average of small classes, then it will be possible for the
teacher to give efficient work, mark, control the work, and re-teach and assess.

My understanding with assessment is just to ensure that learners are assessed after every lesson
that has been taught. So that’s why we assess and then re-teach.

The learning environment ought to help learners experience change, to enable them to become
contributing citizens. Learners ought to be helped to apply what they have learnt in the learning
environment in the real world. Learners ought to be able to solve real-life problems using what they
have learnt in the learning environment.

The system, the education system, will now be, you know, producing learners who are
responsible citizens, contributing citizens, citizens that will be able to bring about change in the
economy, because they will be able to go out there and demonstrate and apply what they have learnt.
Learners will be able to solve problems out there in the real-world situation.

Assessment can contribute to effective teaching and learning if learners are given sufficient and
manageable assessment activities. Learners’ performance in assessment activities is used to inform
revision and re-teaching. Teachers should conduct error analysis and question analysis to determine
how to support learners.

And give us enough class works, not much… much… much… more!
Yes, we must teach and assess; when doing the revision, you must assess, then where there is an
error analysis or question analysis, you find that when they were not performing well in that concept or
subtopic, then you re-teach.
This section presented some of the strategies teachers can use to ensure that active professional
curriculum practice and learning takes place in the learning environment. The next section will discuss
these findings.

6. Recommendations

Active professional curriculum practice needs to be central to the learning environment. Targets should
be achieved, but not at the expense of losing focus on the purpose of teaching, learning and assessment.
Learning environment activities ought to not be used to prepare learners for final examinations but
should be used to achieve effective teaching and learning. Participation in professional curriculum
practice ought to bring about change in learners; the learning environment should change learners so
that they become citizens who contribute to society, who are real-life problem solvers and people who
can apply what they have learnt in different situations.

7. Conclusion

Literature that was reviewed discussed in detail the purpose of teaching, learning and assessment. The
article identified the factors that hinder active professional curriculum practice in the learning

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environment and discussed strategies teachers can use to achieve active professional curriculum
practice. Social transformation can be achieved by questioning how things are done in the learning
environment, and by suggesting how they can be reconfigured. If the recommendations of the article are
implemented, changes in professional curriculum practice can result in achieving active teaching and
learning. The main change that needs to be implemented in the learning environment is ensuring that all
teaching, learning and assessment activities are focused on active professional curriculum practice and
learning, instead of on compliance.

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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
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Systematic Literature Review: Policy Guideline
the development using media and Internet
technology among the elderly for super-aged
society in Thailand

Witchaya KHOTARATHITITHAM*, Napat RUANGNAPAKUL
& Piriya KANJANAKONGKHA

Faculty Of Information And Communication, Maejo University , Thailand
* [email protected]

Abstract: Encouraging the elderly to use media and internet technology skills is essential to
build immunity to be aware of technology in their daily lives. Thai society becomes a complete
aging society in 2024 and becomes a super-aged society in 2030. In addition, the development
of technology will enter the fusion. Therefore, it will affect their daily life. The objectives of
this research were to review the literature on issues 1) to study patterns, causes, usage
behaviors, skills, factors, problems encountered, and impacts of using Internet technology
among the elderly 2) Guidelines for policy formulation of the elderly's use of media and
Internet technology to build immunity and promote the elderly's use of the Internet. The
researcher used Google Scholar to search for reports published on Internet technology among
the elderly for the past five years during 2017-2021. The results showed 174 research articles
on Internet use among the elderly out of 2,620 subjects, of which 74 articles passed the
systematic selection criteria. Therefore, the research has several articles on the subjects studied
as follows: on objective issues, model issues, factors causing on skills used on problems on
negative impacts on positive impacts of Internet use among older people, summarized as
guidelines for policymaking for government, private or public sectors. Relevant agencies to
develop the use of media and Internet technology for the elderly in the future.

Keywords: Internet Technology, Social Medie, Digital Skill, Digital Literacy, Aging society,
Super-aged society, Baby Boomer, Elderly Behavior, Generation, Policy, Systematic Literature
review

1. Introduction

Changing the country's telecommunication infrastructure from analog to digital The Internet
communication technology in Thai society can develop and expand rapidly. It also resulted in the
increasing popularity of the Internet as a communication channel both domestically and internationally.
In Thailand, digital technology has penetrated, and its use in society at organizational and individual
levels is above the global average. It has resulted in an information and communication technology
policy by proposing a digital ecosystem that covers all parties in Thai society. Therefore, there is
preparation for Thailand to enter the digital era both socially. Economy and government With the
emergence of digital policies, the government has brought innovation. Digital technology drives the
society and economy of the country. It has become a Thailand 4.0 that uses innovative digital
technology as a guideline for developing the country more. Such as the reform of government services,
There is a digital working system.57

From the study of Thailand Digital Outlook 202074, which covers 77 provinces in-depth, more
than 35,000 surveys conducted and evaluated the digital midi in 8 dimensions, including 1) Access
dimensions There are 82.2% of mobile Internet usage through various communication devices and
about 58.6 million mobile Internet users are more likely due to mobile Internet users. It has a cumulative
average growth of 7.2 percent per year 2) Dimensions of use People aged 0-39 are the most active on the

264

Internet. Followed by the elderly group From the past covid-19 situation, it is clear that Thai people use
the Internet more, on average, almost 1 hour per day. Moreover, with the popularity of using social
media (Social Media), online conversation (Chat), online purchase of goods or services (E-Commerce),
the Pracharat Internet project was created to provide Wi-Fi hotspots for villages to expand their access
to the Internet. Opportunity for people for use in learning and searching for information or used to create
a business to generate income or using online government services; however, it found that only 33.4
percent of the respondents had access to the Pracharath Internet project, from only 51.6% of the
respondents who had used the service, indicating that the access to the Pracharat Internet was still low.
Communication more in the industrial sector The investment in technology research and development
has increased as well. 4) The career dimension of the economy is driven by more technology and
innovation. Occupations related to information technology and digital are in demand in the business
sector of the country. 5) Social dimensions. Technology development improves the quality of life helps
facilitate. The survey found that Generation Y, Z, and Alpha students, who are Digital Natives, are born
in an era where technology plays a massive role in their lives. High as 90 percent of the group with
Internet skills. They can learn on their own followed by the proportion of older adults who use the
Internet up to 67.4 percent, which is between the ages of 55-74 years, who were born in an era where
there is no internet or just started having The elderly divided into two age groups55: 1) The Silent
Generation is a group born from 1925-1945 who do not accept and see the Internet as unnecessary.
Consuming information and receiving news from mainstream media such as television, radio only 2)
Baby Boomer group is a group born from 1946 – 1964, a group born in an era where the Internet is not
yet booming. There is a realization of the benefits of the Internet. They have experienced using the
Internet. However, this group of seniors still lacks skills and knowledge in using Internet technology. It
takes time to learn and adjust. Digital technology permeates every aspect of life. In 2030, Thailand will
become a super-age society, which means that there will be an increasing rate of older adults. Together
with the development of the use of Internet technology and its influence in all dimensions of life, the
elderly cannot refuse Internet technology anymore.

Therefore, the researcher would like to review the articles and past research to study the issues:
1) to study patterns, causes, behaviors, usage skills, factors, problems encountered, and effects of using
Internet technology among the elderly; 2) Summarized as a guideline in formulating policies for the
elderly's use of media and Internet technology to build immunity and promote the elderly's use of the
Internet in the future. Allows researchers to review literature from various academic sources both
domestically and internationally according to the selection criteria according to the systematic review
model and use them to analyze and synthesize them until it becomes a guideline for determining water
content—policy for developing Internet technology for the elderly to prepare for the super-aging
society of Thailand..

2. Research Methodology

It is a systematic review of the literature. By searching research reports and published documents from
the Electronic database devices in the period 2017-2021 or 2017-2021 related to the use of media and
Internet technology among the elderly in 4 dimensions: 1) Objectives, behaviors of use, patterns used,
reasons for use, problems in use. 2) learning of the elderly 3) various environmental factors 4) impacts
in various dimensions, both positive and negative. The details are as follows.

3. Database

Searched for research reports from the published electronic database of Google Scholar on media use
and Internet technology among older adults. including six domestic databases, comprising the Office of
the National Digital Economy and Society Commission (NHSO), the National Committee on the
Elderly Department of Elderly Affairs Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, Office of
the Broadcasting Commission, National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission (NBTC),
including the search by considering from references and bibliography of relevant research reports

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4. Research search and selection criteria

Determine the keyword in the search is Aging or the word Aging Society or the word Older adults or the
word Elderly together with the word Internet Technology and secondary words such as Policy,
Environment, Internet Technology, Social Media, Digital Skill, Digital Literacy, Super- aging society,
Baby Boomer, Elderly Behavior, Elderly Education, Generation, Systematic Literature Review for Thai
search terms such as aging society, the elderly, the Internet and the elderly, media literacy, Internet use
behavior, social media, online, digital.

5. Inclusion criteria

Research reports and academic papers on media use behavior and Internet technology among the
elderly from electronic databases during 2017-2021 and The responder not less than 200 people.

6. Elimination criteria

6.1. Incomplete research reports and unreliable sources
6.2. Unpublished research reports/articles
6.3. A research report does not collect data in a sample of older adults who use the Internet or less than
200 people.

7. Selection and assessment of research quality

Searchable research reports are selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. A team of three
independent researchers assessed the research quality. Moreover, pass the selection criteria and
research quality criteria.

8. Research Quality Assessment Criteria

In order to synthesize this research according to the objectives set. Therefore, the selection criteria for
research work have been established in 5 areas as follows:

8.1 It is research that collects data in the elderly sample. With the use of Internet technology in
various topics have a purpose Methods of conducting research and research results according to the
specified framework are directly related to the use of media and Internet technology among the elderly.

8.2 It researches usage behavior, causes, patterns, problems, and effects of using technology.
Dimensions of technology use Promoting the use of media and technology in the elderly learning style
of the elderly

8.3 It is both quantitative and qualitative research. including literature review research and
reliable research tools and research methods

8.4 This research is published in a journal that is in a reliable electronic database without bias in
Thai or English. in the form of a complete research report (full paper) in the specified period

8.5 It is a research report that has been screened independently by researchers.

9. Research Selection Process

The researcher has the research selection process as follows: Beginning with a search in a Google
scholar database, 2,620 articles were searched for by keyword through scrutiny of 200 articles related to
the use of media and Internet technology among older people. Redundancy was checked with EndNote

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version X9, remaining 174 articles. Seventy-four pieces(of research pass according to quality
assessment criteria. There are many articles about Internet use among the elderly on the subjects studied
as follows:48 articles on objective issues 46 articles on model issues 55 articles on factors causing the
elderly to use 27 articles on skills used by the elderly 28 articles on problems in use by the elderly 12
articles on negative impacts
35 articles on positive impacts , it is detailed in Figure 1.

Figure 1. 9. Research selection process.

Summary of the study

Section 1 Summarizes the general characteristics of the study after searching

Select and screen research articles.It found that the Google Scholar keyword searching included 2,620
searches through scrutiny of 200 articles related to media and Internet technology among older adults.
Redundancy was checked with EndNote version X9, remaining 174 articles. Seventy-two pieces of
articles pass quality assessment criteria. Therefore, there are many articles on the subjects studied as
follows: 48 articles on objective issues 46 articles on model issues 55 articles on factors causing the
elderly to use 27 articles on skills used by the elderly 28 articles on problems in use by the elderly 12
articles on the negative impact of Internet use among the elderly 35 articles on the positive impact of
Internet use among the elderly

Section 2 Summarizes the study of patterns, causes, and behaviors of using Internet technology
among the elderly. Moreover, the effects that occur in different dimensions A systematic review
of the literature can be summarized as follows:

Objectives for using media and internet technology founding A total of 48 articles presented the
objectives of using media and Internet technology among the elderly: 1) Social interaction. Seniors use
media and Internet technology to replace face-to-face conversations with old and current friends. It is to
create a social network such as networking of relatives and family, building interactions with the elderly
to make themselves feel close and safe, using technology to alert relatives when an emergency occurs.24
This aspect found that there were 27 articles, representing 56.25%. 2) The search for information. Older
adults use internet technology to get information quickly according to their interests. Especially health
information or data to use for work Follow the country's current situation, follow the situation of the
Covid-19 epidemic, follow up on assistance from the public and private sectors. Get to know the news
about the rights of the elderly. Subsistence allowance Helping the elderly open up the world more and
not out of date.24 The research also mentioned the most, 27 articles, 56.25 percent, 3) followed by the
convenience of living. Such as online financial transactions, online shopping online work For
convenience, save money, save time, can be used anytime, anywhere60; found that there are 25 articles
or 52 percent. 4) Emotionally, the elderly use media and internet technology to create entertainment,

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mental happiness, and happiness power. Relieve loneliness by watching entertainment programs or
entertainment activities because of stress relief.13 Founding the emotional objective to have 17 articles,
representing 35.42 percent. 5) Confidence building. Building acceptance role in society Expressing
themselves and exchanging opinions older adults feel that using Internet technology Make it a modern
person,61 a leader, with space to express opinions and express themself. Make the elderly know that they
are worth living in society. Even with low income, No job, or retirement In this confidence building
objective, six articles represented 12.5 percent, respectively.

The pattern for using media and internet technology Regarding the patterns used by the elderly in
consuming media and the Internet, 46 articles were found, with the most mentions in the research being
1) the use of social media applications among the elderly, such as LINE. Facebook, Youtube,
Instagram, and Google via mobile devices, tablets, websites, and computers24 to meet various objectives
Found 45 articles, representing 97.82 percent 2) followed by the age of the elderly who use media and
Internet technology. The research found that most elderly using media and Internet technology were
55-70 years old.74 Found 23 articles, representing 47.91 percent. 3) The period for the elderly to use
media and Internet technology on average is mainly used between 11:00 AM and 4:00 PM, 1 but some
articles found that the elderly can use it until 9:00 PM or more than that because there is no time
constraint on the use of internet technology media. Usually takes 1-2 hours at a time, found six articles,
representing 12.5 percent.

Factors in using media and internet technology Factors in the use of media and Internet
technology in the elderly identified A total of 55 articles with the most mentions in the research, in order
of importance: 1) Benefit Factors older adults see benefits and more exposure to media31 such as
Benefits of financial transactions Event notifications Intellectual development In physical and mental
healing, 24 articles were addressing this issue. Accounted for 43.63 percent 2) the factor of access to
devices7 or programs that are not complicated. There is a quality of service that makes it comfortable.
Friendly use, high flexibility, causing the elderly to have more intention to use, found that there were 18
articles or 32.72 percent. 3) Individual factors58 such as gender, age, context, area, cultural norms,
supportive environment exposure to information functional, skills study technology experience
language skills or income that affects the accessibility and acceptance of innovation related to the
attitude of using technology It can also be a cause of digital technology inequality. Eighteen articles
addressed this issue. Accounted for 32.72 percent 4) Social factors At present, technology has
infiltrated as part of daily life together with Thailand 4.0-5.0 policy in the future that supports the use of
internet technology more. Founding that 14 articles on this issue Accounted for 25.45 percent. 5)
Factors from the Covid-1952 epidemic situation rarely interact face to face. Feelings of loneliness,
loneliness and lack of interaction with friends are factors that drive older people to use media and
Internet technology; 23.63 percent of 13 articles address this issue using the Internet to search for health
information, treatment methods, or consult a doctor. Discover ten articles that address this issue
Accounted for 18.18 percent. 7) Factors in the spread of innovation40, word of mouth, reviews,
promotions, advertising, and public relations through old media such as radio. Television that the
elderly are familiar with and new media Resulting in the use of Internet technology services more,
found ten articles that presented this issue, representing 18.18 percent. 8) Factors from work65 or role in
society. It is a factor that encourages the elderly to use media and Internet technology unavoidably.
There were seven articles, or 12.72 percent. 9) Self-reliance factor58 creates self-worth, and They want
to be a burden to their children. Discover three articles that address this issue Accounted for 5.45
percent 10) Factors of state welfare16 Contribute to encouraging the elderly to use media and internet
technology Because it is a factor that helps to access devices and internet networks in both urban and
rural areas. Found that three articles address this issue. They were representing 5.45 percent who
presented this issue.

Skill of using media and internet technology In terms of skills in using media and internet
technology among the elderly, a total of 27 articles were found. The researches that addressed this issue
were the most, respectively, as follows: 1) Lifelong learning skills55 by self-learning using free time,
enabling the elderly to use media and internet technology. Although this kind of learning takes a long
time, 18 articles or 66.66 percent of this issue. 2) Media literacy skills24 among older adults with media
literacy skills differed according to context and various factors. By access level, Comprehension and
analysis, and assessment are moderate. However, it was still at a low level in use safe; there are 13
articles or 48.15 percent in this issue. 3) Knowledge competence in the use of mobile devices2 such as

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tablets or mobile phones. Internet connection, video recording, financial transactions Preventing scams
on the Internet Skills in photography, videography, use of the program to participate in discussions,
found that seven articles, representing 25.92 percent, presented the issue.

Problems of using media and internet technology Problems in using media and internet
technology among the elderly A total of 28 related articles were found, with the most researches
addressing each issue in the following order: 1) Lack of knowledge23 and understanding of how to use
various Internet technologies. Lack of computer skills financial transactions feel insecure cannot type
keyboard lack of English language skills Due to the ever-changing technology, the elderly cannot keep
up. Found 17 articles proposing this issue, representing 60.7 percent. 2) Problems of attitudes16 towards
the use of media and Internet technology. There were still older adults with negative attitudes affecting
their exposure to technology. They still use the original media and refuse to use any Internet-enabled
device. Lack of courage to try new things do not like the hassle seen as unnecessary and unimportant,
unfamiliar, lacking motivation to use technology. There are 12 articles on this issue, representing 42.85
percent. 3) The problem of lack of government welfare16, inaccessibility, low-income levels, and low
level of knowledge The Pracharath internet has few people aware of and using the service. Due to
inaccessibility or unknown to public relations, there are 11 articles with 39.28 percent of studies on this
issue. 4) Problems in physical and mental health limitations65-66. Elderly with deterioration of the body,
the mobility and various body systems cannot respond to their full potential. This problem is a barrier to
media and Internet technology; 9 articles addressed this issue, representing 32.14 percent. 5) Problems
of lack of digital intelligence16,30. Digital Citizenship and Media Literacy older adults like to pass on or
share credible and unreliable information, Sending personal information, and Sharing inappropriate
images deceived not knowing how to safeguard the use of digital media and technology. Discover Eight
articles on this issue, accounting for 28.57 percent.

Negative Effects of using media and internet technology Negative Effects of Using Media and
Internet Technology A total of 12 articles were found on this issue, with the highest number of negative
impact issues mentioned in the research, respectively. The elderly's use of media and Internet
technology affects both physical and mental health. Older adults stress Anxiety from receiving news
about politics, crime, natural disasters, violent news31. Older adults have body aches, eyes, fatigue due
to use until forgetting the time .there are 11 articles, representing 91.6 percent. 2) The effects of
believing in fake news26. Older adults, by using media and internet technology believing in fake news
content. The headline does not match the content. Fraudulent sales of dietary supplements propaganda
and online scammers via social media chain investment, fraudulent money transfer into an account,
Claims for medical and religious matters, or even justice officials. Seven articles on this issue,
representing 58.3 percent. 3) The impact caused inequality in society23. Due to factors in internet access
that are different in each area and individual, there are four articles, representing 33.33 percent.

Positive Effects of using media and internet technology Positive Effects of Using Media and
Internet Technology A total of 35 articles on this issue were identified, with the most positive impacts
reported in the research, respectively: 1) Psychological effects. It causes a relaxed mood and mind,
enjoyment, satisfaction from using13. Because the entertained give older adult have a good level of
happiness. There are 14 articles, representing 40.0 percent. 2) The elderly who used media and Internet
technology had a better quality of life16. Because of the exposure to various technologies and seeing the
benefits in applying them in life. The technology that will help improve the quality of life of the elderly
consists of 5 groups17,43: a healthy food group, public health group, a Digital Devices Group, a Service
and Creative Economy Group, Internet of Thing, and an Artificial Intelligence Group. There are 14
articles, representing 40.0 percent. 3) have been exposed to helpful information59 to increase
knowledge. Especially the knowledge of health and disease prevention and learning to live in a new
way of life, ten articles represent 28.57 percent. 4) The impact of the elderly's use of media and Internet
technology on economic opportunities71. Businesses related to various types of Internet technology
Help with business planning and marketing strategies more clearly. There are nine articles, representing
25.71 percent. 5) Build a good relationship through communication31. Create interactions with family,
relatives, friends, thereby reducing the social gap. have a social network Create value for the elderly
Found 7 articles related to the issue, representing 20.0 percent.

discussion of results

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The objectives most mentioned in the research paper were that the elderly had the objective of using
media and technology to create social interactions. Seniors use media and Internet technology to replace
face-to-face conversations with old and current friends to create a social network such as networking of
relatives and family, building interactions with the elderly to make themselves feel close and safe, using
technology to alert relatives when an emergency occurs.

The most mention in issueThe usage patterns of the older adult. It is the elderly who use social
media applications of the elderly the most, such as Line, Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, and Google.
via mobile devices, tablets, websites, and computers to meet various objectives

Factors causing the elderly to use media and internet technology The most mentioned in the
research is Benefit Factor older people see benefits and more exposure to media such as Benefits of
financial transactions Event notifications Intellectual development Physical and mental healing It
influences the elderly's use of media and Internet technology.

The skills most frequently mentioned in the research are lifelong learning skills, Self-learning
using free time, enabling the elderly to use media and internet technology, Although learning like this
takes a long time.

The problem most found in the research in the use of media and Internet technology among the
elderly is the lack of knowledge and understanding of how to use various Internet technologies. Lack of
computer skills financial transactions feel insecure cannot type keyboard lack of English language skills
Due to the ever-changing technology, the elderly cannot keep up.

The Negative effects most commonly mentioned in the research were physical. The elderly's
use of media and Internet technology affects both physical and mental health. older people stress
Anxiety from receiving news about politics, crime, natural disasters violent news have body aches Eye
fatigue due to use until forgetting the time

The most discussed positive effect in the research was the psychological effect. It causes a
relaxed mood and mind, enjoyment, satisfaction from using. Because entertainment influences older
people have a good level of happiness and stimulate the use of media and internet technology.

Section 3 Summarizes The Guidelines for Formulating Policies

that promote and develop media and Internet technology among the elderly from the study of behaviors,
patterns, causes, problems, obstacles, and factors and impacts that may arise from media and
technology among the elderly. To develop the use of media and Internet technology for the elderly in
the future, the population will increase rapidly. Moreover, fully support the aging society in Thailand.
Therefore, there are guidelines for formulating policies by separating the issues as follows:

10.3.1 Policy Guide 1: Support access to Internet technology media
The government should work with the private sector to encourage the elderly to have access to
equipment. Support access to devices even with low-income access to a wide range of media Eliminate
the demographic factor as much as possible. The government supports social welfare. Welfare for the
elderly in technology state welfare more public Internet Reduce the cost of Internet technology services.
Especially in remote areas, rural areas, community areas, correcting economic factors Promoting access
to learning and computer use among the elderly, both in terms of equipment and location. The
government should formulate policies that lead to tangible results. To encourage the elderly both in
urban and non-urban areas to use computers and the Internet thoroughly. Enabling self-learning and
lifelong learning for the elderly and reducing information inequality, the government should provide
public computers and related peripherals for the elderly in communities in both urban and rural areas to
encourage the elderly More convenient and faster access to the use of computers and Internet networks.
The government should support internet network signals for seniors' clubs and elderly communities
ready to use computers and the Internet at no cost or a lower price. Internet and Wi-Fi must be the same
as essential utilities such as water supply. High-speed Internet Reduce access gaps even in remote areas
And must work with the private sector to expand free Wi-Fi throughout the strategy to reduce
inequality. Support use 5G technology

10.3.2 Policy Guide 2 Amendment of the Law Regulations that facilitate the development of Internet
technology

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Amend the laws and regulations that facilitate the development of digital technology and other laws
related to the development of information technology, Elderly Welfare Rules jointly in all relevant
departments. There should be a review of the laws that are conducive to the development of the country
together. with the development of technology and the development of the elderly population

10.3.3 Policy Guide 3 There should be a continuous study and research on the behavior of using media
and internet technology.

The behavior of using Internet technology media should be studied all the time of the elderly. Such as
digital citizenship, digital intelligence, and media literacy among the elderly Expand the scope of
research in various fields on the use of the Internet in the elderly to cover all groups and areas and
should support research funding in both science and innovation. and in the human sciences and social
sciences in the use of technology for the elderly continuously

10.3.4 Policy Guideline 4 Educate and enhance skills in using media and Internet technology of the
elderly more.

Organize training on how to use equipment and the Internet Practicing usability skills, messaging,
financial transactions. Teaching must take into account the limitations of the elderly To spread as much
as possible because of the expansion of the elderly population, Find a learning style that is suitable for
the elderly. Promote digital citizenship skills Digital Intelligence and Media Literacy Know how to use
media safely Understanding Behind the Media Industry Know how to evaluate Media Analysis and
Criticism Trust before disseminating information, manage emotions, allocate time. Creation of content
to continue prior knowledge Must be involved in communication to create change. Focus on
accessibility and analytics, critique, train deception in the Internet world. Practice regularly Organize
events often Focus on digital commerce with rights, responsibilities, and security in the digital age
Practice in formal or informal courses—knowledge of English language skills. Training on new
technology skills Finds a skilled person to be a consultant for Generation Y or Digital Native to help
convey face-to-face communication better. Emphasis on promoting lifelong learning skills Knowledge
will help the elderly to be ready and immune to face those changes promptly and to be able to adapt
appropriately. Free or low-cost courses are available. There is an ICT education project for the elderly.
Collaborate with the private sector, colleges, social welfare centers learn gradually because the elderly
do not like complicated. The tech industry must also be knowledgeable and accessible. The relevant
agencies also provide knowledge: Staff training Knowledge, the information transmission problems,
and defensive measures to control data transmission problems model the activity. Build lifelong
learning skills natural learning method, Caring for the family, and encouraging volunteers from people
close to the elderly

10.3.5 Policy Guide 5: Develop Content to be appropriate for the elderly according to the potential of
the elderly and publicize them for awareness.

Develop information content suitable for the elderly to be more accurate; sources are easy to
understand. Prepare media to educate on the use of Internet technology. Through radio or television or
the website, the Content of the training that the elderly still have the skill size, such as online
transactions uses of social media. There is a list with Content that tells about the benefits of using the
Internet. Visual media, still images, animations Language-adjusted manual to make it easier to
understand e-books, Online lessons, Infographic content. Disseminate widely or use online media that
are popularly used by the elderly. Design the Content that feels alienated or inferior on medical and
public health, both physical and mental—Dharma lectures and benefits for the elderly. Develop a
database of examples of older adults who have experience and potential in using digital technology
knowledge and skills and public relations to focus on using digital technology media literate Develop
learning resources, organize exhibitions, virtual learning resources. Include Content in the course of
study at all levels to transfer to the public. and has been widely publicized

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10.3.6 Policy Guide 6 Developing various technological equipment to be in line with and suitable for
the elderly.

Design and develop technology equipment to be easy to use for the limitations of the elderly and teach
how to use it. Develop technology that is friendly to the elderly Cooperate with the public and private
sectors Develop various environments following the limitations of the elderly, such as social, family,
production standards, marketing, social at work, and consumer protection measures. Control certain
types of ads that are deceptive. Develop business to meet the elderly group more. Improve the service to
be easy to use. Lower technology prices, driven by technology and innovation to take care of the
elderly, promote creating and developing innovations. Rewarding Innovation Hospitals think of a
service system. To increase access to maintenance, convenience, reduce costs, buildings, public places,
transportation systems, adjust businesses to keep up with current technology changes. There are more
websites for the elderly, easy to remember, design and develop an Aging interface to suit the potential
of the elderly, such as buttons, screens, font sizes must be appropriate with clear color, not eye-catching.
Designing interactive technologies conducive to life focus on attention generosity Elderly care
equipment, CCTV, emergency notification, walk, sleep or fall prevention, use GPS navigation, tag
tracking devices. Elderly care robots.Need to have a reminder system, such as birthdays, taking
medicines, eating meals, making appointments, need self-care equipment to reduce the burden on
people in the house, and develop a telemedicine system

10.3.7 Policy Guide 7: Building a network for the elderly and integrating work among relevant
agencies.

There are encouraging the network of the elderly to organize activities to exchange knowledge on
media and technology. The elderly in every community niche network adjust learning behavior through
various departments such as schools for the elderly and homes for the elderly. Communities for the
elderly Must be involved in communication to create change. Government agencies, universities,
community colleges, local government organizations, the Department of Elderly Affairs Office for the
Promotion of Non-Formal Education, informal education, Seniors Club school, seniors NGOs working
with older people in the community have a learning community in urban and rural areas. Should have
volunteer speakers to educate and a group of volunteers with knowledge of information technology
have embedded in various elderly communities. Should have a club for the elderly who have been
successful in using computers and the Internet. Establish an online library, Set up a center to educate
about cyber threats. Some Agencies give information to the elderly—development of technology
personnel by the government sector. There is a systematic structure like information integration
between ministries that adjust the government sector's work to have information linkage between
agencies.

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Srisawasdi, N. et al (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Challenges of Teaching Practice in Education
and Professional Studies: Collaborative
Teaching Experience

Brigitte LENONG*, Ratokelo Willie THABANE & Paseka Patric MOLLO
Central University of Technology, South Africa
*[email protected]

Abstract: Teacher education prepares students to be professionally ready and offers a broad
range of opportunities for students to get involved in work-integrated learning. At a university
of technology in South Africa, teaching practice is part of work-integrated learning, and has
been introduced from first-year to fourth-year level to provide students with in-service training.
To ensure a worthwhile teaching practice experience, stakeholders are required to move
towards collaborative teaching, cooperation, shared responsibility, and understanding the
purpose of the experience. This paper draws on interviews with lecturers, in which they
reflected on the challenges they experienced while working collaboratively during teaching
practice. Several challenges emerged: Problems are associated with lack of effective
collaboration, excessive workload, time constraints, placement of students, students’ lack of
discipline, students who have not mastered lesson preparation and presentation, and inadequate
facilities and resources. Suggestions for overcoming these challenges were made:
Transforming students’ attitudes, encouraging collaboration, enforcing group discussion
forums, conducting workshops before and after teaching practice, managing teaching practice,
making use of available technological resources and facilities, providing feedback to students
and mentors, and self-reflection by lecturers might be helpful in overcoming challenges relating
to teaching practice. The paper ends with recommendations for encouraging collaborative
teaching, finding ways to improve resources, and for developing more enabling programmes
and strategies for teaching practice at a university of technology.

Keywords: Collaborative teaching, challenges, teaching practice

1. Introduction

Teaching, just like other professions, has certain requirements, and it is globally acknowledged that
students must acquire a set of skills before they complete their studies. One of the requirements is that
student teachers must be involved in teaching practice at a school for a certain period. The framework
for teaching practice is based on the Revised Policy on Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications (DHET, 2015) which is the policy document that guides teacher education and specifies
a set of requirements for teacher education qualifications in South Africa. The higher education system
has to adhere to this policy to produce the teachers that South Africa needs. The policy document tracks
a change, from applied competence and the roles of teachers, to a framework that condenses notions of
applied and integrated knowledge (DHET, 2015), by proposing various types of knowledge that
underpin teachers’ practice. The policy (DHET, 2015) states that student teachers should spend a
minimum of 20 weeks and a maximum of 32 weeks, over the four-year duration of their studies, doing
teaching practice. Stakeholders play a critical supportive role in students’ professional development
(Sosibo, 2013). Marais and Meier (2004, p. 221) define teaching practice as a range of experiences to
which student teachers are exposed when they work in classrooms at schools.

Teacher education offers a broad range of opportunities for students to get involved in
work-integrated learning (WIL) while they study towards their degrees. Teaching practice is a form of
WIL and is described as a period during which students work at schools in order to receive specific
in-service training to bridge the gap between theory and practice (Taole, 2015).

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The role of the university is to design teaching practice in accordance with the requirements of
the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). The role of university lecturers is to
organize, plan, teach, evaluate, and give feedback, in order to develop, equip and prepare 21st century
students for the world of work (Taole, 2015). Therefore, lecturers have a number of responsibilities, as
they must deal with diverse groups of students and support them in their teaching practice. A
worthwhile teaching practice experience requires stakeholders to move towards cooperation and shared
responsibility and understanding of the purpose of teaching experience.

The task of the student teacher during teaching practice is multidimensional. It includes direct
teaching, assessing, curriculum implementation, administrative work, classroom management,
supervision, and presenting extramural activities (Cohen, Manion, Morrison, & Wyse, 2010). Student
teachers should experience being a part of a real classroom setting, knowing learners, planning, and
arranging classroom tasks (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009, Taole, 2015).

Reeves and Robinson (2014) differentiate between three approaches to teacher education: i)
programmes based on theory versus practice, that is, programmes privileging theory over practice, ii)
programmes based on the evidence that students should gather in relation to theory from practical
experience, and iii) programmes based on evidence that student should gather, by mastering theory and
practice simultaneously. They refer to the social-critical-reflective practice model, which is based on
the assumption that student teachers need to become more critical of the role of education in the larger
socio-political context (Reeves & Robinson, 2014, p. 241). Students need to develop metacognitive
habits of mind that can help them to make decisions and reflect on practice (Hamnerness,
Darling-Hammond, & Bransford, 2005).

One of the benefits of teaching practice is that it gives students opportunities to spend time in
the actual classroom, and to develop knowledge and skills related to the complexities of teaching and
learning (Taole, 2015, p. 12). Uzoechina (2015) conducted a study to investigate the perceived impact
of teaching practice exercises on student teachers’ personal growth and found that teaching practice
helps student teachers to acquire knowledge that enhances their mastery of subject content and leads to
personal growth. Despite the benefits of teaching practice, it has faced challenges relating to both
students and lecturers (Thabane, 2019, Uzoechina, 2015).

This study is based on the collaborative teaching experience of the researchers – the teacher
trainers. The researchers are employed by the Department of Education and Professional Studies at a
university of technology and have all been involved in teaching practicums. On average, they teach a
variety of subjects to about 150 students per group, from first-year level to fourth-year level. Teaching
practice is administered over four years for either Senior Phase and Further Education and Training
(FET) teaching. Senior phase students qualify to teach at primary or intermediate schools, Grades 4–7,
whilst students studying to be FET teachers qualify to teach Grades 10–12 at high schools. Students are
distributed to schools for teaching practice; they may be assigned to schools in their hometowns, or
other schools of their preference. The teaching practice coordinator is required to communicate with
school principals about student placement, mentoring, and evaluation of students’ performance. During
teaching practice, the lecturers evaluate students’ teaching performance by means of observations and
criterion-based forms; the evaluation is done collaboratively. Students’ teaching practice reflection
documents and scoring forms are compiled and arranged in teaching practice portfolios. Hence, the
purpose of this paper is to reflect on the challenges facing lecturers while they work collaboratively
during teaching practice.

2. Challenges of Teaching Practice

Research has been conducted to investigate the challenges facing teaching practice, and challenges,
such as lack of proper coordination, lack of collaboration between schools and universities, the attitudes
of students, the inability of mentors to evaluate students, bad conduct by students, and conflict between
students and mentors have been identified (Kiggundu, 2007; Sosibo, 2013; Uzoechina, 2015; Thabane,
2019; Tschimmel & Santos, 2018).

Teaching practice provides students with experience in the classroom situation in a school
environment (Taole, 2015). Kiggundu (2007) investigated the positive and negative challenges
experienced by student teachers doing teaching practice and found that student teachers experienced
many challenges that affect their ability to perform well. She identified the following challenges, among

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others: the relationship between mentors and student teachers, availability of resources, attitudes of
educators, and relationships with learners.

A study undertaken by Thabane (2019) at a university of technology found that mentoring was
haphazard and was undertaken without policy or other guidance; it was insufficiently resourced and
resulted in conflict between student teachers and mentors. Thabane also noted that mentors did not
expose student teachers fully to lesson planning, developmental outcomes, and development of
classroom activities.

Thabane and Matlho (2018) also investigated mentor-teacher/student teacher conflict and
found that student teachers experienced conflict with mentor teachers because of poor communication
and diversity. His findings suggest that student teachers preferred a collaboration mode and a
competing mode to deal with conflict.

Some of the challenges are caused by the initiation of new developments in teaching practice.
Tschimmel and Santos (2018) explain that an education system undergoes continuous transformation,
because the world faces social, environmental, and economic challenges caused by globalisation and
technological developments. Increased teaching loads and large classes have also affected how teaching
practice is structured. Lecturers must come up with new ways of helping students to develop lesson
plans, assess learners, manage classrooms, and transmit knowledge. These challenges clearly indicate
that, if teaching practice is not implemented effectively, it will have an effect on quality and students’
growth and experience. Marais and Meier (2004, p. 221) report that teaching practice is challenging, but
that it is an essential part of teacher training. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to reflect on the
challenges experienced by lecturers who work collaboratively to manage teaching practice in the
educational and professional studies department at a university of technology.

3. Collaboration in Teaching Practice

Mattessich, Murray-Close and Monsey (2001) describe collaboration as a mutually beneficial and
well-defined relationship that is entered into by two or more organizations to achieve common goals.
According to Goulet, Krentz and Christiansen (2003), collaboration takes place when people work
together for a common purpose, and it involves some form of transformation. Hasler-Waters and
Napiers (2002) identify five elements of successful teams or collaboration teaching: providing support,
getting acquainted, establishing communication, building trust, and getting organized. Collaboration
requires practice and nurturing (Green & Johnson, 2015). It requires shared accountability,
interdependence, and clarity of roles between lecturers (Reeves, Xyrichis, & Zwarenstein, 2018). Lave
and Wenger (1991) propose that members of a community learn because they actively participate in that
community and, consequently, knowledge will be created by members sharing and applying that
knowledge in the situations that develop as the community grows and interacts. Collaboration provides
opportunities for lecturers to reflect on their involvement with teaching practice. Working with others
can bring about arguments for not having the same opinion and view, conflict, and challenges, though
the establishment of trust and mutual respect should prevail (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2000). Stacey
(2003) argues that individuals cannot learn in isolation, since learning is, in essence, an activity of
interdependent people.

Goulet et al. (2003) identify three elements of collaborative education, namely, consultation,
collegiality, and cooperation. This paper is guided by these elements of collaboration.
• Consultation: Consultation involves communication, giving information or advice, or sharing

expertise or experience. Lecturers work on common goals and bring them to reality.
• Collegiality: Collegiality relates to equitable and friendly, warm relationships among lecturers and

other stakeholders. Participants’ knowledge and experience must be valued by all members of the
group.
• Cooperation: Participants strive together to reach a goal – working together can bring about change
and solve problems.
Accomplishment of teaching practice depends on collaboration by the lecturer, student, and mentor
(Aglazor, 2017). Aglazor (2017, p. 103) explains that, to function as a team, communication and
positive interaction are essential, to elucidate the aim of teaching practice and for collaboratively
guiding, mentoring, and supporting student teachers.

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4. Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study:
1. What are the challenges experienced by lecturers of a university of technology working

collaboratively during teaching practice?
2. How can these challenges be addressed and what measures can be recommended to improve

teaching practice at a university of technology?

5. Research Methodology

The purpose of the study was to identify the challenges experienced by lecturers working
collaboratively in, during and after teaching practice, and to come up with solutions to the challenges.
The research methodology was qualitative and situated in an interpretivist paradigm. This study
adopted the case study approach to understand the challenges experienced by part-time and full-time
lecturers at a selected university of technology. The researcher used purposive sampling, which,
according to McMillan and Schumacher (2010), is a type of sampling that involves choosing small
groups or a number of individuals who are likely to be knowledgeable and informative about the
phenomenon under study; and selecting cases without needing or desiring to generalise to all such
cases. The sample comprised both part-time (five) and full-time lecturers (eight). Data for the study
were collected through a researcher-designed questionnaire that served as an interview guide.
Participants were informed of the purpose of the study; consent was obtained, and participation was
voluntary. Data obtained from the semi-structured interviews were analysed thematically. The themes
were derived from the key research questions.

6. Findings

The emergent themes from data are discussed below.

6.1 Collaboration

Most of the participants agreed that collaboration between the schools and university was apparent,
though insufficient, as schools accommodated students to practise their skill of teaching at the schools.
Collaboration also referred to collaboration in the lecturer-principal relationship, lecturer-mentor
relationship, student-mentor relationship, and student-lecturer relationship.

The discussion on the topic of collaboration involved a debate on how the schools and
university can enhance collaboration. The following suggestions for improving collaboration were
made: improve communication, share goals and articulate students’ goals, and share accountability and
a spirit of equality, through which planning and decision-making mutually anticipate conflicts and
challenges, which must be handled constructively. The emphasis was on collaboration between the
lecturers. One lecturer echoed this thought:

There should be proper communication and planning amongst all lecturers who are going to
evaluate the students at schools. Maybe before going to the schools we can have a workshop which
outline our accountabilities. Students must also be prepared and be informed about how they should
collaborate with their mentors and the other educators. Even after the teaching practice we should have
a reflection session to discuss the challenges and opportunities experienced during teaching practice.

Other participants mentioned that there is too little proper collaboration between the lecturers.
Before and after teaching practice we don’t meet to reflect, we don’t share ideas. It is important
to share ideas to improve teaching practice. We just submit the forms without reflecting. There are no
send-off/information sessions before we go out for teaching practice, to answer all their questions and
concerns.
We hardly sit together to discuss the goals and challenges of teaching practice. we need to
improve communication between us and between the mentors and the lecturers.

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Collaboration between teacher and mentor needs to be improved too. Sometimes the lecturers
are in a hurry to evaluate the students and do not make time to communicate with the lecturers about the
student’s performance and conduct.

6.2 Workload and Time Constraints

Participants indicated that they found it difficult to accommodate all the students during teaching
practice evaluation, because of the large numbers of students over the four-year levels. Sometimes, they
could not evaluate all the student teachers, and relied on mentors to evaluate some of the students. Other
lecturers remarked as follows:

We do the evaluation in a rushed manner when we get to the schools, because we sometimes
have more than five students to evaluate in one school in one day. Sometime time is against us so we
give them few minutes to present their lessons so that we can accommodate all students.

Sometimes time allocated for a lesson is very limited; thirty minutes to present a lesson. And
immediately after that lesson you have to go evaluate another student and thus give a short period of
time to show the students his or her strengths and weakness.

Not enough time to plan and prepare because of lots responsibilities.
Some schools reluctant to accommodate our students because of our big numbers.

6.3 Student Teachers’ Preparedness and Mastery of Lesson Presentation

A number of participants complained about students’ lack of preparedness when students present
lessons. They mentioned that, even though students were familiar with the subject content problems,
they were not familiar with the policy, curriculum or lesson plan.

I have encouraged the students to familiarize themselves more on how to conduct a lesson plan.
There are lots of mistakes, their objectives differ with their content.

Students often teaching learners incorrect content, or not sure about the content.
There was also language barrier, some students were teaching English content in home
language of the learners. The students claimed that the mentors instructed them to use home language
for the students to understand what was being taught.
Some of the learners refused to partake in the lesson, they will be quiet when teachers asked
them questions.
The learners’ unwillingness to cooperate with the student teachers affected the delivery of the
lesson, even if the student teacher had prepared well to present the lesson.

6.4 Collaboration Between Student Teachers

Another challenge was that student teachers often worked in silos, which lead to students teaching the
same subjects grouped together and failing to engage with other students teaching other disciplines.

Lack of teamwork, empathy, and support between students.
Students are not communicating about their experience in the class or problems they
encountered. There is limited engagement amongst students.

6.5 Student Teachers’ Conduct

The majority of the lecturers complained about student teachers’ behaviour, and reported that problems
arose during teaching practice, which affected students’ professional development and performance.

Students do not always behave professionally and ethically while they are at the schools.
Some of them do not take their work seriously while at schools like the portfolios were
incomplete; forms missing or not signed by the correct and designated people; forms not put in the
correct sequence; some teachers/principals signatures were falsified or not signed.
The importance of teaching practice must also be emphasized to our students and you are
absent due to doctor’s orders not because you refuse to do as you are told, dress code need a thorough
emphasis also.

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6.6 Mentors’ Evaluations

The overall impression given by lecturers about how mentors evaluated students was fair. The
participants indicated that the mentors gave students marks according to their performance and based on
the rubric drafted by the university. Some mentors allocated marks fairly. However, some mentors gave
students high marks, even if students did not perform particularly well and, thereby, left little room for
improvement.

I came across some evaluation form whereby the mentors allocated between 95% to 100%
meaning the student performed beyond expectation. But when the students presented the lessons during
micro lessons the students did not perform that well. There is a discrepancy between how mentors
allocated the marks compared to the lecturers.

If there was engagement between the lecturers and mentors, I believe mentors will have a clear
understanding about the requirements and standards of assessment.

6.7 Facilities and Resources for Teaching Practice

Most participants indicated that the university should introduce electronic portfolios for
teaching practice, as there was no longer space to store the portfolios.

The number of portfolios to assess is always overwhelming, plus, there is hardly ever enough
storage for the files.

Introduce electronic portfolios, thus eliminating the challenge of storage and having to assess
multiple physical portfolios.

7. Discussion and Recommendations

Teaching practice prepares students for teaching by providing practical training (Uzoechina, 2015).
Preparing students requires that all stakeholders collaborate, to ensure the smooth running of teaching
practice. This study found that the importance of teaching practice must be emphasized to all the
stakeholders, because there is lack of collaborative planning and a lack of communication – information
and advice are not passed on and expertise and experience are not shared.

Lecturers also experienced challenges in setting aside time to learn and understand the cultural
contexts of schools. This finding confirms the argument by Mattessich et al. (2001), that collaboration
partners should set aside time to build relationship or collaborate, as a lack of understanding could lead
to conflict. Collaboration will also help to deal with the way mentors supervise students and how they
allocate marks and will clarify the student-mentor relationship. Taole (2015) argues that collaboration
provides constructive feedback and helps collaborators to devise strategies for change and development.
Collaboration encourages growth, reflection and change, provides students with effective instructional
methods, and aligns beliefs, values and teaching (Ferguson & Wilson, 2011). Collaboration could, thus,
bring together the lecturers, educators, mentors, student teachers and principals.

The results also indicate that students’ conduct during teaching practice affected their
professional development. Collaboration between lecturers and students before and after teaching
practice will help students to realize that teaching practice is an opportunity for them to acquire
knowledge and skills to address the complexities of teaching and learning (Taole, 2015). Taole (2015)
argues that supporting and guiding student teachers during teaching practice will promote their
professional development. Student teachers and mentors should collaborate, to share expectations and
practice experience. Therefore, the student teachers must respect and work together with mentors.
Mentors must be informed of the importance of teaching practice, must guide students, and monitor
their work. Consultation and engagement at schools must be increased, to enhance reflective practice.

Based on the findings and the discussion of the data, the following recommendations are made:
• Workshop must be held for lecturers before they evaluate students, and after teaching practice,

because it will encourage dialogue and discussion about teaching practice.
• Even though students are informed of the requirements for teaching and teaching practice activities,

it will be to their benefit to have discussion forums about teaching practice. Lecturers must support
these forums and participate in exchanging ideas. This will encourage student teachers to take
teaching practice seriously and act professionally at schools.

282

• Teaching practice placement must be spread throughout the year, to avoid overwhelming schools
with large numbers of students at the same time. This distribution will allow more collaboration
between the stakeholders.

• Based on current trends in education, it is important that teaching practice at the university of
technology should incorporate technology for student assessment. Administrators should provide
training and support to lecturers in incorporating technological devices, such as e-portfolios.
Digitising portfolios will, thus, eliminate the challenge of storage and having to assess multiple
physical portfolios.

• Due to the large number of students enrolled at the university, part-time lecturers can be trained and
can help with teaching practice.

8. Conclusion

Transforming the attitudes of mentors and students, encouraging co-teaching, applying a variety of
teaching methods and techniques, making use of available technological resources and facilities,
providing feedback to students and mentors, and encouraging lecturers to do self-reflection might be
helpful in coping with teaching practice challenges. Solutions that could respond to challenges that have
been identified are developing the coordinating team, developing a shared vision among stakeholders,
doing collaborative planning and collaborative monitoring, and engaging in reflection.

Collaborative teaching offers an array of benefits to lecturers, as it promotes critical thinking
skills, solves problems, enhances creativity, and promotes better decision-making and professional
development. Effective teaching practice requires dedication and accountability from university
management, school management, lecturers, mentors, and students. Further investigations should
involve assessing the use of electronic resources in teaching practice.

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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Reflective Teaching under Pandemic 2020

Prapaporn UDOMSIANG
Demonstration School, Khonkaen University, Thailand

[email protected]

Abstract: This study is a descriptive study conducted during pandemic outbreak. It aims to
present reflection on teaching using reflective thinking skill for further development. It
involves examining teacher's underlying beliefs about teaching and learning and teacher's
alignment with actual classroom practice before, during and after a course taught. Purposive
sample includes 16 Thai and foreign staff in Foreign languages department in academic year
2020. Teaching reflection in this study carried out after teaching applying Gibb’s reflective
cycle. It covers 6 stages, description of the experience, feelings and thoughts about the
experience, evaluation of the experience, good and bad, analysis to make sense of the situation,
conclusion about what teacher learned and could have done differently, action plan for how
teacher would deal with similar situations in the future, or general changes teacher might find
appropriate. Instrument is a reflective teaching form mainly focus on pedagogy, assessment,
contexts; teacher, students, atmosphere in class including further improvement. Benefits of
teaching reflections are the ability of adjusting learners behaviors, ideas, continuing
self-development, and construction of building body of new knowledge to change the
conceptualization, value system, and behavior changing and allowing teachers to learn and
plan from thing that either went well or didn’t go well.

Study shows all staff change teaching style from convention to various online
platforms. Nearly 20 applications applied in online class. Student-centered technique was used.
Content knowledge and important skills in 21st century are imported into class in order to
encourage students live happily in rapid changing world.
.
Keywords: Reflective Teaching, Gibb’s reflective cycle, Teaching under pandemic

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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Nursing students' perception on interactive
Q & A sessions during Online learning

Pimsiri BHUSIRI*, Dr.Phat PRAPAWICHAR,
Aung Aung KYI & Paulina Mu PAULINE

Faculty of Nursing Science, Assumption University, Thailand
*[email protected]

Abstract : Many schools are supporting students through online platforms during the
COVID-19 pandemic not only for their well-being safety but also to assist in keeping up with
their study plan. Teachers are trying to facilitate various teaching strategies to help motivate
the students and create an interactive online learning atmosphere. To meet the students’ needs,
the purpose of the study was to investigate how nursing students perceived interactive Q & A
sessions during Online learning. Random sampling technique was applied by using a
self-administered survey (n = 51). The data was analyzed through both descriptive and
inferential statistics. Analysis of the responses about students’ perception related to Online
learning through descriptive statistics showed that willing students perceived “Q & A session
is very useful.” (mean score 4.15 out of 5), while unwilling students reported on “feeling of
receiving too many questions on Q & A session” (mean score 4.17 out of 5). Moreover,
students with displayed characteristics of readiness were more likely to respond positively
than students who were not ready to participate in “Q & A session is very useful” (mean
scores 4.16 and 3.13) and “Improves self-management” (mean scores 3.70 and 2.63). An
independent sample t test showed that there was significant difference in overall perception
between readiness and un-readiness groups, the former group enthusiastically participated in
interactive Q & A sessions during Online learning (p-value=0.000). Beneficially, this
independent study would be helpful to improve the quality of future nursing education and
increase the school reputation.

Keywords: Online learning, perception, interactive Q & A sessions

1. Introduction

Many countries in Asia have changed the teaching-learning method from teacher-focused learning to
student-centered approach consisting of problem-based, collaborative, inquiry-based, cooperative,
small group, peer led team learning, and project-based learnings to enhance students’ knowledge and
skills (Benlahcene, Lashari, Lashari, Shehzad, & Deli, 2020). The active learning teaching techniques
can promote student-student social interaction as well as teacher-student interaction resulting in the
increase in academic achievement (Låg & Sæle, 2019). The meta-analysis of 225 studies regarding the
comparison of undergraduates’ examination scores between traditional lecturing group and active
learning group conducted by Freeman et al. (2014) revealed that active-learning or student-centered
approaches result in better learning outcomes than passive-learning or instructor-centered approaches.
Students actively engaging in classroom activities learned more than those studying by passive lectures,
however, they thought that they learned less (Deslauriers et al., 2019). The examples of active learning
activities are using special software or applications relevant to the use of software or application related
to the course, a real-world problem solving, and scenarios or case studies analysis (Chen, Bastedo, &
Howard, 2018); classroom dynamics, independent information analysis of students, students’ question
construction (Paul & Jefferson, 2019); and questioning techniques (Shanmugavelu et al., 2020).

One of the teaching models that emphasizes more students’ self-directed learning than
teacher-centered direction is the flipped classroom (Låg & Sæle, 2019). The meta-analysis of total 33
studies conducted by Shi, Ma, MacLeod, & Yang (2019) revealed that flipped classroom teaching

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related to students’ active learning (Xiu, &Thompson, 2020) greater increased college students’
cognitive learning achievement than the conventional lectures. This result is in accordance with the
studies of van Alten et al. (2019) and Lo and Hew (2019).

It is very necessary for all educational institutions around the world to shift the mode of
teaching-learning strategy from face-to-face learning to online studying in the period of the COVID-19
outbreak. For effective online lessons, instructors have initiated various activities such as the use of
fully online flipped classes with the help of a cloud-based video conferencing application (Hew, Jia,
Gonda, & Bai, 2020); in-class assessment, question and answer (Q&A), classroom chat, classroom
discussions and small-group activities (Nguyen, et al, 2021). The thoughtfully planned active online
teaching-learning activities are distinctly from the online teaching courses offered in response to a crisis
(Hodges et al. 2020). Moreover, in the student-centered learning, every teacher creates many different
styles of teaching not only to increase students’ interest and attention but also to enhance students’
motivation. Regarding this, one of the most important sessions conducted by a teacher in the teaching
and learning process is the question-and-answer session. Questioning is an important activity in
teaching. Questioning can be used to test the knowledge of the past, with questions requiring factual
answers by asking who, what, where, and when (Shanmugavelu, et al., 2020).

As mentioned above, many studies revealed that interactive learning and student-centered
approach play an important educational context in every institution. However, no study has been done
about students' perception of interactive Q & A session during Online learning among nursing students
in Faculty of Nursing Science (FNS), Assumption University. Therefore, the purpose of this study was
to investigate how nursing students perceived interactive Q & A sessions during Online learning. In
addition, the information obtained from this study can help to implement new teaching strategies
effectively that will promote future well-being of students in their school environment.

2. Methodology

A cross sectional study was used to examine the perception of nursing students on interactive Q & A
sessions during online learning, FNS, Assumption University. The data collection was carried out
during June to July 2021, the first semester of academic year 2021. Eligible participants included the
second, third, and fourth years of nursing student who have enrolled to study during the study period. A
self-administered survey questionnaires included demographic data and perception on interactive Q &
A sessions during online learning were used for data collection. For the perception of participants, a five
Likert scale were coded as 1=strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neutral, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree.
The questionnaires were developed by the researchers based on the literature review. Research
instrument was evaluated for content validity by given the questionnaires to three experts who have
been working in teaching and learning field more than 15 years to approve the survey questionnaires.
The pilot study with 30 students in Assumption University were done for reliability of research
instrument. The Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient was 0.79. There were 51 of nursing students participated
in this study. Anonymous of participants’ data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential
statistics. The descriptive statistics described the characteristic of the data (e.g., frequency, percentage,
mean). The inferential statistics was done by using an independent sample t-test that measured
significant mean differences of nursing students’ perception on interactive Q & A sessions during
online learning by different groups of nursing students regarding willingness/ unwillingness and
readiness /unreadiness.

The interpretation of class interval mean range for this study based on the BEST mean rang
(Best, 1970) as follows: 4.50-5.00 = Strongly agree, 3.50-4.49 = Agree, 2.50-3.49 = Neutral, 1.50-2.49
= Disagree, and 1.00-1.49 = Strongly disagree.

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3. Results:

Table 1

Overall descriptive statistics of nursing students’ perception on interactive Q & A sessions during
Online learning

Nursing students’ perception Mean Std. deviation Interpretation
Feeling of receiving too many questions 3.20 .969 Neutral
Feeling of not receiving enough questions 2.59 .876 Neutral
Interesting of Q & A sessions 3.51 .758 Agree
Well organized Q & A sessions 3.55 .808 Agree
Q & A sessions are related to the course. 4.04 .774 Agree
Q & A sessions are very useful. 4.00 .894 Agree
Improving self-management 3.59 .942 Agree
Enhancing mutual understanding between 3.69 1.025 Agree
teachers and students
Promoting student’s independent learning 3.63 .906 Agree
Improving student’s information literacy 3.58 .794 Agree
Overall perception 3.54 .416 Agree

Table 1 showed the overall mean score and the interpretation for the ten different aspects of

perception on interactive Q & A sessions during Online learning. The mean scores were higher (more

likely to agree) among respondents regarding the statements. According to the obtained results, almost

all aspects were perceived by the nursing students with a high mean score of 3.51- 4.04. However, it was
different in two aspects regarding the statement “Feeling of receiving too many questions” (mean score
3.20) and “Feeling of not receiving enough questions” (2.59).

Note: the following group category I & II shall apply to Table 3 to 6.
Group category I- 0= Unwillingness to participate in Q&A sessions during online

learning
1= Willingness to participate in Q&A sessions during online

learning
Group category II- 2= Unreadiness to participate in Q&A sessions during online

learning
3 = Readiness to participate in Q&A sessions during online learning

Table 2

Independent samples t-test for perception on interactive Q & A sessions during online learning by
group category I

Perception Group Mean Std. deviation t statistic
(p-value)
Feeling of receiving too 0 4.17 .753 -2.750(.009)
many questions 1 3.11 .894
Feeling of not receiving 0 1.83 1.169 2.212(.032)
enough questions 1 2.64 .778
Interesting of Q & A 0 3.00 .894 2.297(.027)
sessions 1 3.69 .655
Well organized Q & A 0 3.00 .632 2.037(.077)
sessions 1 3.59 .818
Q & A sessions are 0 3.50 .548 2.257 (.052)
related to the course. 1 4.08 .774
Q & A sessions are very 0 2.83 .753 3.879 (.000)

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Perception Group Mean Std. deviation t statistic
(p-value)
useful. 1 4.15 .779
Improving 0 2.67 .816 2.487 (.017)
self-management 1 3.64 .903 1.938 (.091)
Enhancing mutual 0 3.00 .894
understanding between 2.288 (.027)
teachers and students 1 3.78 1.058 .783 (.438)
Promoting student’s 0 2.83 .983
independent learning 1 3.70 .845
Improving student’s 0 3.33 1.033
information literacy 1 3.61 .766

Table 2 showed the mean differences between unwilling and willing students’ perception on
interactive Q & A sessions during online learning. The highest mean score was related to “Feeling of
receiving too many questions” (mean 4.17) for unwilling students while the willing students have the
highest mean score regarding the statement “Q & A sessions are related to the course” (mean 4.15). On

the other hand, the lowest mean score was related to feeling of not receiving enough questions for both

unwillingness and wiliness groups (mean scores 1.83 and 2.64). The independent sample t-test results
showed that there were significant differences in the aspects “Q & A sessions are very useful” and
“Improving self-management” between unwillingness and willingness groups (p-value<0.05), the

former group had higher mean scores in both aspects.

Table 3

Independent samples t-test for perception on interactive Q & A sessions during online learning by
group category II

Perception Group Mean Std. deviation t statistic
(p-value)
Feeling of receiving too 2 4.00 .816 -2.420 (.020)
many questions 3 3.11 .906 1.486 (.144)
Feeling of not receiving 2 2.13 1.126 2.794 (.008)
enough questions 3 2.62 .794 2.669 (.017)
Interesting of Q & A 2 3.00 .756 2.669 (.018)
sessions 3 3.73 .652 3.302 (.002)
Well organized Q & A 2 3.00 .535 3.224 (.002)
sessions 3 3.62 .828 2.065 (.045)
Q & A sessions are 2 3.50 .535
related to the course. 3 4.11 .774 2.091(.043)
Q & A sessions are very 2 3.13 .991 .277(.783)
useful. 3 4.16 .764
Improving 2 2.63 .744
self-management 3 3.70 .878
Enhancing mutual 2 3.00 1.309
understanding between 3 3.83 .954
teachers and students
Promoting student’s 2 3.00 .926
independent learning 3 3.71 .860
Improving student’s 2 3.50 1.069
information literacy 3 3.59 .743

Table 3 showed the mean differences between unreadiness and readiness students’ perception
on interactive Q & A sessions during online learning. The highest mean score was related to “Feeling of
receiving too many questions” (mean 4.00) for unreadiness students while the readiness students have

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the highest mean score regarding the statement “Q & A sessions are very useful” (mean 4.16). On the

other hand, the lowest mean score was related to feeling of not receiving enough questions for both

unwillingness and wiliness groups (mean scores 2.13 and 2.62). When comparing the groups, using the

independent sample t-test, the results showed there were significant differences between groups in

almost every aspect (readiness group is more positive academic self-perceptions than unreadiness
group; p-value <0.05), except for the aspects “Improving student’s information literacy” and “Feeling
of not receiving enough questions” (p-value>0.05).

Table 4

Independent samples t-test for overall perception on interactive Q & A sessions during online learning
by group category I

Perception Group Mean Std. deviation t statistic
(p-value)
Over all perception on 0 3.02 .553 3.645 (.001)
interactive Q & A 1 3.60 .333
sessions during online
learning

Table 4 shows the difference of mean in overall perception on interactive Q & A sessions
during online learning by group category I. It shows that willingness group has a higher mean score than
unwillingness group which reveals that willingness group is more likely than unwillingness group to
perceive positively to interactive Q & A sessions during online learning (p-value <.05).

Table 5

Independent samples t-test for overall perception on interactive Q & A sessions during online learning
by group category II

Perception Group Mean Std. deviation t statistic
(p-value)
Overall perception on 2 3.08 .481 3.851(.000)
interactive Q & A 3 3.62 .332
sessions during online
learning

Table 5 shows the difference of mean in overall perception on interactive Q & A sessions
during online learning by group category II. It shows that readiness group has a higher mean score than
unreadiness group and also indicates that readiness group has more positive academic self-perception
than unreadiness group to interactive Q & A session during online learning (p-value <.05).

4. Discussion

This study investigated how nursing students, who study in Faculty of Nursing Science,
Assumption University during the semester 1 of 2021 perceive and respond to the issue of interactive Q
& A sessions during online learning. The ten aspects of perceptions to interactive Q & A sessions during
online learning were measured as an initial assessment. By using questioning technique that shows their
perception about interactive Q & A session, independent t-test results confirmed the significantly
different mean score that suggested willingness group had a good impression regarding usefulness of Q
& A session than unwillingness group (p-value <0.05). In contrast, the unwillingness group feel
uncomfortable with too many questions during online learning than willingness group as independent
t-test results confirmed the significantly different mean score (p-value <0.05). The finding of this study
is consistent with previous study conducted by Almahasees et al. (2021) to investigate Faculty’s and

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Students’ Perceptions of Online Learning During COVID-19. The results demonstrated that online
education is useful during the current Covid-19 pandemic.

Based on the questions responses that related to interactive Q & A session namely feeling of
receiving/not receiving too many questions, interesting, well organized, related to the course,
usefulness, improving self-management, enhancing mutual understanding, promoting independent
learning and improving information literacy, the independent sample t-test again showed a significant
mean difference in almost every aspect and suggested that readiness group is more likely to perceive
positively on interactive Q & A sessions during online learning than other (p-value <.05). The finding
of this study is in accordance with the study of Winarso (2016). The results revealed that the students’
readiness to learning is positively enhance their achievement and learning activeness.

This study found that the different responses of overall perceptions on interactive Q & A
sessions during online learning in both willingness and readiness groups significantly contributed to
positive academic self-perception on interactive Q & A sessions during online learning (p-value <.05).
Additionally, FNS will continue to strengthen interactive Q & A sessions not only for online learning
but also for onsite class to enhance its students’ academic self-confidence to become professional
nurses.

6. Conclusion & Recommendations

There are varieties of teaching strategies that help students better understand and retain what
they have learned. As a result, they can apply their knowledge in their future career. However, FNS has
limited information regarding issues since updated information on teaching and learning is essential to
meet a certain level of students’ needs. To understand and improve teaching strategy, the primary
purpose of this study is to investigate how FNS students perceive the interactive Q & A sessions during
online learning. In addition, the results of this study suggest that further studies need to be examined in
timely manners for the improvement of future classroom teaching and learning by instructors in FNS.

7. Limitation

The samples of this study were limited to only nursing students in Assumption University. Therefore,
the findings from this study will not be generalized to the population in other settings.

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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Development of Integrated STEM Learning
Unit regarding Thermoelectric Alternative
Energy to Pursue Students’ Sustainability

Competence: A Proposal

Prapawan THONGSRIa,b, Kornchawal CHAIPAHc & Niwat SRISAWASDId*
aFaculty of Education, Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University, Thailand

bScience Education Program, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
cDepartment of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

dDivision of Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education Faculty of Education
Khon Kaen University, Thailand
*[email protected]

Abstract: For achieving sustainable development, education is considered a crucial element in
the shift towards greater sustainability and a more sustainable world from a very early age.
Recently, integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education
could be an integral element of quality education and also an important part in the community
of education under the term Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). To give an
example, this paper presents a transformational concept of education and approach dealing with
ESD for promoting students’ sustainability competencies. As such, a conceptual framework of
integrated STEM learning unit regarding thermoelectric alternative energy for secondary
school science education in order to promote students’ sustainability competence will be
presented and discussed. Thus, we believed that the frame-model of sustainability
competencies, regarding integrated STEM education could be appropriate, beneficial, and
practical for secondary school students, academic researchers, engineers and other
professionals.
Keywords: STEM education, alternative energy, thermoelectric, sustainability competence

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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

A Study of Stress, Coping Strategies, and
Guidelines on How to Help Graduate Students

in Special Education Cope More Effectively

Suwapatchara CHANGPINIT*, Anucha PHOOMMISITTIPORN & Siriwimol JAI-NGAM
Assistant Professor, Graduate Program in Special Education, Faculty of Education, Pibulsongkram

Rajabhat University, Thailand
*[email protected]

Abstract: When facing with situations that cause discomfort or frustration without relief or
relaxation, stress can cause negative effects on body and mind. The purposes of this study were
to 1) explore sources of stress, and coping strategies, and 2) develop guidelines on how to help
students cope with stress more effectively while pursuing postgraduate study in Special
Education. This research employed both quantitative and qualitative inquiry to collect data
through a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The participants consisted of 9
postgraduate students and 5 lecturers from a university in Phitsanulok province, Thailand. Data
analysis was performed by Mean, Standard Deviation and content analysis. It was found that the
students identified background knowledge on research, responsibility on routine work, and time
management on working and learning as major causes of stress. Coping strategies utilized by
students were those of Productive coping or problem-focused coping style whereas
Non-productive or avoidance-focused coping style was less employed. Guidelines on how to
help the postgraduate students cope with stress more effectively included both pre-placement
support and on-going support from faculty members. Findings of this study have a considerable
impact in the fields of postgraduate study as it is clearly seen that problem-focused and
emotion-focused coping were effective for graduate students to pursue their learning in stressful
situations. It also highlights the importance of how faculty members better prepare for the
students successful learning.

Keywords: Avoidance-focused, coping strategies, emotion-focused, guidelines,
postgraduate study, problem-focused, stress

1. Introduction

1.1 Graduate Programs in Special Education at PSRU

Education management in the country of Thailand at all levels places an emphasis on its quality and
standards. The aim is to produce knowledgeable graduates who have potential and competent in both
academic and ethical aspects to be an integral part in the development of the nation. Such management
will be of great importance to the advancement of technology, and enhancement of the country's
competitiveness, as its main mission is producing innovative knowledge, and intellectual leaders.
Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University (PSRU), as one of the higher education institutions that provides
graduate education, has also realized and given great importance to the quality of graduate education.

Education at the Doctor of Philosophy program and the Master's degree Program in Special
Education at PSRU is driven by the National Economic and Social Development Plan No. 12. This is in
line with the second strategy in creating fairness and reducing social inequality which specified that
“Thailand will not leave anyone behind and will create a society of fairness and strength.” The Plan has
set guidelines and goals which are to increase opportunities for the lowest-income population to access
quality government services. This includes increasing the admission rate to 90% in the basic education
level, and increasing the average income of the poorest population with an additional year of 15% per
capita income. People with disabilities are among those low-income people. Graduate programs in

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Special Education at PSRU, therefore, focus on the development of graduates to have leadership skills
to help enhance quality, fairness and, thus, improve the quality of life of people with disabilities in Thai
society.

According to the new curriculum, B.E. 2562, both graduate special education programs
components at PSRU consist of specialization courses (major and selected), dissertation, and
supplementary subjects (eg. English for Graduates). Students perceive specific subjects such as
Statistics for Research and Research in Special Education as complicated and difficult to understand.
90-hour practicum in special schools or other related organization is also a basic requirement for those
who want to enroll in the programs. Such program requirement could lead to mental pressure,
uneasiness, frustration, anxiety or even stress among the students in these graduate programs.

1.2 Stress and Coping

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) state that stress is experienced when a person perceives that the “demands
exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize." As such, stress could be
defined as the dynamic interaction encompassing the physical, emotional, and psychological responses
between the individual and their environment (Lin & Huang, 2012). Stressful conditions can lead to
many psychological responses such as anxiety, hopelessness, irritability, depression, or a general
feeling of being unable to cope with life. Further, it has been observed that excessive levels of stress
may also lead to dissatisfactions, decreased morale, and reduced work performance (Goswami, T.,
2015). Stress has continually been reported to be influenced by higher educational demands within both
undergraduate and postgraduate programs (Afridi, & Fahim, 2019; Daisuke, & Ayumi, 2017;
Hodselmans, Hemdal, Lundberg, Bjarnegard, Hobbelen, & Svantesson, 2018). It is a common problem
among undergraduate as well as postgraduate students since they are expected to master a large amount
of knowledge, and skills. After entering a postgraduate course, the students should learn to balance
multiple demands in life such as need for never-ending learning, financial hardships, requirements of
collaborating with peers, along with other necessities of family and personal life (Daugherty, Baldwin,
Rowley, 1998) which in turn subject them to a lot of stress.

Coping concept emanates from the psychological studies which were conducted on stress.
The transactional model of stress and coping developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) explained
coping as a phenomenon that involves both cognitive and behavioral responses that individuals use in
an attempt to manage internal and/or external stressors perceived to exceed their personal resources.
As per the conceptual analysis of stress by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), principle of coping works on
two cognitive appraisals – (a) perception of a threatening scenario and (b) person's available resources
to deal with it. Coping strategies, which are behavioral or psychological efforts employed to master or
minimize stressful events, affect the postgraduate students variably (Guruprakash, Mehta, Atul,
Prakash, Divinakumar, Khan, & Patra, P., 2018). Lazarus and Folkman (1984) claimed that people
generally use both problem- focused and emotion-focused coping in a single stressful situation, but the
proportion varies in relation to situational differences. For example, people use more problem- focused
in a controllable situations and more emotion-focused coping in unchangeable situations that must be
endured. Further, it is Jaloweic (1988) who suggested a third method of coping with stress,
avoidance-focused coping. Avoidance coping involves cognitive and behavioral efforts oriented toward
denying, minimizing, or otherwise avoiding dealing directly with stressful demands and is closely
linked to distress and depression (Cronkite & Moos, 1995; Penley, Tomaka, & Wiebe, 2002).

When it comes to measure how people cope, Frydenberg and Lewis (1997) developed an
instrument to be used by Australian teachers, administrators, parents, and adults in general to assist
them to develop their coping resources. Coping strategies in the Coping Scale for Adults (CSA) were
categorized into four groups of coping style; namely Dealing with Problems, Non-productive Coping,
Optimism, and Sharing. Findings of Frydenberg and Lewis (1997) study and other studies indicated that
the CSA had adequate psychometric properties to justify its use in examining individuals’ coping
strategies. There has been a growing body of research literature that supports the validity of the CSA.
The preceding studies indicate statistically significant relationships between a number of undesired
outcomes and coping strategies assessed by the CSA which have been termed non-productive.
Similarly, there is a consistent pattern of findings across studies linking more positive outcomes to what
have been termed the productive strategies of the CSA (Frydenberg. & Lewis, 2000). Changpinit (2007)
employed the CSA to use with 702 Thai educators in an attempt to examine how those people cope with

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stress when teaching students with disabilities in inclusive schools. Findings indicated that the CSA
can be used to examine individuals’ coping strategies in Asian countries.

To date, there is no studies cited in the literature that examined stress and coping with
postgraduate students, especially in the field of special education. Thus, this study will address stress
and coping among this population. Further, the study will also develop guidelines in which faculty staff
can help postgraduate students cope with academic stress effectively.

2. Methodology

2.1 Participants

To explore sources of stress, and coping strategies, 9 first-year postgraduate students enrolling in the
Department of Special Education, PSRU in academic year 2021 were purposively selected for the study
after informed consent. 6 of them were from a doctoral program and 3 were from a master program. All
of them were Buddhist and had at least 3 years of working experience in the field of special education.

To develop guidelines on how to help students cope with stress effectively while pursuing
postgraduate study in Special Education, 5 university lecturers who teach the 9 postgraduate students
were interviewed. Two lecturers were those who taught Statistics and Research in Education, two were
those who taught Leadership and Research in Special Education, and the other one taught English for
Graduates.

2.2 Instruments

The instruments used for data collection in the present study were a set of questionnaires making up
four parts: Demographic Data Form, the Perceived Stress Scale: PSS (Department of Mental Health,
2015), the Sources of Stress Survey, and the Coping Scale for Adults: CSA (Frydenberg & Lewis,
1997). The questionnaire was used for recording the respondents’ demographic profile, perceived level
of stress, sources of stress, and coping strategies.

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), a widely used 20-item psychological instrument, was
designed to measure stress in Thai people. It was used to measure the degree to which situations in an
individual's life are appraised as stressful over the last 3-month duration. The PSS is suitable for people
of working or school age. The research team has adjusted the questions related to the change to the
subject of study.

The Sources of Stress Survey was developed by the research team. It was used to examine
causes of stress experienced by the postgraduate students in special education. It contains 20 items
describing perceived causes of stress experienced by the student during the past three month of first
semester. The question is a closed-ended format, required by Yes or No answer. All the questions do not
contain any terminologies, acronyms or jargons that are unfamiliar to the respondents.

The Coping Scale for Adults (CSA), a self-report questionnaire, was used to examine a number
of different coping behaviors and thoughts the participant may have in response to a specific situation.
The CSA was chosen because the 74 items combine to form 19 scales and thus enable the widest
possible range of coping behaviors to be considered. Each item of the CSA describes a specific response
to a concern. Respondents indicate if the response described occurs a "great deal", "often",
"sometimes", "very little" or" don't do it".

Further, findings from quantitative data with regard to sources of stress, perceived level of
student stress and coping strategies were summarized and used to create an interview protocol. The
protocol contained 3 main open-ended questions that allow the participants to provide rich qualitative
detail about their experiences and perceptions regarding how they could help students cope with stress
more effectively while pursuing postgraduate study.

2.3 Data collection and analysis

To collect quantitative data, the instructions of each part of the questionnaires were adequately
explained, and care was taken to ensure that the respondents understood the questionnaire. Each
participant was requested to respond to each item in the questionnaire freely and frankly without any

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hesitation. Descriptive statistics were used for the quantitative data relating to demographic details,
level of stress, sources of stress, and coping strategies. Frequencies, percentages, means, and standard
deviations were calculated.

To collect qualitative data, the research built rapport and a comfortable space for the
participant, start out with questions that ask for some basic background information, then summarized
and explained findings from the quantitative data. After that, semi-structured interviews with the
lecturers were conducted to seek information regarding how they and faculty staff could help students
cope with stress more effectively while pursuing postgraduate study. Each interview last approximately
40 minutes. Data from the interviews were subjected to content analysis. Each interview was
transcribed and thematically analyzed using open-coding procedures involving systematically
organizing, categorizing, and summarizing data; followed by describing it in meaningful themes (King
& Horrocks, 2010). Themes were assigned codes to condense the data into category.

3. Research Findings

3.1 Stress and Coping

Table 1

Perceived stress among students

Stress n%
Mild stress 1 11.1
Moderate stress 5 55.6
High stress 3 33.3

As shown on table 1, there were 8 students (88.9%) who reported having moderate to high
stress, whereas only 1 (11.1%) reported that he/she had mild stress. This suggests that most of the
students considered pursuing postgraduate study in special education produce a considerable degree
of stress.

Table 2

Sources of stress among students

Rank Sources of Stress n %
1 Background knowledge on research 8 88.9
2 Responsibility on routine work 7 77.8
3 Time management on working and learning 6 66.7
4 Time spent on each subject 5 55.6
4 Study in general 5 55.6
5 Family life 4 44.4

Sources of stress, ranked by the percentage of students who agreed that the items were
sources of stress, are shown in Table 2. The most important sources of stress reported by students
were background knowledge on research (88.9%), responsibility on routine work (77.8%), and time
management on working and learning (66.7%) whereas family life was seen as the least important
source of stress (44.4%). This suggests that student prior knowledge and current routine work play an
important part in major causes of stress.

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Table 3

Means and Standards Deviations for 19 strategies on the CSA

Coping strategies Coping style  
3.75 0.61
Seek professional help Productive 3.70 0.59
Solving problem Productive 3.67 0.70
Work hard Productive 3.59 0.77
Humor Reference to others 3.51 0.79
Relaxing diversion Reference to others 3.29 0.78
Seek social support Reference to others 3.13 0.65
Improve relationship Reference to others 3.12 0.70
Physical Recreation Reference to others 3.05 0.62
Focus on positive Non-productive Coping 2.90 0.70
Wishful thinking Reference to others 2.82 0.62
Social action Non-productive Coping 2.52 0.57
Protect self Non-productive Coping 2.35 0.75
Keep to self Non-productive Coping 2.22 0.81
worry Non-productive Coping 2.06 0.65
Ignore the problem Non-productive Coping 1.89 0.77
Not coping Non-productive Coping 1.78 0.83
Seek spiritual support Non-productive Coping 1.50 0.93
Self blame Non-productive Coping 1.26 0.57
Tension reduction Non-productive Coping

Table 3 shows that the mean scores of five coping strategies, including Seek professional
help, Solving problem, Work hard, Humor, and Relaxing diversion were found to be highest among 19
strategies. This suggests that the participants considered the five coping strategies as the most suitable
for coping with stress in pursuing postgraduate study in special education. Three of these strategies
were categorized as in Productive coping style whereas two of them were Reference to others coping
style. However, Seek professional help, Solving problem, and Work hard could be compared to the
problem-focused coping style whereas Humor, and Relaxing diversion could be seen as
emotion-focused coping in Lazarus and Folkman (1984)’s theory of coping.

On the other hand, the lowest mean scores found at the bottom five coping strategies
frequently employed by the participants were Ignore the problem, Not coping, Seek spiritual support,
Self blame, and Tension reduction. This suggests that these strategies were considered as least helpful
for postgraduate study. All these strategies were categorized as in Non-productive coping style.
Further, such strategies could be seen as avoidance-focused coping as Jaloweic (1989) introduced
earlier.

3.2 Guidelines on how to help the students cope more effectively

The thematic analysis resulted in the four themes: (i) orientation and pre-learning activities,
(ii) learning materials and resources, (iii) roles of classmates, (iv) roles of lecturers. The evidence for
these themes is as follows;

3.2.1 Theme 1 Orientation and pre-learning activities

Most of the participant lecturers indicated that to help students cope more effectively, there should be an
orientation program aiming at providing specific information with regard to details of the study
program prior to the beginning of semester one. Further, specific skill training courses such as research
skills, English language skills should be incorporated into pre-learning activities. For example, they
expressed how important orientation and pre-learning activities were as follows;

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Participant #1, male lecturer: “There should be a specific orientation for the students to provide
the study program details as well as pre-learning activities that help equip the students with statistics
and research knowledge”

Participant #2, female lecturer: “A skill training project necessary for postgrad study like how
to give an oral presentation, make effective discussion, write up research abstract, and paragraph
writing in English language”

Participant #3, female lecturer: “Specific training course like how to develop research
proposal, how to get an approval from Human Ethic Committee”

Moreover, one of the lecturers even stated that the Department of Special Education could bring
the students to visit outside special education organizations to help them gain basic knowledge as well
as how such organizations work for people with disabilities.

Participant #4, male lecturer: “Study trip to related organization should be provided before the
first semester begins to help the students know what happening in the real world situations.”

The findings suggests that a specific orientation program and pre-learning activities should be
provided so that the students could feel comfortable and ready for what the special education program is
going to offer.

3.2.2 Theme 2 Learning materials and resources

Some of the lecturers emphasized the need for sufficient learning materials and resources in special
education. Such program preparation could help the students gain more confidence to attend the
program learning activities. For example, they pointed out how important learning materials and
resources were as follows;

Participant #5, male lecturer: “There should be enough learning materials, textbooks both Thai
and English language available in all subjects. This would help them feel secure and learn in a good
environment.”

Participant #3, female lecturer: “Copies of current research, thesis, and dissertations in special
education and other related disciplines should be provided”

This indicated that university should allocate sufficient budget for the Department of Special
Education so that learning materials and resources could be provided.

3.2.3 Theme 3 Roles of classmates

All the participant lecturers echoed how important the students’ classmates were in helping each other
cope more effectively. The students’ past experiences, skills as well as current responsibilities could be
valuable and beneficial for sharing with their classmates. Different forms of peer tutoring could then be
organized as before- and after-class activities. For example, they indicated what classmates could do as
follows;

Participant #3, female lecturer: “Peer tutoring activities should be organized each week in
different forms such one to one, small group, or even class-wide tutoring, older or experienced students
could be a key person to assist in such an activity”.

Participant #1, male lecturer: “A summary of lesson learned from each lecturer could be
disseminated online each week via Facebook or line group application.”

Participant #2, female lecturer: “Student could get into group and share their experiences on
how to handle multiple tasks as found in their lives including work routine, homework assignment, or
even family hassle. Students may talk to each other on what make them feel stressful and help empower
each other at the same time.”

Participant #4, male lecturer: “Those who have more experiences in administration and
research skills could share with what they know.”

Participant #5, male lecturer: “There could be student activities like sport or recreations at
least once in a semester in order to help student know each other, help establish closer relationship and
help alleviate stress that might occur.”

Such findings clearly showed the power of social support that can be seen through social and
supportive interactions among classmates. Therefore, the Department of Special Education could
promote such activities through a better and supportive environment by improving quality of the
department facilities.

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3.2.4 Theme 4 Roles of lecturers

All the participant lecturers agreed that lecturers in the post graduate special education programs should
play a vital role in helping their students cope effectively in different dimensions. Such roles could
include empowering their students, providing clear direction, giving consultation, as well as being good
companion in fun activities. For example, they expressed their opinions about lecturers should do as
follows;

Participant #2, female lecturer: “They should always empower their students both during class
lectures as well as individual after-class appointment. Small group counseling could be organized”

Participant #1, male lecturer: “Lecturers should inform their students about learning goals of
each subject so that the students can better prepare in advance and be aware on what they might face in
a near future.”

Participant #2, female lecturer: “Mentors lecturers can play a vital role in helping their
students alleviate stress by talking directly after class or on mobile phone to introduce alternative ways
and let the students to choose by themself on where to move forward.”

Participant #5, male lecturer: “Lecturers should listen to what students say about problems in a
relaxed and friendly manner so that students could share what might make them feel nervous anxiety or
even stressed.”

Participant #3, female lecturer: “There should be a consultant available for difficult problems
that might occur

Participant #4, male lecturer: “After-class consultation regarding how to prepare for writing a
research proposal and thesis/ dissertation should be provided.”

Participant #2, female lecturer: “Lecturers could motivate their students to realize that
improve oneself to be acknowledgeable people in the discipline is important for all postgraduate
special education students.”

Participant #1, male lecturer: “There should be recreational activities that bring students and
lecturers to get together so that they can familiar to each other which in turn would be good for their
relationship in working through developing research topic/proposal.”

4. Discussion

The finding that most of the students in this study considered pursuing postgraduate study in special
education produce a considerable degree of stress is in line with many studies in other countries.
For example, studies around the world revealed that the prevalence of stress among postgraduate
students is very high. In India postgraduate medical school, the prevalence was 52% (Shete, & Garkal,
2015), in South Eastern USA 48.9% (Wyatt, & Oswalt, 2013), and 54% among international
postgraduate students (Hussein, Zainal, & Abdel-Latif, 2012).

Finding that the most important sources of stress reported by students were background knowledge
on research is supported by Kasi, Khawar, Khan, Kiani, & Khan, et al., (2007) and Gayathri,
(2012).Those studies also showed that from all the stressors, academic related stressors were found to
have the greatest impact and intensity on post graduate programs. This is especially true as many of the
research challenges that postgraduate students will face include choosing a topic, finding study
participants, staying sane throughout the process, and every step in between.

The findings that postgraduate students in this study used more Productive coping strategies than
Non-productive ones are consistent with findings in an earlier study conducted on undergraduate
students (Deckard, & Present, 1989). It was found that subjects used positive coping strategies (active
coping, religious coping, positive reframing, planning, and acceptance) more than avoidant strategies
(denial, self-blame, and alcohol or substance use).

However, while Seek professional help, Solving problem, and Work hard were categorized as in
problem-focused coping style whereas Humor, and Relaxing diversion were emotion-focused coping
style. This finding is in line with the transactional theory of coping by Lazarus, and Folkman, (1984),
which claimed that people generally use both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping in a single
stressful situation. While problem-focused coping is usually employed when individuals perceive a
situation as controllable, emotion-focused coping is usually used when individuals consider a situation
as unchangeable (Lazarus, and Folkman, 1984).

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Contrary to the frequent use of Productive coping strategies, the students in this study considered
Non-productive coping as least helpful for postgraduate study. Non-productive coping as reported by
the students include such emotion-focused coping strategies as Ignore the problem, Not coping, Seek
spiritual support, Self blame, and Tension reduction. As previously mentioned, emotion-focused
coping is usually used when individuals consider a situation as unchangeable (Lazarus, and Folkman,
1984). It may seem that postgraduate students appraise some situations (for example, when their
lecturers expect them to write up an argumentative paper) as uncontrollable.

When it comes to more specific coping strategies the students considered Seek professional help,
Solving problem, and Work hard as the most suitable for postgraduate study. As reported by the students
that background knowledge on research is a major cause of stress, to seek professional help in such an
area could be benefit for their study. Most postgraduate students have faced and overcome difficulties
such as lack of motivation, lack of self-confidence, poor time management, lack of focus or direction,
lack of relevant experience, thus, fear of failure or taking risks. Therefore, seeking professional help is
necessary. Further, Solving problem, and Work hard also seem to be effective way to cope with
multiple and challenging tasks at postgraduate level. As Thailand is a Buddhist country, there is a
religious belief that roots in most of the Buddhists’ souls. It says “Attahi Atnonato” which means "God
helps those who help themselves." Such a belief may play an important part on how the students, who
are all Buddhists, employ such productive coping strategies. Thus, in contrast to Solving problem, and
Work hard, the practices of Seek spiritual Support was seen as less helpful. Such a coping strategy
would be influenced by the Buddha’s teaching, the Dhamma. As good Buddhists, the postgraduate
students are expected “to avoid all evil, to do good, and to purify one’s mind” to achieve Enlightenment
(Dhammapada, v.183; Goonewardene, 1994). But “you yourself must make the effort; the Buddha is
only the teacher” (Dhammapada, v.276X. These religious beliefs could lead the students to be inclined
to believe in spiritual support, but employ problem-focused coping, instead. Further, Tension reduction
is characterized by strategies that reflect an attempt to make one self feel better by taking alcohol, drugs
or cigarettes, crying or screaming and/or taking frustration out on others. And all the post graduate
students are teachers, who are expected to be “role model” of Thai society, thus, Tension reduction is
considered as in appropriate manner.

In addition, our qualitative data has provided significant findings regarding how faculty staff could
help postgraduate students cope more effectively by emphasizing their orientation and pre-learning
activities, providing sufficient materials and resources, focusing on roles of classmates as well as
lecturers. The findings are supported by earlier study by Brooke, T., Brown, M., Orr, R., & Gough, S.
(2020). It provides a sound groundwork for planning orientation program to reduce postgraduate special
education student potential stress. Such program would help the postgraduate special education
students in improving their quality of life.

5. Conclusion and Implications

In conclusion, this study has presented an insight into perceptions, and behaviors that postgraduate
special education students possess in response to perceived stress, and coping strategies. It has
demonstrated that the students expressed a considerable level of stress throughout their first-year
program. It is important for special education programs at PSRU and other university postgraduate
programs to know the causes of their students stress, and associated coping mechanisms utilized. The
most common Productive coping or problem-focused coping strategies reported in the current study
were found in Seek professional help, Solving problem, and Work hard. Such strategies should be
promoted due to its proven stress-relieving benefits. Further, to help mitigate potential stress, it would
be valuable for special education students undertaking specific orientation and pre-learning activities as
provided by the Department of Special Education. This study has also identified that the students were
implementing three styles of coping strategies; problem-focused, emotion-focused as well as
avoidance-focused coping styles. It also highlights the importance of continued research within
postgraduate special education programs to identify why students may be experiencing stress and to
guide more effective coping. Findings of the current study provide valuable insights to inform
curriculum design and optimize the transition to intensive academic study and pre-placement support
for postgraduate special education students.

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6. Limitations

The findings of this study were drawn from the results of the questionnaires and the interview.
The relatively small sample size could be seen as the major limitation. However, studies with a small
number of subjects can be quick to conduct with regard to asking subjects to complete study
questionnaires and provide insightful interview information. Therefore, an obvious strength is that the
research question can be addressed in a relatively short space of time. Further, since the information was
collected on a self-administered questionnaire because of respondent's interpretation of the questions or
desire to report their emotions in a certain way, we cannot fully rule out information bias.
The cross-sectional design of this study is yet another limitation.

7. Acknowledgements

The researchers would like to extend their sincere gratitude to the postgraduate students and lecturers in
Special Education programs, Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University. We also would like to thank staff at
the Department of Educational Measurement and Evaluation for their moral support, comments and
guidance during this study. This work was supported by Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University, in
Thailand through the Faculty of Education grant.

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Development of Activity of Daily Living for
Kindergarten Students With Autism

Spectrum in Inclusive Education School

Charoenkhwan SRIPUNCHAT a, Anong KASENKAEW b, Alisa UPUN c
& Thanyarat CHANSEANG d

aTeacher/Lecturer,Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
bTeacher, Special Education Center Region9 Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
cTeacher, Wat Sakae Ngam School Samae Dam, Bang Khun Thian, Bangkok, Thailand
dTeacher/Lecturer, Research and Service Institute for Autism, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

*[email protected]

Abstract: The purpose of this research is to help kindergarten kids with Autism Spectrum

Disorder acquire self-help abilities in everyday life tasks. It is an Experimental Research which

researchers conducted a One Group Pre-test Post-test Design. The sample were selected by
purposive sampling to 4 kindergarten students with autism spectrum between the age of 4-6
years old. The curriculum contents were divided into 5 lessons as follows; wearing a t-shirt,
wearing shorts, wearing socks and shoes, drinking from a cup, drinking with a straw 1) Activity
of Daily Living Observation Form, 2) Self-help Skills Curriculum, 3) Self-help Skills Practice
Guideline, and 4) Self-help Skills Step-by-step Fabric Book. Data were analyzed using average,
percentage and comparison of scores before and after self-help skills training. Data were
synthesized in descriptive information of each individual.
The findings demonstrate that after developing self-help abilities through ten daily Living
tasks, all four students had greater scores in all competencies compared to before the training.
This signifies that the self-help skills curriculum developed is of sufficient quality to be used to
promote daily living skills for participating students on the autism spectrum in inclusive
schools

Keywords: Activity of Daily Living Development Courses, Children with Autism
Spectrum, Inclusive School

1. Background and Significance of the Study

Rehabilitation for Persons with Disability Act, B. E. 2534, and National Education Act, B. E.
2542, impacted institutes and organizations to be more aware of developing persons with disability.
This allowed persons with disability to be educated and to participate in social activities more. It is
important that persons with disability be independent and live in the society with dignity (Benja
Choltharnon, 2001). Education provision for people with disability must meet their needs and
individual differences. Each person with disability has different strengths and limitations in learning.
Basic education must provide age appropriate physical, mental, emotional, social and intellectual
development for each individual in order for them to reach their full capacity. Learners must acquire
skills and abilities for life-long learning, independence, and to live by good moral in the society of
wisdom and knowledge. Selecting a suitable learning design as well as teaching and learning process, is
truly essential in developing learners with disability. This is so we can live together in world peace
based on basic human rights for Thai as we reform education to develop good, intellect and happy
people (Board of the Office of Education Reform, 2008).

The teaching and learning process should carry out contents and activities which are related to
the learners’ interests and proficiency, while also consider individual differences. It should train
learners to think, manage, face situations and apply knowledge to prevent or solve problems based on

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real experiences. Practical activities should train learners to think, do, love reading and learning
continuously. Teaching and learning should balance various knowledge, including the teaching of good
moral, values and expected characteristics in all subjects. Teachers should be supported to create a
learning environment with materials and facilities for their learners. Teachers should have the ability to

organize learning at all times and locations, cooperate with parents, and people in the community to
develop learners to their capacity (Suwit & Orathai Moolkham, 2002). Autism is a brain’s abnormality.

Children with autism will have trouble communicating, building relationships with others and the
environment. Some children are able to communicate with others and are intellectual. However, some
children are intellectually challenged with no language. Some children have repetitive behaviors. Each

child has different behaviors and severity, but all will have problems with social skills, communication,
behaviors, sensory and motor skills. The inability to build relationships with others is caused by
neurological abnormality. A child may not understand verbal language, others’ feelings and needs.

Language and intellectual development is incomplete causing challenges in communication with others
and social interactions. Some children display repetitive behaviors over and over. Symptoms may be
noticeable at birth but mostly between 18-36 months old. The toddler may not show interest in people,
has strange behaviors, lose acquired language skills including other life skills. There is a range covering
healthy children and children with life skill impairments such as children with Autism. The number of
children with life-skill impairments have risen quickly and is a barrier to social adaptations. Maliwan
Ruenkham and Supalak Khemthong (2009) defined ‘Life Skill’ as an individual’s ability to adapt and

exhibit appropriate behaviors to meet their needs, social skills, learning skills, emotional management
skills, understanding of other people’s feelings, helping others, self-pride, vocational development,
using facilities and technology, and conducting activities of daily living. The ultimate goal is for
individuals to be independent. Life skills are skills we use everyday. They can be improved by

organizing a Life Skill Program to improve mental health and healthy behaviors to help children with
Autism. Currently, the focus of support is on social skills e.g. developing interactions between a child
with Autism and others, perceiving and understanding one’s emotions and others’, teaching appropriate
social manners, but forgetting to teach basic health skills for children with Autism.

Conducting ‘activities of daily living’ (ADL) is one life skill which is basic and important in

supporting children with Autism to live happily in the society, and enables them to take care of
themselves correctly according to hygiene. If children with Autism can perform ADL correctly and

appropriately, others may be impressed with their appearance and feel more warm and welcome
towards them. Other than that, doing ADL is an indicator of discipline and shows responsibility to duty
and time. At each age of development, children are expected to perform different qualities of ADL. For

example, a 3-year-old kindergartener is expected to dress and feed self, a 4-year-old kindergartener is

expected to dress and feed self without spilling their food, and a 5-year-old kindergartener is expected
to select clothes and dress self, as well as to eat independently and correctly. Other than self-discipline,
doing ADL is part of socializing with others too. Activities of daily living for a child, teen and adult may
be similar but they differ in contexts. Children will have to perform some of these activities at school or
educational institutes, whereas adults perform them at workplaces and homes. Some factors affecting a
child’s ADL performance are child’s maturity, age, experience, practice, ability to imitate and copy,
and the environment which supports the practice of ADL. Surang Kwotrakun (1990) mentioned the
quotes from Albert Bandura “a child learn his behaviors from copying those around them,” and
Erikson’s “the environment and response to a child affects the development of their personality and
learning”. Therefore, young children can learn to do their ADL such as waking up, making the bed,

washing their face, brushing their teeth, showering, dressing, eating breakfast, doing to school, eating
lunch, etc., through practice and imitation of parents, people in the family and teachers at school. These

people are the role models especially for children ages 3-5 years, which is the age of imitative play
(Nititorn Pilwasn, 2006). Activities of Daily Living is something everybody do naturally according to
age and development. However, children with Autism has developmental impairments, thus many
things don’t come naturally to them. It affects their behaviors, emotions, socialization and
communication, including difficulties in everyday life. It also affects the daily lives of their parents,
teachers and related individuals. Thereby, the researchers are interested in developing children with

Autism in their ADL skills through appropriate teaching methods, which are practical in real life
(Charoenkhwan Moolnoi, 2012).

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2. Purpose of the Study

To develop self-helps skills in activities of daily living for kindergarten students with Autism
Spectrum in inclusive schools.

3. Delimitations of this Study

3.1. The study took place at 2 inclusive schools in Khon Kaen province where learners are
kindergarteners with Autism Spectrum.

3.2. The sample used in this study were 4 learners with Autism Spectrum in kindergarten level ages 4-6
years old selected via Purposive Sampling (Buntham Kitpridaborisut, 1997). The criteria for
selection is as follows.

3.3. Kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum ages 4-6 years old, who were diagnosed either by a
child and adolescent psychiatrist or a developmental pediatrician, using the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual for Mental Disorder Edition 5 (DSM-5) by the American Psychiatric
Association.

4. Research Tools

4.1. Activity of Daily Living Observation Form for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum before
and after the Inclusive Self-help Skills Curriculum (1 book, 5 topics)

4.2. Self-help Skills Curriculum for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum
4.3. Self-help Skills Practice Guideline for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum on 5 topics
4.4. Self-help Skills Step-by-step Fabric Book for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum on 5

topics

Figure 1. Self-help Skills Practice Guideline on 5 topics

5. ResearchMethodology

Research methodology and data collection as follows.
5.1. Plan for trial during Semester 1 Academic Year 2020 between June to August 2020, 3

times per week on every Monday-Wednesday for 50 minutes per day, for 12 weeks.
5.2. Observe behavior and basic information of students before trial use of the Self-help Skills

Curriculum for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools.
5.3. Record data using the Activity of Daily Living Observation Form for kindergarten students

with Autism Spectrum and summarize data in 1 week.
5.4. Use the Self-help Skills Practice Guideline for kindergarten students with Autism

Spectrum on the sample focusing on teaching the students what to do during each time, the purpose of
the activity and sequencing each session into introduction, training and summarization stages.

5.5. Record data after using the Self-help Skills Curriculum for kindergarten students with
Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools.

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5.6. Summarize the data from each activity in the Self-help Skills Curriculum for kindergarten
students with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools.

5.7. Evaluate the Self-help Skills Practice Guideline for kindergarten students with Autism
Spectrum in inclusive schools.

5.8. Summarize the results of using the Self-help Skills Practice Guideline for kindergarten
students with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools.

6. Type of Research Tools

6.1. Structured Observation Form with 5-Point Rating Scale and Open-ended Behavior Record Form.
6.2. Evaluation of Skills Before and After Learning which is a 5-Point Rating Scale.

7. Research Design

This research is an Experimental Study with a One Group Pretest Posttest Design (Kittiya
Wongkhan, 2018), as seen in Table 1.

Table 1

Experimental Design

Group Pretest Treatment Posttest
A O1 X O2

Self-help Skills Curriculum for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum in inclusive
schools. Where;

A substitutes for ‘sample group’,

X substitutes for ‘activities used to train self-help skills through conducting ADL for
kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools’

O1 substitutes for ‘the results of using the Self-help Skills Curriculum for kindergarten students
with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools before training the students’

O2 substitutes for ‘the results of using the Self-help Skills Curriculum for kindergarten students
with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools after training the students’.

8. Statistics and Data Analysis

Data analysis of this research study is as follows.
8.1. Data was analyzed by descriptive data as recorded after each content/session of training
and summarization of learning the self-help skills by conducting ADL for students with
Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools.
8.2. Analyzed the difference of self-help skills in conducting ADL for students with Autism
Spectrum in inclusive schools before and after the training of self-help skills through
conducting ADL for students with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools. Data presented
in bar graph and detailed description to answer to the purpose of this study.

Percentage = (Achieved Score x 100) / Full Score
Presented in tables and bar graphs.

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9. Summary and Discussion

The ‘Development of Activity of Daily Living for Kindergarten Students With Autism
Spectrum in Inclusive Education School’ research aims to develop self-helps skills in activities of daily
living for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum in inclusive schools. The sample used were
students with Autism Spectrum between the age of 4-6 years old.

Table 2

General Information of 4 Students with Autism Spectrum

General Information Number of Students

1. Gender 4
Boy
3
2. Age 1
4 Years 1 Day to 5 Years Old 4
5 Years 1 Day to 6 Years Old
3
3. Attended all 10 training sessions 1

4. Attended school
The Demonstration School
Special Education Center

Figure 2. Average Score Before and After the Training
of Self-help Skills in Activities of Daily Living for the 4 students.
Results of the self-help skills in ADL training in 5 skills are as follows; 1) Dressing Skills
divided into 3 contents (wearing a t-shirt, wearing shorts, and wearing socks and shoes), 2) Eating Skills

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divided into 2 contents (drinking from a cup, drinking with a straw, of 5 contents in this the study, the
evaluation before and after the training showed that all 4 students received higher scores in all skills.

10. Recommendations

10.1. In training self-help skills in conducting ADL for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum in
inclusive schools, there should be a continuity of practice at both the homes and schools, so that
students can make a connection and depend less on their caregivers.

10.2Teaching and learning for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum should start with the
learners readiness. Educational and related multidisciplinary staff e.g. teachers, should prepare
the students, set up the environment for appropriate learning.

10.3Teachers must prepare the activities, plan, set up the schedule clearly, make a conversation or build
a rapport before learning.

10.4. Students must be ready to learn e.g. emotionally regulated. Teachers should have multiple
techniques to manage learners. Other than teaching self-help skills in conducting ADL,
promoting social skills is also important for students with Autism Spectrum. This is so they can
live happily with others in the society.

11. Limitations of this Study

In order to train self-help skills in conducting ADL for kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum, the
user must study the tools which the researchers developed thoroughly before use.

During the practice of each skill, setting up the environment is very important. There should be
enough light. The room should be tidy, so materials can be easily accessed.

A key strategy is that the teachers must understand the students and use appropriate techniques
for each individual. The teachers must wait and provide students time and reinforcements when the
show expected behaviors in order for them to practice self-help skills in conducting ADL smoothly to
their full capacity.

Acknowledgement

Researchers would like to thank the kindergarteners with Autism and their families for participating and
cooperating in this study.

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