Strategic Leadership of School Administrators Under the Office of the Basic Education Commission, Thailand

Table 2
Score before –after Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC-THAI

Research target groups Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 aspect is the Part
Speech/voice Aspect is social sensory perception. Health / B
using language
communication competence. and perception Behav

score before score score before Score score before Score score before
after after after

Person 15 15 23 22 26 24 28
example1 5 3 6 6 13 16 9
6 4 5 4 12 12 9
person 8 5 31 30 17 17 23
example2 7 5 9 5 11 8 24

person
example3

person
example4

person
example5

I).

4 Interpret the totals of Interpreting the totals on
Body / all aspects of the score before all sides of the score after
vior
aggregate average Interpret aggregate average Interpret
Score 92
after 33 23 very 89 22.25 very
32 8.25 symptomatic 31 7.75 symptomatic
28 79 27 6.75
51 8 few 72 18 few
6 19.74 symptoms 38 9.5 symptoms
12.75
7 few few
symptoms symptoms
20 moderate moderate
symptoms symptoms
20 moderate moderate
symptoms symptoms

62

Person example 1 Person example 2

Person example 3 Person example 4

Person example 5
Figure 5. A Results of Five Children with Autism Spectrum from

Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC-THAI)

63

Table 3
Assessment form for the use of the task-directed skills to regulate the emot

Results of a post-cognitive assessment on emotional regulation o

Research Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Tria
target 1 2 3 45 6 7 8
groups
score score score score score score score score
Person
example1 15 15 16 16 18 18 20 16
16 16 17 17 19 21 19 16
Person 19 18 19 19 22 25 28 30
example2 16 15 17 17 20 21 22 20
17 17 19 19 22 25 29 29
Person
example3

Person
example4

Person
example5

A score range of 51-75 means very good,
A score range of 26-50 means moderate,
A score range of 0-25 means fair.

tions of children with autism spectrum disorder
of children with autism spectrum disorder.
al Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial

9 10 11 12 13 14 aggregate average
e score score score score score score score score

18 20 23 25 25 27 272 19.4
20 22 26 30 32 34 305 21.7
36 40 42 45 49 50 442 31.5
22 28 30 35 40 40 343 24.5
31 31 34 36 36 40 385 27.5

64

Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Person example 1 Person
example 2

Person example 3
Person example 4

Person example 5

Figure 6. Results of a post-cognitive assessment on emotional regulation of children with
autism spectrum disorder

7. Debate:

The objectives of this research were to create a board game to develop cognitive and emotional control
in children with autism spectrum disorders, and to study the effects of using board games to develop
cognitive thinking skills and emotional control of children with autism spectrum disorders:

7.1 Creating a board game to develop cognitive behavioral skills in children with autism
spectrum disorders. The researcher studied the contents related to board games to develop thinking
skills and control emotions of children with autism spectrum disorders, and studied related

65

research papers, board games, and then created board games based on the innovations that have been
sent to educational experts. A total of 5 people reviewed the opinions of experts on board games to
improve cognitive behavioral skills of children with autism spectrum with mean content scores. The
implementation model is at the very reasonable level of opinion.

7.2 To study the results of using board games to develop cognitive and emotional control
skills of children with autism spectrum disorder. Emotional control of children with autism spectrum
disorder compared 2 phases of experiments were conducted Phase 1 (A) phase before using action
method and Phase 2 (B) action phase refers to the experimental phase (Treatment) where the
researcher plays board games to develop thinking skills. Directed to regulate the emotions of children
with autism spectrum disorder. The researchers played board games twice a week for 1 hour a day of 7
weeks. It was found that scores from the post-cognitive assessment for emotional control of children
with autism spectrum disorder in each aspect had better scores from the pre-approval phase. This score
means the development in each area is very good.

8. Limitation of this research:

Due to the current situation, there is an epidemic of the Covid-19 virus. Therefore, causing difficulty
in the experiment, because parents are worried about the infection that will infect the target group.
Researchers should prepare children to be calm before they are ready to play board games.

Acknowledgments:

The researchers thanked kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorder and their families for agreeing
and willing to participate in the research. Also, thank you so much for the Research and Services for
Autism Khon Kaen University for support grant.

References

Penkhae Limsila. (1997). Autism diagnosis. Samut Prakan : Chor. Saeng Ngam PrintingTeachers, Doctors,
Parents: Dimensions of Potential Development of Autistic Persons. Bangkok: Academic Quality
Development.

Padung Arayawinyu.(2546). How to teach students with autism. Bangkok: Wan Kaew.
Nuanchan Juthaphakdeekul(2014)Executive Functions (Executive Thinking), Documentation of the National

Educational Testing Institute Brainstorming Workshop Public Organization,(2017)
Thanasetkorn P. (2012) Lecture paper “Executive Thinking EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONs (EFs) Sakulbutr, Ph.D.

thesis(2017)Educational board game design https://www.gotoknow.org
Thanasethakorn P. (2015) Brain Skills for Life Management for Success http://www.raklukesociallearning.com

/National Buddhism Office.
Office of the Health Promotion Foundation (Thai Health Promotion Foundation). (2020). A Parent's Guide to

Developing EF Brain Skills from conception to 3 years.https://resourcecenter.thaihealth.or.th/media/LOL4.
Kosuwan, K. (2005). Research in special education (Documentation of teachings). Bangkok: Department of

Special Education Srinakharinwirot University.
Phatchanasoonthorn, N. (2003). Autism knowledge for parents. Teachers and Public Health Personnel in

Khon Kaen: Faculty of Medicine Khon Kaen University.
Kahn, J.C., & Dietzel. L.,(2008). Late, Lost, and Unprepared : A Parents’ Guide to Helping Children with

Executive Functioning. Woodbine House, MD p.17 riffin J.A., McCardle P.,Freund L.S., edited, Executive
Functions in Preschool – Age Children, AmericanPsychological Association, Washington D.C., 2016
Martiplus magnesium in autistic subjects. In: Clinical and physiological applications of vitamin B6, Leklem JE,
Reymolds R, eds. New York: Alan R Liss, pp.329-356
Rimland B. (1988). Controversies in the treatment of autistic children: Vitamin and drug therapy, J Child

Neurol, 3 (Suppl): s68-s72

66

Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Reading Literacy Assessment of Higaunon
Women in Cagayan de Oro City: Basis for

Reading Enhancement Program

Felix, GAVIOLA, JR. * , Adelfa SILOR , Lindy Lou GAVIOLA ,
Venus PARMISANA & Ciedelle GRAGEDA

Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines
*[email protected]

Abstract: This research study aimed to assess the reading performance of the Higaonon women
in Cagayan de Oro City, Northern Mindanao, Philippines. The concept of this study is anchored
to the new UNESCO Policy on engaging with Indigenous Peoples, UNESCO. This is
committed to promote lifelong learning for indigenous peoples and ensure their full inclusion in
education. This is also an avenue for higaonon children and young people of indigenous
families to be educated. The method used in this study was both the quantitative and qualitative
research approaches. The purposive sampling technique was employed in selecting the
fifty(50) adult higaonon women from the higaonon community, Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis
Oriental, Northern Mindanao, Philippines. The results suggest that women in higaonon tribe
need to undergo basic reading literacy enhancement program. Higaonon women need to be
exposed to difficult words. As suggested, reading materials be provided at home. In conclusion,
reading enhancement program is a solution to cater the needs of the higaonon women on
learning the concept and activities of reading. The results of this study imply that higaonon
women are interested to learn the basic reading literacy. Hence, if the higaonon women can
learn on the basic early literacy and emergent literacy skills, then they can also start teaching
their children at the very early stage.

Keywords: Emergent literacy, phonetic awareness, reading assessment literacy

1. Introduction

In chapter 1 section 2 paragraph 2 in the magna carta of women (R.A 9710), the State condemns
discrimination against women in all its forms and pursues by all appropriate means and without
delay the policy of eliminating discrimination against women in keeping with the Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and other international
instruments consistent with Philippine law. The State shall accord women the rights, protection,
and opportunities available to every member of society.

Indeed, in paragraph 3 the State affirms women’s rights as human rights and shall intensify
its efforts to fulfil its duties under international and domestic law to recognize, respect, protect, fulfill,
and promote all human rights and fundamental freedoms of women, especially marginalized women, in
the economic, social, political, cultural, and other fields without distinction or discrimination on account
of class, age, sex, gender, language, ethnicity, religion, ideology, disability, education, and
status(Magna Carta of Women, R.A 9710).

The above declaration policy in the magna carta of women emphasizes role of women in nation
building and ensures the substantive equality of women and men. It shall promote empowerment of
women and pursue equal opportunities for women and men and ensure equal access to resources
and to development results and outcome(Magna Carta of Women, 9710 chapter 1 paragraph 1).

In fact, the most vulnerable are the indigenous women like the higaonons in Northern Mindanao
who need attention and care to have empowerment. Guided by the new UNESCO Policy on Engaging
with Indigenous Peoples, UNESCO is committed to promote lifelong learning for indigenous peoples
and ensure their full inclusion in education because children and young people of indigenous families
remain less likely to be enrolled in school or in training programmes and more likely to underperform
than non-indigenous children (Education for indigenous peoples UNESCO, 1989).

67

In the push for Education for All, improving access, quality and outcomes for
marginalized populations, including indigenous peoples, must not be overlooked. To not leave out
indigenous learners, education must be tailored to their needs, including their geographical,
infrastructural, livelihood, cultural, historical and linguistic contexts. It is also necessary to
highlight that educational marginalization for indigenous peoples occur within a context of
disproportionately high poverty and hunger, decreased security, and loss of identity, language,
territories and livelihoods. An attention to all the rights of indigenous peoples and support for
sustainable economic, cultural and social development is fundamental to improving their inclusive
educational outcomes (Lukong, 2016).

Furthermore, Cartwheel Foundation, Inc. was one of 35 organizations awarded by Metrobank
Foundation, Inc. (MBFI) during their 54th Anniversary Grants Turnover Ceremony on September 5,
2016 at Metrobank Plaza, Makati City. The grant was given in support of the Early Childhood and
Elementary Education (ECEE) Program that focuses on facilitating access to quality and culturally
relevant learning for 54 indigenous Higaonon children of Sinakungan, Esperanza, Agusan del Sur for
school year 2016-2017.( Metrobank Foundation Supports Education for Higaonon Learners, 2016).

Another, is the Pailig-DepEd Develops education program for Higaonon with Mr. Roberto
“Bob” Quijano, Managing Director of the PDFI said that the IPs education development project is a
joint venture of the PDFI and DepEd. He said the purpose of the project is to advocate and strengthen the
traditional practices of Higaonon culture to gain understanding and respect among the Higaonon tribe as
well as with other tribes. They taught the children on traditional practices such as the traditional laws
and customary laws, rituals to strengthen the Higaonon tribe to exist. They also teach the Higanon
children about the Higaonon identity because plenty of the Higaonon children doesn’t know to
appreciate their culture and tradition and it will endanger the tribe to perish in the future. They taught
history of the Higaonon started before the coming of the Spaniards and current situation and the methods
of indigenous organic farming to protect and preserve the environment of their Ancestral domain in
Rogongon (Pailig-DepEd, 2017 Lanao blog news).

Moreover, in the study of Saranza (2016), the results revealed that the Higaonons have rich oral
literature categorized by prose as short stories, essays, and legends narrated by the key informants in the
omniscient point of view. The common human values reflected in their literature include patience,
courage, godliness, and industry. The wearing of beads and Higaonon costume symbolizes pride and
identity of the tribe. The literature includes vivid images that appeal to the senses of the readers. They
are transmitted and preserved through storytelling only by the datus of high rank of whom knowledge of
all tribal lore is a requisite may reveal the story; and in their yearly Kaamulan Festival (Saranza, 2016).

Another study showed that the Higaonon culture and belief do not specifically advocate for the
formal education of their children in schools. Rather, they prefer them to gain the basics of Reading,
Writing, and Arithmetic; afterwards, the children become their workmates in the farm. They give a
higher preference to food sufficiency than education. The intrusion of the Christians and Muslims and
the mass media has taught them to speak other dialects like Cebuano and Tagalog. Only a few can speak
meager English. This study has found out that the Higaonon culture and belief do not provide a
significant contribution to the academic performance of the pupils (SUMORTIN II and Cuizon, 2013).

Despite the existence of national legislation, such as the IPRA, and international frameworks,
such as the UNDRIP and Agenda 2030, Indigenous Peoples’ communities in the Philippines are still
facing challenging issues especially in relation to accessing culturally relevant quality education.
Furthermore, the pursuit of inclusion must address the wide and diverse needs of Indigenous Peoples’
communities. However, it is to be realized that inclusion may seem to be different for Indigenous
learners as compared to other sectors such as persons with disabilities. It appears that for inclusion to
work, Indigenous learners must first have a strong sense of identity to be able to include themselves in
society. Society, in turn, must also be ready to accept the uniqueness of Indigenous learners. Ultimately,
the involvement of Indigenous Peoples’ communities in the decision making processes is crucial if
inclusion is to benefit them at all (Torres, 2016).

Consequently, the magna for women (R.A 9710) along with the UNESCO Policy on Engaging
with Indigenous Peoples, Cartwheel Foundation Inc, Pailig DepED project and research studies
conducted, there is research study conducted on reading literacy for indigenous peoples specifically the
higaonon women. Hence, this GAD research project aims to assess the rate of reading literacy among
higaonon women in Cagayan de Oro City to empower the higaonon women in reading education
because the mothers are the first teachers at home.

68

The results of tis Gender and Development (GAD) research project would be a great
contributions in sustaining the UNESCO policy on engaging Indigenous Peoples, Cartwheel Foundation
in facilitating access to quality and culturally relevant learning for 54 indigenous Higaonon children of
Sinakungan Esperanza, Agusan del Sur, Philippines and also the Pailig-DepEd Develops education
program for Higaonons in Rogongon, Iligan City, Philippines. This study serves as an eye opener for all
indigenous women to love reading as a skill.

1.1 Theoretical Framework of the Study

This GAD research study is anchored to the magna carta of women (R.A 9710) “Women
Empowerment” refers to the provision, availability, and accessibility of opportunities, services, and
observance of human rights which enable women to actively participate and contribute to the
political, economic, social, and cultural development of the nation as well as those which shall
provide them equal access to ownership, management, and control of production, and of material
and informational resources and benefits in the family, community, and society. The natural and
primary right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth and the development of moral character and
the right of children to be brought up in an atmosphere of morality and rectitude for the
enrichment and strengthening of character.

Marginalized” refers to the basic, disadvantaged, or vulnerable persons or groups who are
mostly living in poverty and have little or no access to land and other resources, basic social and
economic services such as health care, education, water and sanitation, employment and livelihood
opportunities, housing, social security, physical infrastructure, and the justice system.

In addition, this research study is also anchored to the theories of reading.
Traditional bottom-up view of reading-the traditional bottom-up theory is skill-driven in that it stresses
the code used in a written language to represent the spoken words. The emphasis is on letter and word
recognition as a key to reading (Nunan, 2005 as cited in by Mule, 2012).

The cognitive theory or top-down view of reading-The cognitive or top-down view of reading is
a comprehension-driven theory which opposes the view that decoding is a basis to comprehension. This
theory puts the reader at the centre of the reading process, a premise of which brings all the
experiences and background knowledge to the reading task(Mule, 2012).

The balanced theory or interactive model of reading-posits that readers read by focusing on
comprehension and on letter features at the same time (Stanovich, 1980). To Mercer et al. (2007),
Stanovich’s interactive theory differs from the bottom-up and cognitive theories in that it sees the
reader as processing all the different letters and words, but acknowledges that the meaning and
syntax of the context influence the perception and recognition of them.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Reading is fundamental to functioning in today's society

Reading is fundamental to functioning in today's society. There are many adults who cannot read well
enough to understand the instructions on a medicine bottle. That is a scary thought - especially for their
children. Filling out applications becomes impossible without help. Reading road or warning signs is
difficult. Even following a map becomes a chore. Day-to-day activities that many people take for
granted become a source of frustration, anger and fear.( Glenn Davis, 2016).
A child's reading ability can be affected by many factors including background knowledge, ability,
home environment, school experiences and interest level. However, pure reading performance is most
directly linked to a child's success with five early literacy skills--phonemic awareness, alphabetic
principle, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. By understanding and nurturing these five
fundamental skills, parents and teachers can better encourage successful reading performance. (Jamie
Anderson, 2018).

2.2 Reading habit has influence on academic performance

Furthermore, the study of Owusu-Acheaw and Larson(2004), the findings showed that majority of
the respondents acknowledge the importance of reading, 81.9% of the respondents neither read novel

69

nor fiction within the last two semesters while 62.0% of the respondents only read for the
purpose of passing examination. The study confirmed that reading habit has influence on academic
performance and there is a relationship between reading habit and academic performance. The study
recommended among others that lecturers should be advised to stop providing handouts to
students but rather encourage them to use the library for research and also, the current system of
assessing students should be given a second thought with respect to the formulae of assessment.
Many researchers have noted that the educational attainment of a child's parents is a good predictor of
the academic achievement of the child. Parents who are, for instance, college educated could be better
equipped to help children with their homework and the understanding of concepts than those with less
than a high school education, other things being equal (Johnson, 2000).

2.3 Causes of reading difficulties

English reading materials, improper teaching methodology and insufficient English language
development were causes of reading difficulties. Lack of English language development was a
result of insufficient teacher-learner interactions during the English lessons. The results from the
tests indicated that decoding, phonemic awareness, word recognition skill and comprehension might
hamper reading proficiency in Grade 4 and although a section of learners proved the abilities to read
fluently they could not satisfactorily answer the questions based on the text read(Mule,2012).

Lerner (2000, p.389 as cited in by Mule, 2012) reports that “children who get off to a poor start
in reading rarely catch up; poor first grade readers are likely to continue to be poor readers.”

A number of studies in the area of reading, for example, those conducted by (Chall
1987,Dickinson and Neuman 2006,and Lerner 2000 as cited in by Mule, 2012) )point out difficulties
learning to read in English when not a first language.

Pang, Muaka, Benhard and Michael (2003, p.273 as cited in by Mule, 2012) observe that real
progress in reading depends on oral language development, an observation that suggests that children
learn to read by associating the written form with speech.

Reading, as a language-based activity (Lyon, 2000 as cited in by Mule, 2012), does not
develop naturally, and for many children, decoding, word recognition, and reading comprehension
skills must be taught directly and systematically. If a child’s knowledge of English is poor the reading
skill as well as reading comprehension will also be poor(Baker, 2006 as cited in by Mule, 2012).
Having raised the question of whether the problem with reading “is a reading problem or language
problem,” Carter and Nunan (2002, p.22 as cited in by Mule, 2012) concluded that it involved both.

2.4 Schema theory highlights the limited amount of cognitive

Rumelhalt’s (1980 as cited in by Mule, 2012) schema theory highlights the limited amount of cognitive
energy available for use in processing information. If a reader’s cognitive energy is focused on
decoding and combining the meaning of the word, then comprehension will suffer. For Scott
(2001as cited in by Mule, 2012), schema theory is vital in helping learners use their mental store
during learning, whilst Brewer’s (2000 as cited in by Mule, 2012) schemata theory helps learners to
determine how to interpret the task to be learned, how to understand the information and what
knowledge the learner acquires.

Snow, Burns and Griffin (1998 as cited in Mule, 2012) introduced types of risk factors that
contribute to low levels of academic achievement among L2 learners. In their study conducted, they
identified factors of risk to language development, including socio-economic status (poverty
conditions), cultural differences between school and home (regarding education values and
expectations), socio-political factors (including past and continuing discrimination, and low
perceived opportunity for schooling) and school quality. Murray and Johnson (1996 as cited in by
Mule, 2012) argue that age is a great determinant of language development, and that the younger a
person the easier it is to learn or acquire the language.

2.5 Reading Assessment in Children

The ultimate aim of learning to read is to read with understanding. According to the ‘simple view of
reading’, reading comprehension is the product of word recognition (decoding) and oral language
comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986 as cited by Paynter, Westerveld, & Trembath, 2016 p.206). In

70

other words, to understand written text, the reader does not only need to recognise the printed words on
a page, but also needs to understand the meaning of those words, sentences, and paragraphs(Paynter,
Westerveld, & Trembath, 2016 p.206).

2.6 Emergent Literacy

Children who are not yet able to read novel words or sentences (i.e., preliterate) may be considered to be
in the emergent literacy stage, and their emergent literacy skills should be assessed across code-related
(e.g., letter knowledge, print concepts, and early writing) and meaning-related (e.g., vocabulary, story
retell, and comprehension) skills (Paynter, Westerveld, & Trembath, 2016 p. 209).

2.7 Phonological Awareness

Indeed, early success in reading is predicated on a child’s ability to accurately and effectively master
core literacy constructs (e.g., phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, concept of word, and
grapheme-phoneme correspondence) and to exercise these understandings in a comfortable
sociocultural context (Invernizzi,Justice, Landrum & Booker,(2004, p.479).
Teaching children to read accurately, fluently, and with adequate comprehension is one of the main
goals of early education. Reading is critical because a great deal of formal education depends upon being
able to read with understanding. Reading difficulties will inevitably create educational difficulties,
which, in turn, are a major source of economic and social disadvantage. But such difficulties may be
reduced by suitable early intervention (Heckman, 2006 as cited in by Hulme & Snowling, 2011 p.140).

3.Methodology

3.1 Research Design

This study adopted both the quantitative and qualitative research approaches. According to Christenson
and Johnson(2008 as cited in by Mule, 2012), the qualitative research approach relies on the collection
of non-numerical data, while for Gay et al. (2009 as cited in by Mule, 2012) it is the collection, analysis,
and interpretation of comprehensive narrative and visual data to gain insight into a particular
phenomenon of interest. Best and Khan (2006 as cited in by Mule, 2012) describe the quantitative
approach as the collection and analysis of numerical data to describe, explain, predict, or control
phenomena of interest

The qualitative method of observation was used to gain insight into the culture and
general environment of the adult higaonon women from higaonon community of Cagayan de Oro City
, while a positivist quantitative approach (Christenson& Johnson, 2008 as cited in by Mule, 2012) was
used for gathering quantitative data through diagnostic test on reading assessment for adult higaonon
women of Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental.

3.2 Participants

Purposive sampling is the process of selecting units from a population of interest so that by
studying them one may fairly generalize the results back to the population from which
they were chosen (Williams, 2006, p.11 as cited in by Mule, 2012 ). The purposeful sampling
technique was employed to select the fifty(50) adult higaonon women from the higaonon
community, Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental, Northern Mindanao.

For the purpose of finding out the results of the reading literacy assessment among
adult higaonon women of Cagayan de Oro City, observation and reading tests as data
collection instruments was used. According to Williams (2004, p.270 as cited in by Mule,
2012) data collection is a “process of capturing facts, information and figures based on the
characteristic and the nature of the research problem.” In this study, data were collected using
the letter of the higaonon women, and diagnostic test in reading using San Diego Quick
Assessment of Reading Ability(13121092-325070278750781422.

71

preview.editmysite.com/uploads/1/• PDF file). Educational researchers respect the right,
privacy, dignity and sensitivity of their populations, and also the integrity of the
institutions within which the research occurs. Gay et al. (2009, p.23 as cited in by Muke,
2012) point out that researchers require the necessary permission from relevant authorities
before a study begins. Consent form was given to the research participants who are the adult
higaonon women before the proper conduct of the observation, interview and diagnostic test in
reading.

3.3 Data Gathering Procedure

Permit was secured from the Mayor’s Office of Cagayan de Oro City through the head
of IP’s in CSWD in the person of Nena Lumandong. Prior Inform Consent was asked from the
participant before the conduct of the study. After the permission has been granted, gathering of
data started from the profiling through then to the reading assessment of the higaonon women
participants. Since, it is pandemic time, there was enumerator who conducted the gathering of
data. Nena Lumandong, the higaonon and the head of IPs in CSWD of Cagayan de Oro City,
was the hired as the enumerator.

4. Results and Discussion

Letter Identification Assessment

Uppercase Frequency Percentage Lowercase Frequency Percentage
A
W a 2.17
P 4.35
K 1 2.17 w 2.17
F 2.17
Z p 6.52
U
J k 4.35
O
H 1 2.17 f 1 2.17
B 2.17
M 3 6.52 z 2 6.52
Q
L 2 4.35 u 1 2.17
Y 2.17
C 2 4.35 j 1
I
X o
S
N 2 4.35 h 3
D
T b
V
R m
G
E 1 2.17 q 2

l

y

c1

i1

2 4.35 x 3

s

n

d

t

v

r

g1

1 2.17 e 1

The table above presents the letter identification assessment in upper case and lower case letters. As

shown from the table, the mistakes of the higaonon women in reading the letters are presented. The

results show that in the upper case of capital letters, there are 3 or 6.52 percent of the women higaonon
participants have not able to read and identify the letter “Z”, 2 or 4.35 percent have mistakes on the
upper case letter “Z”, 2 or 4.35 percent on the upper case letter “H”, 2 or 4.35 percent on upper case

72

letter “X”, 2 or 4.35 percent on the upper case letter “J”, and 2 or 4.35 percent on the upper case letter
“U”. Further, the results also show that there are 17 upper case letters are read and identified by the

higaonon women and only 9 upper case letters are not identified or read properly by the higaonon

women participants. This means that few of the women have reading difficulty in reading and

identifying the upper case letters.

Moreover, as presented from the table, there are 9 lower case letters which are not identified and
read by the higaonon women participants. These lowers case letters are “x” with 3 or 6.52 percent, “h”
with 3 or 6.52 percent, “q” and “z” with 2 or 4.35 percent, “f”, “u”, “j”, “c”, “I”, “g” and “e” with 1 or

2.17 percent. As reflected from the table, there are 15 lower case letters which are identified and read by

the higaonon women participants. The findings reveal that the higaonon women participants have still

difficulty in identifying the upper case and lower case letters of the alphabet. The results suggest that

higaonon women need literacy enhancement program particularly in identifying the sounds of letters.

Since majority of the higaonon women participants are married and with more children, they need to

learn the literacy constructs so that they can teach their children on phonological awareness, alphabet

knowledge, concept of word and grapheme-phoneme. Indeed, early success in reading is predicated on a
child’s ability to accurately and effectively master core literacy constructs (e.g., phonological

awareness, alphabet knowledge, concept of word, and grapheme-phoneme correspondence) and to

exercise these understandings in a comfortable sociocultural context(Invernizzi, Justice, Landrum &

Booker,(2004, p.479).

WORD ASSESSMENT TEST
PRE-PRIMER/NURSERY

WORD FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

see 3 6.52
play 6 13.04
me 1 2.17
at 1 2.17
run 3 6.52
go 1 2.17
and 3 6.52
look 3 6.52
can 4 8.70
here 6 13.04

Table above shows the word assessment test in pre-primer/nursery. As reflected from the table, there 6
or 13.04 percent of the higaonon women participants got mistakes on reading the word “play” and
“here”, 4 or 13.04 percent on the word “can”, 3 or 6.52 percent on the words “look”, “and”, “run”, and
“see”, 1 or 2.17 percent on the words “at”,”me”, and “go” The findings reveal that almost all of the

higaunon women participants got mistakes on reading The pre-primer/nursery words. The results

suggest that the higaonon women participants have difficulty in word recognition in the nursery level.

This is the most important process in beginning reading which lead to comprehension. According to the
‘simple view of reading’, reading comprehension is the product of word recognition (decoding) and oral

language comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986 as cited in by Paynter, Westerveld, & Trembath,

2016 p. 206). Thus, they need basic reading literacy enhancement program.

73

PRIMER/KINDER

WORD FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
you 2 4.35
come 5 10.87
not 4 8.70
with 7 15.22
jump 8 17.40

help 5 10.87
is 2 4.35
6 13.04
work 4 8.70
are 5 10.87
this

Table above presents performance of the higaonon women participants in reading using the

Primer/Kinder word assessment test. As shown from the table all of the participants have mistakes in
reading the 10 words. The most difficult word for them is “jump” with the frequency of 8 or 17.40
percent, followed by “with” with the frequency of 7 or 15.22 percent, “work” with 6 or 13.04 percent,
“come” and “this” with 5 or 10.87 percent, “are” and “not” with the frequency of 4 or 8.70 percent, “is”
and “you” with frequency of 2 or 4.35 percent. The results show that women participants have difficulty
in reading the words with double consonants at the end of the word like “jump”, “with” and “work”.
They have also difficulty in reading the word beginning with “th” like “this” and word with ending
“vowel” like “come” and “are”. Findings suggest that higaonon women need basic emergent literacy

skills. If possible to the children of the higaonon women should be enrolled in the preschool because the

basic emergent literacy starts in the preschool. Learning to read begins in the preschool years, through

the development of so called emergent literacy skills that form the foundation for accurate and fluent

reading with comprehension (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998 as cited in by Paynter, Westerveld, &

Trembath, 2016 p. 206). For the higaonon women and girls, who have not able to learn emergent literacy

during the preschool years, they will be given a chance to attend to the reading enhancement program as

the output of this research study. This an important action to the leaders of the higaonon community to

establish basic reading literacy program. This result is in connection to the request letter of one of the
higaonon women participants to “have hall center or reading literacy center for the venue of the literacy

enhancement program.

WORD GRADE 1 PERCENTAGE
road FREQUENCY 13.04
live 13.04
thank 6 13.04
when 6 13.04
bigger 6 19.57
how 6 8.70
always 9 21.74
night 4 17.40
spring 10 17.40
today 8 6.52
8
3

Table above shows the reading performance of the higaonon women participants using the grade 1, 10

words. As reflected from the table, all of the participants have mistakes in reading the 10 words. The
most difficult word is “always” with the frequency of 10 or 21.74 percent, followed by “bigger” with the
frequency of 9 or 19.57 percent, “night” and “spring” with the frequency of 8 or 17.40 percent, “road”,
“live”, “thank”, and “when” with the frequency of 6 or 13.04 percent, “how” with the frequency of 4 or

74

8.70 percent and the last word is “today” with frequency of 3 or 6.52 percent. The findings reveal that
the higaonon women participants have difficulty in reading the word beginning with vowel followed by
consonant, then ending with vowel consonant and consonant like the word “always”. They also have
difficulty in reading the word with double letter consonants like “bigger”, and have difficulty in reading
the word 5 consonants in between with vowel like the word “spring”, and have difficulty in reading
diphthong word like “night”. The results suggest that women and girls in higaonon tribe need to undergo
basic reading literacy enhancement program. This reading enhancement program includes the concept
and activities on emergent literacy. This result is supported with the study of Paynter, Westerveld, &
Trembath (2016 p. 209) stating that children who are not yet able to read novel words or sentences (i.e.,
preliterate) may be considered to be in the emergent literacy stage, and their emergent literacy skills
should be assessed across code-related (e.g., letter knowledge, print concepts, and early writing) and
meaning-related (e.g., vocabulary, story retell, and comprehension) skills(Paynter, Westerveld, &
Trembath, 2016 p. 209).

5. Conclusion

The results of conducting the reading literacy assessment to the higaonon women have great
contributions to the implementation of education literacy to the indigenous tribe like higaonon. It has
also an impact to the role of mothers in rearing their children. Since 3mothers are the first teachers of
their children, they need to learn on the early literacy and emergent literacy skills like the sounds of the
alphabets, phonetics, phonemics, phonology, morphology as well as the theories of child and adolescent
development. The results of the study suggest on helping the higaonon women to learn on the basic
concepts of teaching reading to the children. Thus, reading enhancement program is being proposed and
designed based from the needs of the higaonon women in Cagayan de Oro higaonon community. Hence,
if the higaonon women can learn on the basic early literacy and emergent literacy skills through reading
enhancement program, then they can also start teaching their children at the very early stage.

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to Dr. Sukarno D. Tanggol, the Chancellor of
MSU-IIT as well as Dr. Jinky B. Bornales, the Vice Chancellor for Research and Extension, the focal
person of Gender and Development(GAD) , who gave us the golden opportunity for funding this
research project

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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Parents’ Reading Strategies Use at Home during
Early Language and Emergent Literacy of their

Children: Basis for Development of 21st
Century Home Literacy Program

Adelfa SILOR
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City, Lanao del Norte, Philippines

[email protected]

Abstract: This study aimed to determine the parents’ reading strategies use at home during
early language and emergent literacy of their children. The output of this study has been the
basis for developing 21st century home literacy program. This study is anchored to the theories
of learning and early literacy. Qualitative method was used to answer the questions: What are
the parents’ reading Strategies use at home during early language and emergent literacy of their
children? What are the problems affecting the parents in teaching early reading at home?
Purposive sampling was used in choosing the participants based on the parents with low income
and low level of education. Content and thematic analysis shows that parents play the most
important role during early language literacy and emergent literacy. Parents have low income
and cannot afford to buy reading materials. Parents of low income family have insufficient
knowledge in the basic teaching reading strategy of the sounds of the alphabets. They need
home literacy program in learning the sounds of letters in alphabets and theories of early
childhood development because the basic foundation of learning starts at home. Some of the
parents have no time to teach early language and emergent literacy to their children due to
financial problem. In conclusion, parents with low income and low level of education need the
concepts and strategies in teaching reading at home. Thus, parents with low income and low
level of education need home literacy as an extension program of MSU-IIT

Keywords: Early language, emergent literacy, home literacy program, parents’ reading
strategies

1. Introduction

In response to the DepEd order no. 12 s. 2015 “guidelines on early language, literacy, and numeracy
program” in line with one of the President’s ten point basic education agenda which states that “every
child should be a reader by Grade 1”, the Department of Education (DepEd) is strengthening its reading
program through the implementation of early language, literacy, and numeracy program. The program
will develop in Filipino children literacy and numeracy skills and attitudes which will contribute to life
long process. More specifically, it aims to improve reading and numeracy skills of kinder to grade 3
pupils, following K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum, and to establish a sustainable and cost-effective
professional development system for teachers (DepEd order no. 12 s. 2015). The theme of the DepEd
order no. 12 s. 2015 emphasizes the goal that “ every child should be a reader by Grade 1”. This means
that early language literacy starts at home. And this is one of the parents’ responsibilities in rearing their
children at the very early stage in life. The early language literacy is termed as “ emergent literacy”.
According to the study of Whitehurst and Lonigan, 1998, as cited by Buvaneswari and
Padakannaya(2017a), emergent literacy is used to denote the idea that the acquisition of literacy is best
conceptualized as a developmental continuum, with its origins early in the life of a child, rather than an
all-or-none phenomenon that begins when children start school. This means that the acquisition of first
language and emergent literacy originates from parents in the early life of the child.

The developmental and interactional relationship between the spoken and written forms of the
language can be observed in emergent literacy skills(Goldsworthy, 2003 as cited by Buvaneswari and
Padakannaya, 2017b). The development of literacy skills commences prior to formal academic

77

instruction through experiences encountered in the home and may include games, songs, and even daily
conversation (Landry and Smith, 2006 as cited by Buvaneswari and Padakannaya, 2017c). Parents are
children’s first teachers, providing an important language environment as they talk to children and
answer their questions (Kam Tse, Zhu, Yan Hui, and Ng, (2017). Parents’ literacy activities in English,
including reading to the child and playing rhyming games, contributed to their preschool children’s
English vocabulary, and their home print resources in English predicted the children’s English print
knowledge (Farver et al.2003 as cited by Dixon and Wu,2014). This implies that parents should be
knowledgeable enough about basic English skills that are useful in teaching beginning reading to their
children at home. In the study of Grant, Bell, Yoo, Jimenez, and Frye (2017) reveals that families play
a vital role in the early literacy skills of young English learners, their educators often do not share the
same backgrounds or cultures, and may not know how to connect with parents who are linguistically and
culturally different. It means that in early language literacy acquisition, families have great contributions
for emergent literacy.

However, if the parents and some members of the families do not have knowledge and skills on
the different reading strategies for teaching their children at home, this will also affect to their children’s
reading performance in the formal education instruction. So this will bring to complexities and
challenges which are likely to occur, the potential benefits for children as readers and for their parents
make the process worthwhile (Jackson, 2016). Several studies show that reading proficiency is an
important index of learning ability and is positively correlated with children’s academic achievement in
elementary schools.

According to Morgan, L., & Goldstein, H. (2004), supportive literacy environment in the home
is crucial in facilitating the development of emergent literacy skills (Purcell-Gates, 1996; PurcellGates
& Dahl, 1991; Sulzby & Teale, 1991; Teale, 1986). Their study focused on the importance of the
mother’s role in the reading process. It stresses the idea that children who are taught or guided by their
mother would likely be able to develop reading skills at home through story book reading, plays or
songs. Thus, the literacy skill of mothers is associated with their children’s reading ability. Maternal
reading level predicts both their children receptive vocabulary and reading proficiency prior to
schooling.

Adults with poor literacy skills are over-represented in unemployment statistics and have little
independent access to print-based information (e.g Lae, 2008; Phillips, Norris, Hayward & Lovell,2014;
Jackson, 2016). From the previous studies, parents’ literacy as well as pedagogical approaches of
teaching reading during early childhood at home before formal education, has not been discussed and
studied.

Thus, the focus of this present study aims to determine and analyze the parents’ reading strategy
support during early language and emergent literacy of their children at home. The results of this
endeavor will be the basis of developing integrative 21st century home literacy program design which
will highlight on the learning of emergent literacy skills. This home literacy program is intended for low
income and low educational level parents whose children are enrolled in early childhood education and
kindergarten in the Department of Education, Division of Iligan City.

1.1 Objectives of the Study

This study aims to determine and analyze the parents’ reading strategy support during early language
and emergent literacy of their children at home. The parents’ reading strategy support and other related
various aspects of early language acquisition and emergent literacy at home have been the main focus of
this study. The results of this endeavor would be the basis of developing integrative 21st century home
literacy program design which will highlight on the learning of emergent literacy skills. This home
literacy program is intended for low income and low educational level parents whose children are
enrolled in early childhood education and kindergarten in the Department of Education, Division of
Iligan City. The objective of this study is anchored to the theories of learning and early literacy. Literacy
development begins in early life and is ongoing (Clay, 1966 as cited by Marquez et al., 2009 &Rohde,
2015). Literacy is a result of children’s involvement in reading activities facilitated by literate adults
(Teale, 1982 as cited by Marquez et al., 2009 & Gunn et al.,2004). The child’s language learning begins
in the prespeech communication between parents and infants (Vygotsky, 1978 as cited by Marquez et
al., 2009 & Allford, 2013).

This study aims to determine and analyze the parents’ reading strategies use at home during
early language and emergent literacy of their children. The parents’ reading strategies support and other

78

related various aspects of early language acquisition and emergent literacy at home will be the main
focus of this study. The results of this endeavor will be the basis of developing integrative 21st century
home literacy program design which will highlight on the learning of emergent literacy skills. This
home literacy program is intended for low income and low educational level parents whose children are
enrolled in early childhood education and kindergarten in the Department of Education, Division of
Iligan City.

1.2 Significance of the Study

This study is of great help to low income parents who also need the Reading Literacy and Language
Skills in assisting their children at home during the early language and emergent literacy stage. Indeed,
this study is anchored to the DepEd order no. 12 s. 2015 “guidelines on early language, literacy, and
numeracy program” in line with one of the President’s ten point basic education agenda which states that
“every child should be a reader by Grade 1”. Thus, this study serves as one of the positive reading
strategies in realizing the DepEd order no. 12 s. 2015 as well as the DepEd Reading Program.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Language and literacy

Language and literacy are important functional skills and critical to a long term academic success.
Reading is dependent on language abilities, which are developed early in life. Evidence indicates that
children with poor reading are more likely to drop out of school and have difficulty in developing
skills essential for experiencing life success (Malhi, Bharti, Sidhu, 2017). In order for a learner to
effectively communicate in English, reading becomes a skill needed to be acquired and that it would
help them identify the purpose of wide variety of written materials which are available through books,
the media and the web. However, not all readers are able to comprehend texts effectively and interact
with the text critically (Mendieta, J., Múnera, L., Olmos, T., Onatra, C., Pérez, P., & Rojas, E., 2015).

Furthermore, comprehension was found out to be constrained with several factors such as;
lack of opportunities to engage in intensive and extensive reading (Grabe, 2009; Nation, 1997, 2009,
as cited by Mendieta, J., Múnera, L., Olmos, T., Onatra, C., Pérez, P., & Rojas, E.,2015), limited
literacy engagement (Guthrie, 2004 as cited by Mendieta, J., Múnera, L., Olmos, T., Onatra, C., Pérez,
P., & Rojas, E.,2015); that is deficiency on the task, enthusiasm and enjoyment in reading, inefficient
strategies used in achieving deep comprehension and the variation of literacy practices developed both
in and out of school. Moreover, it was found out that learner’s reading comprehension might also be
associated with learner’s motivation and over dependence on the teacher or deficiency on learner
autonomy (Chomchaiya & Dunworth, 2008).

2.2 Family involvement in the child's education

A factor in student academic success is family involvement in the child's education (Gibbons, 2010).
Children whose home is not rich in literacy experiences, such as having books to read, a place for
reading, listening to someone read aloud, and who do not receive deep language communication, may
not develop the necessary foundation in vocabulary needed to succeed academically (Silverman, 2007,
as cited by Mendoza, S., 2017). Parent involvement at an early age is a critical component of developing
their children’s reading skills (Ijalba, E., 2015).

Several studies have shown that parents who share immense sharing quality time with their young
children contribute to the academic success of their children(Ehri and Roberts 2006; Reutzel et al. 2006;
Se ´ne ´chal and LeFevre,2002, as cited by Ijalba, E.,2015). Early exposure on reading should be
experienced at home which provides the children with the knowledge and literacy skills which are
crucial for the development of a strong foundation in their academic and social foundations in life
(Swick 2009; Morrow 2001, as cited by Ijalba, E.,2015). Martini and Sénéchal (2012), as cited by
Mendoza, S. (2017), stated children's reading skills were established early in the home and are indicators
of a child's academic success. Strickland (1989) as cited by Ijalba, E., (2015), found that children who
come from homes where storybooks are read to them have an advantage over children who are not read
at home. Additionally, Weigel et al. (2006) as cited by Ijalba, E., (2015) noted, ‘‘Parents who express

79

positive attitudes about reading and actively engage their children in literacy enhancing activities are
creating an atmosphere of enthusiasm for literacy and learning’’ (p. 374). It was also found out that
preschool children’s literacy and language skills improved when parents engaged them in activities such
as singing songs and reciting rhymes (Bennett et al. 2002; Owoki 2001 as cited by Ijalba, E., 2015).
Research also showed that teaching letters was most predictive of literacy outcomes both at the
beginning and end of the first year. The study concludes that formal teaching of letters at home is the
parents’ greatest strength for supporting literacy in low-income families. Thus, energies for parental
involvement should be directed in ways that are culturally practised and manageable by parents for
better literacy outcomes (Chansa-Kabali, 2017).

2.3 Learner’s attitude toward reading

Learner’s attitude toward reading is also associated with the sociocultural context in which the
reading activities take place (Mendieta, J., Múnera, L., Olmos, T., Onatra, C., Pérez, P., &
Rojas, E., 2015). It is important to have an understanding of the various dimensions of home
literacy environment and the specific elements of these dimensions for assessing the
development of emergent literacy skills in children (Buvaneswari, B; Padakannaya, Prakash,
2017). Improving the home environment and parenting practices to support children’s early
development and learning is a key focus of many. Home visiting is one potential strategy to
improve the home environment and parenting; however, more data about current programmatic
efforts is needed, especially for children with multiple risks living in low-wealth communities
(Iruka, Brown, Jerald, & Blitch,2018).

Parents' self-report of RD was a significant contributor of emergent literacy after
controlling for the home literacy environment, children's gender, their interest in literacy and
letters, months in kindergarten, vocabulary and parents' education. Our findings suggest that
schools should monitor the reading development of children with parents self-reporting RD
closely - especially if both parents self-report RD (Esmaeeli, Lundetrae, & Kyle, 2018).

Latent factors describing maternal language were significant predictors of storybook
exposure but not of direct literacy instruction. Maternal language and phonological skills
respectively predicted children's language and reading/spelling skills. However, after
accounting for variations in maternal language, storybook exposure was not a significant
predictor of children's outcomes. In contrast, direct literacy instruction remained a predictor of
children's reading/spelling skills. We argue that the relationship between early informal home
literacy activities and children's language and reading skills is largely accounted for by
maternal skills and may reflect genetic influences. (Puglis, Hulme, Hamilton, & Snowling,
2017).

2.4 Positive home learning environment

Higher maternal self-efficacy is related to creating a more positive home learning environment.
Additionally, higher maternal perceptions of child readiness to read mediates the relationships
between higher maternal self-efficacy and a more positive home literacy environment (Bojczyk,
Kathryn Elizabeth; Heather Rogers; Pae, 2018).

Raising the participants’ awareness of the relevance of everyday practices in relation with
reading and writing, they are likelier to feel more comfortable and empowered towards their
own literacy practices. Particularly, the empowerment of children coming from a
disadvantaged background would give them more opportunities to support their learning. By
making the children aware of the relevance of their own perceptions and practices, the pupils
could gain in confidence, be agents of their learning processes, and have more resources to
succeed on the demanding school environment. ( López, 2017).

Research shows that 74% of students identified with reading deficits in third grade
continue to experience significant reading difficulties in ninth grade (Ijalba E.,2015). In the
study conducted by Ijalba E., (2015), the inability to read in middle school is greatly associated

80

with the failure to master the basic skills (which are primarily fluency and comprehension skills)
in the early grades (Rasinki and Padak, 2005 as cited by Ijalba E., 2015). Schools may
collaborate with families and communities in creating new spaces in which students’ home and
community literacy activities, as well as school literacy activities, can be acknowledged and
respected. One strategic approach to achieving this is for teachers to share with family and
community members some of the “school ways” of engaging with classroom texts, such as
collaborative negotiation and co-construction of meaning. (Wearmouth, 2017).

Parents who were more likely to have authoritative parenting style provided their children
with informal (reading) home literacy experiences, which in turn, was associated with
children's oral language skill. Parent education was positively related to home literacy
experiences and directly related to children's oral language skill. Findings suggest that
researchers should acknowledge multiple aspects of parenting when considering relations
among home literacy practices and children's language and literacy development.( Bingham,
Jeon, Kwon, & Lim, 2017).

3.Methodlogy

3.1Research Design

This study utilized qualitative method to answer the questions: What are the parents’ reading Strategies
use at home during early language and emergent Literacy of their children? What are the problems
affecting the parents in teaching early reading at home?

3.2 Participants

Purposive sampling was used in selecting the participants. The participants were selected based from the
information about the reading strategies use at home and the problems affecting them in teaching early
language and emergent literacy at home. Also, parents were selected based on their low income and low
level of education.

3.3 Research Environment

The study was conducted in Barangay Santiago, Iligan City, Philippines. This barangay has been chosen
as the research environment because most of the families belong to low income and low level of
education. They need home literacy support in their children’s emergent literacy so that they can also
help their children in doing their homework particularly in early literacy.

3.4 Ethical Consideration

Since the participants of this study are parents having the age bracket 23 years to 65 years, informed
consent was used before the gathering of data. Voluntary participation of respondents in the research is
important. Participants have rights to withdraw from the study at any stage if they wish to do so.

3.5 Data Gathering Procedures

Then home visitation was the process of gathering the data. The parents were asked on the strategies
they used while teaching their children read the story at home.

3.6 Data Analysis

The data was analyzed using inductive approach(Hatch, 2002) with guiding questions: What are the
parents’ reading Strategies use at home during early language and emergent Literacy of their
children? What are the problems affecting the parents in teaching early reading at home? The process
followed by a cycle of analysis, discussion, and further analysis. Coding was used to analyze the data

81

from the audio recording. The premise of the coding process was assigned with salient data codes
according to overall domains that will correlate to the original research questions (Hatch,2002). The
overall goal of using an inductive approach to data analysis is to search for patterns and meanings across
the interviews. For the trustworthiness of a study this study, the researcher has used strategies to enhance
credibility. These include peer debriefing and data source triangulation (Glesne,2006).

4. Results and Discussion

Parents start teaching reading to their children

4.5 2 years old 3 years old
4

3.5
3

2.5
2

1.5
1

0.5
0
During pregnancy

As shown from the graph, parents started teaching reading to their children at the age of 3 years

old. Supposed to be from birth up to 6 years old, is the right time to teach reading to the child. From birth

until the beginning of formal education, children living in a literate culture with an alphabetic writing

system accumulate a fund of knowledge about letters, words, and books. The children grow in their
control over various aspects of language—syntax and words. And they gain some insights into the

nature of words: that some sound the same at their ends or beginnings (rhyme and alliteration), that they

can be broken into parts, and that the parts can be put together (synthesized, blended) to form whole

words( Chall on Stages of Reading Development, 1983). Chall emphasizes that pre-reading starts from

birth to age 6.

Based from the content and thematic analysis, parents play the most important role during early
language literacy and emergent literacy because “cognitive development is either amplified or

circumvented by the kind and amount of human interaction to which a child is exposed (Emergent
Literacy in Early Childhood Education, page167). Indeed, Parent–Child Reading Interaction and Child

Reading Interest were significantly related to children's early literacy skills(Bracken and Fischel,2008).

Problems encountered in teaching reading at home
teachingTEACHING THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 School Two years old 8-month old
Lack of Teach during

Knowledge pregnancy

82

The above graph shows that majority of the parents do not know about teaching letter sounds to
their children. The result implies that parents need home literacy program about teaching letter sounds
so that they can also teach their children at the very early stage.

Parents' suggestion to have home literacy program

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Can help family Can help parents Useful in Enhance parents'
literacy on teaching early teaching the strategy in
childhood child at home teaching sounds

As shown from the above graph majority of the parents said that home literacy program can
enhance parents’ strategy in teaching sounds of letters and alphabets. Some of the parents answered that
home literacy program can help them in understanding the behaviour of their children during early
childhood stage. One participant said that it can help family literacy.

This means that home literacy is an important way of teaching reading at the very early stage.
Family literacy is a type of literacy education that emphasizes bringing reading and writing into the
home and making it a family activity. According to a study conducted by the National Center for
Education Statistics, children with a “richer home literacy environment displayed higher levels of
reading knowledge and skills than did their counterparts with less rich home literacy environments.”
Family literacy is imperative in creating a foundation for children’s learning experiences, and it all starts
with the parents (Jennifer van Pelt,2018).

5. Conclusion

Based from the findings of the study, it had been found out that most parents are not informed about the
importance of telling stories to their children during pregnancy period. Thus, parents need education
literacy about human growth and development. It is important that parents should be taught about their
primary role as their child’s first teacher. In understanding early childhood literacy, it would help them
foster their child’s ability to acquire reading literacy skills in their respective level of understanding.
They should be taught about the proper procedures and methods to ensure effective teaching of reading
to their children during the early stage. Hence, home literacy program is needed for the parents with low
income and low in education.

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Chall, J. (1983). Stages of Reading Development. New York: McGraw Hill.
Chansa-Kabali, T. (2017). Home literacy activities: Accounting for differences in early grade literacy
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85

Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Social Science Teaching in a Democratic South
African Classroom: The Views and Fears of
Pre-Service Teachers

Titus WILLIAMS*, Gregory ALEXANDER* & Wendy SETLALENTOA*
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa

*[email protected] ; [email protected] ; [email protected]

Abstract: This qualitative study is an investigation of pre-service Social Science teachers’
perceptions of Social Science teaching and learning in South African multicultural classrooms.
The democratic South African schooling landscape is of a multicultural setting, where learners
from different racial, ethnic, cultural and socio-economic backgrounds are admitted. This paper
seeks to reflect the views and fears of pre-service teachers’ engagements with diverse learners
in the democratic South African Social Science classroom and the affect it has on the teaching,
the learners and the teacher. Through a qualitative research methodology, data was gathered
from Focus Group Discussion (FGD) sessions from three groups of five Social Science
pre-service teachers. The results of the study indicate that pre-service teachers view the
teaching of Social Science in a multicultural classroom as being very thought-provoking and
challenging. The study therefore recommends that pre-service teachers be regular exposed to
diverse learners- this can transpire through mandatory teaching practice at multicultural
schools, appropriate training and development with supported policies, the integration of social
justice into the curriculum content and systematic interface with communities.

KEYWORDS: Social Science, teaching, democratic, views and fears, classrooms, diversity,
pre-service teachers

1. Introduction

The desegregation of education after South Africa’s first democratic elections in 1994 saw many black
learners in particular enrolling in formerly white, coloured and Indian schools. Although the
demographics of the learners at these schools have changed significantly, the demographics of the
teachers remained largely unchanged (Soudien & McKinney, 2016). South African schools were
desegregated because of The South African Schools Act (Act No 37 of 1997) supported by other
legislation like the Bill of Rights and the South African Constitution. The public schooling system in
South Africa undergone fundamental changes. The reforms in schools’ systems and policies in South
Africa are in place because of the democratic laws of the country. These changes allowed for learners
from different cultures, races and socio-backgrounds to be able to attend school together by choice. This
choice however was accompanied by an overabundance of reactions from different members of society.
Some circles in society had different opinion about the transformation, thus many changes to the
education curriculums during this democratic era.

Whilst the desegregation of schools implied the promotion of social equality, it anticipated the
creation of solid relationships amongst various races at all schools, which would ultimately promote
tolerance and strengthen social cohesion and unity in South African society. The downside of the status
quo remaining regarding teachers, triggered challenges, such as teachers having little or no
understanding of the learners’ social, cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, which resulted in
uncomfortable situations, especially in the Social Science classroom.

This paper investigates the pre-service teachers’ views and fears of Social Science teaching in
democratic South African multicultural classrooms. This paper identifies challenges and opportunities
regarding South African pre-service teachers’ teaching of Social Science to diverse learners, with the
objective of developing knowledge and understanding of the diverse learners in the South African

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Social Science classroom, creating and implementing an optimal classroom experience for both teachers
and learners. To cultivate respect and acceptance for diversity, through the teaching and learning of
Social Science.

2. Literature Review

The classroom is a place where learners spend most of their time; thus, an unbearable class environment
could be construed as an infringement of the learner’s Constitutional right as a citizen of this country.
Individuals’ interpretation of Constitutional obligations and meanings attached to multicultural
education become further blurred when they appear to promote subtle forms of oppression and racial
segregation.

If prospective Social Science teachers do not understand issues and concepts or their role in a
multicultural dispensation, the realisation of meaningful Social Science teaching, might be extremely
difficult to achieve. Arslan and Rata (2015) claim that critical multiculturalism as a theoretic framework
creates a platform for the introduction of democratic initiatives in the curriculum; pedagogy; social
relations in school settings; and an understanding of participation in diverse communities, which seems
to support efforts towards the acquisition of social cohesion and cultural harmony. Hopkins-Gillespie,
(2011) views critical multiculturalism as an enabling form of education which focuses on harnessing the
abilities, skills and commitments of teachers and learners in promoting social change, nation building
and competent global citizenry. In the end, critical multicultural education should be directed at
expounding the principles and values of the South African Constitution, whilst also instilling a
conducive school culture which is geared at transformation, reconciliation, inclusion, nation building
and quality education.

Education is the vehicle for social change, and many who are in the profession have a desire to
be change agents, seeking to realise a better and healthier community. In the book, ‘Where Do We Go
from Here: Chaos or Community?’ (1967), Dr Martin Luther King challenges readers to consider the
idea that “effective teaching requires strategies which can assist teachers to teach more effectively”. He
further suggests that teachers need to better understand family life and the social context in which
learners and families are embedded, to teach in a manner that family background and circumstance
would no longer become a part of the question about academic achievement gaps.

The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) in South Africa is built on the principles
of providing all learners with knowledge, skills and values. Similar to teaching for multicultural
education, teaching Social Science involves teaching about and for multicultural perspectives and
viewpoints; establishing respect for cultural diversity; and working towards identifying and
transforming areas of injustice that inhibit the goals of democracy (Castro, 2013).

A university as an academic environment that promotes mutual respect should facilitate
learning and academic success. In this regard, civic education can play a major role in the teacher’s
ability to get along with learners, colleagues and other stakeholders in the education fraternity, while
aspiring the educational objective. The current post-apartheid classroom is a diverse learning context,
therefore requiring education students who were empowered, during their training on how to face
diverse groups and how to teach any topic in a multicultural school, may strengthen relationships and
assist in achieving educational objectives.

3. Methodology

As a fragment of a broader part of research, this qualitative study examines how pre-service teachers
from different race groups perceive and engage a subject such as Social Science in a multicultural
classroom in South Africa. This study seeks to assists pre-service teachers from all race groups to think
more deeply about the learners’ beliefs, values, and identities in relation to what is being taught and how
these influences teaching and learning. The sampling method used for this study was a mixture of
purpose and stratified sampling. In stratified sampling, all the people in the sampling frame are divided
into ‘strata’ (groups or categories). With each stratum, a simple random sample or systematic sample is
selected. In this research, the target population was pre-service teachers from diverse race groups. The
researcher chose the purposive sampling, which resulted in 20 participants, and further sampled the
students using stratified sampling, by dividing the group into three groups, categorized by race.

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The table below, presents the pre-service teachers who participated in this study via focus group
discussions

Table1

Participants of the focus group discussion

Focus group Number of pre-service teacher participants
FGA A (White participants) 5
FGB B (Coloured participants) 5
FGC C1 & C2 (African participants) 10
Total 20

4. Methods of Data Gathering

For data gathering, Semi-structured, open-ended questions were used during the focus group FGD
interviews with pre-service teacher participants. The open-ended questions facilitated an explanation
and understanding of the responses to the questions. Thus, a combination of objectivity and depth were
pursued. The discussions were audio-taped and transcribed with the permission of the participants. This
was done to capture the pre-service teacher participants’ views. In total, 20 participants partook in the
various focus group discussions. Each participant was allocated a code to protect participants’ identity
as promised during the data gathering process and to adhere to research ethics.

5. Data Analysis

The conceptual framework shaped data analysis. It assisted in developing concepts and themes and as
such test them with participants. The analysed data was transcribed and coded. The conceptual
framework assisted me in understanding and explaining how the different practices of Social Science
teachers fulfilled significant roles, pertaining to the views and fears of South African learners in the
Social Science classroom. It assisted me to interpret how racial, ethnic, socio-economic and cultural
identities of South African learners have intertwined and interacted with their perspectives on Social
Science.

6. Findings and Discussions

In this study, the pre-service teachers interpreted their Social Science teaching and learning experiences
in various ways. Two major themes emerged from my data analysis.

6.1 Theme 1: Social Science teaching and learning experience
A description of what the participants identified as their views on their experience of Social Science in
the classroom as a learner and pre-service teacher. Only reference to the most pertinent themes will be
made.

• Interesting, fascinating and related to politics

This section is the presentation of how the pre-service teacher view the teaching and learning of Social
Science. Social Science is regarded as not similar to other school subjects and is viewed by many
scholars as closely related to politics, which makes it a very awkward subject to teach or learn (Ucus,
2018).

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The participants (FGDA) indicated they found the subject to be interesting and challenging (FGDA A1,
FGDA A2). Participant FGDA A3 said it was easy to understand and relate to because it relates to what
is happening daily in communities, while participant FGDA A2 indicated it was interesting depending
on the type of learners you have in front of you. In relation to the views of the latter mentioned,
participant FGDA5 highlighted the following aspects:
“I found the subject very interesting and challenging, closely related to politics. I found myself at times
very uneasy about expressing myself while teaching it during teaching practice.”
In this regard FGDB B2, stated the following:
“I enjoy the subject SS because it is fascinating and one always learns something new about one’s
community, country and the world. I enjoy teaching it because of the interesting facts around Social
Science and the impact it can make on the learners.”

• Depending on the type of learners/teacher/ lecturer

A participants FGDA A2 indicated that the experience of the subject depends on the type of learners,
teacher and the type of lecturer you have. Participants FGDC1 C5, further indicated that the type of
presenter can also influence your view of the subject, if it is offered only from a specific perspective.
Waterson (2009) indicates that part of the duty of teachers is to see to it that learners are exposed to
age‐appropriate content material about controversial issues. FGDC2 C9: “My love for the subject was
developed at primary school level; we had a passionate SS teacher and he always said that SS is a
subject for the people, by the people…”
.
• Debates and discussions

Teacher education participants had mixed views on the role of debates and discussions in the Social
Science classroom. Hess (2010) is of the opinion that debate, and discussion are key elements in a Social
Science classroom and should therefore be encouraged.
The participants FGDC1 C1 and FGDC2 C7 had very strong opinions of enjoying the subject due to the
debates and the discussions that normally takes place in the Social Science classrooms. In relation to the
previous participants, FGDC2 C9 stated the following: “As a student I enjoyed it even more because the
debate levels became even better at university and the discussions were at a much more mature level.”
Teacher neutrality and not veering outside the curriculum are parameters for having safe discussions
about controversial issues in the Social Science classroom (Hess, 2009). During class observations
during practice teacher, different teacher education viewpoints illustrated that schools in South Africa
are still unequal and divided, with a lack resources and poor infrastructure in many schools.

6.2 Theme 2: Challenges for pre-service teachers in multicultural Social Science classrooms

This is a description of what the pre-service teacher identified as the challenges in multicultural Social
Science classrooms. The participants had to indicate challenges that they thought they might face or
have faced while teaching in multicultural Social Science classrooms. They had to rely on the
experiences while on teaching practice or what they anticipated would be challenges. Only reference to
the most pertinent themes will be made.

• Understanding different cultures and how to deal with them

Participant FGDA A1 indicated that a lack of understanding of other cultures and customs could be a
challenge for pre-service teachers in multicultural Social Science classrooms. In relation to challenges
faced in multicultural Social Science classrooms FGDC1 C3 made the following comment: “I think we
might have a challenge understanding all our learners, because we are not really exposed to
multicultural classrooms during teaching practice.”
The findings of this study provide clear evidence that most of the pre-service teachers lacked knowledge
about other cultures and consequently, made them susceptible to attack by people from those cultures.

89

• Lack of training to deal with diverse groups

FGDB B1 emphasised that a lack of training to deal with diverse groups could be a challenge for
pre-service teachers. The sentiments were also shared by FGDC1 C4, who in turn, indicated that
because of the reality of facing multicultural schools, pre-service teachers should deal with this during
training. Teaching is a profession that revolves continuously as knowledge and technology changes and
require that teachers upskill themselves frequently, thus the opportunities for professional development
is critical (Landsman & Lewis, 2011). In relation to the latter statement, teacher education participant
FGDA A3 agreed by asserting the following: “I think it is not easy to manage diverse groups, because
we are not trained to deal with diversity, or the training is not adequate.”
The authors are that teachers in the multicultural classroom should be provided with knowledge about
several cultures of their learners, their experiences, communication styles, and learning approaches that
are harmonious for all learners in the multicultural classroom (Multicultural education & curriculum,
2012).

• Prepare lesson not to offend but be sensitive to all

Participants FGDA A2, FGDB B3, FGDC1 C5, FGDC2 C8 indicated that the challenge would be to
prepare lessons in such a way as not to offend any group, but to be sensitive towards all races, cultures
and groups of people. Teachers need to consider where they might need to make changes to their actual
instructional practices, to prevent behavioural issues that might occur (Walters & Frei, 2017).
The authors’ reflection is that training is crucial in addressing this matter because the teacher might not
know what can offend the learners. The use of different teaching approaches could also be beneficial to
the teachers and might be the ideal tool to avoid offending learners from other cultures.
The authors observed that the mentioned sub-theme featured only in the focus group discussions, of the
black teacher education participants and realised that the need to change during a lesson to their own
indigenous language comes to mind, but due to the diversity in the classroom it would not be possible.
Our general perception is that pre-service teachers seemingly find it uncomfortable teaching Social
Science; most of them feel that more exposure and advanced further training would benefit and equip
them with the required skills, knowledge and values, to teach without fear or prejudice.

7. Recommendations

This study made several recommendations to South African Social Science pre-service teachers on how
to address the challenges in dealing with diverse learners in the Social Science classroom.

• Extended exposure to multicultural classes
Pre-service teachers are currently exposed only to multicultural classes by choice, if they decide to
complete their experiential training (teaching practice) at a multicultural school. This study would
recommend that teaching practice at a multicultural school be made mandatory and support be granted
to student teachers who have problems with engaging with teaching practice at multicultural schools.
The study revealed that pre-service teachers avoid doing teaching practice at multicultural schools due
to a lack of understanding of other cultures, beliefs, and customs.

• Engagement with communities in all socio-economic groups.

The inhabitants of many South African public-school classrooms are from different spheres of life and
learners are also from different socio-economic groups. A considerate approach to learners is critical for
the success of teaching and learning. Therefore, teachers should have a broad knowledge base and
understanding towards all learners, irrespective of their situations. Based on this assertion, this study
recommends that regular engagement with communities of different socio-economic groups in both
official and on social levels, would be prudent.

8. Conclusion

This study enriches the current literature on pre-service teachers’ views and fears of Social Science
teaching in democratic South African classrooms. This study therefore strongly suggests regular

90

exposure to diverse learners through mandatory teaching practice at multicultural schools, appropriate
training and development throughout the first three years of all pre-service teacher careers with
supported policies, integration of social justice into the curriculum content and systematic interface with
communities.

9. Acknowledgements

We would you like to thank in his paper the student teachers at the University of Free State in South
Africa who participated in this study. We would also like to thank Ms. Lorriane Louw, our colleague in
the department of Communication Sciences at Central University of Technology Free State, for the
language editing. Lastly, we would also like to thank Central University of Technology Free State for
the funding provided for this study.

References

Alsubaie, M.A. (2015). Examples of Current Issues in the Multicultural Classroom. Journal of education and
Practice, 6(10): 86-89.

Arslan, H. & Rata, G. (2015). Multicultural Education: From theory top practice, Cambridge Scholar Publishing:
Newcastle. 450.

Camicia, S. P., & Dobson, D. (2010). Learning how to respond to current events: Partner journals between U.S.
preservice teachers and children. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 576–582.

Castro, J.A. (2013). What makes a citizen? Critical and multicultural citizenship and preservice teachers’
understanding of citizenship skills. Theory & Research in Social Education, 41: 219-246.

Haynes, J. and Murris, K. (2008). Listening, Juggling and Travelling in Philosophical Space, Critical and Creative
Thinking. Australasian Journal of Philosophy for Children, 8(1): 23–32.

Hess, D. (2009). Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion. New York: Routledge.
Hess, D. (2010). Teaching student teachers to examine how their political views inform their teaching. In E

Heilman (Ed), Social studies and diversity education: What we do and why we do it. New York: Routledge.
226-229
Hopkins-Gillispie, D. (2011). Curriculum & Schooling: Multiculturalism, Critical Multiculturalism and Critical
Pedagogy. The South Shore Journal (4).
Kallaway, P. (2009). Reconstruction, reconciliation and rationalization in South African politics of education. In
P. Kallaway, G. Kruss, A. Fataar, & G. Donne (Eds.), Education after apartheid: South African education in
transition. Cape Town: UCT Press, 34–49.
Landsman, J. & Lewis, C. (2011). White teachers/diverse classroom. Stylus Publishing, LLC. Second Edition.
Perso, T.F. (2012). Cultural Responsiveness and School Education: With particular focus on Australia’s First
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Soudien, C., & McKinney, C., (2016). The character of the multicultural education discussion in South Africa,
University of Cape Town. 125.
Ucus, S. (2018). Exploring Creativity in Social Studies Education for Elementary Grades: Teachers’ Opinions and
Interpretations. Journal of Education and Learning, 7(2): 111-125.
Walters, J., & Frei, S. (2017). Managing classroom behavior and discipline. M. E. Kessler (Ed.). CA: Shell
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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

Assessment of Rural Women’s Agricultural
Livelihood Activities in Lala, Lanao del Norte:
Basis for Designing a Curriculum Integrating
Gender and Development in MSU-IIT IRDA

Adelfa SILORA*, Amelia BUAN, Joe Elson SUAREZ & Anra DEL ROSARIO
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City, Lanao del Norte, Philippines

*[email protected]

Abstract: This study aimed to assess the rural women’s agricultural livelihood activities in
Lala, Lanao del Norte. Since MSU-IIT Integrated Rural Development Academy(IRDA) is
located in Lala, Lanao del Norte, this research study is the basis of revising the curriculum of
integrating the concept of Gender and Development to the students and to the parents. The
method used in this study is quantitative and qualitative approach in assessing rural women’s
agricultural livelihood activities. Since it is pandemic time there were three(3)enumerators
from Lala, Lanao del Norte who were tasked to gather data. Purposive random sampling
procedure was used in choosing the one hundred fifty one(151) participants. Findings reveal
that to improve the source of income for farmers in the rural areas, there must have “shift in
response” to new opportunities as well as over the life cycle of men and women. Diversification
is an infinitely heterogeneous social and economic process, obeying a myriad of pressures and
possibilities in the rural economy. Local and national level strategies need to incorporate
multiple objectives, not only production of high quality products for the market, but also farmer
empowerment, household nutrition and sustainable management of natural resources. Thus,
educating the mind sets of farmers on gender equality is one of the solutions in solving poverty
problem. Hence, curriculum of MSU-IIT IRDA needs to integrate GAD in Agricultural
Education.

Keywords: Agricultural education, diversification, gender and development, gender equality,
livelihood activities

1. Introduction

Rural men and women, especially in poor households engage in diverse and multiple activities to
improve their livelihoods by maximizing income generating activities, while minimizing vulnerability
and risk and achieving other household objectives (improved health, nutrition and education etc. (FAO
17). Livelihoods are the means people use to support themselves, to survive, and to prosper. Livelihoods
are an outcome of how and why people organize to transform the environment to meet their needs
through technology, labour, power, knowledge, and social relations (FAO 17). Women comprise half
of human resources and have been identified as key agents of sustainable development through
holistic approach towards establishing new patterns and process of development that are sustainable
(FAO 17). Rural women play a significant and crucial role in development of agriculture. Thus,
women participation in rural development activities is given more emphasis in Lala, Lanao del Norte
since this place is famous in agriculture.

For the Gender Issues and or GAD mandate "Small Farmers and Rural Workers" refers to those
who are engaged directly or indirectly in small farms and forest areas, workers in commercial farms and
plantations, whether paid or unpaid, regular or season-bound. These shall include, but are not limited to,
(a) small farmers who own or are still amortizing for lands that is not more than three (3) hectares,

92

tenants, leaseholders, and stewards; and (b) rural workers who are either wage earners, self-employed,
unpaid family workers directly and personally engaged in agriculture, small-scale mining, handicrafts,
and other related farm and off-farm activities. (Magna Carta for Women R.A 9710).

"Fisherfolk" refers to those directly or indirectly engaged in taking, culturing, or processing
fishery or aquatic resources. These include, but are not to be limited to, women engaged in fishing in
municipal waters, coastal and marine areas, women workers in commercial fishing and aquaculture,
vendors and processors of fish and coastal products, and subsistence producers such as shell-gatherers,
managers, and producers of mangrove resources, and other related producers. (Magna Carta for Women
R.A 9710) Section 23. Right to Livelihood, Credit, Capital, and Technology. - The State shall ensure
that women are provided with the following:

(a) Equal access to formal sources of credit and capital;
(b) Equal share to the produce of farms and aquatic resources
Women’s empowerment is widely perceived to be a key factor in closing gender gaps in
agricultural productivity(Diiro, Seymour, Kassie, Muricho & Muriithi, 2018 p.27). Women play a
critical and potentially transformative role in agricultural growth in developing countries, but they face
persistent obstacles and economic constraints limiting further inclusion in agriculture(International
Food Policy Research Institute, 2012). The empowerment of rural women generally refers to the process
of improving the quality of life and the economic wellbeing of women living in relatively isolated and
sparsely populated areas(Singh, Thakur, & Gupta(2013 p. 123). Poverty has still overwhelmingly a rural
face and the rural economy and society still perform a vital part in the development process and in
people's well-being. Current concerns about global warming, deforestation, the food crisis, genetically
modified organisms (GMOs), agrofuels, food sovereignty, famines, rural poverty and international
migration, among others; reveal the continuing relevance of the agrarian and rural problem(Kay,2009).
Findings illustrate that, because of farm workers’ weak position, the women attempt to hide their
engagement in the cooperative from farm owners for fear of a backlash, including loss of privileges or
even eviction from the farm. This concealment bespeaks the gravity of the unequal power relations and
the monumental task of changing them. Secondly, unequal power struggles extend to the patriarchal
structure of households. Women are expected to carry out all reproductive work and only work at the
farm when labor is needed, creating dire dependency (Orton et al., 2001 as cited in by Lemke, Yousef,
Eisermann, Bellows, 2012 p.37).
The different findings of the above mentioned related studies show that there is gender gap in
agricultural livelihood activities. Thus, this is the focus of the study on assessing the women’s
agricultural livelihood activities in the rural areas of Lala, Lanao del Norte, Philippines.
More specifically this study aimed to determine the attributes of rural women towards poverty
reduction, their livelihood income generating activities as their means of living, and identify
constraints and suggestions for sustainable rural women agricultural livelihood activities.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Research Design

This study used mixed method using quantitative and qualitative approach in assessing rural women’s
agricultural livelihood activities. Quantitative research is “explaining phenomena by collecting
numerical data that are analysed using mathematically based methods (in particular statistics).”
Qualitative research seeks to answer questions about why and how people behave in the way that they
do. It provides in-depth information about human behaviour.

2.2 Participants

The participants of this study were the rural women particularly those who belong to poor household
families in the different barangays of the municipality of Lala, Lanao del Norte, Philippines. Key

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informants were also part of the data gathering like the mayor, barangay chairman and officials and
presidents of women’s association. Purposive random sampling procedure was used in choosing the one

hundred fifty one(151) participants.

Participant’s Age Frequency Percentage
25 and below 7 5%
26-30 22 15%
31-35 25 38%
36-40 29 19%
41-45 18 12%
46-50 11 7%
51-55 13 9%
56-60 11 7%
61-65 8 5%
66 and above 7 5%
Total
151

140 Civil Status

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 Single Widow Single Student
Married Mom

Married Single Widow Single Mom Student

2.3 Ethical Considerations

Informed consent was given to each participant before the gathering of data. Scope of the informed
consent includes the emphasis of the freedom to withdraw at any stage without having to offer a reason,
allow the potential participants to make follow-up inquiries, full details on the purpose and protection of
the data and details on the considerations in carrying out the data collection availability and comfort of
the participants.

2.4 Research Environment

Lala is a coastal municipality in the province of Lanao del Norte, Philippines. The municipality has a
land area of 140.25 square kilometers or 54.15 square miles which constitutes 4.19% of Lanao del
Norte's total area. The town is famous for its specialized crab dishes and its Alimango festival, which is
dedicated to its crab produce.

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3. Results and Discussion

3.1Reasons of rural women to engage in agricultural livelihood activities

Agricultural livelihood activities have already become inherent practices of the farmers in the rural areas.
These become the social norms of the farmers. “Social norms is moving beyond public health into other
sectors, including agriculture, and there is growing interest in incorporating a social norms lens in policy
models and strategies for women’s empowerment”( Hillenbrand and Miruka (2019). Accordingly,
Hillenbrand and Miruka (2019) stated that “there is much to learn about how norms operate, how to
change them, and how interventions can most strategically build on this understanding, particularly in
agriculture”. Hence, to improve the source of income of farmers in the rural areas, there must have “shift
in response to new opportunities as well as over the life cycle of men and women” (Hillenbrand and
Miruka,2019).

3.2 Types of agricultural livelihood activities

Agricultural livelihood activities like planting sweet potato, banana, fruits and vegetables are good
source of income at the same nutritious and healthy food of the famers in rural areas. These agricultural
livelihood activities can help generate income and can also be nutritious food to the families. Like sweet
potato root crops is an underground tuber. It’s rich in an antioxidant called beta carotene, which is very
effective at raising blood levels of vitamin A, particularly in children (Bjarnadottir, 2019).

3.3 Agricultural livelihood activities help household for poverty alleviation

Agricultural livelihood activities give great contributions to solve poverty alleviation. Farmers sold
their agricultural production like rice, root crops, fruits and vegetables. The sales were used to finance
education of their children, capital for small business like piggery raising and “sari-sari” store. The
findings suggest to have sustainability of these livelihood activities through the help of the agricultural
sectors. For example, “livelihood diversification on rural household food security”. Livelihood
diversification is commonly accepted as the promising strategy to escape from such type of shocks and
to transform the rural economy (Yenesew and Masresha2019). In the study of Yenesew and
Masresha(2019) “pointed out that rural households combined non-farm and off-farm activities instead
of relying on-farm only, brought a positive significant impact on household food security”.
“Diversification is an infinitely heterogeneous social and economic process, obeying a myriad of
pressures and possibilities in the rural economy”( Ellis,1998).

3.4 Gender inequality in agricultural livelihood activities in the rural areas

There are more than half of the women farmers in the rural areas of the municipality of Lala, Lanao del
Norte claimed that they do not have same access as men in agricultural livelihood activities. The
findings reveal that majority of the men farmers have stereotyping practices in agricultural livelihood
activities. There is gender inequality in agriculture. This is supported in the study of Hillenbrand et al.
(2015 as cited in by Dia and Najjar 2019, p.5) argue that “gender transformative approaches should
stress the importance of examining and addressing the structures and unequal power relations which
produce gender inequality”. Indeed, according to Dia and Najjar(2019 p.8), women play a vital role in
agriculture throughout the developing world, often contributing the bulk of agricultural labor. Women’s
labor is often misunderstood, undervalued and deeply informed by the gender roles in their homes and
communities. It is precisely because gender underpins every aspect of daily life that extension services
must be attentive to gender, or risk exacerbating existing inequality(Dia and Najjar 2019, p.8). Findings
of this study suggest that the agricultural sectors, must come up with women’s empowerment and
agricultural extension. Recognition that women can be farmers is a key issue because taking women’s
roles in agriculture seriously can help them to become key players in extension programs(Dia and Najjar
2019,p.4).

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3.5 Problems and issues of rural women in sustaining the agricultural livelihood activities

“Financial” is the most problem and issues of rural women in sustaining the agricultural livelihood
activities. This implies that in agricultural livelihood production of rural women is not sufficient to cater
the needs of the household families. This means that rural farmers need more money as capital
investment as well as human capital to increase their agricultural livelihood production.

3.6 Agricultural livelihood activities have great contributions on farmers’ way of life

People living in the rural areas are contented of what they have which makes them happy. They are
happy in small-scale agricultural livelihood production because this becomes their culture and tradition.
In fact, men, women, boys and girls are motivated to work in the agricultural livelihood production
because there is money to buy for their consumptions. This implies that agricultural livelihood activities
have great contributions to the rural development on farmers’ way of life. “Today, agriculture is being
looked upon as a basic necessity of life. Food is an essential thing among the human needs. It is believed
that without food, nobody can survive. This is as a result of the benefits of agriculture. Also, private
individuals, communities, states and federal government have geared every effort towards bringing
agriculture to the door step of their citizens” (The Contributions of Agriculture to Rural Development,
June 11, 2018.) With this, contribution of rural women is needed for sustainable agricultural livelihood
production for rural development. “Rural women traditionally have played a vital role in promoting
agricultural development, food security, and livelihood”(Yufonjuy,2015).

3.7 Suggestions of the rural women for MSU-IIT IRDA

MSU-IIT IRDA shall come up with an extension program which is the “trainings for men and women
farmers” to improve their knowledge and skills in agricultural livelihood program production activities.
Another suggestion from the participants is “put-up agricultural training center” with Gender and
Development Integration. “Agricultural development efforts that do not address persistent gender gaps
miss opportunities for greater impact” (Kristjanson, Bryan, Bernier, Twyman, Meinzen-Dick, Kieran, et
al, 2017). “Agricultural development decision-makers and project designers need to ‘design with gender
in mind’. Equipping them with tools and knowledge of innovative gender-transformative practices and
intervention options and creating accountability for serving women and men will be key”( Kristjanson,
Bryan, Bernier, Twyman, Meinzen-Dick, Kieran, et al., 2017).

4. Conclusion

Based from the findings of the study, the agricultural sectors, must come up with women’s
empowerment and agricultural extension. Recognition that women can be farmers is a key issue because
taking women’s roles in agriculture seriously can help them to become key players in extension
programs. Agricultural development decision-makers and project designers need to ‘design with gender
in mind’. Equipping them with tools and knowledge of innovative gender-transformative practices and
intervention options and creating accountability for serving women and men will be the key in MSU-IIT
IRDA curriculum. The MSU-IIT IRDA curriculum can help achieve the UNESCO Sustainable
Development Goals(SDGs).

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to Dr. Sukarno D. Tanggol, the Chancellor of
MSU-IIT as well as Dr. Jinky B. Bornales, the Vice Chancellor for Research and Extension, the focal
person of Gender and Development(GAD) , who gave us the golden opportunity for funding this
research project.

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Communication Barriers that Influence Student
Achievement at a University of Technology

Emmanuel VOGT * & Brenton FREDERICKS
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa

*[email protected]

Abstract: Effective communication in the lecturing environment plays an important role in
assisting lecturers and students to achieve educational outcomes. However, the problematic
nature of communication barriers could impede communication and consequently lead to
ineffective teaching and learning. Consequently, ineffective communication has a negative
impact on student achievement. However, effective communication could minimise
miscommunication and lead to improved student performances. As such, this study investigates
the barriers to effective communication in the lecturing environment. A quantitative approach,
using an interpretive and explorative design was used to investigate the extent to which
communication barriers influence learner performance in the classroom. Data was collected
using questionnaires that were designed for lecturers and students respectively. Questionnaires
were used as a data gathering instrument. The study revealed that communication barriers do
influence student performance adversely and that they are still prevalent in the lecturing
environment. The researchers recommend that barriers should be reduced to improve learner
performance.

Keywords: communication skills, communication barriers, teaching, and learning

1. Introduction

The term ‘communication’ has a broader meaning. According to Schermerhorn (2005), communication
is an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols that convey messages that should be
interpreted. Fashiku (2017) describes communication as the process of conveying a message from a
source to a receiver, while Schick, Gordon & Haka (2012) views it as an interactive process of
conveying information. Communication is an integral part of the teaching and learning process, and its
effectiveness is one of the factors that determines the degree to which the intended learning outcomes
will be achieved or not (Schmitz, 2018).

However, the process of communication is not always free from hindrances. How lecturers
convey information to students can have a significant impact on how such information is interpreted and
can potentially create a barrier/s that prevents students from fully understanding the message conveyed.
Communication barriers is defined as hindrances that prevent the flow of communication between
participants involved in the communication process (Lynch, 2016).

In any classroom lecturers serve as the senders during the communication process. They send
information and instructions to students either verbally or non-verbally (Katageri and Kulkarni, 2015).
The aim of communication between lecturers and students in the lecturing environment is to create a
positive environment for discourse where both parties understand each other but more importantly that
learning outcomes are attained. However, communication can only be successful when it has achieved
the intended purpose of conveying information between lecturers and students without any barriers that
could result in miscommunication (Schmitz, 2018).

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2. Literature review

Communication barriers hamper effective communication and effective teaching, and learning. There
are multiple barriers to effective communication in the lecturing environment. For example, diverse
classrooms, presumptions, listening skills and overall communication skills of both lecturers and
students. According to Lynch (2016), communication barriers in the lecturing environment should not
be taken lightly because these barriers prevent effective teaching and learning. The researchers have
identified several communication barriers such as diversity among students, language competence,
gestures, overuse of jargon, cultural difference and inaccurate listening skills, accent, and pronunciation
that frequently lead to miscommunication in the lecturing environment.

Regularly lecturers are faced with the difficult task of trying their best to communicate
effectively in diverse classrooms, especially in South Africa where there are twelve official languages.
Classroom diversity imposes challenges to effective communication and could hamper the process of
communication (Sabanci, Şahin and Özdemir (2018). According to Cafferella (2010), cultural barriers
are complex and impact the learning environment. She further argues that minimal attention has been
given to cultural barriers especially in an educational environment. They recommend that lecturers
should not view communication lightly because it is key to effective teaching and learning. Urabe
(2006) defines cultural barriers as challenges that hinder the effectiveness of cross-cultural
communication within an organisation or institution. Different cultural groups think and react
differently to the same situation and these differences tend to become barriers which prevents effective
teaching and learning in the lecturing environment (ibid.).

Another, barrier in the lecturing environment is listening skills that prevent students from
obtaining valuable information from lecturers. Consequently, a lack of engagement between lecturers
and students results in ineffective teaching and learning (Iglesias, Jiménez, Revuelta, & Moreno, 2014).
Attentive listening is important in the lecturing environment as well and requires students to co-operate
and pay attention to grasp the essence of lesson/lecture content.

Good interpersonal communication between lecturers and students could also reduce
miscommunication between lecturers and students. Good relationships between educational role players
are necessary to improve communication and consequently results in effective teaching and learning and
the attainment of educational outcomes.

According to Elze & Podlesny (2014), communication barriers in the lecturing environment are
common. They explain that the more diverse the lecturing environment is, the more prevalent
communication barriers will be, whereas Rani (2016) argues that language and presumptions are the two
main communication barriers prevalent in the lecturing environment. The researchers do not concur
with Rani in this regard and believe that there are several communication barriers, especially in
multicultural lecturing environment that influences learner achievement. For example, language barriers
are predominant when students do not share the same vernacular or have the same level of competence
in the Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT) in this case, English, which is the LOLT at the
university where this study was conducted.

Rani (2016) further posits that informal language should be discouraged for the purposes of
effective communication because this negatively impacts effective communication, especially for
students who come from different socio-economic backgrounds. Nevertheless, such differences in the
choice of words and communication style will potentially lead to miscommunication but can be
overcome (Ramsden, 2013).

According to Lynch (2016), lecturers’ gestures also contribute to the effectiveness of their
communication. They recommend that lecturers need to be careful not to send unintended messages
through non-verbal communication, which is likely to become a communication barrier impacting
lecturer and student relationships adversely. Gestures plays a pivotal role in the way students interpret
messages and this is especially prevalent among different cultures (Barrett, 2002). For example, a
thumbs-up sign is a gesture of agreement or approval, which is commonly used in South Africa, whereas

100

in Thailand the same signal is sign of condemnation. Consequently, it is more likely to become a barrier

in a culturally diverse lecturing environment and could hinder teaching and learning (Barrett 2002).
Therefore, special attention should be given to non-verbal cues’ that lecturers use to convey succinct
messages (Sabanci Şahin, & Özdemir, 2018).

Pal, Halder and Guha, (2016) states that one communication technique that could work for a
certain group of students may not necessarily work for another, especially in multicultural classrooms.
The researchers concur because they have experienced this phenomenon as well. Therefore, lecturers
need to understand and analyse students’ communication styles and their levels of proficiency of the
LOLT.

According to Guerrero-Castro, (2015) jargon is technical terms hardly used in everyday
conversation. The use of jargon unconsciously implies that lecturers want to communicate to students
that already understand the terminology. However, such an assumption creates an ideal opportunity for
barriers and ineffective teaching and learning. The overuse of jargon is more likely to become cliché .
Therefore, it is recommended that lecturers keep communication simple and to the point. Not only will
this be beneficial, but it improves students’ academic performance (Schmitz, 2018).

During teaching and learning, students incorrectly assume that frequent communication is time

consuming for lecturers, whereas lecturers believe that students are either not interested in participating

or perhaps do not understand the course content (Iglesias, et al., 2014).

The literature reveals that there are communication barriers that impede student performance,

and these should be taken into consideration to improve teaching and learning and overall student

performance.

3. Theoretical Framework

This study is framed within a Constructivist theoretical framework and Vreken’s Model of
communication. Vygotsky’s (1978) Cognitive Development Theory states that social interaction is
crucial for cognitive development, whereas Vreken’s Communication Model (1996) highlights the
complexity of the classroom environment. His model aims to explain what causes communication
barriers in the lecturing environment. The model of communication by Vreken (1996) plays an
important role in classroom communication and it also sheds light on classroom communication
between students and lecturers.

A brief discussion of Vreken’s Communication Model follows because it is tantamount to the
present study. Firstly, coding of a message by the lecturer takes place in two ways. Lecturers must
interpret the information, ideas, thoughts, feelings, or instructions into comprehensive messages so that
it can be understandable to students. Therefore, it is imperative that lecturers accurately interpret the
information encoded. Coding is a planning process of how lecturers can make a specific message as
clear as possible to their students. The second step is to interpret the message into a medium so that it can
be conveyed to the receiver who is the student in this case. During this stage, the message to be
conveyed is ready to be sent (Vreken, 1996).

Secondly, Vreken (1996) believes that the second facet of lecturers’ task is to create a conducive
environment that encourages effective teaching and learning through effective classroom interaction. He
also states that a positive psycho-sociological environment is important for effective teaching and
learning. A tranquil teaching and learning environment can enhance good task-based participation,
acceptance and trust between students and lecturers. If a lecturer is in control of his or her class, it will
ensure good discipline. Thirdly, conveying a clear message to students is very important (Krashen,
2002). Students must participate in classroom discussions. Lecturers should also communicate in a
friendly manner so that students feel comfortable interacting with their lecturers. How lecturers convey
messages is important because it can influence the intention of the message (Vreken, 1996). Lecturer, as
communicators/senders use language to convey information and students (receivers) indicate the
success of the message by displaying how much they understand (Murphy, 1986)

A well-structured message should be conveyed to students, and it should be clear and
understandable to them (Krauss, 2002). Messages should be interpreted correctly and meaning must be
derived from these messages. Decoding can present possible abstraction to a message from a conveyed
code (Vreken, 1996). For students whose Home Language is not English, but a mere medium of

101

instruction it is sometimes difficult to grasp the full contents of messages that are conveyed to them.
According to Vreken (1996), students receive messages which are conveyed by lecturers through all
their senses as well. Therefore, it is through the senses that the message reaches the thoughts of students.
But very often students react and interpret the same message differently. These differences in
interpretation emanate from their communication skills and to a certain degree their level of
communication apprehension, which affects the way they respond to messages. The senders of
non-verbal cues, whether it is lecturers or students, can use facial expressions, eyes, body, or voice to
convey non-verbal messages (Krauss, 2002). Vreken (1996) asserts that effective communication can
only take place if both senders and receivers of messages interpret these messages in the same way.
During communication both lecturers and students become ardent observers and receivers of messages
and the subject/course content being discussed (Vreken, 1997).

For students to give meaning to messages which they receive, they should integrate these
messages in their thoughts, interpret these messages and give these messages meaning. This will enable
students to recognise and recall the information later and they will also be able to see the connection to
which it is applied (Vreken, 1996). Thus, giving meaning is closely associated with decoding. The best
way to test the understanding of the learning content is to engage with the learning content, especially if
students wish to test their level of understanding of learning content. This could provide lecturers with a
good indication of the success of the teaching process. Through classroom engagement, students’ verbal
and cognitive skills are tested that could enhance their participation in classroom discussions.

Feedback is one of the most important aspects to enhance teaching and learning in the lecturing
environment. Therefore, lecturers need to provide feedback that can motivate students’ engagement
(Mentoor, 2015). Comprehensive feedback should be given to students and in this way, it will assist
students to determine if they have achieved the learning outcomes or not (Mentoor, 2015).
Feedback can take place either internally or externally. Internal feedback entails listening and thinking
about the feedback one receives while communicating. External feedback refers to the feedback that
lecturers receive through verbal or non-verbal responses of students in the classroom. Feedback is
important for lecturers and students, and it may determine how successful the transfer and interpretation
of messages were.

It also forms the basis of identifying inaccurate interpretations of messages and provides
lecturers with opportunities to make the necessary adjustments. Vreken’s Communication Model
(1996) displays all the aspects related to effective classroom interaction during teaching and learning.
Achieving effective communication in the classroom is challenging and depends on the context of
engagement between students and lecturers (Mentoor, 2015).

Effective teaching and learning depend on effective communication and involves the imparting
of essential knowledge and skills in formal or informal situations that should bring behavioural changes.
Therefore, the classroom communication model of Vreken (1996) highlights the complexities involved
during classroom communication. He emphasises all the important aspects of effective teaching and
learning through communication in the classroom. It is an interactive communication model where
lecturers and students are actively participating in the communication process.

4.Design/ Procedure

A quantitative approach has been used to collect data. Online questionnaires were used as a data
gathering instrument to identify the most prevalent communication barriers in the lecturing
environment. This approach has been adopted because of the Corona Virus that has impacted the world.
The fieldwork was conducted when South Africa was in lockdown level 4, and it would have been
impossible to use an alternative approach. Questionnaires are used in research to provide data on
participants’ views, beliefs, and perceptions (McMillan, 2008). Creswell (2012) recommends that when
using a questionnaire for quantitative data collection the researcher could use open-ended questions
because participants are able to express and articulate their views regarding communication barriers in
the lecturing environment and this was appropriate for a study involving communication barriers in the
lecturing environment. In this way rich and relevant data for the study has been collected.

Data analysis involves identifying common patterns within the responses of participants and
critically analysing them to achieve research aims and objectives. (McMillan, 2008). Data analysis was
done using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The procedure involved during data
analysis included the following steps as is customary for this kind of study. Firstly, the data was grouped

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and separated into demographic information, communication skills, barriers to effective
communication, which is at the core of this study and dealing with difficult course content. Secondly,
the data was organized on a spreadsheet so that it could be analysed and interpreted. The data was also
cleaned up to prevent any kind of duplication (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2017). The statistician
who assisted with data analysis used both descriptive and inferential statistics when the data was
analysed.

5. Findings & Discussion

The demographic details indicate that in the student questionnaire 53.7% are male and 46,3 are female.
In the lecturer questionnaire the statistics reveal that 77,8% are female and 22.2% are male. Therefore,
in both questionnaires administered more male students participated but among lecturers more females
participated.

The participants were asked to indicate how they would rate their communication ability.
Students indicated their communication ability follows: 24,4 indicated that their communication skills
were excellent, 34% indicated that their communication skills were very good, 29,3% indicated that
their communication skills were good, 12,2 that it was fair and 2,4% that they had poor communication
skills. Even though most participants are confident about their communication skills this is not often the
case from the researchers’ experience. Many lecturers also indicated that they are proficient in English,
but students expressed the view that communication was sometimes difficult because English was not
the mother tongue of lecturers and they cited accent, pronunciation and speaking too soft during
lecturers as some of the problems they encountered during lectures.

Secondly, creating a safe environment where students feel comfortable to express their thoughts
and ideas are aspects that contribute to student communication satisfaction. Also, when students are
introduced to new disciplines, they must adapt to their new learning environment, and it should be noted
that university course content is more advanced than school syllabi. Depending on the quality of
education students received in high schools, some students start attending universities with limited
vocabulary, which poses a serious barrier to their success at university.

Another barrier revealed in this study is that many students learning in a second or third
additional language do not have an educational background that encouraged vocabulary development
through the medium of instruction, in this instance English, Similarly, de Jager (2015) in his study found
that this was predominant, especially if English was not the mother tongue of students. This problem is
exacerbated because lecturers are also not mother tongue English speakers. In addition, lecturers
indicate that many introductory courses like English proficiency or Academic Literacy (AL), which
serves to assist students to transition from high school to university is not efficiently designed because
course outcomes do not contribute towards vocabulary development. Moreover, Mentoor (2015) boldly
claims that AL alone does not meet the needs of students regarding academic vocabulary that students
need to be successful at university. The researchers concur with Mentoor and believe that this could be
remedied should the course content of AL be recurriculated to address shortcomings and cater directly
for student needs, especially for those students for whom English is a second, third or even fourth
additional language in South Africa.

Ambiguity poses a serious barrier that can confuse students. Some ambiguous words and
sentences often require precise clarification from lecturers for students to comprehend the message
effectively. Ambiguous words and sentences should be avoided, or examples should be provided to
clarify messages because it could prevent clear understanding. Therefore, it is important as stated by
Nesamvuni (2010) that lecturers repeat learning content that could have structural ambiguity so that
students are able to understand course content.

The overuse of jargon also influences effective communication. Verderber et al. (2016) defines
jargon as technical terms used in a profession and are often difficult understand. Avoiding the use of
technical terms assists to reduce confusion and misunderstanding when lecturers communicate with
students and improves the chances of effective communication between lecturers and students (de Jager

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2015). However, the researchers believe that there is nothing wrong with using jargon when required to
but overusing it creates barriers and has a negative effect on the message lecturers wish to convey.
Lecturers pointed out that they prefer to paraphrase information to ensure effective teaching and
learning. They mention that students should not hesitate to ask for an explanation when they do not
understand what lecturers are saying during lectures.

This observation could negatively influence students’ academic performance. However,
lecturers are concerned that students prefer to communicate via social media but not necessarily
face-to-face. Verderber et al. (2016) states that lecturers should adapt their teaching styles and use social
media as well to reach their students. Another barrier identified in this study is students being disruptive
during lectures. Mentoor (2015) in his study also identified disruptive classroom environments as a
barrier to communication but recommends that lecturers request students to be obedient during lecturers
and not to speak at the same time which could result in students not listening or concentrating during
lectures.

6. Recommendations

It was established that students’ communication skills need to be improved and that should enhance their
academic performance. Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, recommendations that
could enhance students’ academic performance include developmental training that should be
conducted on a regular basis, lecturers should identify communication barriers that prevent students
from performing optimally, and they should attempt to alleviate these barriers. The university should
address the language issue by providing students with the opportunity to complete their studies in their
mother tongue, the AL course should be recurriculated to focus on vocabulary development, especially
since English is an internationally recognized language. Students should be provided with support to
improve their listening skills; language proficiency classes or short courses should be developed for
both lecturers and students. Lecturers should avoid ambiguous statements or phrases during lectures,
jargon forms an important part of discipline specific courses, but this should be systematically
introduced to students and clear explanations should be given as well as remedial exercises to
consolidate key concepts that are discipline specific. Diversity at higher education institutions in South
Africa should be acknowledged and respected.

7. Ethical Considerations

According to Creswell and Clark (2018), ethical considerations must be considered and must be
reflected through any scientific research process. Ethical norms can be used as a basis to promote the
aims of research such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of errors in a study. Thus, it is important to
adhere to ethical aspects as these promote essential values to collaborative work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness (Creswell & Clark, 2018). The researcher should also
adhere to informed consent, right to privacy, and honesty with professional colleagues as ethical aspects
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2014).

To fulfil ethical considerations, the researchers requested consent from the university’s research
committee to conduct the study. The researchers made it clear to participants that their participation was
voluntary, and they were not being coerced in any way to participate in the study. They also informed
participants of the nature of the study. Participants were also informed that they could terminate their
participation at any stage because their participation was on a voluntary basis as is recommended by
Leedy & Ormrod (2014). In addition, in reporting the findings from this study, honesty was a
prerequisite in reporting the research findings because researchers should not mislead readers when
reporting their findings. Therefore, the researcher‘s integrity is very important because he or she should
keep promises and agreements with participants as well (Resnik, 2015).

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8. Conclusion

Despite several studies being conducted on communication barriers that influence student achievement,

the data reveals that these types of barriers are still foremost in lecturing environments. Both lecturers

and students should be made aware of these barriers and how to overcome communication barriers in the

lecturing environment. Reducing communication barriers in the lecturing environment would lead to

improved student performance and increased throughput rates and students will graduate within the time

frames of the course that they are registered for. It will also reduce failure rates, especially among first

year students where this is most prevalent. A further study regarding communication barriers that

influence student achievement should be conducted with reference to online teaching and learning. This

method/approach to teaching and learning, which was implemented due to Covid 19 has been met with

many challenges especially in South Africa.

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Srisawasdi, N. et al. (2021). Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Educational Research. Thailand: Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University

The Development of PRIME Technique to
Enhance Learning Management Competency
for Teachers of Border Patrol Police Schools

Nichata THANACHITDITSAYA
Faculty of Education, Udon Thani Rajabhat University, Thailand

[email protected]

Abstract: The research objectives were: 1) to study the states of problem and teacher’s needs of
Border Patrol Police School teachers; 2) to develop a PRIME technique to enhance learning
management competency and 3) to study the development result of PRIME. The research was
divided into 2 phases; first phase was to study a general information, needs for developing and
second phase was to supervise and evaluate the implementation of technique. The Research
instruments were a questionnaire on the problems and needs, an evaluation form, an
after-action review form, a class visitation form and a satisfaction evaluation form. The
obtained data were analyzed by mean, percentage and standard deviation. The research findings
were: 1) teachers required to develop teaching techniques and variety activities to improve
students’ English skills. 2) The PRIME consists of 3 steps: Step 1: Peer-assisted learning,
Re-designed Lesson plan, Instructional Procedure (PRI). Step 2. Mentoring with Collaborative
skill (M). Step 3 Evaluation for Development (E) and able to enhance competency in learning
management and 3) the results of PRIME technique development to enhance learning
management competency was at a good level (x ̅ = 3.46, S.D. = 0.22) and the teacher's
satisfaction with PRIME was at the highest level (x =̅ 4.54, S.D.= 0.52)

Keywords: Teacher Professional Development, Competency in Learning Management, Border
Patrol Police School, Supervision

1. Introduction

For centuries, the development of teacher profession is the main mission of the faculty of education.
Especially the Rajabhat University whereas the university of local. The local schools in Thailand have
been developed with training course and to be coached by lectures from university. And all of border
patrol police school should be continuously trained and supported. The Border Patrol Police School
(School of Police) is a school under the Border Patrol Police Headquarters, Royal Thai Police. The
school's philosophy is “Creating wisdom, improving quality of life, achieving stability” Most of the
students come from farming families. There are many different nationalities. The teachers of the Border
Patrol Police School are border patrol police (Teachers of the Border Patrol Police). They have no prior
knowledge of teacher. Therefore, it is necessary to continuously increase knowledge and teaching skills
for the teachers of the Royal Thai Police. Moreover, in both long-term education to enhance educational
qualifications and continuous short-term training in teaching-learning techniques in various disciplines.
In this regard, the development of teachers at Border Patrol Police Schools to have competence in
learning management in accordance with the Teachers Council of Thailand's announcement on details
of standards of knowledge and professional experience of teachers. According to the Teachers Council
of Thailand regulations on professional standards (No. 4) B.E. 2562 (The Royal Gazette, Volume 137,
Special Section 109, May 7, 2020, Pages 10-14) on competency according to the standards of
professional knowledge and experience, item 3, Standards of Knowledge and Professional Experience.
Teachers, category (a) Knowledge Standards, item 3. Contents of subjects, curricula, teaching
methodology, and digital technology in learning management sub-items 3.2 competence (1) being well
versed in the content of the major field of study and integration of knowledge in the major for teaching
and learning (3) to prepare learning plan and put the learning plan into practice to achieve actual results
appropriate to students (4) to manage classrooms for students to study (5) to use information technology

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for communication (7) to apply or develop media and innovation for students' learning. Lt. Col. Suthat
(2015), addressed that the model of competency development was presented that executives should have
core competency, including common characteristics of patrol police. The border of Thailand throughout
the country to nurture shared values and desirable behaviors consists of performance front in defense of
the country and competence in the front of the civil service. Code of conduct professional competence
includes qualifications, knowledge, skills, and managerial abilities. This was specific to the workgroup
to encourage the Border Patrol Police to show behavior appropriate to their duties and encourage them
to better perform their duties. Methods for developing the competence of school administrators Border
Patrol Police consisted of 8 components in 3 competencies, namely core competencies, professional
competencies; and technical performance. The administrators will continue to pass on the development
of professional competence to teachers in the school. This is consistent with the research results of
Athitaya (2016) ref. in Rungtiwa (2019), which applied the concept of Joyce and Shower. It was found
that after developing the teacher's ability to write a learning experience plan, organize learning
experiences to create an environment conducive classroom management and assessment of learning
outcomes according to the actual conditions of early childhood teachers as a whole developed. The
research by Sumonta and Wisa (2013), found that the method of enhancing learning management
competency that promotes thinking skills for teachers by providing knowledge-based workshops alone
unable to develop teachers to have competence in teaching thinking skill according to satisfactory
criteria. There should be follow-up, help, and counseling among teachers. Teaching results are reflected
and learning is exchanged. It continuously will help teachers to gain confidence and develop in learning
management and develop thinking skills. Thus, the development of teaching and learning management
for border patrol police school teachers should be continuously and be advised for workshop training
and follow-up with collaborative behavior. Moreover, in both long-term to enhance educational
qualifications and continuous short-term training in teaching-learning techniques in various disciplines.

2. Literature Review

The development of teaching and learning management competency on this study was applied with
Deming's concept of quality cycle management theory (Deming Cycle). The Deming Cycle, or PDCA,
is one of the first formalized approaches to utilize an iterative approach to improving processes, and it
still serves as a fundamental tool for continuous improvement. There are four stages; 1. Plan, identify
and understand the problem or opportunity. 2. Do, identified a potential solution. 3. Check. This the way
to analyze the pilot project's results against the expectations that defined in Step 1, to assess whether the
idea was a success. 4. Act. This is the stage of implement solution. The PDCA cycle is a loop for
continue to look for ways to make it even better. Bandit, Vitorn and Yuttasitti (2016), studied the result
of using Deming cycle model found that the overall mean of the quality management in education using
Deming cycle model of schools under Secondary Educational Service Area Office 19, Loei Province is
in high level. When arranging the aspects in descending order, the aspect of co-inspection is in the
highest rank followed by the aspect of development, the aspect of operation and planning respectively.

Instructional supervision is a task that aims to improve the teaching and learning process. And
to help teachers to be prosperous professional growth. Moreover, aims to solve problems and develop
teachers to improve teaching. The quality of supervision is a task that should be carried out continuously
in order to improve the quality of teaching and learning in accordance with school education standards.
Thus, it is an activity that is carried out in schools and directly related to teachers. (Glickman,1981, ref in
Kasama and Asst. Prof. Jurairat, 2014)

More efficient affect the quality of students' thinking Joyce and Shower (Joyce and Showers,
1995 ref. in Office of the Education Council, 2007: 80-81) show that an effective approach to teacher
development through training to improve teaching quality, teachers should take into account the main
elements: 1) presentation of theory with practice 2) model and demonstration 3) practice in real
situations and simulation; 4) feedback from observations of teaching behavior and 5) recommendations.

Regarding, Supawan, (2017) applied the concepts of coaching and mentoring the lesson plans,
and blended learning in supervision process thus helping to improve the quality of teaching and learning
management. This will affect the quality development of students in the 21st century skills. The 21st
century supervision needs to be adapted to the changing trends of the world by the necessary developing
knowledge and supervision seeking skills strategies in accordance with the changes that occur.

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Based on the literature review, the researcher found the need to develop and promote
competency in learning management for Border Patrol Police School teachers. Therefore, the researcher
endeavors the development of techniques for promoting, developing and monitoring competency in
learning management for Border Patrol Police School teachers. This is considered to prepare
professional teachers for learner development in the 21st century in order to develop teachers to have a
better understanding of the principles and correct methods for developing learning management in the
integration of English in accordance with the context and the philosophy of the border patrol police
school that is built according to wisdom, improves quality of life, achieves security results.

3. Research objectives

There are three research objectives which can be mentioned as follows:
1. To study the problems and needs in relation to the promotion of learning management

competency for Border Patrol Police School teachers.
2. To develop PRIME technique to enhance teaching and learning management competency for

Border Patrol Police School teachers.
3. To study the results of the development of PRIME technique to enhance teaching and

learning management competency for Border Patrol Police School teachers.

4. Research Methodology

This research is Research and Development by applying the integrated research method both
quantitative and qualitative data were collected. The research was divided into 2 phases;

Phase I: The studying of basic information, needs and teacher development consist of;

1.1 The study of problems and needs of teacher stage. The objective is to study the problem
condition concerning the design of classroom activity for Border Patrol Police School teachers and to
study the needs of teachers to develop a design of teaching and learning procedures that integrate
English with the context of Border Patrol Schools. The sample group in the study of problems and needs
were 75 primary school teachers in Udon Thani and Bueng Kan provinces from 10 schools under the
Border Patrol Police Headquarters. Royal Thai Police, academic year 2020. The research instrument
was a questionnaire on condition of problems and needs of teachers regarding the design of teaching
activities of border patrol police school teachers. The questionnaire was reviewed by experts. Data
collection by a focus group from the population and the sample group. The researcher analyzed the data
from the questionnaire, summarize the results to be applied as a basis for developing on learning
management abilities of Border Patrol Police School teachers. Problems in teaching, the needs of
teachers in subject content also development method and period.

1.2 Teacher development stage; The objective is to synthesize concepts, theories and
related research results. In practice, organize activities to develop activities for learning English for
communication using an active learning to support teaching and learning by using satellite distance
education (DLTV) and practicing English learning activities for communication that integrates with the
Farm School of Border Patrol Police Schools. The sample group was 17 primary school teachers at of
Border Patrol Police School in Udon Thani and Bueng Kan provinces from 2 schools for the academic
year 2020.Recruiting teachers who participated in teacher development under the principles of language
teaching and learning management based on communicative language teaching approach. This training
stage was organized activities that focus on Activity-Based Learning and Theme-Based learning
management. This aims to enable teachers design a comprehensive language learning activity through
English skill training. All four skills as well as integration with other learning subject groups and
including integration with farm school activities. Participated teachers were trained in each station of
Communicative Language teaching (CLT) based on DLTV learning management. The steps of training
consist of 5 steps; step 1) Student preparation – Activity/Lesson preparation : the step of how to prepare
the English class activities and learning management, step 2) Material selection and design : the step of
how to prepare the learning material based on DLTV and school context for real life learning, step 3)
Integration of English and Technology : the step of how to integrate English with DLTV/ in-outside the

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