TEGT4705 - STUDY NOTES

TEGT 4705

TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

STUDY NOTES

NQF level 7
Number of credits: 20

SCHOOL OF
MATHEMATICS, NATURAL

SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Compiled by
Mr SJ Coetzee

2019

Table of Content

Unit 1 - Exploring Our Personal Teaching Philosophy: Teacher,

Know Thyself 1

Unit 2 - Technology Education in Perspective 15

Unit 3 - From Policy to Lesson Plan 36

Unit 4 - Course and Lesson Presentation 68

Unit 5 - Teaching Strategies and Approaches 97

Unit 6 - Classroom Approaches 99

Unit 7 - Creative Use of Resources 145

Unit 8 - Barriers to Learning 150

Unit 9 - The Technology Classroom…. 212

Unit 10 - General hints for teaching Technology 257

Unit 11 - Course and Lesson Assessment 271

Unit 12 - E-Learning and Teaching 296

Unit 13 - Professional Development 302

Exploring Our Personal Teaching Philosophy: Teacher, Know
Thyself

Outcomes

On completion of this module, you will be able to:
 Analyse and formulate your personal teaching philosophy.
 Give a critical reflection on your teaching philosophy.
 Identify your personal teaching styles by completing an online questionnaire.
 Give a critical reflection on your personal teaching styles.
 Explain what is mean by “Teaching Philosophy”.
 Give an outline and summary on the different orientations to teaching and learning.
 Explain what is meaning by the words “Teaching” and “Learning”

Do You Know?

 Your capacity for improving

your teaching is a function of

not only what you know but

also what you believe and

value about teaching and

learning?

 These beliefs and values

comprise our teaching

philosophy or perspective and

are largely based on

unconsciously held

assumptions?

 Across a broad range of

subjects and teaching

contexts, there are a only

small number of different

teaching perspectives, with

each teacher adhering to one

or at most two dominant

perspectives?

 How your beliefs about and orientation to teaching and learning align with the approach

of other educators?

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1.1 Introduction

As stated earlier, fast-changing economic, technological, and social forces are redefining the goals of
education and reshaping the task of teaching in postsecondary and career-technical schools. These
changes have raised the bar on what students must know and be able to do to succeed and, therefore,
increased the demands on us, as educators. Covering the content is no longer enough, especially since
the very knowledge base from which we teach is quickly expanding. We need to not only cover the
content, but also to uncover student learning. We need to make sure this content is taught in flexible
ways that can be transferred to new settings by making students capable of thinking critically, solving
problems, and communicating effectively. Faced with such challenges, one would assume that what
goes on in our formal institutions of learning and our classrooms has changed in recent decades to
meet these challenges. Yet in many cases this is not true.

To be able to effectively respond to these challenges and improve our teaching practices we need to
go beyond the common questions that look at the surface and observable elements of the
teaching/learning transaction—what we are to teach and how to best go about it. We also need to
understand how people learn. Yet, as suggested in the introduction to this unit, our quest to
understand the character of learning needs to begin with questions that first take us to a deeper and
more personal level of inquiry that can reveal our basic assumptions and beliefs about what it means
to learn and how best to teach

1.2 Understanding Your Personal Teaching Philosophy

Parker Palmer, in his book The Courage to Teach, explores the notions of our teaching persona and
personal teaching philosophy by raising four questions that he believes underlie the on-going dialogue
about what comprises good teaching and learning. The first two are the typical questions asked in
teacher training and professional development programs. These are the questions of the “what” and
‘how” of I teaching—the content to be taught, our subject matter, and the best methods and
techniques needed to teach this material. However, Palmer proposes we learn to ask two further
questions. These are questions of the “why” and “who” of teaching, which reside at a significantly
deeper level, as they concern how we personally define the purposes of our teaching and our roles as
educators. The what and how questions are fundamental and must be asked; indeed this book and its
companion Field Guide focus on these two questions as the core elements of our understanding the
science of learning and our means to a progressive mastery of the art of teaching. As Palmer states,
he has “no quarrel” with these questions and neither do we except, as Palmer continues, “when they
are posed as the only questions worth asking.”

The logic here is simple. To improve what we do in our classrooms, we need to change the way we
think. To change the way we think, we need to understand why we think as we do, especially any
biases we may have in our approach to teaching in certain and possibly rigid and limited ways. Such
understanding requires that we insight into the origin and make-up of our fundamental and
overarching perspective or philosophy on teaching and learning. Only then can any of us become

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sufficiently receptive to learning new and more effective and flexible ways of thinking about the nature
of learning and teaching. Without surfacing and examining these largely unconscious ideas, our efforts
to meaningfully change our teaching practices will most likely prove to be extremely frustrating and
difficult.

1.2.1 So, What Do We Mean by a “Teaching Philosophy”?

At first thought, the idea of a teaching philosophy may sound highly academic and abstract, something
more suitable for an “ivory tower” discussion in a graduate-school seminar or for conversation among
grey-haired professors over lunch at the faculty club at an ivy-league university. A teaching philosophy
is, however, quite the opposite. It is deeply personal and directly relevant to each of us as classroom
teach having its greatest influence when it remains removed from our immediate concern and
unexamined.

A good working definition of a personal teaching philosophy is it set of beliefs, values, intentions, and
attitudes about the nature of know/edge, and the role of students and teachers in the classroom.
Every teacher possesses a teaching philosophy simply because all of us invariably hold such beliefs,
values, and attitudes that are the root of our teaching persona.

Everything we are and do as teacher’s flows from this philosophical wellspring of our teaching. It is a
personal teaching paradigm, the mental model of how we see the world of teaching and creates our
“teaching persona” and preferred teaching style. It determines our perceptions of ourselves as
teachers. It defines our expectations of our students, and the amount of control we wield or are willing
to yield to them. It frames our view of what it means to know and learn something, the topics we
highlight as the core concepts of our courses, and the content we believe needs only be touched upon
or can even be ignored.

It influences the kinds of questions we ask or do not ask and how we ask them, the way we measure
learning and deal with the mistakes our students make and how we judge the results of what we do.
As the ethical foundation for their work, medical doctors take the Hippocratic oath, which includes the
dictum to “do no harm.”
Educators have no similar statement of professional ethics as a guide for proper professional practice.
If we were to choose one, perhaps ancient Greek philosophical imperative to “know thyself” might
serve well.

1.2.2 The Origin of Your Personal Teaching Philosophy

Basically, there are three sources for our beliefs, values, and attitudes about teaching and learning.
These are our culture, our personal experience, and our formal study and training as teachers.

The first are the beliefs that are part of tradition and operate within our system of formal education
and even as elements of popular culture. These might go back all the way to Aristotle, who said, “What
we have to learn to do, we learn by doing,” or to Galileo, who said, “You cannot teach a man anything;
you can only help him find it within himself.” Looking at more contemporary sources for our beliefs,
we may have the idea that a person’s capacity for learning is a matter of intelligence as measured by

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IQ and is fixed for life. Or, drawing from more recent influences, we may have come to the conclusion
that “males are better at math than females,” that “everyone has different learning styles,” or that
“knowledge is power.” It is possible to go on.

Another and the most common and influential source of what we believe about learning and teaching,
is our own personal educational experience as students. Although some of this learning may have been
what is known as incidental learning, the kind that happens outside the classroom (learning how to
ride a bike, understanding the game of football, etc.), it is likely that our experience in formal
educational settings has had the greatest influence. This experience consists of what we saw teachers
doing, as well as what we felt comfortable with as learners. Beyond our early education in elementary
school, this most likely meant sitting and listening to lectures while taking notes, reading text books
and doing homework outside of class, and memorizing and reproducing what we studied on tests. It
may include the personal beliefs that “learning is hard work” or “learning for its own sake is exciting,”
or that “it is not okay to make mistakes.”

Lastly, the roots of our teaching philosophy may come from formal training and study in education.
This could include inquiry into learning theories, such as behaviourism, cognitive science, and
constructivism, or teaching methods, such as direct instruction or problem based learning. It may also
involve an awareness of more esoteric subjects, such as the historical and philosophical roots of
modern education, and the differences between knowledge, understanding, and wisdom as
articulated by the ancient Greeks and modern philosophers. Although these distinctions may seem on
the surface to have no immediate relevance to improving one’s craft of teaching, the ideas are the
very foundations of the dominant approaches to teaching that all educators take. Just as importantly,
they have a powerful influence on how we envision the purposes of our professional development and
go about our efforts to improve our practice. For example, for the early Greeks knowledge meant basic
comprehending, understanding meant knowing something well enough to be able to do it, and
wisdom meant the capacity to act wisely. Applying these concepts to teaching, most teachers can be
said to possess knowledge as a comprehension of the subject they teach and possibly a grasp of
effective teaching practices, with understanding as expressed in their ability to successfully practice
their field. But how many of us can lay claim to wisdom? How many of us possess both a depth of
understanding of our discipline as well as a grasp of the science and art of good teaching to the degree
that allows us to consistently make the right choices and do the right things in our classrooms to
promote our students’ learning?

1.2.3 Reflecting on Your Personal Teaching Philosophy

Think about your views on teaching and learning. This can include your learning beliefs and attitudes
about teacher and student roles, the nature and goals of learning, and the kinds of activities that
promote learning.

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Activity 1: Reflecting

Take a few moments to write down what beliefs and ideas come immediately to
mind, using the questions listed below as needed for prompts.

Questions to Guide This Introspective Exercise
 How do you decide what is important to teach and what your students
should know?
 How do you determine that students have learned what they need to
know? (Objective tests, demonstrations of and the ability to use
knowledge?)
 How do you use feedback from student performance in the classroom?
 Do you consider that things other than content knowledge, such as the
development of intellectual skills, are also important? If so, what are
these other areas of learning you include and how much importance do
you place on them?
 How would you describe an effective learning environment and what
you consider the best conditions for learning to be?
 Besides lectures, what other teaching activities do you use in your
classroom and how and when do you decide to use them?
 What kinds of questions do you ask, and how often and when do you
ask them?
 How much freedom do you give to students to explore and discover for
them what they need to learn?
 How would you characterize your relationship with your students?
Formal and authoritative? Casual and facilitative?
 What are your preferred learning styles (reading, listening to
presentations, discussions, etc.), and how are these expressed in your
teaching style and techniques?

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1.3 Putting Your Perspective into Perspective—Different Orientations
to Teaching and Learning

Many teachers are curious about and find it helpful to know how their personal teaching philosophy
aligns with that of other professionals. Fortunately, there are a number of researchers who have
characterized the predominant teaching approaches postsecondary teachers take to which can help
you get a perspective on your views of learning and teaching.

Most noteworthy is Dan Pratt, who has spent over two decades researching and describing different
philosophical orientations to teaching. His work corresponds to that of other researchers. Pratt
characterizes these orientations as teaching perspectives, which he defines as an educator’s
fundamental intentions and beliefs about what constitutes and influences learning and gives direction
to teaching. Through surveys of teachers from around the world, he has investigated the conceptual
roots of different views on what it means to be an effective teacher. He has discovered that across a
broad spectrum of disciplines, contexts, and people, educators differ in four basic dimensions, which
he calls BIASes. Applying an awareness of his findings on dominant orientations and where you locate
yourself among them can be quite useful in clarifying the rationale for the decisions you make each
time you walk into a classroom and, therefore, how you can begin to improve your practice.

1.3.1 So, What’re Your BIASes?

As defined by Pratt, these BIASes are as follows:

B = Beliefs about learners, learning, our subject matter, and the roles and
responsibilities of teachers and students.

I = Intentions about what we expect students to learn; that is, what we are
trying to achieve.

A = Actions that we take in the classroom as our teaching methods and
techniques to help students learn.

S = Strategies, or the ways our beliefs, intentions, and actions come
together in an overall strategy and process of decision making.

These 4 BIASes are expressed in different patterns that Pratt has categorized into five perspectives on
teaching:

1. Transmission,
2. Apprenticeship,
3. Developmental,
4. Nurturing, and
5. Social reform.

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According to Pratt’s research, about 90 percent of all teachers will identify with one or at most two
perspectives. He also has concluded that no single perspective is the basis for what might be
considered “good teaching.” Each approach has the potential to lead to effective teaching, with no
single way consistently better than another. Pratt, therefore, advises educators to be cautious about
adopting one dominant view of learning and teaching. What he believes is most important is the
authenticity of one’s approach, meaning to be an effective teacher above all requires that you be
yourself. This is an important conclusion that Parker Palmer has also drawn in his book, The Courage
to Teach, referred to earlier, and which we have found also to be true from our combined 50 years of
experience as educators. Pratt points out that it is important not to confuse these teaching
perspectives with a particular teaching method or set of techniques. A perspective operates on a
deeper and more personal level than our behaviours as instructors. Despite the personal and diverse
preferences for certain ways of teaching among instructors, Pratt has found that same teaching
actions, such as lecturing, discussions, problem-based learning, and others, present across
perspectives. Perspectives are differentiated not by teaching techniques, but how a specific technique
is used and for what purpose based on each educator’s fundamental values and beliefs. As you
consider the following five perspectives, do not be concerned about finding a “perfect fit”; rather, look
for the one or two with which you mostly identity.

 Transmission Perspective

The Philosophy. The transmission model is the most prevalent of the five approaches among
secondary and postsecondary teachers, and it is the easiest to explain. Though not by definition rooted
in any specific theory of learning and teaching. In this view, “content is king,” and the aim of
instruction is to convey the subject matter accurately and efficiently. As characterized by Pratt, the
learner is a container to be filled, with learning seen as a process of accumulation of knowledge over
time. Knowledge is seen to exist outside the learning and is found in what the teacher has to say or in
texts. Success of instruction, then, is believed to be based primarily on a teacher’s subject-matter
expertise and ability to structure this content.

The Practice. Teachers who adopt this orientation generally spend a good deal of time in preparation,
beginning with the basics of the subject and then systematically proceeding through a set of tasks that
lead to the learner’s mastery of the content. Pratt’s research shows that the the transmission method,
when done well, follows common guidelines on traditional methods of teaching: establishing clear
objectives, presenting well-organized and well-paced lectures that make efficient use of class time,
answering questions to clarify misunderstandings, pointing out errors, offering reviews and
summaries, helping students find relevant resources, and assessing learning through largely objective
means that determine mastery of the content.

The Challenge. Pratt indicates that the transmission model is the one most often cited as an example
of problematic teaching, and instructors who adopt this orientation share a number of common
difficulties.

Foremost, with a focus on content rather than on learners and the learning process, those operating
within a transmission approach may fail to appreciate the difficulties students may have with the
subject matter and frequently find it hard to recognize the need for and come up with examples and

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ways of connecting content to where the students are. Also, these teachers frequently dominate the
classroom with their own talking, and when students ask questions or offer some comment, they
respond by talking more rather than engaging the students themselves in the learning process. This
does not mean a transmission perspective cannot be done well. Those most successful with this
approach have an excellent grasp of their subject, a clear passion for it, and the ability to deliver it
with an enthusiasm that engages students and engenders within them a respect for it.

 Developmental Perspective

The Philosophy. In this view, the learner is seen primarily as an information processor, somewhat like
a computer. As explained in the next chapter, the theoretical foundation for this approach is cognitive
information processing model of learning and training. The belief here is that people are predisposed
or “preprogramed” to learn in certain ways as a result of pre-existing mental models and their previous
experience, which filter and determine the ways in which they are inclined to interpret and understand
the subject. Thus, learners do not so much receive or acquire knowledge as they construct it on the
foundation of what they already know. An educator who operates from this orientation believes that
good teaching starts with this knowledge base and that real learning involves students being able to
make sense of what they need to learn by relating it to what they already know.

The desired outcome looks similar to that of the transmission model—the learner’s improved subject
matter knowledge and thinking ability. However, in contrast to the transmission model, in which the
teacher dominates instruction and learners are expected to somewhat passively recall and reproduce
the knowledge of the instructor or texts, here students are called on to be active participants in their
learning and to integrate new material into their thinking in complex ways that go beyond surface,
factual reproduction to a deeper, conceptual understanding.

The Practice. Teachers who operate within this orientation believe they need to begin instruction by
connecting the learners’ old ideas and ways of thinking to the new knowledge and thinking abilities
they wish their students to develop. This includes directly surfacing (triggering) their students’ prior
knowledge, as well as any possible misconceptions they may have about the subject matter that can
interfere with understanding new material. The frequent use of questions and other techniques for
eliciting feedback are important elements in this process. Unlike questions that might be used by a
teacher who adopts a transmission perspective, here the questions are designed to do more than
promote recall; rather, they are intended to reveal how and why students think the way they do,
expose possible learning difficulties, and challenge students to become more engaged in the material.
Examples, illustrations, case studies, and problems are commonly used for connecting old and new
ideas, grounding unfamiliar concepts, and moving learners from simple to more complex ways of
reasoning.

The Challenge. Approaching instruction from this perspective is not as easy as using a transmission
orientation. Developmental teachers need to not only be knowledgeable and efficient, but also must
be able to constantly adapt their knowledge to learners’ ways of understanding. Also, it is difficult to
ask questions that elicit more than factual responses or surface understanding to reveal where in the
learning process students are and help them acquire critical-thinking capacities. Moreover, it takes
patience and a real appreciation of the sometimes slow process of deep learning to allow students the

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time space they need to discover ideas; with the common pressure to cover content, it is much easier
to tell them what they need to know rather than let them reason through the material themselves.
Finally, when teachers try to teach from this perspective they need to develop ways to elaborate on
the material and design assessments that reflect the learning outcome they seek, which is the
students’ increased ability to reflect on, analyse, evaluate, and apply rather than merely recall and
reproduce what they learn.

 Apprenticeship Perspective

The Philosophy. As the name suggests, this orientation is one familiar to those working in skills-based
programs or those involving internships, though it is becoming increasingly common in more
traditional classroom instructional settings. The theoretical foundation for this perspective is
somewhat mixed, including notions from cognitive—social constructivism and situated learning. The
dominant metaphor is learner as novice and the goal of instruction is to help the learner develop a
new identity by becoming a proficient participant in a particular field as a member of a professional
community. This happens when the learner successfully makes the transition from a naive outsider to
an expert in a “community of practice” or profession able to perform in a skilled manner. In this view,
a learner needs not only to possess an objective body of knowledge and be able to reason in ways
appropriate to a particular vocation, but also to internalize the core values and beliefs held by those
who are experienced in their field. Within this perspective, teachers see themselves as “masters,” who
not only teach didactically and demonstrate through their own example and behaviour the desired
outcomes they seek but also convey what it looks like and means to be a member of a community of
professionals.

The Practice. Operating from this perspective, a teacher generally will try to create a learning
environment that involves authentic tasks that replicate as much as possible real situations in which
students will be called on to demonstrate or apply their knowledge. The instructor attempts to model
as much as possible the values, knowledge, thinking skills, and behaviours of a skilled participant in a
particular field. A process known as scaffolding is the primary teaching tool. Scaffolding breaks down
complex tasks into basic components and leads the learner into increasingly more difficult and core
elements of a desired performance.

In a manner akin to the approach of a developmental instructor, in this model the teacher will also
seek to identify students’ point of entry or their level of competence in relation to a new skill and the
degree to which they can perform on their own and how much assistance they need. Ideally, this point
will shift continually as students progressively learn to think and behave in ways consistent with those
of experienced members of their profession; consequently, the role of the instructor will also change.
At the beginning of instruction, the teacher will demonstrate as the students observe. Then through
the process of scaffolding, the learners will begin to practice what has been modelled for them. As
students assume greater responsibility for their performance and become more and more
independent, the teacher provides less and less guidance, until the students are able to enter the
“community of practice” that comprises their profession.

The Challenge. Within this approach, there are several difficulties instructors commonly have to deal
with. One is to accurately assess a student’s point of entry and to properly balance between a

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student’s ability and the degree of scaffolding needed to help the student progress. Another is to find
authentic learning tasks that mirror the kind of real-life situations the student will encounter outside
the classroom. An adequate degree of authenticity and matching problems and cases with each
student’s level of competence takes time and careful consideration; a significant degree of individual
attention is necessary to achieve this. Finally, scaffolding is not just a matter of demonstrating a
particular performance task but being able to break it down into its constituent parts and being able
to explain them. An expert will, by definition, be knowledgeable and proficient in their field. Yet
knowing what you know and being able to explain what you know are quite different matters. It is
quite common for experts to be unable to clearly articulate actions that have become habits and find
the words needed to tell others how to do what they can do so well themselves without much
conscious thought.

 Nurturing Perspective

The Philosophy. Here the metaphor for learning and teaching is, according to Pratt, the “vulnerable
self,” and is common among those who teach in adult education programs. This orientation has its
theoretical roots in theories of andragogy and humanistic psychology. Nurturing teachers maintain
that the learner and learning need to be approached both intellectually and emotionally, with special
attention given to each student’s self-concept, affective needs, and freedom to be self-directed. A
primary goal of learning is a learner with greater self-confidence and increased self-direction. The
dominant underlying belief is that a student’s prior educational experience has often been degree to
a negative one and led to a poor self-concept as a learner. It is also assumed that students need to be
able to assume a good deal of responsibility for their own learning if they are to succeed. This
perspective holds that learners are more likely to succeed when they are working toward the
fulfilment of self-determined goals within a supportive, positive learning environment. Such an
environment balances the learner’s necessary independence with a caring teacher-student
relationship and learning tasks that provide an appropriate level of challenge. When these proper
conditions are not present in the classroom, it is assumed that learning will be obstructed and possibly
fail.

The Practice. Teachers who take this approach maintain a focus on the learning environment and
actively seek to balance academic achievement with strategies that build their students’ self-concept
and self-confidence and capacity to learn. Common strategies include getting-to-know activities,
collaborative learning exercises, and attending to students’ emotional states and needs. In many ways
counselling becomes as important as teaching, and providing encouragement is an integral role for
the teacher. Assessment often includes measures of an individual’s progress in addition to a student’s
mastery of subject matter. Some see this approach as failing to provide the rigor students need to
succeed academically and not adequately emphasizing the importance of standards that all students
must meet; however, a nurturing perspective does not preclude setting high goals for learners.
Nurturing teachers, rather than just leaving students to fend for themselves when faced with
significant learning challenges, seek to ensure that demands are reasonable and work hard to help
their students prepare for tests.

The Challenge. As Pratt points out, the very label nurturing perspective has some negative
connotations and, although many teachers might not apply this specific label to themselves

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(remember, this is Pratt’s name for it), the nurturing orientation is not an uncommon one, and those
who identify with it are frequently criticized for their approach.

Critics believe that nurturers often lower their standards in order to help people succeed, which is
often perceived to be in conflict with institutional expectations for student achievement. Though there
may be some truth to this, those who correctly practice this approach do not see high standards and
personal encouragement as incompatible; on the contrary, they see demonstrating competence and
achievement as the very means to building self-confidence. Still, it can be quite difficult for some to
effectively balance academic requirements with emotional needs. Thus, it is easy for nurturing
instructors to be tempted to compromise academic standards in efforts to help their students feel
good about themselves as learners and even out of a personal need to be liked by their students.

 Social Reform Perspective

The Philosophy. The final perspective that Pratt identified in his research is that of social reform. In
many ways this perspective has its roots in the same humanistic psychology of the nurturing approach,
but also finds a rationale in what is known as a social constructivist framework.

Within this perspective, the focus shifts from the learner as an individual to someone shaped by and
operating within the context of the larger society. Therefore, the learner, the learning process, and
teaching can be understood only in terms of the social, cultural, and historical setting within which
they occur. Teachers who work from this perspective are distinguished by a strongly held set of
personal ideals that motivates their teaching. The goal of learning is not only to change a student’s
personal thinking but to shift larger cultural, political, and social values and beliefs. Pratt has found
that this is the most difficult perspective to characterize, since it encompasses no particular or uniform
set of characteristics and strategies. He has discovered that it is present among those working in such
diverse fields as community development and AIDS awareness to automotive mechanics and medical
education. As Pratt puts it, the one constant is that the teacher who adopted this approach was either
a “leader or a rebel.”

The Practice. With no unique teaching method that characterizes the classroom practices of a social
reformer, elements of effective teaching from the other perspectives are found here. Good social
reform educators organize and deliver content clearly, help their learners connect new knowledge
with their prior experiences develop greater and greater levels of expertise in their field together with
a personal sense of self-efficacy and confidence. What distinguishes this approach are the ideals that
drive instructors, their success at expressing these ideals, and their ability to get learners to adopt
them as their own by questioning personal beliefs and values about their field of study and life in
general.

The Challenge. Social reformers are quite rare, and although they are found teaching in many
contexts, clearly they will do best when working in a program that explicitly states as its primary goal
greater personal, social, and political awareness coupled with collective change rather than education
or training for the purpose of individual career or academic advancement. As advocates of changes,
social reformers are most successful when they are able to effectively balance their strongly held

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personal ideals with a respect for their students and colleagues and a tolerance for ideas that do not
reflect their personal values.

Assignment 1: Effective Teaching and Learning

Complete the Teaching Styles Inventory on the following URL and obtain your scores by means
of the self-scoring worksheet.
http://longleaf.net/teachingstyle.html
Write a critical reflection on the results to share with the class/group during our contact
session. The assessment of this task will be based on peer and facilitator assessment.
Write a critical reflection on the results to share with the class/group during the next contact.
The assessment of this task will be based on peer and facilitator assessment.
Marks: _____
Hand in date: ______

Complete the Teaching Styles inventory on the following URL and obtain your scores by means
of the self-scoring worksheet.
http://longleaf.net/teachingstyle.html
Write a critical reflection on the results to share with the class/group during our contact
session. The assessment of this task will be based on peer and facilitator assessment.

Marks: _____
Hand in date: ______

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1.4 Conclusion

Whether you are an experienced instructor or new, full-time or part-time, articulating your individual
teaching philosophy provides the foundation for clarifying goals and guiding your behaviour in the
classroom each day by describing your identity as a teacher. It also is a necessary step in learning
how to effectively improve your teaching practice.

We have suggested that it would be helpful to make your teaching beliefs and values explicit by
possibly taking an inventory of your teaching goals and beliefs and writing a formal statement of
your teaching perspective. However, you can also go about exploring your identity as a teacher more
informally and begin with the simple question, “Why am I teaching?” as a foundation for the “what”
and “how” of your teaching.

Rather than trying to come to a definitive response, simply allow the answer to evolve over time
through day-to-day reflections. Once you are clear about the “why,” the “what” and “how,” which
we explore in the remainder of this text, will more easily make sense and fall into place and
hopefully lead to a natural unfolding of the knowledge of what makes for effective teaching, and the
wisdom of what it means to be an effective great teacher.

Assignment 2: Compiling my Teaching Philosophy

With the knowledge gain from this module as well as the activities you’ve done, write now your
own teaching philosophy, clearly show one main focus point.

Watch first the videos about “teaching philosophy” and the compiling of one, this will helps you
formulating your own philosophy.

Hand in your teaching philosophy using Blackboard making use of the Turnitin link.

Requirements:
 Typed
 Arial 12
 1.5 Line spacing
 Must be saved as pdf before uploaded it to Blackboard
 No longer than 300 words

Marks: _____

Hand in date: _____

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1.5 Video links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GV4DMLmoeRA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wr5N8lYEIvk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aAGUuYShWzY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3-hPFgPQO4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbqS25mHCiM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpj64RXvD1A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N8JKZ7euEE0

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Technology Education in Perspective

Outcomes

On completion of this module, you will be able to:
 explain what Technology Education is;
 use authentic methodology for problem solving;
 demonstrate an understanding of the impact of technology;
 demonstrate how Technology Education interacts with other subjects in the South
African curriculum;
 guide learners in making the best career choices by choosing relevant subjects
linked to Technology in Further Education and Training.

2.1 Introduction

Technology has existed throughout history. People use the combination of knowledge, skills and
available resources to develop solutions that meet their daily needs and wants. Some of these
solutions have been in the form of products (e.g. shaping bones into fishhooks and needles,
making clay cooking pots), while some solutions have involved combining products into working
systems (e.g. bow and arrow, moving water and a wheel, pestle and mortar).
Today people still have needs and wants. However, the knowledge, skills and resources used to
find solutions are of a different kind because of accelerating developments in technology. Today’s
society is complicated and diverse. Economic and environmental factors and a wide range of
attitudes and values need to be taken into account when developing technological solutions. The
development of products and systems in modern times must show sensitivity to these issues.

Purpose

The Technology Learning Area will contribute towards learners’ technological literacy by giving
them opportunities to:

 develop and apply specific skills to solve technological problems;
 understand the concepts and knowledge used in Technology, and use them responsibly

and purposefully; and
 appreciate the interaction between people’s values and attitudes, technology, society and

the environment.

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In this unit you will be exploring how the meaning of Technology is interpreted in your current
curriculum document. Let’s explore together!

Activity 1: Define Technology

1. Individually, complete a definition for Technology:

2. Discuss your definition with your group members and come up with a group definition for
Technology:

3. Compare the group definition with the definition of Technology in your current policy document
(RSA DoE, 2011:8):

The significance of the Technology Learning Area is directly related to the overall goal of the
Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9 (Schools), which is to develop citizens who can
display the competencies and values encapsulated in the critical and developmental outcomes.
The essence of Technology Learning Area activities in the General Education and Training Band
involves the following:

 The application of the design process: At the heart of this process is the identification of
everyday problems, needs or wants of people, and the selection and application of
appropriate resources, knowledge, skills and values to develop practical solutions. The
design process encourages the development of critical and creative thinking skills.

 The Technology Learning Area offers authentic, real-life opportunities for learners to interact
with each other within teams when they develop technological solutions. They also interact
with their communities when, for example, they test and market products that they made
themselves.
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 On a personal level, Technology learners become more and more aware of their
responsibilities within their classrooms, schools, families and society. They learn to manage
the technological resources at their disposal when developing products, and they also learn
to minimise the potentially negative impact that their solutions could have on the
environment and on human rights.

 Learners in Technology classrooms work in groups to analyse the given information in order
to create practical solutions. Learners co-operate and communicate with each other, often
combining verbal and graphic modes of communication. Discussing and reporting
techniques and the use of appropriate terminology are encouraged during technological
activities.

 The Technology Learning Area contributes to the intellectual and practical development of
learners, to enable them to cope with the challenges of a technological society. Through its
open-ended, problem-solving approach, the Technology Learning Area Statement links
knowing with doing; it affords learners opportunities to apply and integrate their knowledge
and skills from other Learning Areas in real and practical situations. These skills can be
further developed in various situations throughout their lives.

 Learners explore both the positive and negative impacts of technology on their political,
social, economic and biophysical environment. This will be done when they evaluate the
product they have made, using criteria like affordability, safety, fit for purpose, effect on the
environment, and so on. This will enable learners to develop into critical consumers.

 In the Technology Learning Area, learners are provided with opportunities to interact with
business and various industries that help them to understand and adapt to changing
economic realities. They learn to generate creative and innovative ideas, and to co-operate
in translating their ideas into action. Learners gain skills, knowledge, competencies and
confidence that equip them to explore entrepreneurial initiatives which will enable them to
contribute to South Africa’s social and economic development. This process also allows
learners to explore various opportunities for further education and future careers.

Technology is much more than aspects of woodwork, technical drawing and home economics, etc. It
aims to develop technological capability through authentic problem-solving. Learners need to
understand cause and effect; the systems approach; why and how things happen; how they can put
things to use, etc. By teaching the elements of the Technology curriculum using a problem-solving
methodology, you are developing your learners’ technological skills to promote progress in
technology.

Technology is defined as:

The use of knowledge, skills and resources to meet people’s needs and wants by developing practical
solutions to problems, taking social and environmental factors into consideration.

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2.2 The Rationale of Technology

Technology Education is a building block in the curriculum. There is a worldwide movement to include
Technology in the curriculum. Chile recently adopted Technology. The United States have published
its standards for all American pupils. Countries such as China, Japan, Taiwan and Singapore are
studying the possibility of introducing it into the primary curriculum.

Business involvement
Business and industry are becoming more aware of its value, but more work needs to be done in this
regard.

Funding in schools
Schools in England have the same difficulties that South African schools experience: there are schools
that have to make do with very few resources. Private schools generally have the funds to introduce
their children to a far greater variety of learning materials. As in South Africa, some schools have to
make do with recycled materials and rely on the resourcefulness of the teachers.

The effect of Technology on society
 With Technology, young people become informed and useful citizens.
 Young people will make informed decisions about the use of future Technologies.
 Young people develop skills which are essential to have in the work place.
 Young people develop their critical and creative thinking skills.
 Young people explore values and understand cultural differences.
 People learn about entrepreneurship in a real context.

The Technology learning area seeks to develop:
 An ability to solve technological problems by investigating, designing, developing, evaluating as
well as communicating effectively in their own and other languages and by using different
modes.
 A fundamental understanding of and ability to apply technological knowledge, skills and values,
working as individuals and as group members, in a range of technological contexts.
 A critical understanding of the interrelationship between technology, society, the economy and
the environment.

The understanding of Technology should contribute to:
 The development of learners’ ability to perform effectively in their changing environment and
to stimulate them to contribute towards its improvements;
 The effective use of technological products and systems.

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Why should Technology, as sketched above, be part of the primary school curriculum?

There are several reasons:
 Technology is an important part of our daily life.
 It is essential for the economy of South Africa that a future technological workforce is educated
with an entrepreneurial attitude and innovative and creative thinking skills.
 A basic knowledge of technology is indispensable; not only for technical jobs, but for all
professions.
 To survive in a technological world and cope with the technological products that surround us,
technological literacy is needed.
 To have control over technology-affected environment, insight into its nature is essential.
 Technology Education can contribute to an informed and positive-critical consumerism.
Technology Education can help pupils to be better informed when making choices in their
further education.
 To develop problem solving skills which may be used in all aspects of life.
 Pupils can become highly motivated through Technology Education, when developed and
implemented in the right way, because its allows them to master the realisation of products
that relate to human and social needs and wants.

Activity 2: Rational of Technology

You been asked to give a presentation to the grade 7, 8 and 9 parents about the
importants of the Learning area Technology. Compile and skeleton of your
presentation that you will deliver to the parents.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Activity 3: Inclusion of Technology in The South African
Curriculum

Complete the purpose of Technology as a homework activity. Study Appendix A to assist you:
1. Why was Technology included in the South African Curriculum?

2. Summarise the essence of Technology Subject activities in the General Education and
Training Band.

2.3 Unique Features and Scope

The subject Technology gives learners the opportunity to:
 learn by solving problems in creative ways;
 learn while using authentic contexts that are rooted in real situations outside the classroom;
 combine thinking and doing in a way that links abstract concepts to concrete understanding;
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 carry out practical projects using a variety of technological skills – investigating, designing,
making, evaluating, communicating – that suit different learning styles;

 use and engage with knowledge in a purposeful way;
 learn by dealing directly with inclusivity, human rights, social and environmental issues in their

project work;
 use a variety of life skills in authentic contexts (e.g. decision making, critical and creative

thinking, co-operation, needs identification); and
 create more positive attitudes, perceptions and aspirations towards technology-based

careers.

Key issues to teach:

1. Using design process skills to solve problems.
2. Practical skills.
3. Concepts and content application of knowledge.

2.3.1. Specific Aims

Technology as subject will contribute towards:
 the development of design processes skills to solve technological problems;
 technological concepts and knowledge and to use them responsibly and purposefully; and
 the interrelationship between technology, society and the environment.
HET: TERTIARY QUALIFICATIONS
Technician; Artisan; Engineer; quantity Surveyor; Architect

FET: STUDY FIELDS LINKED TO TECHNOLOGY
GRADES 10 – 12

GET: TECHNOLOGY: GRADES 7 - 9

GET: NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: GRADES 4 - 6

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CIVIL TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL
TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL
TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING GRPAHICS
AND DESIGN

CONSUMER STUDIES
DESIGN

2.3.2 Technology Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcome 1: Technological Processes and Skills
The learner will be able to apply technological processes and skills ethically and responsibly using
appropriate information and communication technologies.

The backbone outcome for the Technology Learning Area
During technological activities, the learner engages in investigating, designing, making, evaluating and
communicating solutions. When used together, these skills are sometimes known as the ‘design
process’ (see below). In addition to the design process, there are many other processes that can be
described as technological processes.

Practical, solution-oriented learning
This Learning Outcome describes a core set of skills that can be developed through projects that are
‘needs driven’ - that is, they are built around developing and implementing practical solutions to
realistic problems or needs. Since Learning Outcome 1 aims to develop technological skills
(investigating, designing, making, evaluating and communicating), it should be used as an integrating
Learning Outcome, to structure projects that develop the learner’s skills, knowledge, values and
attitudes in a holistic way.

The design process
This is a creative and interactive approach used to develop solutions to identified problems or human
needs. It is one of the ‘technological processes’. The skills associated with the design process are:
investigate, design (development of initial ideas), make, evaluate, and communicate. The elements of
the design process can be explained more fully as follows:

 Investigate: Investigating a situation to gain information is an important starting point for
Technology. Research, or finding of information, takes place mainly at this point. The learner
gathers data and information, grasps concepts and gains insight, finds out about new
techniques, and so on. Skills needed for investigating include information accessing and
processing skills, recording, identifying, predicting, comparing, observing, classifying,
interpreting, and collating.

 Design (verb): Once a problem is fully understood, the design brief needs to be written.
Possible solutions should then be generated. These ideas may be drawn on paper. The first
idea may not necessarily be the best, so it is better if several possible solutions are considered.
This part of the design process requires the knowledge and skills related to graphics (e.g. use
of colour, rendering techniques, two-dimensional and three dimensional drawings, planning,
sketching, drawing, calculating, modelling) and managing resources. Once possible solutions
are available, a decision must be made. The chosen solution will be the one that best satisfies
the specifications. The learner is expected to justify the choices made. Final working drawings
or sketches should then be prepared. These drawings should contain all the details needed
for making the product or system – instructions, dimensions, annotated notes, and so on.

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Testing, simulating or modelling the solution may be done at this stage, before final
manufacture is carried out.

 Make: This aspect provides opportunities for the learner to use tools, equipment and
materials to develop a solution to the identified problem, need or opportunity. It involves
building, testing and modifying the product or system to satisfy the design specifications. The
learner will cut, join, shape, finish, form, combine, assemble, measure, mark, separate, mix,
and so on. The ‘making’ should be according to the design, although it is acceptable to make
modifications if necessary. Making must always be undertaken in a safe and healthy
atmosphere and manner.

 Evaluate: The learner needs to evaluate actions, decisions and results throughout the design
process. The solutions, and the processes followed to arrive at them, must be evaluated by
the learner. Changes or improvements should be suggested where necessary. Some
evaluation should be done against the criteria (e.g. constraints) that may be given or self-
generated. This stage requires the use of probing questions, fair testing, and analysis.

 Communicate: The assessment evidence of the processes followed in any project – that is, the
ability to analyse, investigate, plan, design, draw, evaluate and communicate – is presented.
This could be done in oral, written, graphic or electronic form. A record of thedesign process
from conception to realisation of the solution should be kept in the form of a Project Portfolio.

Notes:
The skills do not always have to be used in the order set out above during technological activities.
It is not necessary to develop all the skills in every project.
On occasion, it may be preferable to have short, stand-alone activities dealing with isolated
Assessment Standards.

Learning Outcome 2: Technological Knowledge and Understanding
The learner will be able to understand and apply relevant technological knowledge ethically and
responsibly.

There are three core content areas in this Learning Outcome in the General Education and Training
Band. They are Structures, Processing, and Systems and Control.

 Structures: This area focuses on practical solutions that involve supporting loads and ways of
making products that are stiff, stable and strong when forces are applied to them. The learner
can explore these issues within the contexts of housing, habitats, shelters, containers, towers,
bridges, packaging, transport, storage, and so on.

 Processing: This area focuses on practical ways in which materials may be processed or
manufactured in order to improve their properties to make them more suitable for their

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intended use. The learner should embrace a balanced range of materials in this content area in
order to get a broad feel of how materials and their properties interrelate (e.g. paper, resin,
cement, sand, plaster of paris). The learner explores processing in various ways (e.g. moulding,
drying, casting, extracting, preserving, heating, laminating, forming). These methods of
processing are used to alter the properties of materials for the purposes of ennobling and
enhancing (e.g. taste, texture, hardness, weather resistance). The learner engages with projects
that establish a need in a processing context (e.g. a farm wishing to produce sun-dried
tomatoes, a system for grinding grain).

 Systems and Control: This content area is divided into mechanical systems (including hydraulic
and pneumatic systems) and electrical systems.

Learning Outcome 3: Technology, Society and the Environment
The learner will be able to demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationships between science,
technology, society and the environment.

All technological development takes place in an economic, political, social and environmental context.
Values, beliefs and traditions shape the way people view and accept technology, and this may have a
major influence on the use of technological products.
In choosing a technological solution, the costs and benefits of the choice must be taken into account.
There is a need for learners to understand the interconnection between technology, society and the
environment.

As technology is now one of the central drivers of economic activity, every learner should have
opportunities and access to learning in Technology. The provision of access to such opportunities
should not discriminate against any learner (e.g. because of gender or disability).

The achievement of this Learning Outcome will ensure that learners are aware of:
 indigenous technology and culture: changes in technology over time, indigenous solutions to
problems, cultural influences;
 impacts of technology: how technology has benefited or been detrimental to society and the
environment; and
 biases created by technology: the influences of technology on values, attitudes and behaviours
(e.g. around gender, race, ethics, religion and culture).

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2.3.3 Features of Technology

CONTENT:

knowledge
skills
attitudes and values

Resource Tasks PROJECTS METHODOLOGY
Capabillity Tasks AND
Casetudy TASKS learner-centred approach

CONTEXT

One intention of Technology is to take the learners from the familiar to the unfamiliar. If you work
from the familiar to the unfamiliar, you can use your existing knowledge as you develop new skills and
vice versa. As the learners acquire knowledge and skills they will be able to identify and enhance the
skills needed to investigate and research unfamiliar areas.

 PROJECTS AND TASKS

Projects are developed naturally as learners explore each organiser. There are many different ways of
approaching material in Technology, but the following types of tasks are common to most materials:

 Resource tasks
 Capability tasks
 Case study

Resource tasks are the short, structured tasks which equip learner’s fir the design process. They are a
means to an end. They cannot be classed as complete Technology Education because they are planned
and presented by the teacher. Every learner has to work in a similar way in order to master the task.

Case study are also generally short, structured task which, like the resource tasks:
 Aim to link learning in schools with technological experience in the wider community.
 Should provide a vehicle for examine the ethical, social and environmental issues related to
the development of technology and its applications.

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Capability tasks are entire Technology activities which:
 Are more holistic
 Have active and reflective learning
 Follow the steps in the design process
 Are not demonstrated by the teacher
 Do not have predetermined outcomes
 Allow for individual input and open-ended tasks.

Technology projects consist of a series of case study tasks, resource tasks and capability tasks, but
many short activities can be included to cover a range of technological experiences.

 CONTENT

The content of Technology can be divided into knowledge, skills and attitudes and values.

Knowledge

Our knowledge of materials enables us to select suitable materials for a project. We need to know
what things are made of and why they are made of that material. Energy and power are important
concepts and learners need to know which forms of energy are useful and appropriate in different
contexts. Learners may also need to use energy and power to manufacture articles and to drive them
after they have been built.

We need to find and use information to successfully complete Technology projects. This research
component is crucial in fully exploring and developing solutions. Safety knowledge is essential in
Technology. Learners will work with equipment which can be dangerous and they need to know what
to do to keep themselves and others, as well as the equipment, safe.

Skills

In Technology the skills base includes far more than the motor skills needed to use a hacksaw correctly.
Here are some of the skills that can be developed in Technology.

 Finding and solving problems
Unless a problem has been identified, it clearly cannot be solved. To begin with the teacher can set
the problem, but as the learners become more independent, they will want to find and solve problems
on their own. Finding problems involves a particular way of looking at the environment and its
systems. The more carefully you look, the more opportunities you will find for improvement.

 Investigating and researching
Learners should realise that a single resource book (or person) does not have all the solutions.
Knowing where to find information, whether in a library, from people in the community, from local

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businesses, on the Internet, or in an experiment, is an essential life skill that is encouraged and
developed as learners work through the pack.

 Analysing (to take apart) and synthesising (to put together)
Analysis is a key skill if you want to look beyond the superficial to the core of a problem. Hand-on
Technology encourages learners to analyse problems thoroughly by posing structured and guided
questions. Once you have analysed the problem you have to be able to synthesise to develop a
solution. In order to develop a solution, you need to break the problem down (analyse). Once you
have this information, you have a clearer view of the problem and can begin to put the information
that you have gathered together (synthesise) in order to develop a solution.

 Communication
Learners need to be able to relate ideas verbally, graphically or in written. They can then benefit from
another person’s opinion of their work. Communication with the self and others is essential in helping
to develop and record ideas.

 Decision making
Learners should know when and where decisions need to be made and then take the decisions so that
they can develop their designs.

 Making and processing
Learners should be able to use to make the product which they have designed.

 Creative and lateral thinking
Learners will have to apply the appropriate creative thinking techniques to help them solve problems.

 Entrepreneurial skills
Learners have to realise that the question of money, as a motivating factor in innovation, cannot be
separated from what they are doing.

 Time keeping
Learners have to make sure that tasks and projects are completed within the time given. In real life,
problems do not exist in a vacuum and they often have to be solved quickly if the solution is to be
effective.

 Resource management
Learners have to ensure that they can complete their projects using the resources available to them.
They need to learn not to waste resources and not to use expensive material when cheaper ones are
more appropriate.

 Working in groups
Learners should be taught to interact constructively in group situations.

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 Assessing
Learners should be able to assess their own work and the work of other in a constructive way. This
will also help them become more discerning consumers.

Attitudes and values

The content of Technology is also concerned with identifying and enhancing certain attitudes and
values. Learners should adopt a responsible attitude towards their own learning while working as
responsible and active members of a group. You can increase learners’ self-confidence by showing
them how to succeed. Concentrate on what they can do, instead of what they cannot do. Confidence
and willingness to tackle any problem helps learners to develop an enterprising attitude towards
technology, people and life itself.

 CONTEXT

The material you teach should be relevant to and appropriate for the learners. You will need to select
cards and tasks which suit your particular community and resources. Technology should combine
opportunity with guidance. The opportunities are set within contexts that are relevant to the learners
at that time. They way in which the subject is approached in one part of the country may therefore be
quite different to the way in which it is approached in another. But although the context can change,
the concepts remain common.

Relevant material will motivate learners and this will guarantee that learners develop positive work
habits and that they achieve results of a high standard. You will need to be particularly careful when
selecting extension activities as these are designed to challenge learners. Select activities which will
encourage the learners to explore the topic in more detail but that are appropriate and possible in
your particular context – a research task which requires library facilities will be frustrating and futile if
no library is available to the learners.

 METHODOLOGY

Learner-centred approach
The methodology used in Technology follows a learner-centred approach. For the learners this means
that they have to take an increasing measure of responsibility for their learning and that the learning
is fully interactive.
For the teacher it means that as the learners begin to acquire and use new skills, the teacher
essentially becomes a facilitator

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Activity 4: Technological Literary

Technology has existed throughout history. People use the combination of knowledge, skills
and available resources to develop solutions that meet their daily needs and wants. Briefly
discuss what you understand by “technological literacy” and its importance.

2.3.4 MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT TECHNOLOGY

Because Technology is a new learning area, some people may have misconceptions regarding what
Technology means.
Technology is NOT only for boys
Perhaps this misunderstanding comes from the misconception that Technology is simply woodwork,
metalwork and technical drawing all tied together and packaged under a new title. As these subjects
were predominantly taught to boys some people think the same is true for Technology. Technology is
for boys and girls. This is an important understanding. South Africa needs creative and competent
citizens of both gender.
Technology is NOT just vocational training
Technology does not aim to simply train learners to become artisans or technicians. The aim is rather
to teach learners general problem-solving and life skills which they can use in all aspects for their life.
Technology can teach learners some of these skills needed for the professions they will need
eventually enter to, but more importantly, it will teach learners about the attitudes and values which
they will need for the world of work.

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Technology is NOT only about computers
Computers can form part of a complete Technology syllabus, but we are not only interested in
computer technology. Where learners do have access to computers and computer technology these
can serve as a valuable tool for developing solutions, finding information and communicating results.
It is important that you and the other staff members reach consensus and develop your own
understandings of what Technology will be in your school. Once you have done this you could
communicate your definition to parents and learners, this often goes a long way towards dispelling
some of the misunderstanding that people have regarding Technology

2.4 Applying the design process

At the heart of this process is the identification of everyday problems, needs or wants of people, and
the selection and application of appropriate resources, knowledge, skills and values. It takes care of
the impact solutions might have on the environment and people; to develop practical solutions to be
used for the identified problem, need or want. The design process encourages the development of
critical and creative thinking skills as learners need to come up with original ideas for the given
problem, need or want.
Technological activities and tasks provide opportunities for the development of fundamental
technological skills, and the reinforcement and application of those skills as set out in the critical
outcomes.

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Consider the following: Electrical Systems & Control

Processing: We could be trying to devise:
- more efficient ways to save energy;
We could be attempting:
- more efficient ways of extracting - electronic devices such as timers for
vitamins and fragrances; geysers;
- cost-effective ways of food- - combining electronics with mechanical
preservation; systems, e.g. to devise an electronic hedge
- textiles with more effective trimmer or dog feeder.
thermal properties.

Design process
known as:
IDMEC

Structures: Communication: Mechanical systems

We could be designing We could enrich the and control
structures that: quality of our
-use less material but are communication by We could be trying to
stronger; incorporating devise more:
-are more safe and stable; technologies (computers, - efficient sliding doors.
-use recycled material to audio visual, etc.), - efficient and safe tools
save our natural resources. photographs, video and machines to use.
recordings, simulations,
etc., in our presentations.

Problem Solving Methodology

To realise or meet any of the above mentioned real - Iife or simulated challenges we need to draw on
more than our traditional competence in practical subjects, mathematics and science: we need to
apply knowledge with understanding and we need the capability to apply the knowledge.

That is what we do in Technology. That is what Technology does well.

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Investigate

The nature of problem solving requires the use of investigative skills. These should, wherever possible,
be located in authentic context. Before attempting to solve a problem, or satisfy needs, or respond to
opportunities it is important to analyse the situation to sort out exactly what it is about before
suggesting a solution. This will require research to gain information that will make the way forward
easier. The form that this research takes will vary in terms of its intended use, i.e. is it for suggesting
a solution? Is it for gathering data and information? Is it for understanding concepts or gaining insight,
etc.? Specific skills will be employed during this phase, viz. information-processing skills, recording,
identifying, prediction, comparing, observation, classification, interpretation, collation.

Design

Having researched the problem a good understanding of what is required and a clearer understanding
of the design limits can be achieved. Once the problem is fully understood, the next step is to write a
design brief. A design brief is a short statement giving the general outline of the problem to be solved.
However design briefs often contain specifications and constraints. Specifications outline specific
details of the design of the product or system, which must be satisfied, e.g. size, material, function,
etc. Constraints on the other hand outline the limits within which the work must be done e.g. time,
materials, tool, human resource, cost, etc. Possible solutions should now be considered. These ideas
may be drawn on paper or stored in an appropriate form. The first idea may not necessarily be the
best; so several different designs are desirable. This stage requires an awareness of the factors which
impact on good design such as ergonomics, aesthetics, cost, fit for purpose, durability, etc., as well as
the knowledge and skills associated with graphics, such as the use of colour, rending techniques, 2D
and 3D drawings, etc. These in essence include competencies in planning, drawing, sketching,
calculating, modelling, simulating, etc. Once possible solutions are available a decision must be made.
A choice needs to be made and ideally, the chosen solution will be the one which best satisfies the
specification and addresses the problem, need, want or opportunity It is expected that learners justify
choices made. At this stage, final drawings/sketches (working drawings) of the chosen design should
be prepared. They should contain all the details needed for making the product or system. These
include instructions, dimensions, annotated notes, etc. The design stage also makes provisions for
designing, testing, simulating or modelling the solutions before final manufacture.

Realise

This stage of the technological process provides opportunities to develop manipulative skills related
to the handling and use of tools, equipment and materials. It involves building, testing and modifying
a product or system to satisfy design specifications. This stage in essence requires learners to e.g. cut,
join, shape, finish, form, combine, assemble, measure, mark, separate, mix, etc. Making the product
to satisfy the problem, need, want or opportunity should be in accordance to the designs. Learners
must apply and adhere to health and safety rules and regulations.

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Evaluate
Throughout the technological process, learners need to evaluate actions, decisions and results.
Learners need to be able to critically evaluate products or system for effectiveness and the process
followed, and must be in a position to suggest changes or improvements if necessary. Evaluation must
not be confined to the product or system of the learner, but, instead must be taken to include
products, systems, and processes in existence, such as mechanical, electrical, manufacturing, service,
etc. in the real world it is often the evaluating of existing products that prompts technological
opportunities. All evaluation must be done against criteria that may be given or self-generated. This
stage requires the use of probing questions, fair test, analysis, etc.

Record and Communicate
To be able to communicate the processes engaged in, the learner needs to develop skills to note I
record store data, information, etc., and possess the skills necessary to retrieve and communicate this.
The modes of storage, retrieval and presentation could be electronic, audio, visual, oral, written or
graphic. A record must be developed on the project (Project Portfolio). It represents the evidence of
the processes followed and confirms certain capabilities in any given module, i.e. the ability to analyse,
investigate, plan, design, evaluate and communicate.

Indication of the skills that need to be taught through the process

Skills Key concepts Indicators
This will be evident when learners:
Investigating Research Collect, record, identify, analyse, question, predict,
Information processing communicate, compare, observe,
listen, classify, interpret, arrange, calculate,
Designing collate, use, etc.
This will be evident when learners:
Principles of design Plan, draw, sketch, calculate, test, investigate,
Designing communicate, illustrate, model, modify, experiment,
consider, compare, evaluate, choose, accept, reject, apply,
Realising Time management indemnify, use, etc.
Resource This will be evident when learners:
Management Create, use, develop, cut, join, shape, finish, construct,
Manual skills form, combine, assemble, test, modify, measure, mark,
Safety separate, model, produce, sequence, handle, make,
organise, explore, arrange, mix, process, etc.
Evaluating Criterion referencing This will be evident when learners:
Test, compare, modify, recommend, analyse, select,
Recording and Presenting ideas, justify, predict, criticise,
information and etc.
Communicating process This will be evident when learners:
Present, discuss, describe, record, talk (including Braille
and sign language), etc

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2.5 Glossary

Technology: the satisfaction of human needs and wants by a process of designing, making and
using/evaluating products or processes, through the use of knowledge, skills and resources.

Technology Education includes technological knowledge and skills. As well as technological processes
and the impact of technology on both the individual and society. It is ultimately designed to promote
the capability of the pupil to effectively perform in the technological environment he lives in, and to
stimulate him to contribute towards its improvement.

This capability shall be reflected in:
The effective use of technological products and systems.
The ability to evaluate technological products from the functional, economic, environmental and
aesthetic points of view.
The ability to design and built independently some simple products, which fulfil certain requirements
defined either by the pupil himself/herself or by others.

Technological processes: designing, making and using / evaluating

Problem-solving: the process that leads from a problem to a solution. Two important examples in
Technology are: designing and trouble shooting. Activities within the problem-solving process are:
defining and analysing the problem; thinking up possible solutions; testing solutions; assessing the
solutions.

Designing: the process that starts with a human need/want and ends with a proposed solution for
that need/want that can be produced. This process involves the following activities:
Identifying and exploring / analysing the need/want resulting in a list of requirements.
Thinking up possible solutions (preferably several, making use of previous experiences and solutions
for previous and/or similar design problems.
Selecting a solution (if suitable, by building and testing prototypes).
Further elaboration of the chosen solution in detail.
Documentation and preparing production.

The order of these activities will depend on the specific design problem and on the designer’s working
habits. Designing is an example of problem-solving.

Making: taking materials, energy and information and converting them into a product and waste
(waste production should be reduced as much as possible). Making can be done by hand, machine or
by automation. Basic making processes are: forming (e.g. cutting), covering (e.g. painting) and
changing internal material properties (e.g. baking).

Using: operating a product in a way so that it fulfils its function. In several cases special abilities are
needed for this (e.g. handling a video recorder or a computer). Using may also comprise: maintaining
and repairing.

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Evaluating: comparing the way the product functions with its specifications and deciding to what
extent the requirements are fulfil by the product.
System: a set of parts to work together to fulfil a function. The system is determined by its input,
process and output. The system consists of sub-systems, which fulfil sub-functions.
Technological systems: a system, in which the input consists of materials, energy and/or information
and by a process it is converted into an output that again consists of materials, energy and/or
information. Basic processes in technological systems are: storing/retrieving, separating/connecting,
transporting, transmitting/receiving, converting. These basic processes can be carried out with
materials as well as energy as well as information. Example: hot water boiler. Input: cold water
(material), water (energy), temperature of the water (can be measured or indicated by a warning
lamp: information). Basic process: storing/retrieving (water), transforming (electrical energy into
heat). Subsystems: reservoir, heating element, cord and plug, warning lamp, switch.
Technological literacy: the skills and knowledge, necessary to use and assess technological products
that have become part of the culture in which one lives.
Entrepreneurial attitudes / skills: the willingness to take risks while setting up and managing a
business and the ability to do that successfully.

2.6 Conclusion

This unit has offered you deepened insight in Technology Education and its origins; an increased
appreciation of the impact of technology in the world; the purpose of Technology Education and its
interaction with other subjects; the essence of this subject and its clear links with the Further
Education and Training Band for informed career choices.

2.7 Compulsory Reading

 RSA DoE (Republic of South Africa. Department of Basic Education). 2011.
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement Senior Phase Grade 7 – 9 Technology
Pretoria: Department of Basic Education

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From Policy to Lesson Plan

Outcomes

On completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the meaning of the concepts “curriculum” and “policy”, and how curriculum
guidance or mandates are conveyed in official curriculum policies.
 Make sense of the requirements of curriculum policies for teaching and learning practice by
unpacking and unwrapping the CAPS for Technology as well as policies on good teaching
practise
 Identify different work schemes formats
 Identify different lesson plans
 Identify e-tools for work scheme and lesson planning
 The use of Google for work scheme and lesson planning

3.1 Introduction

Good manual skills do not guarantee good teaching methods. They are certainly not a prerequisite
for a lecturer to be successful. While manual skills are important, well thought-out steps and
planning during the presentation process are just as essential.

What is an effective lesson?

An effective lesson is where students reach their goals and objectives that were set out for the
particular lesson. It is not one in which everything goes exactly as planned, but one in which both
students and lecturer learn from each other.

3.2 Course and Lesson Planning

3.2.1 Guidelines for a successful lesson

The number of students in the class is a very important factor. Whenever material is used in practical
lessons the lecturer should get everything ready in advance. If there are not enough materials, the
class may become restless and disciplinary problems can arise.

Check beforehand on the general condition of the tools to be used. Check the practical room before
the lesson to see whether there will be enough tools and that everything needed for the lesson is in
good working condition.

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When planning and describing the design brief, take the available tools into account. This is very
important. If there are not enough tools, students will have to wait for one another to finish. This can
have a detrimental effect on the success of the lesson.

The students’ general level of development is very important, especially in South African classrooms.

Pay attention to aspects such as
 evaluating the students continuously;
 checking completed work to assess the progress of individual students;
 keeping progress reports and schemes up to date.

If the students are divided into groups, make sure that the groups
 are not too large – no more than five or six per group;
 are carefully selected so that problem cases are separated;
 have suitable leaders who can manage the group’s organisation and presentation.

The lecturer is responsible for ensuring that all members of the group participate in the discussions.
If this is not handled correctly, it is clear that less able students will not develop or perform as well as
the lecturer would like them to. One way of ensuring proper group participation is for the lecturer to
rotate the group leaders regularly. The intention is to develop all aspects of a student. In order to
develop personal skills, every group member must be given an opportunity to put the results of
discussions into words. To prevent problems arising from group discussions, tell the students to keep
their discussions to themselves so that the other groups can’t hear them and “steal” their ideas.
Use fast competent students for demonstrations and work sessions to help those who are less able.
This will also help the fast students to acquire other skills and introduce a measure of differentiation
in the class.

Technology lessons need to be very well planned and structured. If this is not done, the lessons may
become unmanageable. In any technology lesson

 the students must know what stage of the technological process they are doing at any given
moment (write it on the board);

 the task must be written out in detail to prevent omission or repetition of important facts (of
increasing importance as the size of the class increases);

 it is important to plan as thoroughly as possible in order to maintain standards, especially where
groups come from other classes or backgrounds.

The lecturer must practise a focused task in advance before demonstrating it to the students. If the
person in charge cannot handle it, call in qualified outsiders. A good demonstration promotes good
standards on the part of the students. The duration of the lesson is very important. A double period
a week is usually allocated for practical lessons and the person in charge should plan accordingly.
Certain circumstances will result in differentiation. Plan for diverse groups that accommodate various
cultures, genders, contexts, levels of development, gifted students and less able students. If there are

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students in the group who are disadvantaged in any respect and cannot master the work, start them
off with a case study to help them to discover the technological process.

They may not have the background to understand or apply the process in any other way.

 Allow the students to study the object carefully while you ask them well-prepared questions.
 Your first question should guide them to the purpose of the object, for example an alarm clock,

which is probably familiar to them.
 Try this method to get them to suggest a design proposal.
 Guide them to the design of the existing product and ask them to suggest and sketch possible

variations on the design.
 Discuss the material used for making the product and guide the students to the most suitable

material.
 Discuss the purpose and drawing up of specifications.
 Allow students to dismantle and discuss the existing product, and encourage them to suggest

modifications. Their creativity is stimulated by moving from the known to the unknown.
 Draw the students’ attention to the way in which the wires are connected and use this as means

of guiding them to a focused task on soldering. If it is handled in this way, the chances are that
they will understand the purpose of soldering, as opposed to a project where they have to perform
the focused task without understanding why.
 Deal with the making process of the focused task and guide them through the technological
process.
 For the final evaluation continue to guide the students by asking questions and then introduce
them to the full technological process at the end.
 Depict the process in a practical and concrete manner.

3.2.2 Aspects to keep in mind

 Projects
Decide on the number of projects that will need to be done in order to cover the content. Projects
provide a structure for learning and indicate which sections of the content should be taught as part of
a complete activity. Tasks offer some flexibility and schools will be able to match tasks to the interests,
needs and capabilities of their students.

Projects should include focused tasks, capability tasks and case studies. A project can take anything
from two months to a year to complete.

 Curriculum management
Technology should be allocated between two and three hours a week in the broad curriculum of a
school. Traditional subjects catered for in the new learning area of Technology are handwork,
technical subjects, art, and library or media guidance and information technology (computers).

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 Allowing for individual differences
Elizabeth Thompson’s study on individuality and the lecturer’s role (in Tickle, 1990) highlights other
important dimensions to Technology. Lecturers must allow for individuality and originality.

Individuality is the student’s personal way of working and tackling a given problem while originality is
the use of the student’s own ideas, rather than those of the lecturer.
It is important to consider the way an individual student learns as opposed to the teaching methods
used to develop the individuality of each student.

 Is there a difference between a mature adult’s conception of a problem and its solution, and the
responses of individual students?

 Is the student’s originality and individuality restricted by a lack of life skills, including manual and
cognitive skills?

 What skills and how much technical instruction do students need to reach their own solution?
 What must the lecturer do to promote the best conditions for developing individuality and

originality in students? How do the students acquire the necessary life skills?

Again the question of when to intervene or not arises. Without facilitation in the form of guidance,
instruction and direction the learning process is severely handicapped. Students left to them will often
repeat endlessly and hopelessly the same formalised image or chaotic mess. Facilitation is needed to
set things in motion.

If the lecturer simply allows freedom of action, the risk that the student will learn nothing at all is
great. Controlled facilitation is essential. Unless the student has had the required training and
developed skills, the inevitable result is confusion and frustration. In trying to overcome confusion
the lecturer may have to help the students so much that formal instruction in the first place might
have been a better option.
With guidance, direction and instruction the student’s originality and individuality and own personal
development may be stifled. There is the danger of the lecturer imposing pre-digested experience
and expectations. Excessive intervention may promote uniformity, dependence and acceptance.

Students need situations which provide for individual choice and initiative and allow them to feel a
sense of achievement in their own efforts. Students must be given the opportunity to act upon their
environment in the correct context with their present state of knowledge, even if they do not fully
understand their actions and they are not efficient. This is a crucial step in the educational process.

The opportunity to explore and investigate the unknown supports students’ efforts to think
independently. Students need to take chances, ask questions and see alternative routes.

 Developing skills and an individual approach
The teaching of skills is a priority. A student must acquire life skills and manual and cognitive skills to
develop the competence and confidence to realise a solution. Skills must be acquired before
beginning on any design activity.

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Students must learn to think for themselves and engage in their own exploration of materials in
carrying out a design idea. Students take an active role in their own learning.

Students must develop personal ways of working. For this to happen the learning situation should
offer a certain amount of freedom. The student must feel free to satisfy a personal work rhythm, a
personal approach to a problem and the making of a design.

The lecturer provides the materials and then stands back to allow the student to tackle a problem.
Students approach the problem in their own way, according to their own level of development.
Differentiation between groups will be noticeable. A student who conforms to the lecturer’s vision or
a sequentially directed formula derives little benefit. Students must be encouraged to think for
themselves. Classroom structure has an important effect on students’ behaviour. Highly structured
programmes, facilitated attention to tasks and conformity to adult expectations are not conducive to
the development of self-directed and independent efforts or to learning skills in new situations and
mastering cognitive and motor skills.

 Focusing on the process
The lecturer should guard against placing too much emphasis on the product. It is the process that is
important.
If the group has to produce a stereotyped “model”, the process is directed too radically, the product
is too defined and the group becomes more concerned with the tangible results than the learning that
takes place. If the design brief is too definite, the student’s imagination is restricted and the choices
and opportunities are limited.

When the lecturer acts as the arbiter and judge rather than the catalyst and inspirer, the emphasis
will be on instructional directing and didactic imparting of knowledge and skills. Students are unlikely
to develop the confidence to make anything of their own.
Thinking should be done by the student and not by the lecturer. If the lecturer does all the planning
and comes up with all the ideas, the students simply become puppets carrying out commands.

The actions of the lecturer can stifle free expression in a classroom. A lecturer who has too clear a
picture of the end product in mind may subvert all deviations students make in their design and stifle
the student’s creativity. The products will then resemble the lecturer’s ideas.
Never anticipate the results of a task. A lecturer who conveys prejudices runs the risk of imparting
false values.

 The whole curriculum
According to David Arnold activities should reflect the needs of young people. When students leave
school, they will meet a variety of problems in the home, at work and at leisure, many of which may
involve the use of materials.
In some situations they will act as designers or producers; in other they will be consumers or users. In
all situations they must be able to obtain, explore and analyse relevant information, to define
problems in realistic terms, to formulate solutions of their own and to apply rational judgement to the
solutions proposed for them by others.

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They will also need skills and techniques for implementing solutions and assessing how well they have
performed. In order to learn how to apply problem-solving techniques and express themselves in later
life.

 Students must participate in the learning process directly.
 Students must apply their own experience to provide a source of information.
 Lecturers and students must find themselves in a new partnership and learn together.

Technology enables students to contribute actively, through their own decisions and practical
activities, to the development of their own social, industrial and material environment.

 Think of the problem and not the solution
If students are going to be really creative then thy must address real and original problems. If a
problem is set and a solution emerges very quickly, then it is most probably because the students
recognise the problem as something they have already seen and their solution is really little more than
a re-hash of something they have experienced before.

If, for example, you ask a group of students to get five coins across a room using limited resources and
a certain energy supply then that allows them to define the problem and explore a range of possible
solutions. If, however, you say they must design a vehicle to get the coins across to the other side of
the room, then the problem is more limited. By mentioning a vehicle, the students have already been
given part of the solution and they will be less likely to explore more creative ways of transporting the
coins.

Think about this idea some more. Imagine you were asked to design a toothbrush. We all know what
toothbrushes look like, and the present design works well. Because we know this, it is unlikely that
our solutions will be radically different from existing toothbrushes. However, if the problem was
posed differently your solution might be very different. Imagine you are working with lions and
leopards and that you need to design a tooth cleaning system which can be used on these animals –
immediately, you need to think about the problem differently!

 Timing
Can you do what you want in the time available? This is a common question on the task cards. This
is very important, because if you cannot, then an alternative route needs to be planned.

One way to limit problems connected with time and manufacture is to encourage the students to keep
their ideas simple. It is not clever to over-elaborate; in fact it causes many problems not only for
students in their work, but also in industry.

Simple solutions are often the most appropriate and effective. Think back to the tooth cleaning
system. You could develop an elaborate and expensive gadget or machine to clean the animals’ teeth,
but a better solution might simply be to wrap their food in fibre which would act like the bristles of a
toothbrush and clean their teeth.

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 Getting people on your side
It is an important part to communicate exactly what you are trying to achieve in order to gain the
confidence and support of the staff and parents. Once these people understand what the subject is
about, they can help you reach the people in industry and business.

Industry and business can supply some of the knowledge and resources we need.
Accessing these resources may not be easy, but it is well worth doing if you are looking to take learning
away from the textbook and into the real world.

3.2.3 Knowing yourself and your students

Before the actual planning and delivery of a lesson it is important for the lecturer to know him/herself.
Parker Palmer, in his book The Courage to Teach, explores the notions of our teaching persona and
personal teaching philosophy by raising four questions that he believes underlie the on-going dialogue
about what comprises good teaching and learning. The first two are the typical questions asked in
teacher training and professional development programs. These are the questions of the “what” and
‘how” of I teaching—the content to be taught, our subject matter, and the best methods and
techniques needed to teach this material. However, Palmer proposes we learn to ask two further
questions. These are questions of the “why” and “who” of teaching, which reside at a significantly
deeper level, as they concern how we personally define the purposes of our teaching and our roles as
educators.

Whether you are an experienced instructor or new, full-time or part-time, articulating your individual
teaching philosophy provides the foundation for clarifying goals and guiding your behaviour in the
classroom each day by describing your identity as a lecturer. It also is a necessary step in learning how
to effectively improve your teaching practice.

We have suggested that it would be helpful to make your teaching beliefs and values explicit by
possibly taking an inventory of your teaching goals and beliefs and writing a formal statement of your
teaching perspective. However, you can also go about exploring your identity as a lecturer more
informally and begin with the simple question, “Why am I teaching?” as a foundation for the “what”
and “how” of your teaching.

Rather than trying to come to a definitive response, simply allow the answer to evolve over time
through day-to-day reflections. Once you are clear about the “why,” the “what” and “how,” which we
explore in the remainder of this text, will more easily make sense and fall into place and hopefully lead
to a natural unfolding of the knowledge of what makes for effective teaching, and the wisdom of what
it means to be an effective great lecturer.

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Assignment 3: Teaching and learning style

A very good exercise to see who you really are and what your outlook is about teaching, is to
complete the two personal surveys in unit 1. This will get an overview on your teaching style
and what important is to you about teaching.

Now that you have done that, chose a group of learners and let them complete the Learning
Styles inventory on the following URL and obtain their scores by means of the self-scoring
worksheet.

http://www.whatismylearningstyle.com/learning-style-test-2.html

Write a critical reflection on the results to share with the class/group during our contact
session. Highlight clearly how you would align your teaching goals and your teaching style to
meet the learning styles of your learners. The assessment of this task will be based on peer
and facilitator assessment.

3.2.4 Learning without Limits

Teaching with technology can deepen student learning by supporting instructional objectives.
However, it can be challenging to select the “best” tech tools while not losing sight of your goals for
student learning. Once identified, integrating those tools can itself be a challenge albeit an eye-
opening experience.

Technology ushers in fundamental structural changes that can be integral to achieving significant
improvements in productivity. Used to support both teaching and learning, technology infuses
classrooms with digital learning tools, such as computers and hand held devices; expands course
offerings, experiences, and learning materials; supports learning 24 hours a day, 7 days a week; builds
21st century skills; increases student engagement and motivation; and accelerates learning.
Technology also has the power to transform teaching by ushering in a new model of connected
teaching. This model links teachers to their students and to professional content, resources, and
systems to help them improve their own instruction and personalize learning.

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Online learning opportunities and the use of open educational resources and other technologies can
increase educational productivity by accelerating the rate of learning; reducing costs associated with
instructional materials or program delivery; and better utilizing teacher time.

3.3 Teaching methods to consider

3.3.1 A demonstration lesson in technology

Have all tools and materials ready before the students enter the room.
Arrange everything in a logical sequence on the demonstration bench. Make sure that nothing is
missing as this can cause problems if you have a large class waiting for you.
In the case of mixed groups of boys and girls give some thought to the selection of groups.
Don’t allow an all-boy or all-girl group.

Other guidelines that are worth thinking about:
 Separate the know ringleaders.
 Appoint a group leader to present the final outcome of discussions.
 Rotate the leaders regularly, since the primary function of the technological process is to

develop each student.
 See that all members of the group co-operate and participate.
 Encourage groups to keep their voices down so that the other groups can’t overhear and “steal”

their ideas.
 Write down all information collected in an organised way so that it can serve as a data base.
 Groups of five or six students work best in mixed schools.
 It is not always necessary to choose groups. Sometimes it is a good idea for the lecturer simply

to select specific rows to work together.

When demonstrating a focused task to students, it is a good idea to use the same material and tools
that the students will need for their work later. This builds confidence. Always keep the purpose of
your lesson in mind.
Allow the students to touch, examine and discuss the demonstration piece from time to time.
Consolidate each step of your demonstration by asking questions. Although the presentation of the
learning matter is very important, the way the students relate to it is the main concern. Students
must make notes in their portfolios, where necessary. Guide students by asking relevant questions
to that they can make realistic decisions. Distinguish between important and unimportant facts.

Many South African classrooms today reflect a variety of cultures and languages. The lecturer must
always try to ensure that all the students understand the tasks.

 Make sure that your body language does not convey the wrong impression.
 Emphasise the handling of the tool you are using at any given moment and involve the students

in the handling.

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 Stick to the point and ensure that the work is presented in a logical sequence.
 Aim for co-operation and a good attitude in the classroom, but don’t sacrifice your integrity for

the sake of popularity.

Make rough, clear sketches on the board to point out any process that may go wrong. Examples are
a poorly soldered joint, a mortise joint where the shoulders are unequal, a mechanism that moves
wrongly, etc.
A good demonstration promotes a high standard. Try to ensure that your demonstration is
effectively done.

During your presentation and/or demonstration ask lots of questions. Group the facts and
summarise them. Make provision for breaks and vary the presentation so that the class does not
become bored.

Remain calm and show self-confidence in the classroom. Never boast about your demonstration
and don’t compare it with the performance of less able students. However, do praise good work
produced by students, especially when they have worked extremely hard. Show your appreciation
of honest efforts even if they are not completely successful.
Encourage the students to do better next time.
Never use a student’s work for your demonstration. This can cause problems:
 The other students become jealous of the student whose work you are using.
 The student may feel deprived of the opportunity to try the task independently.

Follow up each demonstration by summarising or recapitulating with individual groups. Unless this
is done regularly, problems may result. On leaving the demonstration bench, students may not
know what they are expected to do. They then ask their classmates for help and things can get out
of control. The information passed on informally in this way may be inaccurate and the lecturer will
have to spend a lot of time sorting out the confusion.

Remember to vary the pace and method of presentation. Pay individual attention to each student.
Ask questions and group and summarise facts. Give the students clear and definite instructions,
orally or in writing, before they leave the demonstration bench.
 Make sure that all the students understand what they have to do; otherwise there will be

problems.
 Encourage the students to think for themselves. Do not feed them a whole lot of facts to

memorise. Curriculum 2005 is student centred, not content driven.
 Allow enough time for students to take in the information; don’t rush through the work.

Although you want to see some progress, your presentation should be thoroughly planned.

 Vary your approach and method of presentation to stimulate the students and retain their
interest.

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Handle apparatus such as the overhead projector correctly. The needs will be determined by the
various groups involved. The lecturer must get to know the groups well and what is required in each
case.

Do not follow a standard pattern for every lesson. Alternate your media regularly.

3.3.2 Teaching the whole class

1 Exposition

As soon as you have more than one person to teach, you need to consider the range of aptitudes,
different levels of understanding and variations in motivation of different pupils in the class.
Exposition – the lecturer standing at the front and talking to the whole group – is sometimes
denigrated as ‘just chalk-and-talk’, which does little to address the individual needs of the pupils. It
is, however very effective and efficient in the following circumstances:

 giving a stimulus or setting the context for a topic, for example, this might involve the use of a
video, other audio-visual materials or demonstration and class discussion

 demonstrating a technique or process
 using a question-and-answer session to motivate the groups or to allow groups to inform each

other
 setting general goals of what you hope the class will achieve by the end of the session
 stressing points of safety
 preparing for a visit or the reception of a visitor
 rounding off a topic and preparing for the evaluation and display of the work.
When exposition is used, ensure that it is not a lecture: interact with the class by asking questions
and encouraging them to give their ideas and opinions. Eye contact is essential to check that all are
paying attention and that questions are being posed which challenge but do not baffle the pupils.
Exposition is also most used at the beginning and ending of lessons to help establish lecturer control
of the group. Workrooms in schools are generally very safe environments and it is the duty of all of
us to ensure that this is the case. Strategies for managing pupils are discussed later.

2 Demonstrations

A demonstration need not be a whole-class activity; sometimes it is better to demonstrate a particular
technique or process to a small group or an individual who happens to need that skill. However, in
balancing broader tasks, to encourage technological capability, and with focused tasks, to give specific
knowledge and skills, a whole-class demonstration may be the most straightforward course of action.
The best way to ensure you give a confident and accurate demonstration in private and ask a colleague
to help you get it right, particularly if the technique is new or unfamiliar. Only by rehearsing the
demonstration is it possible to ensure that it can be done and that there are no difficulties with the

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school’s tools or equipment, either in supply or in use. It will also give you an idea of how long the
demonstration will take.
Before carrying out the demonstration, organise the components and materials in advance. Make
sure that the bench or table surface is cleared as other items can obscure pupils’ view and are
distracting. Place the items you will need close by you and in a logical order.
All demonstrations should be:

 clearly visible to everyone; if it cannot be seen by the whole class split the group into smaller units
 competently performed and clearly explained so that the pupils understand why they are being

shown the technique and how to carry it out themselves
 interestingly executed to keep everyone’s attention.

When performing the demonstration, keep the pupils involved. Make sure that they are close enough
to see what is happening, but are not in a position to interfere with the demonstration’s
arrangements. Occasionally a pupil will need to be on the lecturer’s side of the table to see and
interpret the demonstration from the same point of view, but this is the exception rather than the
rule. Question the pupils about the materials or components and ask them to link the procedure to
similar processes they might have seen before. Discuss what is being done and use diagrams, on an
overhead projector or board, to help explain any important or intricate points. A good way to keep
pupils involved is to ask individuals to help. They can pass items, take readings if appropriate, and
repeat certain tasks or techniques which have just been shown. The pupils can also suggest what
should be done next and perhaps use a check list to keep track of the sequence.
At the end of a demonstration, summarise the important points and then control the pupils’ return to
their workplace. It is obviously a good idea for them to use the technique as soon as possible after
the demonstration to reinforce what has been shown, so try to leave enough time for this and circulate
around the class to help where necessary.

It is important that you encourage pupils to become independent students and to consider a variety
of ways of gaining knowledge and skills, rather than simply looking on you as the fount of all
knowledge. it could be argued that technology projects require so wide a range of knowledge and
understanding that one lecturer could never hope to supply all that is needed. The individual needs
of project work may also reduce the appropriateness of whole-class teaching, but when it is used well
it can generate enthusiasm, give a topic a sense of direction, and be efficient in both lecturer and pupil
time. Most importantly, perhaps, whole-class teaching can give a ‘group identity’ to help pupils feel
they belong.

3.3.3 Teaching using group work

Despite the rhetoric, it is not often that you will see group work in design and technology. Design and
technology lecturers like each pupil to make a product that ‘they are proud of and want to take home
to show off’, yet this laudable aim often results in a teaching style that neglects the wider issues and
focuses on the opinions of the individual. It is also in marked contrast to the group nature of
technology projects outside the school workshop or classroom.

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Group work is valuable in encouraging co-operative work in planning, sharing responsibility and
allocating tasks, and in fostering teamwork. Care has to be exercised, if a group activity is to be
assessed, in giving credit for different aspects of the project to the appropriate pupils. Group work
need not only be for practical tasks, however, and group discussion is a valuable way for pupils to
consider a wide range of issues. Whatever the aims for group work a few points need to be kept in
mind:

 Consider the composition of the groups carefully.
- Is friendship grouping the most appropriate?
- If not, what criteria should be used to form more effective groups?
- Is the grouping a temporary measure or a more permanent arrangement, which needs
monitoring?
-

 Ensure each group has short-term strategies to achieve long-term goals. This is best achieved by
visiting each group quickly once they have started, still keeping every group in view; the different
groups must know that their progress is being monitored even though the lecturer is principally
occupied in a different area of the room.

 Make sure all groups are kept busy and on task. If a group appears too rowdy or too many pupils
appear to be moving around on short excursions, check that it is to do with the organisation of
their task (see Denton, 1994)>

1 Group discussion

When designing, many people find it difficult to think up novel ideas. Discussion techniques can aid

creativity by allowing individuals to trigger ideas off each other. Brainstorming is one simple

technique, but organising groups for discussion or brainstorming ideas needs particular care. Pupils

do not always discuss well without help.

Establish rules of brainstorming:

 every suggestion is written down

 use words already on the sheet to spark off other ideas

 no one’s suggestion is discussed (initially)

 no one’s suggestion is ignored or ‘rubbished’. (STEP, 1993)

For younger secondary pupils an initial brainstorm of about five minutes is sufficient before the ideas
are developed and explored further. Later, as pupils become more experienced, a more flexible
approach may be possible. The techniques where students note ideas individually, then share them
with a partner, then in a group of four, and finally report to the whole group can work well. However,
the agenda for discussion needs to be tight and the time kept short, especially if pupils are not used
to this way of working.

Some of the particular benefits that small group discussion can bring are as follows:
 It enables pupils to contribute their own ideas to less threatening scrutiny before exposing them

to a wider audience.

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