TEGT4705 - STUDY NOTES

 Pooling ideas can help half-formed opinions to develop.
 It helps the values of different experiences and cultural groups to be considered.

Some occasions where discussion might be useful include:
 product evaluation
 problem identification
 ideas generation
 sorting out roles for a batch production simulation
 preparing a presentation for a group evaluation of an outcome
 exploring the values implicit in a technological solution.

The last point deserves elaboration. There is one aspect of technology education, which perhaps is
part of evaluation, where discussion work between pupils and between pupil and lecturer is especially
valuable. That is, in the consideration of the implications of technology on the community, economy
and environment. Such discussion is much more than brainstorming ideas, as pupils need to ponder
issues beyond the immediate need to develop the product in hand. The necessary quality of such
discussion, and its organisation by the pupils themselves, needs to be of a high order if it is to be
worthwhile and meaningful. For example, I was talking about an examination entry by a 16 year old
pupil with his lecturer. The pupil in question had designed and made a ‘panic alarm’ in case he was
attacked late at night. In a technical sense it was very well done with proper consideration of the
alarm’s weight, power supply, loudness and so on. If anyone had attacked that boy everyone would
have heard about it! However, was it the best solution to the problem? By not considering the wider
issues, e.g. few late-night buses or limited and poor street lighting, the solution was in some senses
restricted. It provided a partial solution to the youth’s problem but certainly did not reduce his fear,
in some ways the merely technical solution increased it!

Some lecturers have found it valuable for pupils to work out their own rules for discussion work. It is
clearly important to find out how much group discussion is already used in design and technology, and
other curriculum areas, before making a major organisational issue out of what might well be, for the
pupils, a routine learning strategy. However, if little discussion work is used, taking it forward within
an agreed framework in small steps is very desirable.

The following suggestions for the organisation of discussion work are adapted from the Science and
Technology in Society (SATIS) lecturers’ guide:

 Seating is important. The usual classroom arrangement, with the lecturer at the front facing the
students, encourages a flow of discussion from lecturer to pupils and back again, but discourages
communication between pupils. Wherever possible, discussion groups should be arranged so
everyone can see everyone else in the group. (In the final reporting-back arrangement, a circle of
seats is best. Although the conventional workshop or studio may make this difficult.)

 Discussion rarely goes well without an initial stimulus. SATIS units include many discussion
questions and stimuli, but there are plenty of other sources such as newspaper cuttings, pictures

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from magazines, a recent television programme, a provocate statement from the lecturer and so
on.
 The lecturer’s role is very important. He or she needs to avoid dominating the discussion,
remember that the lecturer’s views will carry disproportionate weight. Try to give support and
encouragement, and to draw out the quieter pupils.
 It is important to get the right atmosphere at the start. The lecturer needs to be enthusiastic,
lively and well organised.
(Association for Science Education, 1986, pp. 27 – 29)

3.3.4 Teaching individuals

Although pupils may share ideas, conduct investigations and brainstorm in groups, much of the
detailed production of designs and the making of a product is commonly carried out on an individual
basis. Teamwork is very important, particularly as it mirrors the way technology operates outside the
school, but lecturers always recognise the individual personal investment that pupils put into their
work. Pupils gain an enormous sense of personal satisfaction when they feel that their project is
worthwhile, but they may experience an equal degree of devastation and frustration when things go
wrong. The key to success is the correct matching of a pupil to an appropriate task and ensuring that
they have the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out what they want to do. It may seem obvious,
but a straightforward way to judge whether a particular design is too cautious or too ambitious for an
individual is to talk to them about it! With experience, the matching will be more accurate, but even
then a new group of pupils should be questioned about their ideas and plans.

The following are useful strategies when working with individuals:

 Visit each pupil while they are producing and evaluating designs to ensure they have thought
through the implications of what they wish to do.

 Encourage pupils to be self-reliant and think for themselves. Do not do the work for them. Give
them hints and ideas but encourage them to use the planning techniques and design tools, such
as image boards, to make their own decisions.

 Do not spend more time with pupils of one gender than the other; such action gives hidden
messages of relative importance (see Riggs. 1994). Catton reminds us that we, often unwittingly,
have different expectations of boys and girls with respect to the design and make process, and
that we should ‘(praise) girls for good ideas and practical work as well as neat drawing work. Praise
boys for neat drawing work as well as good ideas and practical work’ (Catton, 1985. p. 21).

Pupils will need individual help with making techniques and suggestions about procedures, especially
when things go wrong. The practical advice which turns a disaster into a triumph is particularly
welcome, but the need for such interventions can be reduced if attention is given to individuals when
they select their intended design. Go through the plan with the pupil, sitting next to them rather than
towering above them. Ensure that:

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 their working drawing of what they intend to do is understandable by all involved, including the
lecturer

 the plan is feasible in terms of materials, time and techniques which they possess or are likely to
be able to learn in the available time

 it builds on previous work to ensure progress but is not too risky and likely to fail.

The implications of the chosen strategy also need to be covered, for example, what are the rest of the
class dong while you are involved with an individual? Will the work hold their attention for the time
needed? Can they help themselves if they get stuck? These details need to be explained to the whole
class early in the lesson so that your discussion with an individual is not continually interrupted by
simple management queries. In detailed planning both the lecturer’s work and the pupils’ work need
to be considered at times throughout the lesson.

The second question is also important. The way a topic is taught can often have value-added spin-
offs, and technological capability requires a sophisticated range of teaching and learning strategies.
By choosing a range of techniques over the life of a project, you can balance the contributory elements
of technological education and teach not only the necessary knowledge and skills for practical
outcomes, but also promote consideration of the relevant social, environmental and economic issues
and constraints.

3.4 The role of Bloom’s Taxonomy

3.4.1 Introduction to Bloom's Taxonomy:

Bloom's Taxonomy was created by Benjamin
Bloom during the 1950s and is a way to
categorize the levels of reasoning skills
required in classroom situations. There are six
levels in the taxonomy, each requiring a
higher level of abstraction from the students.
As a teacher, you should attempt to move
students up the taxonomy as they progress in
their knowledge. Tests that are written solely
to assess knowledge are unfortunately very
common. However, to create thinkers as
opposed to students who simply recall
information, we must incorporate the higher
levels into lesson plans and tests.

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Knowledge:
In the knowledge level of Bloom's Taxonomy, questions are asked solely to test whether a student has
gained specific information from the lesson. For example, have they memorized the dates for a
particular war or do they know the presidents that served during specific eras in American History. It
also includes knowledge of the main ideas that are being taught. You are probably writing knowledge
questions when you use words like tell, list, label, name, etc.

Comprehension:
The comprehension level of Bloom's Taxonomy has students go past simply recalling facts and instead
has them understanding the information. With this level, they will be able to interpret the facts.
Instead of simply being able to name the various types of clouds, for example, the students would be
able to understand why each cloud has formed in that manner. You are probably writing
comprehension questions when you use words like describe, contrast, discuss, predict, etc.

Application:
Application questions are those where students have to actually apply, or use, the knowledge they
have learned. They might be asked to solve a problem with the information they have gained in class
being necessary to create a viable solution. For example, a student might be asked to solve a legal
question in an American Government class using the Constitution and its amendments. You are
probably writing application questions when you use words like complete, solve, examine, illustrate,
show, etc.

Analysis:
In the analysis level, students will be required to go beyond knowledge and application and actually
see patterns that they can use to analyse a problem. For example, an English teacher might ask what
the motives were behind the protagonist's actions during a novel. This requires students to analyse
the character and come to a conclusion based on this analysis. You are probably writing analysis
questions when you use words like analyse, explain, investigate, infer, etc.

Synthesis:
With synthesis, students are required to use the given facts to create new theories or make
predictions. They might have to pull in knowledge from multiple subjects and synthesize this
information before coming to a conclusion. For example, if a student is asked to invent a new product
or game they are being asked to synthesize. You are probably writing synthesis questions when you
use words like invent, imagine, create, compose, etc.

Evaluation:
The top level of Bloom's Taxonomy is evaluation. Here students are expected to assess information
and come to a conclusion such as its value or the bias behind it. For example, if a student is completing
a DBQ (Document Based Question) for an AP US History course, they are expected to evaluate the bias
behind any primary or secondary sources in order to see how that effects the points that the speaker
is making. You are probably writing evaluation questions when you use words like select, judge,
debate, recommend, etc.

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3.4.2 Things to Consider While Implementing Bloom's Taxonomy:

The reason that some lecturers fail to move students up the levels of Bloom's Taxonomy are many.
For example, a teacher might have low expectations concerning the students' abilities. This is just sad
and becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. Another reason might be that it can become difficult and time
consuming for the teacher. It is a complete truth that it is much easier to grade assignments based on
the lower levels than on the higher levels. In fact, as you move up Bloom's Taxonomy, you will find
that rubrics become more important to ensure fair, accurate, and quick grading.

In the end, it is supremely important that we as educators help our students become critical thinkers.
Building on knowledge and helping kids begin to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate is the key to
helping them grow and prosper in school and beyond.

3.4.3 Bloom's Taxonomy Verbs

Use verbs aligned to Bloom's Taxonomy to create discussion questions and lesson plans that ensure
your students' thinking progresses to higher levels.

Knowledge Comprehend
Count Define Describe Draw Enumerate Find
Identify Label List Match Name uote Classify Cite Conclude Convert Describe Discuss
Read Recall Recite Record Reproduce Select Estimate Explain Generalize Give examples llustrate
Sequence State Tell View Write Interpret Locate Make sense of Paraphrase Predict
Report Restate Review Summarize Trace
Apply Understand
Act Administer Articulate Assess Change Chart
Choose Collect Compute Construct Contribute Analyze
Control Demonstrate Determine Develop Discover
Dramatize Draw Establish Extend Break down Characterize Classify Compare Contrast
Imitate Implement Interview Include Inform Correlate Debate Deduce Diagram Differentiate
Instruct Paint Participate Predict Prepare Produce Discriminate Distinguish xamine
Provide Relate Report Select Show Solve Transfer Focus Illustrate Infer Limit Outline Point out
Use Utilize Prioritize Recognize Research Relate Separate
Subdivide

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Synthesize Evaluate

Adapt Anticipate Categorize Collaborate Combine Appraise Argue Assess Choose Compare & Contrast
Communicate Compare Compile Compose Conclude Criticize Critique Decide Defend valuate
Construct Contrast Create Design Develop Devise Interpret Judge Justify Predict Prioritize Prove Rank
Express Facilitate Formulate Generate Incorporate Rate Reframe Select Support
Individualize Initiate Integrate
Intervene Invent Make up Model Modify Negotiate
Organize Perform Plan Pretend Produce Progress
Propose Rearrange Reconstruct Reinforce
Reorganize Revise Rewrite Structure Substitute
Validate

3.5 A framework for lesson planning

3.5.1 Key stages for an effective lessons

 Environmental planning

Have you ever met someone for the first time and felt that you had known each other forever? All
your thoughts surfaced in their words. You did not want the conversation to end, and you knew there
would be another time you would make contact because it was such a strong connection you found
so many connections to your values and passion. The conversation was rich and intriguing. Instant
rapport was truly evident. Perhaps you can think of a time when you went to a class and were
surprised to find a room that was filled with exciting and interesting materials, realis, pictures, and
posters. “Overwhelming” may have been your first reaction, and yet your curiosity was piqued. Each
of these things helped to make you want to know what was going to happen. You were immediately
engaged and enrolled in the learning process without a word spoken.

Can you create an environment that is so rich and enrol students in such a personal fashion? Yes, you
can. In this unit you will learn about the most important and practical considerations and strategies
for creating a powerful learning environment. It describes our view of for the student-centred
classroom. We offer guidance on the elements you should consider as you set up your room, to create
the most productive, enriching, and supportive learning environment possible. You will also learn how
to ensure that the students entering your classes are ready to learn and that you yourself are ready
to teach.

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 Planning the lesson

Before the actual delivery of a lesson, you must engage in a planning process. During this process, you
determine the lesson topic (if states have implemented content standards, the topic should derive
from them). From the topic derive the lesson objective or desired results – the concepts and ideas
that students are expected to develop and the specific knowledge and skills that students are expected
to acquire and use at the end of the lesson. Objectives are critical to effective lecturers, because they
help lecturers plan the teaching strategies and activities they will use, including the materials and
resources to support learning. It is essential that the objective be clear and describes the intended
learning outcome.

Objectives can communicate to students what is expected of them but only if they are shared with
students in an accessible manner. Objectives must be specific, outcome-based, and measurable, and
they must describe student behaviour. Heinich et al. (2001) refer to the ABCD’s of writing objectives:

• Audience – students for whom the objective is written;
• Behaviour – the verb that describes what the audience will be able to do (e.g., describe, explain,
locate, synthesize, argue, communicate);
• Condition – the circumstances under which the audience will perform the behaviour (e.g., when a
student obtains medicine from the pharmacy he or she will be able to read the dosage); and
• Degree – acceptable performance of the behaviour (i.e., how well the student performs the
behaviour).

Student assessment follows from the objectives. Based on the principles of backward design
developed by Wiggins and McTighe (1998), instructors identify the lesson objective or desired results
and then decide what they will accept as evidence of students’ knowledge and skills. The concept of
backward design holds that the lecturer must begin with the end in mind (i.e., what the student should
be able to know, understand, or do) and then map backward from the desired result to the current
time and the students’ current ability/skill levels to determine the best way to reach the performance
goal.

3.5.2 What to consider when writing a lesson plan

Even though there are so many lesson plan resources on the net, there can be no substitute for a
lesson plan that is created by you, the lecturer that is tailored to the specific student populations you
are serving. This part is meant to assist you in developing a plan that is designed to meet the needs of
your students and that is framed according to what is considered to be best practices in teaching and
learning. It is also our belief that the infusion of technology in teaching is a necessary element to
meeting the needs of today's 21st Century digital student.

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The following must be in a lesson plan:
1. Content
2. Goals
3. Objectives
4. Materials that’s going to be used
5. Introduction
6. Development
7. Practice
8. Independent practice
9. Accommodations
10. Checking for understanding
11. Closure
12. Evaluation

 Presenting the lesson

The WIPPEA Model for Lesson Presentation (Six steps in a lesson)

The WIPPEA Model, an acronym that stands for Warm-up, Introduction, Presentation, Practice,
Evaluation, Application, is a lesson plan model that represents a continuous teaching cycle in which
each learning concept builds on the previous one, serving as an instructional roadmap for lecturers.
The WIP-PEA lesson plan model is adapted from the work of Hunter (Mastery Teaching, 1982). This
six-step cyclical lesson planning approach has students demonstrate mastery of concepts and content
at each step before the instructor proceeds to the next step.

Warm-up – Assesses prior knowledge by reviewing previous materials relevant to the current lesson.
Introduce an activity that reviews previously learned content (e.g., for a vocabulary lesson, the warm-
up may be a quick matching exercise with words previously learned and their definitions), and also
include an activity that focuses on the topic to be taught.

Introduction – Provides a broad overview of the con-tent and concepts to be taught and focuses the
students’ attention on the new lesson. Introduce the purpose of the lesson by stating and writing the
objectives for students and discussing the lesson content and benefits by relating the objective to
students own lives. Assess students’ prior knowledge of the new material by asking questions and
writing students’ responses on a chalkboard or flip chart.
Presentation – Teaches the lesson content and concepts. Create an activity to introduce the concept
or skill (e.g., introduce new vocabulary by asking students to work in groups to identify words related
to taking medications) and then introduce information through a variety of modalities using visuals,
description, explanation, and written text. Check for student understanding of the new material and
make changes in lesson procedures if necessary.

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Practice – Models the skills and provides opportunities for guided practice. Introduce a variety of
activities that allow students to work in groups, in pairs, or independently to practice the skills,
concepts, and information presented. Integrate technology into activities as available.
Evaluation – Assesses each student’s attainment of the objective. Include oral, aural, written, or
applied performance assessments. For example, ask students to fill in the blanks on a cloze activity
using the four medicine warning labels that were discussed in class. For lower level students, provide
a word bank at the bottom of the worksheet. Omit the word bank for more advanced students.
Application – Provides activities that help students apply their learning to new situations or contexts
beyond the lesson and connect it to their own lives. Choose activities that students can relate to or
have expressed concern about. For example, have students read the label of a medication they or a
family member may use at home to make certain they understand the meaning of the words on the
label. Gather feedback from learners in follow-up classes and help them assess what additional
support, if any, they may require.
The following graphic integrates the WIPPEA process with backward design in a lesson planning wheel.
In this cyclical approach, lecturer assess prior knowledge, provide a broad overview of the con-
tent/concepts to be taught, introduce vocabulary, teach content/concepts, check comprehension,
combine the content and vocabulary through guided practice, evaluate student performance, and
provide an application activity. Instructional strategies vary depending on the lesson content and skill
areas, and the needs of the students.

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Planning for differentiated instruction requires various learner profiles to inform the process. Students
demonstrate mastery of concepts/ content in each step before the lecturer proceeds to the next step.

The relationship of the objective to the evaluation keeps the lesson focused and drives instruction. By
keeping the end in mind (backward design) and creating the evaluation activity at the beginning of the
lesson, the lecturer has a clear destination for the lesson and a roadmap to get there.

3.5.3 Assessing the lesson

Keys to Quality Classroom Assessment

Accurate Assessment

WHY ASSESS? ASSESS

What's the purpose? WHAT?
Who will use the results?
What are the learning
targets?
Are they clear?

Are they good?

ASSESS HOW?
(Design)

What method?
Sampled how?
Avoid bias how?

Students are users, too COMMUNICATE Be sure students understand
targets, too
Students track HOW?
progress Students can
and communicate, too How manage information? participate in the
How report? assessment process,
too

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3.6 A framework for lesson planning

Imagine that you've just finish a lecture session. Unfortunately, it didn't go as well as you'd hoped.
First, you forgot to cover some important points in your presentation. Then, you ran out of time to
answer questions, because you had to change your session "on the fly" to cover the points you'd
missed.
All in all, you're not sure that people learned what they needed to know, and you wish you'd had a
clearer plan for the session.

3.6.1 What is a Lesson Plan?

A lesson plan – also called a learning plan – is an organized description of the activities and resources
you'll use to guide a group toward a specific learning objective.
It details the subject matter that you'll teach, how long each section should take, the methods of
instruction for each topic covered, and the measures you'll use to check that people have learned
what you needed them to learn.
It can be as simple as a brief outline, or more complex, with scripts, prompts, and lists of questions
that you plan to ask.

3.6.2 Why Use a Lesson Plan?

It takes time to plan a good lecture. As you plan, you visualize each step of the class. This helps you
ensure that you've thought about everything that you need to say, and that you present information
in a logical order. You'll also be able to prepare for points that people might find difficult to
understand.

After your session, you can use your plan to work out what went well – and what didn't – so that you
can adapt it for future lessons.

Last, a lesson plan will be invaluable for a substitute lecturer, if you can't make it to class.

3.6.3 What to Consider When Writing a Lesson Plan

Even though there are so many lesson plan resources on the net, we believe that there can be no
substitute for a lesson plan that is created by you, the lecturer that is tailored to the specific student
populations you are serving. This part is meant to assist you in developing a plan that is designed to
meet the needs of your students and that is framed according to what is considered to be best
practices in teaching and learning. It is also our belief that the infusion of technology in teaching is a
necessary element to meeting the needs of today's 21st Century digital student.

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 The following should be considered for lesson planning:

1) Know who your students are. Know ability levels; backgrounds; interest levels; attention spans;
ability to work together in groups; prior knowledge and learning experiences; special needs or
accommodations; and learning preferences. This may not happen as quickly as you would like, but it
is important for designing instruction that will meet the needs of your students. That's key in
successful teaching and learning!

2) Know your content. It is important for you to research the subject matter that you will be teaching.
You should also utilize curriculum guides published by the state in which you teach and the local school
district that employs you. It is also a good idea to know the national standards and state standards
that drive curriculum in each subject area that you are responsible for. You can visit web sites that are
devoted to curriculum frameworks and that will give you a lot of information relative to your subject
area. TeAch-nology.com has a large number of links that will help you to search for information
relative to the subject matter you are employed to teach. One link that can help is as follows:

http://www.teach-nology.com/lecturers/subject_matter/

3) Know the materials that are available to help you teach for success. Take and keep an inventory of
the materials and resources that are available to you as a lecturer. For example: technology, software,
audio/visuals, lecturer mentors, community resources, equipment, manipulatives, library resources,
local guest speakers, volunteers, or any materials that can assist you in teaching.

 Planning For Instruction

1) Content- List the important facts, key concepts, skills, or key vocabulary terms that you intend to
cover. You can also prepare an outline with key learning outcomes. Remember to refer to your
curriculum guides.

2) Goals- Identify the aims or outcomes that you want your students to achieve as a result of the
lesson you plan to teach. Goals are end products and are sometimes broad in nature. Goals relate
directly to the knowledge and skills you identify in part one: content.

3) Objectives- Identify the objectives that you hope your students will achieve in the tasks that will
engage them in the learning process. Objectives are behavioural in nature and are specific to
performance. Objectives tell what you will be observing in student performance and describe criteria
by which you can measure performance against. In many ways, objectives represent indicators of
performance that tell you, the lecturer, to what extent a student is progressing in any given task.
Instructional objectives can start with a "given" that describes a condition that enables your students
to perform any given task. A "given" could be an activity, a specific set of directions, materials needed
to perform a task, an assignment, or anything that sets up a condition for students to engage in the
task being observed and measured for performance. The heart of the objective is the task that the
student is expected to perform. It is probably one of the most important parts of the lesson plan

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because it is student centered and outcomes based. Objectives can range from easy to hard tasks
depending on student abilities.

3) Materials- List the materials and resources that will be needed for the lesson to be successful. In
this case, you should also list technology resources needed to achieve objectives.

4) Introduction- Describe or list a focusing event or attention grabber that will motivate your students
to want to pay attention and learn about what you plan to teach. This will depend on the ages and
stages and of your students and will rely on students' interests and backgrounds. Remember, getting
your students to attend and respond to your introduction will set the stage for the rest of the lesson.

5) Development- Describe how you plan to model or explain what you want your students to do.
Modeling the learning behaviors you expect of your students is a powerful development tool and
provides demonstration that students can then imitate or practice on their own. During development,
models of teaching are used to facilitate student learning. Models can include direct instruction,
inquiry, information processing strategies, or cooperative learning strategies.

More information on models of teaching can be found on the following link:
http://www.teach-nology.com/lecturers/methods/models/

6) Practice- List or describe ways in which you will provide opportunities for your students to practice
what you want them to learn. The more opportunities you provide, the better chance they have to
master the expected outcomes. These opportunities are in-classroom assignments or tasks that give
you, the lecturer, the chance to guide and monitor progress. There are tons of activities that you can
download from the net; TeAch-nology.com provides a comprehensive source of links to activities for
all subject areas.

Go to the Lecturer Resources section of the site and click on lesson plans, quick activities, etc.
http://www.teach-nology.com/lecturers/

7) Independent Practice- List or describe ways to provide opportunities for your students to complete
assignments to measure progress against the goal of instruction. These assignments are meant to give
lecturers the chance to determine whether students have truly mastered the expected outcomes.
Remember to only plan for tasks that you believe students can accomplish without your guidance.

8) Accommodations- List or describe ways that you will differentiate instruction according to students'
needs. This can include any curricular adaptations that are needed to meet special needs students.

For more on differentiating instruction, go to:
http://www.teach-nology.com/litined/dif_instruction/

For more ideas on serving the needs of special education students, go to:
http://www.teach-nology.com/lecturers/special_ed/

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9) Checking for Understanding- - List or describe ways that you will check for understanding.
Assessment and ongoing feedback are necessary for monitoring progress. This can include
questioning, conferencing, or journal writing/reflection writing. TeAch-nology.com has a rubric
generator that can help develop a checklist for assessing ongoing student progress.
Go to: http://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/rubrics/
10) Closure- List or describe ways that you can wrap up a lesson. This can include telling students the
most important concepts that were covered in the lesson, asking them what they thought were the
key concepts (or what they learned), or preparing them for the next lesson building upon what was
presented. The key is to leave your students with an imprint of what you hoped to achieve in any given
lesson.
11) Evaluation- List or describe ways that you will assess or measure student success in achieving the
outcomes that you planned to reach. This can include a variety of ways to evaluate student
performance.
The following links can help:
http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/alternative_assessment/
http://www.teach-nology.com/lecturers/testing/
12) Lecturer Reflection- This section is to be completed after lesson. It represents what you think
worked, or what did not work, and why. It is meant to give you some insight into practice and will
hopefully help you to make adjustments and modifications where necessary.

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3.7 Course and Lesson-Plan Guide PERIOD
PLAN DATE
3.7.1 Course Planning
DATE
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CONTENT /
CORE

KNOWLEDGE
CONCEPTS

RESOURCES

ASSESSMENT
/ ACTIVITY

REMARKS

3.7.1 Lesson Planning

PRE-PLANNING: KNOW, OBJECTIVE. CONNECTION TO THE SUMMER (BIG) GOAL.
SO, SHOW
What will your students be able to do?  How does the objective connect to the summer (big) goal? 

ASSESSMENT.

How will you know whether your students have made progress toward the objective?  How and when will you assess mastery? 

KEY POINTS.

What three-five key points will you emphasize? 

OPENING. (_10_ min.) MATERIALS.

How will you communicate what is about to happen?  How will you communicate how it will happen? 
How will you communicate its importance?  How will you communicate connections to previous lessons? 
How will you engage students and capture their interest? 

LESSON CYLCE: GO INTRODUCTION TO NEW MATERIAL. (_10_ min.)

What key points will you emphasize and reiterate? 
How will you ensure that students actively take-in information? 
How will you vary your approach to make information accessible to all students? 
Which potential misunderstandings will you anticipate? 

GUIDED PRACTICE. (_15_ min.)

How will you clearly state and model behavioral expectations? 
How will you ensure that all students have multiple opportunities to practice? 
How will you scaffold practice exercises from easy to hard? 
How will you monitor and correct student performance? 

INDEPENDENT PRACTICE. (_25_ min.)

How will you clearly state and model behavioral expectations? 
In what ways will students attempt to demonstrate independent mastery of the objective? 
How will you provide opportunities for extension? 

CLOSING. (_5_ min.)

How will students summarize what they learned? 
How will students be asked to state the significance of what they learned? 
How will you provide all students with opportunities to demonstrate mastery of (or progress toward) the
objective? 

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REINFORCEMENT MODIFICATIONS DIFFERENTIATION

How will you differentiate your instruction to reach the diversity of students in your classroom? 

HOMEWORK (if appropriate). How will students practice what they learned? 

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Teacher name: ____________________ TECHNOLOGY LESSON PLAN Term: ______

Per Planned Date Focus Grade: ______ Reference Resources Assessment
dates completed Content concepts and skills F IF

3.7 Assignment

Assignment 4: Preparing a Lesson

By consulting the CAPS document for Technology, work out two complete lesson plans for
grade 8 and grade 9. (Two for each grade.)
Use the information in this unit as well as the CAPS document for Technology to assist you on
planning your lesson. The lesson duration must corresponded according to the indicators
found in the CAPS document.
Requirements:

 Use the specific lesson format given for this assignment.
 It must be two lesson plans for grade 8 and grade 9 each.
 The planning must contain all activities, class tests and homework as well as memo’s

for each.
 Typed
 Must be saved as pdf before uploaded to Blackboard.
Marks: _____
Hand in Date: _______

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3.8 Useful Websites and Video’s

Website:
http://www.educationoasis.com/instruction/bt/five_common_mistakes.htm
http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/planning/plindex.htm
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/lesson_plans/
http://www.evolllution.com/opinions/classroom-management-effectiveness-rules/
https://teal.ed.gov/tealguide/lessonplanning
You Tube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZx33ZqvA_Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XUTdaQIdKI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mOjl77Rob4U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-FkUXCoobE

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Course and Lesson Presentation

Outcomes

On completion of this module, you will be able to explain:
 Guidelines for successful lesson;
 Commandments for an effective lesson
 Tips to help you teach better
 Lecturer strategies to promote learning
 Lecture strategies to help students master new academic skills
 Teaching approaches
 Classroom approaches
 Managing students in your class

4.1 Introduction

Good lesson planning is essential to the process of teaching and learning. A lecturer who is prepared
is well on his/her way to a successful instructional experience. The development of interesting lessons
takes a great deal of time and effort. As a new lecturer you must be committed to spending the
necessary time in this endeavour.

It is also important to realize that the best planned lesson is worthless if interesting delivery
procedures, along with good classroom management techniques, are not in evidence. There is a large
body of research available pertaining to lesson development and delivery and the significance of
classroom management. They are skills that must be researched, structured to your individual style,
implemented in a lecturer/learning situation, and constantly evaluated and revamped when
necessary. Consistency is of the utmost importance in the implementation of a classroom
management plan.

4.2 Guidelines for successful lesson presentation

All lecturers should understand that they are not an island unto themselves. The educational
philosophy of the district and the uniqueness of their schools should be the guiding force behind what
takes place in the classroom. The school’s code of discipline, which should be fair, responsible and
meaningful, must be reflected in every lecturer’s classroom management efforts.

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 Establish a positive classroom environment
o Make the classroom a pleasant, friendly place
o Accept individual differences
o Learning activities should be cooperative and supportive
o Create a non-threatening learning environment
o Organize physical space; eliminate situations that my be dangerous or disruptive
o Establish classroom rules and procedures and consistently reinforce them

 Begin lessons by giving clear instructions
o State desired quality of work
o Have students paraphrase directions
o Ensure that everyone is paying attention
o Ensure that all distractions have been removed
o Describe expectations, activities and evaluation procedures
o Start with a highly motivating activity
o Build lesson upon prior student knowledge

 Maintain student attention
o Use random selection in calling upon students
o Vary who you call on and how you call on them
o Ask questions before calling on a student; wait at least five seconds for a response
o Be animated; show enthusiasm and interest
o Reinforce student efforts with praise
o Vary instructional methods
o Provide work of appropriate difficulty
o Demonstrate and model the types of responses or tasks you want students to
perform
o Provide guided practice for students; monitor responses and deliver immediate
corrective feedback

 Use appropriate pacing
o Be aware of your teaching tempo
o Watch for cues that children are becoming confused, bored or restless; sometimes
lesson have to be shortened

 Provide suitable seatwork
o Seatwork should be diagnostic and prescriptive
o Develop procedures for seeking assistance; have a “help” signal
o Develop procedures for what to do when finished
o Move around to monitor seatwork
o Vary methods of practice

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 Evaluate what has taken place in your lesson
o Summarize the lesson and focus on positive gains made by students; use surprise
reinforces as a direct result of their good behaviour
o Determine if the lesson was successful; were goals accomplished?

 Make a smooth transition into next subject
o Have materials ready for next lesson
o Maintain attention of students until you have given clear instructions for the next
activity
o Do not do tasks that can be done by students (i.e. passing out paper or collecting
assignments); use monitors
o Move around and attend to individual needs
o Provide simple, step-by-step instructions
o Utilize a freeze and listen signal, when necessary

 Develop positive lecturer/student relationships
o Set a good example; be a positive role model
o Create an exciting learning environment for all students
o Reward good behaviour; create special activities that children will enjoy doing
o Correct misbehaviours; have consequences of disruptive behaviour; communicate
them to children
o Handling disruptions
 Keep is short and simple (KISS)
 Use a warning system
 Defer disruptive behaviour proactively (eye contact, close space between
you and student, use head/hand gestures)
 Help students be successful
 Use planned ignoring (and teach other student to also ignore)

4.3 Ten Commandments for Effective Lesson Presentation

Effective lesson presentation involves the learning experiences lecturers’ setup to achieve the
indented learning outcomes by students. As a result of large scale research and experimentation,
there is now a staggering range of learning activities available that can be organised to good effect.
These include, by way of example, exposition, practical’s, worksheets, computer games, role play,
pare-share and group discussion. Moreover, lecturers should develop an inclination towards
innovating new strategies for effective lesson presentation. Success of a lesson presentation depends
entirely on how differently and effectively lecturers’ use variety of teaching methods in their
programme of lessons. Now let us peep into some important aspects of effective lesson presentation.

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1. Direct instruction is a type of instruction that happens when a lecturer conveys information directly
to students, and structures a class to reach a clearly defined set of goals. It is especially good when
teaching well-defined information or skills that a student must master. It isn't as effective when the
aim of the lesson is learning concepts or exploring and discovering.

2. Orienting the students to the lesson before it begins is another way of improving a lesson. At the
beginning of a lesson a lecturer should establish a positive mental attitude of readiness in their
students.

This mental set can be established in these ways:
a. the lecturer should require the students to be on time for the lesson, and start as soon as the period
begins. This establishes a sense of seriousness and purpose.
b. Next, the lecturer needs to arouse the students’ sense of curiosity or interest in the lesson.
c. Humour or drama can be used to establish a positive mental set.
d. In starting a lesson, lecturers must give students a map of where the lesson is going and what they
will know at the end. By stating the objectives, it enhances the achievement of those objectives.

3. Review the previous knowledge. Lecturers need to make sure that students have acquired the skills
needed in advance in order to connect the information that they have already obtained with the new
information they are about to receive. A review could just remind them of what they did the previous
day. Generally, just asking a few recap questions will help before starting the new lesson. This will
remind students of what they know and give them the outline that they need to integrate the new
information.

4. While presenting a new lesson there are some things that the lecturer should keep in mind:
 Lesson organization: Lessons should be rationally organised. Information that has a clear well-
ordered structure is better retained than less clearly presented information.
 Lesson Emphasis: Effective lecturers give clear indications of the most important elements of the
lesson - by saying that these elements are particularly important. Repeat important information and
bring them back into the lesson whenever appropriate.
 Lesson clarity: An effective lesson has clarity - the use of direct, simple, well-organized language to
present concepts. Moving into unrelated topics disrupt the flow of the lesson and detract from the
clarity.
 Explanations: Effective lecturers also use explanations in their lessons and explanatory words (i.e.,
because, in order to, consequently) and follow a pattern of presenting a rule, then an example, then
the rule again, when presenting new concepts.
 Worked examples: These are used for teaching certain kinds of problem solving techniques,
especially in mathematics. A lecturer will present a problem to the class, then work through it and
explain their thinking at each step. The lecturer is replicating the strategies that an expert would use
to solve the problem, so that the students can imitate these in similar situations.
 Demonstrations, Models and Illustrations: It is important for students to see and have hands on
experience when appropriate throughout their learning. Visual representations (Mind and idea maps)
are retained in the long-term memory more than when the information is only heard.
 Make it lively: Straight, dry lectures can be boring and bored students soon stop paying attention

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to the lesson. Lecturers should introduce variety, activity or humour into the lesson to make it lively
and maintain the students’ attention. However, too much variation can be harmful to the lesson -
there is a balance that must be achieved.
 Content Coverage and pacing: An important factor in effective teaching is the amount of content
that is covered. While covering the content lecturers’ must have a balance between content and the
time required for understanding. Simply covering a huge syllabus or content doesn’t make any sense.
Always keep in mind that learning takes place only when the students are able to think, analyse,
comprehend and transfer the concept in a new environment and connect it to their day to day life.

5. Frequent learning feedbacks. Lecturers must be frequently conscious of the effects of their
teaching. Just because students seem to be paying attention, does not mean that the information has
been successfully received. Lecturers must regularly check their students understanding of the topic
being presented. Learning feedbacks are the various ways that lecturers can ask for brief responses to
the content of the lesson. They give the lecturer a clear idea on the students’ levels of cognition. They
can take the form of open-ended or closed questions to the class or as brief written or physical
demonstrations of understanding.

6. Check for understanding. The purpose of the learning feedback (see above) is to check if the
students have an understanding of the lesson. Wait time is also important. This is the amount of time
that the lecturer will wait for the students to answer their explorative question before going on to
another student. Research has found that lecturers tend to give up too quickly on students whom they
perceive to be low achievers, which tells the student that the lecturer expects little from them.

7. Random calling order for questioning. In classroom questioning, calling order is a concern.
Lecturers often call on volunteers when asking a question, but this allows some students to avoid
participating in the lesson. This can be solved by asking a randomly selected student.

8. Use class fun (work) time properly. Time given for class fun or independent study in the class is
often misused. Student time spent receiving instruction directly from the lecturer is more productive.
In order to use this time appropriately, there are few suggestions:
 Do not assign class fun (work) until you are sure that the students can do it.
 Keep class fun assignments short. About ten minutes of fun is adequate for most objectives. E.g.
Map skill or drawing a diagram.
 Give clear instruction.
 Make sure that everyone received the material for class fun (if you are distributing).
 Once students start their fun-work avoid interruption. Take a round of the class to be sure that
everyone is underway before attending to the problems of individual students or other tasks.
 Closely watch the independent work. This keeps the students on task and makes the lecturer
available for questions or clarification. (Remember, it’s not the time for correction or entering marks
or attendance into the register)
 Collect the fun-work and include it in grades (CCE). One of the major problems of class fun-work is
that students see no reason to do their best on it because it has little or no bearing on their grades or
marks. Students should know that the work counts towards their grades. It is a good idea to save some
time at the end of a lecture to go over the answers to the questions and allow students to exchange
or check their own papers. This will give the students immediate feedback on their work.

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9. Assess performance and give feedback. Each lesson must include an assessment of the level to
which students have mastered the goals that are set for the lesson. It could be done informally, with
the lecturer asking questions to the students, or with the use of class work as an assessment. As well,
a lecturer may use a quiz to assess understanding. Feedback is important too. If students are learning
everything that is being taught easily then maybe lecturers can pick up the pace of their instructions.
On the other hand, this feedback may reveal that students are having misunderstandings with respect
to the topic, and lecturers can then re-teach the lesson and focus on the steps to get students back on
track.

10. Practice and review. When students practice and review things over time this increases the
retention of the knowledge. As well, lecturers should assign home-fun (work) in most subjects,
especially at the secondary level. This gives students the chance to practice skills learned in one setting
at one time (school) in another setting at another time (home). Well-structured home-fun (work)
generally increases achievement, particularly if the lecturer checks the home-fun and gives feedback
at the right time.

All the works - class work or homework, should be enjoyable for the children, otherwise it's
meaningless. The usage 'homework or class work is outdated. In the real sense it's we, the lecturers,
should make the work we assign to the children an absolute fun. So let’s reorient ourselves to the new
concept of 'home-fun and class-fun' to make the learning experience really thrilling and enjoyable one.

2.4 Six Tips to Help You Teach Better

Every lecturer knows prepping a lesson plan isn’t easy. It’s even harder when you’re prepping for a
lesson in front of a new audience — 30 students you’ve never met and plenty of lecturers and staff.
Here are six tips to help you plan and execute a great sample lesson.

Tip 1: Plan Extensively

Here’s the kicker: You need to plan each little detail in the lesson and account for potential road blocks.
What if students already know what a simile is? What if they don’t know how to multiply fractions,
but need it for your lesson? These potential roadblocks could blow up in your face if you don’t plan
for them.

Consider working off of a strong, objective-aligned planning template, or make your own. Just
remember to think through the main parts of a solid lesson:

 Hook/Anticipatory Set – Get students’ attention. Most lecturers start with a quick do now
activity, a very quick share of the do now and a quick bit about who they are.

 Direct instruction – We’re not talking about a twenty or thirty minute “chalk and talk” session.
We’re talking about an 8-10 minute (or maybe less) quick and dirty of the concept. Tell them
the bare essentials of the concept. Then move on. Don’t blabber. Don’t give a bunch of
examples.

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 Guided Practice – Students practice a concept with close supervision. This could be on an
overhead or slide, but should slowly release the responsibility of thinking to students.

 Independent Practice – Students need time to independently try the concept they just
practiced as a whole group.

 Assessment – This is important. Make sure you have some way to measure whether students
mastered the objective. Here at TEAM, some of our lecturers use an exit slip. You can too by
having students complete it and turn it in at the end of class.

Tip 2: Set Student Behavioural Expectations

Walking into the classroom with a chart or clear set of expectations is always a good move. It sends a
message to students that you have high expectations for them, even though you’re not their normal
lecturer.

Whether you bring a chart of expectations or chose to teach your expectations in a different way,
don’t skip over verbalizing them to the class at the beginning. Quickly walk students through your
expectations for their behaviour. Then, throughout the lesson, don’t forget about your expectations
and don’t let things slide. Always go after 100 percent.

Tip 3: Focus on Your Objectives

When you’re excited to teach new students in a new place and a job is on the line, it is really easy to
let nerves get in the way. It’s also easy to let yourself drift off your lesson plan or your objectives. Be
careful when you’re teaching and answering questions that you don’t deviate from your objectives for
the day. At the end of your lesson, you’re measuring how well students learned those objectives, not
whether students looked like they were paying attention the whole time. This is why the exit slip and
independent practice are important to the success of your lesson. Stick with the objective you’ve been
given.

Tip 4: Know Where You Can Cut and Run

It’s easy to lose track of time in a lesson. When you’re teaching new students and aren’t sure how
quickly they’re going to master a concept or objective, don’t know where you may have to check for
understanding and don’t know where you might get stuck, you should definitely know where you can
get back on track.

If you planned well and over-planned, here are some places you can cut to make sure you get through
your lesson:

 Cut an extra example from direct instruction (they’ll probably be ready for practice anyway)
 Have plenty of guided practice opportunities, but don’t try to use them all.
 Change the expectation for independent practice. Instead of doing all ten practice problems,

have them complete five.

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Don’t cut:
 Quick checks for understanding
 Your assessment at the end
 Independent practice altogether

Tip 5: Measure and Assess Yourself and Your Students

OK, so you just planned and delivered a great lesson. Students were focused and not calling out, and
you made it all the way through your plan. Did they master you objective?

Tip Six: Be Yourself

This is doubly important when we’re talking about students. They know when you’re putting on a front
and so will the adults in the back of the room.

4.5 Lecturer Strategies to Promote Learning

4.5.1 Intervention

In order to make the teaching process more student-centred the lecturer should stay in the
background without relinquishing any responsibility. The design process is based on do-it-yourself
and problem-solving principles within a particular context, using specific materials.

The lecturer should manage and control the whole process. Withdrawal or unplanned intervention
on the part of the lecturer can delay the process, cause it to go off course or wreck it completely.
Effective intervention is an appropriate attempt by the lecturer to engineer a successful end result.

Intervention during the technological process is a calculated and deliberate action to ensure that
certain outcomes are realised. The lecturer steers the process in a particular direction and facilitates
it while allowing the students to think for themselves and do their own work.

Sally Frost (in Tickle, 1990) describes the educational aim of technology as independent learning
through independence and creativity. Technology counters the traditional teaching problems of
“learned dependence” by promoting dignity and self-worth. Students have the opportunity to direct
and evaluate their own learning.
Students of different perceived abilities are put in a situation where they are required to work co-
operatively, with the lecturer as a guide and adviser rather than instructor. This has brought new
insights. The lecturer is seen as a guide and manager rather than an authoritarian figure.

Students who are left to their own devices become initiators and active decision makers.
They use the lecturer as a resource in their learning.
The mode of learning is a problem-solving/enquiry-based approach with the emphasis on the quality
of the learning process rather than the end product or what is learned.

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Co-operative learning takes place through social interaction with the group and active, practical
activities. Life skills, manual skills and cognitive skills are learned in context rather than in isolation.
The student takes responsibility for planning, organising and evaluating the work.

Frost examined aspects of the problem-solving approach with a group of students.

 How much scope did the assigned task give the student to make qualitative decisions and act on
them?

 What kind of judgements did the students make and what opinions did they express at each stage.
What negotiations did they make in trying to find a solution? What criteria were used to make a
final assessment of their own work or that of others?

 How did the lecturer try to influence the students? Was this deliberate? How did the lecturer try
indirectly to influence the students” How did the lecturer unintentionally influence their
judgements?

 What criteria were used for final assessment of the students’ work?

 When is intervention justified?

The lecturer should intervene to make relevant information available, to offer guidance in overcoming
problems or obstacles and when explanations are needed to bring about a greater understanding of
the task at hand.
Supportive intervention, such as praising and encouraging students to be more adventurous, will give
the students self-confidence. The lecturer can also assist students who are experiencing difficulties.
Intervention strategies aimed at ensuring optimal learning require a thorough knowledge of the
student’s motivation level and fears. The lecturer should consider the student as a whole and be
aware of the cognitive and motor skills the student brings to the task.

Intervention should stimulate, deal with conflict, correct errors of judgement, encourage and support.
It should also stimulate the interaction between lecturer and student and create a positive,
participatory atmosphere in the classroom.

 An investigation on non-intervention

Elizabeth Thompson (in Tickle, 1990) conducted a six-week study of seven and eight year olds at the
Country Primary School in Suffolk.
She found that, while non-intervention allowed students the freedom to work in their own way at
their own pace, it did not promote originality and individuality. Students were caught in their own
lack if experience and skills. They could realise the problems for themselves but did not move forward
to solutions without further instruction.

They could adapt an idea and turn a failure into something else, but their ability to solve technical
problems and develop ideas seemed limited. They appeared to lack life skills, manual skills and
cognitive skills.
None of the students could manage the seemingly simple technique of matching the top and bottom
of a box.

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The students were absorbed in their work and very proud of their products. Thompson felt that
judicious questioning or direct intervention would have accelerated the move towards solutions and
improved their learning. Their motivation was good – they were ready to be stimulated and guided.
Lecturers always have to face the problem of how to stimulate and guide without imposing too many
preconceptions, and without stifling the student’s own creative and logical thinking and making. The
answer seems to lie in giving the students the right problems to develop particular skills.
The problem must allow students to discover a skill and challenge their thinking process. It is also
important that the classroom is a comfortable, familiar non-threatening environment.

A colourful, attractive venue should promote creativity. The lecturer has to decide whether, when
and how to become involved, intervening only when the student seems hesitant.

4.5.2 Lecture Strategies to help student’s master new academic skills

Here are some lecturer strategies that research indicates can be very effective in helping struggling
students to successfully master new academic skills:

1. Instructional Match. Ensure that students are being taught at the optimal instructional level, one
that challenges them but provides enough success to keep these students confident and invested in
learning.

2. Scaffolding. Provide 'scaffolding' support (individual instructional modifications) to students as
necessary to help them to master a new task or keep up with more advanced students. Examples of
scaffolding strategies include reducing the number of problems assigned to a student, permitting the
student to use technological aids (e.g., word processing software which predicts student word
selection to reduce keyboarding), and using cooperative learning groups that pool the group's
knowledge to complete assignments.

3. Step-by-Step Strategies. For complex, conceptually difficult, or multi-step academic operations,
break these operations down into simple steps. Teach students to use the steps. When students are
just acquiring a skill, you may want to create a poster or handout for students to refer to that lists the
main steps of strategies that they are to use.

4. Modelling & Demonstration. Model and demonstrate explicit strategies to students for learning
academic material or completing assignments. Have them use these strategies under supervision until
you are sure that students understand and can correctly use them.

5. Performance Feedback. Make sure that students who are mastering new academic skills have
frequent opportunities to try these skills out with immediate corrective feedback and encouragement.
Prompt guidance and feedback will prevent students from accidentally 'learning' how to perform a
skill incorrectly!

6. Opportunities to Drill & Practice to Strengthen Fragile Skills. As students become more proficient
in their new skills and can work independently, give them lots of opportunities to drill and practice to

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strengthen the skills. Whenever possible, make student practice sessions interesting by using game-
like activities; coming up with real-world, applied assignments; or incorporating themes or topics that
the student finds interesting.

7. Student 'Talk-Through' Activities. When students appear to have successfully learned a skill, set up
activities for them to complete and ask the students to 'talk' you through the activity (i.e., announce
each step that they are taking, describe their problem-solving strategies aloud, describe any road-
blocks that they run into and tell you how they will go about solving them, etc.).

8. Periodic Review. Once students have mastered a particular academic skill, the instructor will quickly
move them on to a more advanced learning objective. However, the lecturer should make sure that
students retain previously mastered academic skills by periodically having them review that material.
Periodic review is often overlooked but is a powerful method for keeping students' academic skills
sharp.

9. Progress Monitoring. Lecturers can verify that students are making appropriate learning progress
only when they are able to measure that progress on a regular basis. The instructor may want to
consider information from several assessment approaches to monitor student progress: e.g.,
curriculum-based assessment, accuracy and completeness of student assignments, student 'talk-
through' demonstrations of problem-solving, etc.

4.5.3 Teaching Students How to Discuss

Learning to participate as an effective listener and contributor during discussions isn't easy. At times,
we all may have difficulty listening well to others and contributing our own ideas. Finding meaningful
things to say about what they’ve read, as well as participating as an active member of the discussion,
requires skills that many students have not yet developed. Therefore, the time and effort you invest
in teaching and practicing, the process of discussion will pay crucial dividends.

Learning discussion skills can be broken down into three components: Knowing what you're aiming
for (what makes a good discussion), experiencing it either directly or vicariously, and developing some
guidelines.

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1. Identify the Elements of a Good Discussion

Discussion Elements Looks Like Sounds Like
Speakers voice only
Active Listening Eyes on speaker Paying attention
Hands empty Appropriate responses
Active Participation Sit up Voices low
(respond to ideas and share feelings) Mind is focused One voice at a time
Face speaker
Asking Questions Appropriate responses
for Clarification Eyes on speaker Follow off others ideas
Piggybacking Hands to yourself Nice comments
Off Others' Ideas Hands empty Positive attitudes
Disagreeing Constructively Talking one at a time
Head nodding Positive, nice questions
Focused on Discussion Polite answers
(body posture and eye contact) Listening Positive, nice talking
Hands empty Wait for people to finish
Supporting Opinions Polite responses
with Evidence Listening Quiet voices
Encouraging Others Paying attention No put downs

Nice face Speaker's voice only
Nice looks Appropriate responses
Voices low
Eyes on speaker
Hands empty One voice
Sit up
Face speaker Positive responses
Mind is focused

One person talking
Attention on the speaker

Prompt people to share
Ask probing questions

This is a great place to begin for the simple reason that students -- at all levels -- know what goes into
an effective conversation (even if they can't yet do it). Here are several ways to find out what your
students know about good discussion:

 Brainstorm Your best bet is to ask your students -- and then make a chart of what they
say. This can be the beginning of your guidelines for discussion.

 Discussion Etiquette This is a focused form of brainstorming. Fifth grade lecturer, Kirstin
Gerhold wanted her students to understand the elements of good discussion. For example,
she wasn't sure they really knew what being an "active listener" meant. Kristin discussed with
her students what each element of discussion "looks like" and "sounds like" using the chart
below. She identified the elements of discussion etiquette along the left-hand side, then

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asked her students to tell her, "What would it look like and what would you hear if someone
were truly an active listener?"

Discussion Elements
2. Experience Discussion

There is no better lecturer than actual experience with discussion to help students internalize what
works -- and what doesn't. This is how students move from knowing what goes into discussion to
being able to participate effectively as a group member. We suggest two ways to begin: Direct
experience (immersion) and vicarious experience ("fish bowl").

 Immersion (or how to learn by jumping in) This strategy operates on the principle that
before students can generate effective guidelines for discussion, they need to experience it
first-hand. The immersion strategy does just that: Students carry on a brief discussion even
before you've talked about what makes a good discussion -- and afterward they have a true
"need to know."

For example, Lori Scobie knew that her fourth graders would have far greater buy-in for discussion
guidelines if they could see a real need for them. She believed that immersing her students in a
discussion was the fastest way for them to learn what guidelines they needed. What happened? Well,
the inevitable: Someone had trouble moving his chair to his group without stepping on toes; a student
gave away the "good part" of the book that others hadn't yet read; someone else wouldn't say a work
-- or talked all the time. After students had met in their groups for about ten minutes, Lori gathered
everyone in the front of the room. Writing their responses on a large piece of chart paper, Lori asked
them what they liked about meeting in groups for literature circles. Here's what they said:

Sharing feelings about the book.
We shared if we liked the book or not.
We got to talk about different parts of the book.

Then she made another column on the chart, "How can we improve?" Here's what went on that list:
Some people can't read as fast as others
Not interrupting
Trying not to goof around
Working together
Getting started right away
Talking more; some talked a lot and some didn't talk very much

Next, she explained that it was time for them to develop guidelines.
 Fish Bowl Perhaps the most powerful way for students to understand what goes into a good
discussion is to observe one in action. If you have students in your classroom -- or even
students in other classrooms -- who are discussion veterans, perhaps they can be
models. Several of Janine King's sixth graders had participated in literature circles the year
before. She used a common cooperative learning technique -- a "fishbowl" -- to model good
discussion strategies for the rest of her class.

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Just as Lori Scobie did with the immersion session session described above, Janine presented a
discussion model after students had experienced one literature circle cycle with Roll of Thunder, Hear
My Cry (Taylor, 1976). That way, she knew her students had a frame of reference to understand what
they would see -- and they had a clear need to know. Janine invited five students with strong
discussion skills to participate in the demonstration. She asked each to re-read the last chapter and
gave them the prompt, "Look for something to talk about that stood out for you". For the
demonstration, the group gathered chairs in a circle at the front of the room and began to
talk. Although understandably self-conscious at first, the students quickly forgot the audience and
engaged in an interesting discussion of the book's ending.

3. Develop Guidelines
Guidelines for discussion work best when they're developed jointly with your students. You can do
this after either an "immersion" or a "fish bowl" experience as described above.

 After an "immersion" experience: Pointing to each comment on the chart (see green chart
below), Lori asked for a positive way to phrase it. For example, she began with the statement,
"Some people can't read as fast as others." Carolyn suggested that they needed a guideline
about not reading ahead, since those who knew what had happened sometimes told --
spoiling it for those who hadn't read as far. Several students agreed that this was a big
problem. Lori asked, "Since this seems to be a real concern, is there a positive statement we
can make for this guideline?" Mobi offered, "There will be no reading ahead." Ashley then
pointed out that some students have a hard time reading as fast as others. The class shaped
another guideline: "Read during silent reading to catch up." After about 20 minutes of
negotiation, the guidelines list was finished.

After a "fish bowl" experience: When the fish bowl demonstration was over, Janine asked, "What did
you notice as you watched this discussion?" This generated a flood of responses. Because the
discussion had taken place right in front of them, the students had no trouble picking out what
worked. Janine's class generated the same kind of list as Lori's fourth graders did -- and from their list
grew the guidelines (see below) that they used for the rest of the year. Janine says the fishbowl
technique made a big difference in her students' understanding of how to discuss: "That was the big
toe in the water for us before we put the whole foot in."

4.6 Teaching according to how students learn

How effectively we teach depends, first, on what we think teaching is. Three levels of thinking about
teaching are distinguished. The first two are ‘blame’ models, the first blaming the student, the second the
lecturer. The third model integrates learning and teaching, seeing effective teaching as encouraging
students to use the learning activities most likely to achieve the outcomes intended. To do this requires
some knowledge of how students learn. Students may use learning activities that are of lower cognitive
level than are needed to achieve the outcomes, resulting in a surface approach to learning; or they can use
high level activities appropriate to achieving the intended outcomes, resulting in a deep approach to
learning. Good teaching is that which supports the appropriate learning activities and discourages
inappropriate ones.

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4.6.1 Levels of thinking about teaching

All lecturers have some theory of what teaching is, even if they are not explicitly aware of that theory.
Lecturers’ theories deeply affect the kind of learning environment they create in their classrooms (Trigwell
and Prosser 1991; Gowanda Kember 1993). Three common theories of teaching exist, which lecturers tend
to hold at different points in their teaching career. In fact, these levels describe a sequence in the
development of lecturers’ thinking and practice: a route map towards reflective teaching, if you like. The
level at which a lecturer operates depends on what is the focus of teaching.
But before discussing different theories of teaching and learning, what are your theories (Task 1)?

Activity: What are your theories of teaching and learning?

Learning is:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Teaching is:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

When you have finished this chapter, you will revisit these statements

Now let’s see what others think.

Level 1. Focus: what the student is
Lecturers at Level 1 focus on the differences between students, as most beginning lecturers do: there are
good students, like Susan, and poor students, like Robert. Level 1 lecturer see their responsibility as
knowing their content well, and expounding it clearly. Thereafter, it’s up to the student to attend lectures,
to listen carefully, to take notes, to read the recommended readings, and to make sure it’s taken on board
and unloaded on cue. Susan does — good student; Robert doesn’t — poor student.

At Level 1, teaching is in effect held constant — it is transmitting information, usually by lecturing — so
differences in learning are attributed to differences between students in ability, motivation, what sort of

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school they went to, level results, cultural background and so on. Ability is usually believed to be the most
important factor in determining students’ performance, assessment being the instrument for sorting the
more able from the less able students after teaching is over. Many common but counterproductive
practices spring from this belief, one being that teaching is not an educative activity so much as a selective
one, the purpose being to separate the good students from the poor students. The curriculum in Level 1
teaching becomes a list of items of content that, once expounded from the podium, has been ‘covered’.

How the students receive and deals with that content, and what their depth of understanding of it might
be, are not specifically addressed. Level 1 is founded on a quantitative way of thinking about learning and
teaching (Cole 1990), which manifests itself most obviously in assessment practices, such as ‘marking’, that
is, counting the number of correct points, or rating aspects of students’ performances on arbitrary scales.

The view of university teaching as transmitting information is so widely accepted that teaching and
assessment the world over are based on it. Teaching rooms and media are specifically designed for one-
way delivery. A lecturer is the knowledgeable expert, the sage on the stage, who expounds the information
the students are to absorb and to report back accurately. How well students do these things depends, in
this view, on their ability, on their motivation, and even on their ethnicity, as Asian students are frequently
but unfairly and inaccurately stereotyped as ‘rote-students’ (Biggs 1996a).
Explaining the variability in student learning on students’ characteristics is a blame-the-student theory of
teaching. When students don’t learn (that is, when teaching breaks down), it is due to something the
students are lacking, as exemplified in the following comments:

How can I be expected to teach that lot with those A level results? They wouldn’t even have been admitted
10 years ago.
They lack any motivation at all.
These students lack suitable study skills. But that’s not my problem; they’ll have to go to the counselling
service.

In themselves, these statements may well be true: school leaving results might be poor; students nowadays
may be less academically oriented. As we saw, that is precisely the challenge for lecturers to teach well,
not their excuse for poor teaching.

Blame-the-student is a comfortable theory of teaching. If students don’t learn, it’s not because there is
anything wrong with the teaching, it’s because they are incapable, unmotivated, foreign or the possessors
of some other non-academic defect which is not the lecturer’s responsibility to correct. Level 1 teaching is
totally unreflective. It doesn’t occur to the lecturer to ask the key generative question: ‘What else could I
be doing that might make them learn more effectively?’ And until they do ask that, their teaching is unlikely
to change.

Level 2. Focus: what the lecturer does

Lecturers at Level 2 focus on what lecturers do. This view of teaching is still based on transmission, but
transmitting concepts and understandings, not just information (Prosser and Trigwell 1999). The
responsibility for ‘getting it across’ now rests to a significant extent on what the lecturer does. The
possibility is entertained that there may be more effective ways of teaching than what one is currently

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doing, which is a major advance. Learning is seen as more a function of what the lecturer is doing than a
function of what sort of student one has to deal with.
The lecturer who operates at Level 2 works at obtaining an armoury of teaching skills. The material to be
‘got across’ includes complex understandings, which requires much more than chalk and talk. Consider the
following:

I’ll settle them down with some music, then an introductory spiel: where we were last week, what we’re
going to do today. Then a video clip followed by a buzz session. The questions they‘re to address will be on
the OH. I’ll then fire six questions at them to be answered individually. Yes, four at the back row, finger
pointing, that’ll stir that lot up. Then I speak to the answers for about seven minutes, working in those two
jokes I looked up. Wrap up, warning them there’s an exam question hidden in today‘s session (moans of
‘Now he tells us! ‘yuk, yuk). Mention what’s coming up for next week and meantime they’re to read Chapter
10 of Bronowski.

Plenty of variation in technique here, probably — almost certainly — a good student response, but the
focus of this description is entirely lecturer-centred. It’s about what I the lecturer am doing, not on what
they the students are learning.

Traditional approaches to staff development for lecturers often work on what the lecturer does, as do ‘how
to’ courses and books that provide tips for lecturers and prescriptive advice on getting it across more
effectively, advice such as:
• Establish clear procedural rules at the outset, such as signals for silence.
• Ensure clarity. Project the voice, use clear visual aids.
• Eye contact with students while talking.
• Don’t interrupt a large lecture with hand-outs as chaos is likely.

This is certainly useful advice, but it is concerned with management, not with facilitating learning. Good
management is important, but it is a means of setting the stage on which good learning may occur; it is not
as an end in itself.

Level 2 is also a deficit model, the ‘blame’ this time being on the lecturer. It is a view of teaching often held
by university administrators, because it provides a rationale for making personnel decisions. Good lecturers
are those who have lots of teaching competencies. Does Dr Jones ‘have’ the appropriate competencies for
tertiary level teaching? If not, he had better show evidence that he has by the time his contract comes up
for renewal. However, teaching competencies may have little to do with teaching effectiveness. A
competency, such as constructing a reliable multiple-choice test, is useful only if it is appropriate to one’s
teaching purposes to use a multiple-choice test. Likewise, managing educational technology, or questioning
skills, or any of the other competencies tertiary lecturers should ‘have’, should not be isolated from the
context in which they are being used. Knowing what to do is important only if you know why, when and
how you should do it. The focus should not be on the skill itself, but on whether its deployment has the
desired effect on student learning. This brings us to the third level of teaching.

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Level 3. Focus: what the student does?

Lecturers at Level 3 focus on what the student does and how that relates to teaching. Level 3 is a student-
centred model of teaching; the purpose of teaching is to support learning. No longer is it possible to say: ‘1
taught them, but they didn’t learn.’ Expert teaching includes mastery over a variety of teaching techniques,
but unless learning takes place, they are irrelevant. The focus in Level 3 is on what the student does and on
how well the intended outcomes are achieved. This implies a view of teaching that is not just about facts,
concepts and principles to be covered and understood, but which also requires us to be clear about:

1. what it is the students are to learn and what are the intended or desirable outcomes of their
learning;

2. what it means for students to ‘understand’ content in the way that is stipulated in the intended
learning outcomes;

3. what kind of teaching/learning activities are required to achieve those stipulated levels of
understanding.

Levels 1 and 2 did not address these questions. The first question requires that we specify what we intend
students to be able to do after we have taught a topic. It’s just not good enough for us to talk about it or
teach with an impressive array of visual aids: the whole point, how well the students have learned, has
been ignored. The second question requires that the level of understanding that students are to achieve is
stipulated, and the third that the teaching/learning activities are specifically attuned to helping students
achieve those levels of understanding. Then follow the key questions:

 How do you define those levels of understanding as outcome statements?
 What do students have to do to reach the level specified?
 What do you have to do to find out if the outcomes have been reached at the appropriate level or

not?

4.6.2 How do students learn?

Learning has been the subject of research by psychologists for well over a century, but remarkably little has
directly resulted in improved teaching. The reason is that until recently psychologists were more concerned
with developing the One Grand Theory of Learning that covered all learning, rather than with studying the
contexts in which people learned, such as schools and universities (Biggs 1993a). Over a century ago,
William James warned:

I say moreover that you make a great, a very great, mistake if you think that psychology, being the science
of the mind’s laws, is something from which you can deduce definite programmes and schemes and
methods of instruction.. . . Teaching must agree with the psychology but need not necessarily be the only
kind of teaching that would so agree.
(Games 1899/1962: 3)

B.F. Skinner tried to introduce a whole technology of teaching from behaviourism Skinner 1968), his
apparently successful teaching machines being one celebrated example. Teaching machines were however
not so much an application of psychology but an analogy based on pigeons pecking targets, and, not

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surprisingly, worked best for low level rote learning. The notion of the One Grand Theory that explains all
is now dead, but the belief that psychology can improve educational practice is still very much alive.
However, the nature of that relationship between psychology and education has been interpreted
differently in North America and in Europe. In North America, the tendency is to apply psychological theory,
derived in controlled laboratory research, to education top-down, as seen particularly in theories of
intelligence (e.g. Sternberg 1988; Gardner 1999) and motivation (Pintrich and Schunk 2002). In Europe and
Australia, on the other hand, the focus has been to study learning bottom-up by observing students
learning in context. These studies gave rise to the field of study designated as ‘student learning’ research.
Both perspectives have their uses and address different issues. As a generalization, the psychological
foundation to American research on teaching and learning tends to put the focus on the person and ‘within-
the-skin’ factors, such as intelligence, learning styles (see below) and motivation, while the European focus
is on contextual factors, of which teaching is clearly the most important in our context.

Student learning research originated in Sweden, with Marton and Säljö’s (1976a, 1976b) studies of surface
and deep approaches to learning. They gave students a text to read and told them they would be asked
questions after wards. Students responded in two different ways. The first group learned in anticipation of
the questions, concentrating anxiously on the facts and details that might be asked. They ‘skated along the
surface of the text’, as Marton and Sãljó put it, using a surface approach to learning. These students
remembered a list of disjointed facts; they did not comprehend the underlying theme understand the
meaning of what the author was trying to say. They went below the surface of the text to interpret that
meaning, using a deep approach. They saw the big picture and how the facts and details made the author’s
case. Note that the terms ‘deep’ and ‘surface’ as used here describe ways of learning a particular task; they
do not describe characteristics of students. We can say that Robert might typically use a surface approach,
but the issue — and the point of this book— are to set up ways of getting him to go deep.

The Marton and Saljo studies struck a chord with on-going work in other countries; in particular that of
Entwistle in the United Kingdom (e.g. Entwistle and Ramsden 1983) and of Biggs in Australia (e.g. 1979,
l987a). Entwistle was working from the psychology of individual differences, Biggs from cognitive
psychology, and Marton and Sãljo from what they later called phenomenography. However, all had a
common focus: studying learning in an institutional context. This work generates strong implications for
teaching, as we explore in this chapter.

Constructivism and Phenomenography

In reflecting on our teaching and interpreting our teaching decisions, we need a theory. Level 3 theories of
teaching, which we looked at earlier in this chapter, are based on two main theories: constructivism and
phenomenography. Which one you use may not matter too much, as long as your theory is consistent,
understandable and works for you. We prefer constructivism as our framework for thinking about teaching
because it emphasizes what students have to do to construct knowledge, which in turn suggests the sorts
of learning activities that lecturers need to encourage in order to lead students to achieve the desired
outcomes.

Constructivism has a long history in cognitive psychology, going back at least to Piaget (1950). Today, it
takes on several forms: individual, social, cognitive, and postmodern (Steffe and Gale 1995). All forms
emphasize that the students construct knowledge with their own activities, and that they interpret

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concepts and principles in terms of the ‘schemata’ that they have already developed. Teaching is not a
matter of transmitting but of engaging students in active learning, building their knowledge in terms of
what they already understand: ‘Constructivism does not claim to have made earth-shaking inventions in
the area of education; it merely claims to provide a solid conceptual basis for some of the things that, until
now, inspired lecturers had to do without theoretical foundation’ (von Glasersfeld 1995: 4).

`Phenomenography’ was a term resurrected by Marton (1981) to refer to the theory that grew out of his
studies with SãDo on approaches to learning and has developed since then (Marton and Booth 1997).
Originally used by Sonnemann (1954) in clinical psychology, phenomenography in the student Learning
context refers to the idea that the student’s perspective determines what is learned, not necessarily what
the lecturer intends should be learned.

Thus, in outcomes-based teaching and learning, it is important that students clearly understand the
learning outcomes they are meant to achieve, and accordingly they are written from the student’s
perspective. The learning outcomes say what they, the students, have to do in order to achieve them, not
what the lecturers have to do. In the phenomenographic approach itself however, the emphasis is not on
defining learning outcomes, but on changing the student’s perspective, or the way the student sees the
world and on how students represent knowledge (Prosser and Trigwell 1999). Teaching here starts from
the student’s experience. Phenomenographic studies have shown how students’ ideas of a particular
concept or principle develop from simple to complex and that lecturers need to see the object of instruction
from the student’s perspective and lead them to higher order levels of understanding.

One way of doing this is by using variation in presenting information and perspectives (Marton and Booth
1997; Prosser and Trigwell 1999). Both constructivism and phenomenography agree that effective learning
changes the way we see the world. The acquisition of information in itself does not bring about such a
change, but the way we structure that information and think with it does. Thus, education is about
conceptual change, not just the acquisition of information.

Such conceptual change takes place when:
1. it is clear to both lecturers and students what the intended outcomes of learning are, where all can
see where they are supposed to be going. Outcomes-based teaching and learning requires this of
lecturers, whereas teaching in the form of ‘covering a topic’ does not. This is not to say that there
will not be unintended but desirable outcomes, such outcomes are of course very welcome.
2. students experience a felt need to achieve the outcome. The art of good teaching is to
communicate that need where it is initially lacking. ‘Motivation’ is not something that students
must first possess; motivation is as much a product of
3. students feel free to focus on the task, not on watching their backs. Attempts to create a felt need
to learn by the use of ill-conceived and urgent assessments create anxiety and are
counterproductive. The game changes, becoming a matter of dealing with the test, not with
engaging with the task deeply.
4. students work collaboratively and in dialogue with others, both peers and lecturers. Good dialogue
elicits those activities that shape, elaborate and deepen understanding.

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8.4.3 SURFACE AND DEEP APPROACHES TO LEARNING

The surface and deep approaches usefully describe how Robert and Susan typically go about their learning
and studying — up to the point when teaching begins. Our aim is to teach so that Robert learns more in
the manner of Susan.

 Surface approach
The surface approach arises from an intention to get the task out of the way with minimum trouble, while
appearing to meet course requirements. Low cognitive level activities are therefore used, when higher level
activities are required to do the task properly. The concept of the surface approach may be applied to any
area, not only to learning. The terms ‘cutting corners’ and ‘sweeping under the carpet’ convey the idea: the
job appears to have been done properly when it hasn’t.

Applied to academic learning, examples include rote learning selected content instead of understanding it,
padding an essay, listing points instead of addressing an argument, quoting secondary references as if they
were primary ones; the list is endless. A common misconception is that memorization in itself indicates a
surface approach (Webb 1997). However, verbatim recall is sometimes entirely appropriate, such as
learning lines for a play, acquiring vocabulary or learning formulae. An example of memorizing playing a
part in a deep approach occurs in the examination context, in what Tang (1991) called ‘deep memorizing’.
The student intends to understand in depth but also needs to be able to recall details on cue, but those
details are interconnected so that correct recall of the part can give access the whole.

Entwistle and Entwistle (2003) report an interesting development of this in their concept of a ‘knowledge
object’. After a period of intensive revision, some students experience a holistic visual image of the content
they are learning. They feel ‘outside’ the object and almost like an artist painting a picture, adding a detail
here, altering something there. They can then use the object to guide their exam answers. Here rote
memorizing and understanding play off each other, so that understanding is fixed and supported with
relevant detail that can be remembered on cue, as is needed in exams.

Memorization becomes a surface approach when it is used to replace understanding, to give the
impression that an appropriate level of understanding has occurred when it has not. When Robert takes
notes, and selectively quotes them back, he is under-engaging in terms of what is properly required. That
is a surface approach. The problem is that it works when teaching, and particularly assessment, allows it
to.

I hate to say it, but what you have got to do is to have a list of ‘facts’; you write down ten important points
and memorize those, then you’ll do all right in the test …… If you can give a bit of factual information — so
and so did that, and concluded that — for two sides of writing, then you’ll get a good mark.
(a psychology undergraduate, quoted in Ramsden 1984: 144)

If the lecturer of this student thought that an adequate understanding of psychology could be manifested
by selectively memorizing, there would be no problem. But it is unlikely that the lecturer did think that —
we should hope not, anyway. Rather, an inappropriate assessment task allowed the students to get a good
mark on the basis of memorizing facts. As it happened, this particular student later graduated with first

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class honours. The problem lies therefore not in the student, but in the assessment task. This lecturer was
not being reflective while the student was highly reflective: he’d outconned the lecturer.

Thus, do not think that Robert is irredeemably cursed with a surface approach if he only lists unrelated
bullet points as his understanding of an article. Teaching and assessment methods often encourage a
surface approach, because they are not aligned to the aims of teaching the subject, as in the case of the
psychology lecturer we just saw. The presence of a surface approach is thus a signal that something is out
of kilter in our teaching or in our assessment methods. It is therefore something we can hope to address.

In using the surface approach, students focus on what Marton calls the ‘signs’ of learning; the words used,
isolated facts, items treated independently of each other. This prevents students from seeing what the
signs signify, the meaning and structure of what is taught. Simply, they cannot see the wood for the trees.
Emotionally, learning becomes a drag, a task to be got out of the way. Hence the presence of negative
feelings about the learning task: anxiety, cynicism, boredom. Exhilaration or enjoyment of the task is not
part of the surface approach.

Factors that encourage students to adopt such an approach include:

1 From the student’s side:
 An intention only to achieve a minimal pass. Such may arise from a ‘meal ticket’ view of university
or from a requirement to take a subject irrelevant to the student’s programme;
 non-academic priorities exceeding academic ones;
 insufficient time; too high a workload;
 misunderstanding requirements, such as thinking that factual recall is adequate;
 a cynical view of the subject topic and/or of the teaching context itself;
 high anxiety;
 a genuine inability to understand particular content at a deep level.

2 From the lecturer’s side:
 Teaching piecemeal by bullet lists, not bringing out the intrinsic structure of the topic or subject.
 assessing for independent facts, which is almost inevitably the case
 when using short answer and multiple-choice tests;
 teaching, and especially assessing, in a way that encourages cynicism:
 for example, ‘I hate teaching this section, and you’re going to hate
 learning it, but we’ve got to cover it’;
 providing insufficient time to engage the tasks; emphasizing coverage
 at the expense of depth;
 creating undue anxiety or low expectations of success: ‘Anyone who
 Can’t understand this isn’t fit to be at university’.

The student factors (1) are not entirely separate from the lecturer factors (2). Most of the student factors
are affected by teaching. Is insufficient time to engage properly a matter of poor student planning or of
poor lecturer judgement? Much student cynicism is a reaction to teaching busy-work and of assessing
trivia. Even the last student factor, inability to understand at a deep level, refers to the task at hand and

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that may be a matter of poor lecturer judgement concerning curriculum content as much as the student’s
abilities. But there are limits. Even under the best teaching some students will still maintain a surface
approach. Unfortunately, it is easier to create a surface approach than it is to support a deep approach
(Trigwell and Prosser 1991). An important step in improving teaching, then, is to avoid those factors that
encourage a surface approach.

 Deep approach

The deep approach arises from a felt need to engage the task appropriately and meaningfully, so the
student tries to use the most appropriate cognitive activities for handling it. To Susan, who is interested in
mathematics and wants to master the subject, cutting corners is pointless.

When students feel this need-to-know, they automatically try to focus on underlying meanings, on main
ideas, themes, principles or successful applications. This requires a sound foundation of relevant prior
knowledge, so students needing to know will naturally try to learn the details, as well as making sure they
understand the big picture. In fact, the big picture is not understandable without the details. When using
the deep approach in handling a task, students have positive feelings: interest, a sense of importance,
challenge, exhilaration. Learning is a pleasure. Students come with questions they want answered, and
when the answers are unexpected, that is even better.

Factors that encourage students to adopt such an approach include:

1. From the student’s side:
 an intention to engage the task meaningfully and appropriately. Such an intention may arise from

an intrinsic curiosity or from a determination to do well;
 appropriate background knowledge and a well-structured knowledge base;
 he ability to focus at a high conceptual level, working from first principles;
 a genuine preference for working conceptually rather than with unrelated detail.

2. From the lecturer’s side:
 teaching in such a way as to explicitly bring out the structure of the topic or subject;
 teaching to elicit an active response from students, e.g. by questioning, presenting problems for

them to solve, rather than teaching
 to expound information;
 teaching by building on what students already know;
 confronting and eradicating students’ misconceptions;
 assessing for structure rather than for independent facts;
 teaching and assessing in a way that encourages a positive learning atmosphere, so students can

make mistakes and learn from them;
 emphasizing depth of learning, rather than breadth of coverage;
 in general, and most importantly, using teaching and assessment methods that support the explicit

aims and intended outcomes of the course.

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Again, the student factors (1) are not independent of the lecturer factors (2). Encouraging the need-to-
know, instilling curiosity, building on students’ prior knowledge are all things that lecturers can attempt to
do; and, conversely, are things that poor teaching can too easily discourage. There are many things the
lecturer can do to encourage deep learning, as will be a lot clearer by the end of this book.

Desirable student learning depends both on student-based factors — ability, appropriate prior knowledge,
clearly accessible new knowledge — and on the teaching context, which includes lecturer responsibility,
informed decision making and good management. But the bottom line is that lecturers have to work with
what material they have. Whereas lectures and tutorials might have worked in the good old days when
highly selected students tended to bring their deep approaches with them, they may not work so well
today. We need to create a teaching context where the Roberts of this world can go deep too.

Another and more important step in improving teaching is to focus on those factors that encourage a deep
approach.

 What is the difference between learning approaches and learning styles?

Some people speak of students’ approaches to learning as if they were learning styles that students use
consistently, whatever the task or the teaching (Schmeck 1988; Sternberg and Zhang 2001). Others speak
of approaches as entirely determined by context, as if students walk into a learning situation without any
preference for their way of going about learning (Marton and Säljo 1976a). These interpretations reflect
the American and the European perspectives (p. 21).

We take a middle position. Students do have predilections or preferences for this or that approach, but
those predilections may or may not be realized in practice, depending on the teaching context. We are
dealing with an interaction between personal and contextual factors, not unlike the interaction between
heredity and environment. Both factors apply, but which predominates depends on particular situations.

Practically speaking, however, it is more helpful to see approaches to learning as something we as lecturers
can hope to change, rather than as styles about which we can do little. For an analysis of the differences
between learning styles and learning approaches see Sternberg and Zhang (2001).

Scores on such questionnaires as the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) (Tait et
al. 1998) or the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) (Biggs et al. 2001), are most usefully seen as outcomes
of teaching rather than as measuring differences between students. Responses to these questionnaires tell
us something about the quality of the teaching environment, precisely because students’ predilections
tend to adapt to the expected requirements of different teaching environments.

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Activity: Does your teaching encourage surface or deep
approaches to learning?

Good teaching encourages a deep approach, and discourages a surface approach, to
learning. Reflect on your teaching so far. Identify aspects of your teaching that have
(maybe unintentionally)
a encouraged a surface approach to learning:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
b encouraged a deep approach to learning:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
c What future actions would you take to encourage a deep approach to learning in
your students?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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4.7 Managing students in your class

Difficult times for a lecturer in managing pupils are the beginning and end of lessons and transitions
between activities during the lesson. I look at each of these now.

Beginnings

To help reduce the number of opportunities for misbehaviour, remember to:

 arrive before the class – be in the room waiting for them
 always make sure that the class is quiet, with bags put away and coats off before you begin
 scan the whole class regularly (see what I said about whole-class teaching and demonstrations above)
 make eye contact with as many individuals as possible
 keep the lesson introduction short
 make the first pupil activities clear and straightforward
 be clear about the sequence of activities, ‘what happens next’
 tell latecomers to sit down, don’t let them interrupt your flow, but find out later why they were late.

Endings

Again you will be wise to draw on the usual school routines here, but it is essential in design and technology
lessons that you leave enough time to collect in resources and clear up. It is still a source of amazement to
me how different the time for this is between pupils who are 11 years old and those just a couple of years
older! Some points:

 Think how some of the ‘ending tasks’ can begin well in advance of the end of the class; perhaps you
collect up some of the tools yourself, or perhaps someone who has finished early can help others.

 Don’t try to do too much yourself at the end.
 If something took longer than you expected, don’t try to rush to do everything you have planned.
 Get everyone quiet at the end before they go to summarise the lesson and give a word of

encouragement and praise.
 Control the exit – this may be more important with a lively and large group of 12 year olds, but even

with older pupils make sure you are the one to dismiss the group.

Transitions within lessons

Moving pupils from one activity to another or from one place to another, for example to watch a video or
demonstration, can give an opportunity for misbehaviour, so you will need to consider how to carry this
out. Some general points:

 Make sure you are ready and have everything to hand before you stop the class.
 Warn everyone that they only have a few minutes to finish what they are doing, and plan what you are

going to say to those who have not finished.

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 It is easier to ‘come round the front’ or ‘get into discussion groups’ if this is an established routine.

Many lecturers spend a considerable time at the start of the academic year establishing the classroom
routines and procedures. This takes time initially, but saves so much time later. As a new or student
lecturer you may not have set this up but you can draw on existing classroom norms to help you. It soon
becomes second nature, but at the beginning everything has to be thought through and planned explicitly.

Dealing with classroom management problems

The vast majority of schools are well organised and disciplined. Design and technology appeals to most
pupils, particularly to those who have found the practical and realistic nature of the work a welcome change
from the tasks set elsewhere in school. However, you will inevitably meet some pupils whose behaviour is
unacceptable.
Kyriacou (1991, p. 82) suggests that lecturers most commonly have to deal with seven types of pupil
misbehaviour.

 excessive talk or talking out of turn
 being noisy
 not paying attention to the lecturer
 not getting on with the work required
 being out of their seat without good cause
 hindering other pupils
 arriving late for lessons.

It is sometimes a combination of these factors that creates a general feeling of unease and discontent on
the part of both the class and the lecturer. This raises the stress level and leads you to forget where you
are in you lesson plan, or that piece of advice you read about what to do with difficult pupils!
Unfortunately, there is no ‘golden rule’ for establishing and maintaining classroom discipline. However,
most lecturers would give the following basic advice, which is far more sensible than the weary time-worn
shibboleths such as ‘don’t smile till Christmas’:

 Find out the school and department procedures for handling disruptive pupils.
 Decide what you are going to accept as your basic standards of behaviour and politeness.
 Insist on those standards.
 Avoid confrontation.
 Have a behaviour management plan prepared (see Chapter 9) so that you know how you are going to

deal with any misbehaviour that you may come across.

Strategies that may help you maintain good discipline include using your voice, making good use of non-
verbal communication, and positioning yourself in the classroom.

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 Using your voice

Regard your voice as a teaching tool; it can be very effective. The pitch of your voice can express a range
of emotions: calmness, urgency, enthusiasm, displeasure. Try to vary it when talking to pupils as this will
help to maintain their interest. The speed of your voice is also important; when explaining, demonstrating
or questioning, you may need to speak more slowly. When encouraging a pupil to work more quickly or to
clear away at the end of the lesson, talking more quickly will express a sense of urgency. The projection of
your voice is obviously important and again you should try to vary it. There may be times when you choose
to speak quietly, for example to quieten pupils or when talking to an individual. At other times a loud voice
may be required, for example to give instructions when pupils are engaged on practical work, or to call for
attention. Try not to strain your voice when projecting it and try not to raise the pitch when you raise the
volume or you will find yourself shrieking. It takes practice, but it is possible to talk more loudly but keep
the pitch low.

 Non-verbal communication

As well as your voice, you will communicate with the pupils in other ways, for example you’re facial
expressions and your posture. Be aware of these and try to make them match your verbal communication,
for example don’t smile whilst you are reprimanding a pupil, as this will give confusing messages. Make
eye contact with pupils when you are talking to them and try to ‘scan’ the room constantly, and let pupils
see you doing this so that they know that you know what is going on! Sometimes letting a pupil know that
you are watching closely will forestall any thoughts of misbehaviour. In your posture, try to show that you
are open and approachable by keeping your arms by your sides or behind you, not defensively crossed in
front of you.

 Positioning yourself in the classroom

Where you stand in the classroom can be an aid to your classroom management. In design and technology,
especially with practical work, it is easy to move around rather than be confined to your desk or the board.
Try not to get ‘hemmed in’ to one place, with pupils continuously coming to you so that you cannot move
– tell pupils that you will come to them. Try to move purposefully around the room. Watch the pupils to
see if you need to be nearby to support a pupil. Listen to the class and move to where you think pupils
might be getting too noisy or are becoming distracted, your presence will quieten them or return them to
their task. Always try to position yourself so that you do not have your back to any pupils, so that you can
see, and be seen and heard by, all the class.
It is most important, though, to exercise common sense. Teaching is a ‘people profession’ and using
common sense in dealing with people is what remains when all the do’s and don’ts of advice have been
long forgotten.

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Assignment 5: Lesson Presentation

This assignment will be done during your practical teaching. You will also make use of the four
lesson plans that you did compiled in Unit 3.

 Present the four lessons in one of your classes, ask one of your colleagues to assess
you using the specific rubric in the study guide.

 Do also a self-evaluation and put this also in your subject file.
 The four lesson compiled in Unit 3 must also put into the subject file.
 Hand in this evaluating together with evidence of presentation in your teaching file.
 Ask the teacher to show you his / her subject files. Take a good look of all the sub

divisions. Compile your own subject file for grade 8 and Grade 9.
 Get hold of two grade 8 and two grade 9 examination papers and memo’s. Add this

also in your subject file.
 Hand in the subject file as a hard copy. Remember the file must be usable when you

start teaching next year.
Marks: _______
Hand in date: _______

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Teaching Strategies and Approaches

Outcomes

To be able to adhere to the importance of teaching Technology as explained in Unit 1, we have to
change our teaching strategies. On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 interpret, analyse and reflect on the theory, teaching, learning and assessment of the design
process.

 apply specialised teaching (pedagogical) methods and content knowledge to your teaching
of Technology.

5.1 Introduction

In this unit you will be introduced to applying exciting, interesting and different teaching strategies so
that you can manage and control the design process well. But most of all in order to guide your
learners in enjoying and mastering the skill of working effectively. They will be working individually as
well as participating actively in a group to complete the practical task known as the Mini – PAT.
There are many teaching strategies in education. This unit will focus only on the following approaches.

1. The Active Teaching Approach.
2. The Holistic Teaching Approach.
3. The Structured Teaching Approach.

Activity 1.1: Different Teaching Strategies

Instructions:
 Brainstorm the teaching strategies on the next page in your group.
 Write your ideas in the space provided.
 You have five minutes to complete your ideas for each strategy.
 Give feedback to the bigger group.

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