TEGT4705 - STUDY NOTES

do not take it so seriously that you squash humorous situations. Students can be very funny, and they
often make observations that we should appreciate.

You have probably experienced those people who take themselves and everything around them too
seriously. It is not fun to be around them and you do not get as much accomplished. The same is true
of your students. This is not to say that you should not take the course seriously, just do not make it
too solemn.

Make Every Class Count
Finally, remember that today is really the most important key. This class at this time is what will be
remembered best when students think of your classes. There is nothing more crucial to students being
motivated to return to a class than what happens every class session. Your design and execution of
the plan is the real key to students being motivated to be in your class. The degree of student
interaction with each other and you and the subject is a key as well. Having students do a minute
paper at the end of a class, having them record “has” in a victory log, or having them map the content
process for that class all help them find value in your classes.

2.3 A Supportive classroom climate

To create a climate for moulding their students into a cohesive and supportive learning community,
lecturers need to display personal attributes that will make them effective as models and socializers:
a cheerful disposition, friendliness, emotional maturity, sincerity, and caring about students as
individuals as well as students. The lecturer displays concern and affection for students, is attentive
to their needs and emotions, and socializes them to display these same characteristics in their
interactions with one another.

In creating classroom displays and in developing content during lessons, the lecturer connects with
and builds on the students’ prior knowledge and experiences, including their home cultures. Extending
the learning community from the school to the home, the lecturer establishes and maintains
collaborative relationships with parents and encourages their active involvement in their children’s
learning. The lecturer promotes a learning orientation by introducing activities with emphasis on what
students will learn from them, treating mistakes as natural parts of the learning process, and
encouraging students to work collaboratively and help one another.

Students are taught to ask questions without embarrassment, to contribute to lessons without fear of
their ideas being ridiculed, and to collaborate in pairs or small groups on many of their learning
activities.

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3 Environmental Engineering: Arranging Your Classroom Environment For Optimal
Functioning

Before you go further…

Think about the way in which you have organized your classroom (or plan to do so).

What factors influenced the “look” of your room?

How did you determine the placement of desks, tables, shelves, rugs, computers, learning centers,
etc. What criteria or reasoning affected the placements of these items?

What things are posted on your walls, doors, windows, and other vertical surfaces? What hangs
from your ceiling, or is clipped to wires crossing your room?

Give Me Room

You’ve been a student in many environments: School classrooms when you were a student,
conference meeting rooms, auditoriums during your college days (Remember those drowsy-eyed
Friday mornings when you were enrolled in “Psych 101”?), and so forth. Some were conducive to
learning and the sharing of information/knowledge. Other settings were not conducive to absorbing
what was shared (Like the hot, overcrowded rooms next to the raised mass transit rail line under the
flight path from the local airport…The type of settings I’m usually provided when I conduct staff
training workshops for groups of lecturers).
The classroom, and how its furnishings and contents are arranged, can be a powerful teaching tool, or
an undirected and unrecognized negative influence on learning. While the student-lecturer
relationship, the educator’s instructional skill, and his/her proficiency in positive behaviour
management are the most important factors in promoting high achievement and pro-social behaviour,
the physical and social systems in classrooms are inextricably intertwined (try saying those two words
eight times fast).

Your room is not merely a benign homogeneous cube, but rather a network of varied and
interconnected micro-environments. Even if it appears to be simply a large cube containing seats,
some students have a better view of the board or the lecturer (or the birds on the window sill), some
parts of the room are hotter or colder, and some places are better lit than others.

Historically, the lecturers of younger children seemed to be more cognizant of the influence of the
classroom environment on such things as movement, learning, behaviour, and the support of teaching
goals. More so nowadays, lecturers who instruct above the pre-kindergarten and primary grades are
recognizing the need to arrange items and “decorate” the classroom in a manner that facilitates
positive interaction and learning.

Herein, I’ll present the best of all possible worlds with respect to organizing and arranging one’s
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classroom. Often, these recommendations can’t be implemented for any number of reasons: The
resources aren’t available; the shape and size of the space prohibits “best practice” with regard to
design and arrangement; the room does not belong to you for the entire day, making it difficult to
“personalize” for your students and subject area; and so forth.

The Physical Environment
The room to which you’re assigned consists of non-modifiable and modifiable features that are then
enhanced by the placement of furnishings and other items. We can modify our assigned space in
order to accomplish a number of objectives. For example, a carrel (3 sided space into which a student
sits facing the vertical surface ahead…perhaps two small book shelves extending perpendicular from
the wall, creating a small, enclosed “office” for a distractible worker) can be used to shelter an
individual pupil. Or, we might push together individual desks or meet with a small group of students
at a round table in order to create cooperative interaction. In another case, we might widely separate
the desks of rivals in order to decrease their negative influence on one another.

When designing your classroom, consider:
-The age of the students (affecting the nature and size of the seating, materials to be stored, areas
needing to be developed for various activities)
-The number of students (affecting the necessary number of seats, books to be stored, etc.)
-The activities to be conducted (Don’t think about “math” or “phonics instruction”. Students don’t
math or phonic. They draw, construct, measure, role play, write, etc.)
-The placement of electrical outlets, windows, door(s)

Certain hints and tips to consider:
-Situate recreational and computer areas away from instructional areas.
-Place materials to be accessed by students in areas away from where other students are working.
-Place materials needed for your teaching near the areas where you conduct that instruction (for
easy access which avoids non-instructional moments during your lessons).
-Place hazardous or fragile items in a locked, protected, or marked-off area.
-Remember that you typically view the environment while standing. Your students usually view it
from a sitting position. They can’t see inside boxes that you can view. “Low” bookshelves are “high”
to those who are sitting. Be sure to sit in seats in different parts of the classroom to view the
classroom from your pupil’s angles of sight.

Carving It Up
Most texts that address classroom design recommend splitting the room into different types of
instructional environments. At its minimalism, two separate spaces; one for large group instruction,
and one for small group gatherings. Some lecturers identify the various area boundaries with colored,
foot-wear resistant tape.

I Need My Space
One thing over which we have no control is the size of the room. The amount of space per student
affects instruction, methodology that is used, and interpersonal behaviour. As per the latter effect,

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we know from studies of rats and humans who are crowded into spaces, that they become irritable
and nasty…unless they’re gathered for a short-term event of mutual interest. (For example: music
concerts, charismatic speakers, etc.). Our students must spend about 6 hours per day, five days a
week together in close quarters. Not all of them are enjoying the moment’s activity for which they
are gathered.

When architects design buildings, allocated space is figured by the funds available, the purpose of
the facility, and the anticipated time of occupancy. Containment cells in local jails allow about 48
square feet per prisoner (Please don’t ask me how I know this fact). Back in the 1960s, the United
States was concerned about nuclear attack from the Ruskies (American slang term for the residents
of the former USSR based on the Russians’ term to which they refer to themselves). Some of you
oldsters will remember the drills: In case of nuclear explosion, curl up under your desk and wait for
the “all clear” signal. I often think that the reason we curled up was so that we could kiss our
endangered butts goodbye. Fallout shelters to protect the population against nuclear explosions
and fallout were built with 6 square feet of room per individual. They were designed to be short-
term facilities. After a couple of days of cramped cohabitation, we’d squint in the sunlight as we all
came up to the surface to start a new world. OK, enough ancient history.

Now consider an average school room. It’s 30 by 30, or 900 square feet. Divide that space by 30
students, and you get 30 square feet per pupil…when it’s unfurnished. Consider too the space near
the door that can’t be used for occupancy. Then figure that the lecturer usually hogs a lot of space
up front. The result? Each student has a space of 18 square feet for 6 hours. That’s about the size
of two telephone booths. Speaking of phone booths, as a former special education lecturer, I was
given corners, hallways and former storage spaces, that when filled, reminded me of the
photographs from the 1950’s; you know…the one’s showing attempts to stuff as many people as
possible into a phone booth. In the words of one of my former pupils: “Mr. Mac. How’re we
supposed to learn in here? We aren’t got no a--room in the classroom!” (To figure out what was
said, rhyme the hyphenated word with “classroom”)

In many of our classrooms, given the necessity of movement, there are constant incursions into one
another’s space. That lack of personal space can create the negative effects found in those studies
involving rats and humans: irritation and angry outbursts.

While things are changing in the way of school design, many districts continue to use the old
buildings, or they purchase and refurbish old buildings that have been used for other purposes (the
local jails, etc.). It appears as if schools are/were built with little forethought about personal
learning space. I understand that it’s a holdover mentality from the early industrial revolution
period in which individuals were important only as a member of a class of labourers. Most of the
consideration was given to “the boss” (us).

Today, we try to fit modern devices and instructional procedures into the old boxes. This retro-
fitting often resembles the act of trying to fit a square peg into a round hole (or me into my tiny
white water kayak). We try our best to accommodate computers and teaching machines (some of
which actually work), team teaching arrangements, volunteers and lecturer aides, individualization

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of instruction, learning centres, students leaving and returning from auxiliary services, and so forth.

Now, I’ve got to admit that the traditional classroom holds some comfortable associations for me
given my childhood experiences (although the principal’s office is excluded from that comfort
ability…given my experiences there). They also promote lecturer-focused attention for large group
lessons. However, teaching and learning is undergoing change. So then…let’s talk about education
as it is being experienced today.

Despite constrictions, it can benefit you and your students to consider the modifications offered
below. Even though the lecturer is the one who makes the classroom environment an effective one,
the more our rooms look like workshops, libraries, or conference centres, and less like playgrounds
(or prisons), the fewer the problems that will be experienced.

Take Your Seat
Close your eyes and walk into a school room (Just pretend with this exercise…don’t actually do it…I
don’t want anyone tripping over the garbage can). Open those the lovely orbs and take a look
around. You will immediately know what sorts of activities occur therein.

Are there rows of seats facing a large open space in front of a chalk board? That arrangement indicates
that there is a great deal of large group instruction led by an authority figure. Are there 4-6 desks
pushed together with chairs facing another seat across the desks? This arrangement would indicate
that the lecturer utilizes a great deal of small group work or allows students to assist one another on
tasks. (It could also indicate that there are too many students assigned to that space, and that the
lecturer is trying his/her best to fit them all in.) Are the seats arranged in a semi-circle, indicating that
group discussion is a standard practice? Are there dusty and broken chairs and desks stacked up on
top of one another? This arrangement means that you’ve walked into the custodian’s storage
closest. Turn around and find another room.

What influences and factors affect how you arrange student’s seats?

Seating tip: If a youngster is going to be “pulled out” during a lesson for special services (counselling,
speech/language instruction), arrange his/her seating so that s/he is nearest to the door. For
example, a student who will be summoned by the occupational therapist during learning centre time
would be assigned to the centre closest to the door. If the student will be leaving during “rug time”
(when students gather and sit on a rug to engage in a learning activity), have him/her sit on the
outside of the group and closest to the door.

Research on rows versus “clusters” in the arrangement of student desks

Row seating does seem to promote attention to individual work. In one research study (Axlerod, et.
al, 19** ), students were on task 62% of the time when sitting in clusters (small groups of seats pushed
together). When the seating was switched to a rows arrangement (seats in line, one behind the other),
students were on task 82% of the time. They then switched the seats back to a cluster

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arrangement. Students were on task 63% of the time. When the seating was again switched back to
a rows arrangement, the students were on task 83% of the time.

There are so many factors that could play into the results that were reported above, but it’s something
to consider. If you plan to do a lot of group work, be sure to look through the page on this site
(www.BehaviorAdvisor.com) titled “Cooperative learning”. Assigning roles to each participant in a
group keeps the group focused and assures that everyone contributes and learns.

Assigned seating in rows is often preferred by lecturers at the beginning of the year (and during
testing) in order to provide order and structure. Preparations are made for other seating
arrangements that will be utilized, and rules for co-habitation presented before changes are made.

Some lecturers like to have flexibility in seating. Their students will help to move seating into an
arrangement that matches the activity and instructional style for that lesson. If you plan to conduct
this transitioning of seating, you’ll want to practice those routines (as you would with routines for any
recurring event), praising and otherwise positively recognizing students who are moving correctly
(versus berating students who are failing to follow the routine in a prompt manner). Prepare them
for the move by asking questions prior to the move such as: “Where are you going to go?” and “How
do we hold the chair properly in order to prevent a scraping noise on the floor?” Practice, practice,
practice…and PRAISE, PRAISE, PRAISE (using the advice on praising descriptively that can be found
inside the page on this site titled “Nice ways to build self-discipline in students”).

Positioning the Throne
The location of the lecturer’s desk exerts a great deal of physical and psychological influence upon
one’s adoring masses. Some educators exclaim: “Lecturer’s desk?! Who has time to sit
down?” Whether one decides to have a lecturer’s desk in the room at all is the first
consideration. Why would you want to have one taking up much needed space in your classroom? If
it’s there to rest your rear end while the students are scrawling information onto a series of
worksheets, then it’s time to pick up a book on the role of a lecturer. If there is a great deal of open
space in your classroom, then an large desk might be useful during planning periods when you are
completing forms or making quizzes, or to separate learning areas. It might also be used to direct
traffic flow, create a certain “feel” to an area, etc.

Few lecturers perceive a need for a desk. Many see it as a physical and symbolic barrier between them
and their students, something that is contrary to their mission of reaching and teaching students. They
can always find a seat at a table, or use a student-sized desk for most purposes. However, some
lecturers find a need to use it for the containment of supplies and materials. In that case, they push
it over to a wall or into a corner of the room so that it takes up minimal space.

If you do decide that a lecturer’s desk is necessary, keep these things in mind:
-Be sure that you can monitor students in all areas of the classroom. It should be positioned so that
you can monitor all your students. If some students must be outside of your line of site, be sure that
they are your compliant and focused pupils. Can you see behind that bookshelf? Can you see all

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activity within that coat/storage closet?

-Your desk influences the movement of “traffic” within your room. Pupils will be coming to your
desk to speak to you or obtain materials/supplies. Do those access paths create distraction to
on- task students? Might moving students bump into those who are sitting? Does it cause
congestion during certain times of the day (entry into the classroom, gathering book bags and coats
at the end of the day?

-If it will store instructional materials, place it near the whole-class instructional area

-Consider traffic patterns near it, and the influence of it on traffic…especially if students are allowed
access to items/materials
or turn in papers there.

Cyber Spaces

What are some considerations regarding the placement of computers?
-location of electrical outlets
-location of internet access box
-positioned away from chalk dust, water, magnets
-positioned so you can view the monitors (especially if the computer has internet access)

Other considerations:
-place a limit on number of students allowed in that area
-be sure that the users have a purpose/task and a time limit

Things to Consider When Arranging Your Classroom

Our goals are to:
-promote attention, structure, access, and orderly movement
-minimizing distractions
-make efficient use of the available space

The things that effect our decisions include:
-Number (and nature) of students

-Size and shape of room

-Placement of non-movable items such as:
-door
-windows (if any)
-bulletin boards
-chalk board/ dry eraser board
-bookshelves

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-counters
-closets
-height of ceiling
-electrical outlets
-internet/cable outlet
-drinking fountains/sinks
-bathroom

-Types of lessons/activities that will ensue
-full class presentations by the lecturer
-small group work
-large group discussions
-individual work
-learning centers
-Will students make great use of materials/equipment? How will they be distributed/accessed?

-Available furniture
-tables or desks
-bookcases
-filing cabinets
-desks and tables

-AV equipment
-overhead projector
-computers
-VCR/Television
-CD player/Radio/Tape player

-“Decorations”
-maps/charts
-posters
-animals
-plants

-Are environmental modifications necessary for disabled students?

The Four Guidelines
1. Keep high traffic areas free of congestion by separating them widely
-Places like:

-lecturer’s desk
-computer stations
-group work areas
-pencil sharpeners

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-garbage cans
-water fountains
-pick up and drop off areas for books/papers
-textbook storage areas

2. Stand in different parts of the room to be sure that you can see all of your students.
-What sorts of things might interfere with your visual monitoring?
-How do you position yourself while helping students?

3. Be sure that all of your students can see you as you instruct. Do so by sitting in their seats (and
slouching down to their height).

4. Keep frequently used material easily accessible.
-How do you do so?
-surface storage on shelves (versus deep closet storage)
-baskets on tables
-placed on your desk or special table

Learning Centres
Typically, learning centres are project-based areas to which a student or a few students are directed
when they complete assigned work. They are useful for teaching, review, or re-teaching of
material. Students read the directions for accomplishing the task and engage in its pursuit. The
tasks are structured in a manner in which students can be self-directed and can work with little or no
lecturer observation or input (Dare I say “interference”?). The projects/tasks are typically interesting
reviews or extensions of previously taught material (although some lecturers use learning centres
for initial instruction). The centre might consist of one independent activity, or it might contain
several sequential or related activities. Students work through the tasks in order to develop a skill or
concept, or apply it.

Learning centres should be enticing in their appearance, contain clear directions for engaging in the
activity, and allow for self-checking and self-correction of mistakes. The centres might serve as an
activity for one day, or a number of days or weeks. You should regularly consider whether the
centre is still of interest and benefit to your students.

You might hear the term “learning station”. Sometimes the term is used synonymously with
“learning centre”. At other times, a “learning station” is considered to be one segment of a learning
centre. There might be several “stations” within a centre. Each would stress one skill, concept, or
interest.

Developing a centre
-Assure that the centre/station has a clear purpose. You should be able to state this purpose in the
form of a behavioural objective. For example: “Upon successful completion of the assigned task, the
student will have demonstrated the ability to ****** by constructing/writing/drawing…..”

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-Assure that the directions are simply stated and comprehendible to your students. For non-
readers, you might use pictures/photos of the steps of the task being addressed, or record the
directions in audio form.
-Assure that the tasks match the abilities of the students assigned to the station/centre. Perhaps
offer options for completion that reflect different levels of knowledge/ability. Consider “Bloom’s
Taxonomy”. (If you’re unfamiliar with these different levels of “knowing something”, conduct an
internet search on the topic)
-Assure that the stations have a high interest appeal for the participants (in subject matter, format,
type of task, etc.)
-Students should be able to self-correct if mistakes are made
-Students should be able to self-evaluate their performance on the task
-Your learning centre should have a variety of stations/tasks that are meaningful and enjoyable for
the participants
-Consider having open-ended options which allow the students to pursue their own interests related
to the material you have been teaching.

Activities and Discussion Questions

1. Observe in a lecturer’s classroom (perhaps your own) while the students are in transition (coming
into the room at the beginning of the day, preparing to leave the room at the end of the day, moving
between centers, etc.). Does the traffic flow smoothly, or do areas of congestion appear? Is the
smooth or congested traffic flow due to the arrangement of furnishings, or is congestion due to the
need for a routine procedure to structure movement? (or both) If there are areas of congestion, how
would arrange for fluid traffic flow at “high use” times?

2. If you’re a lecturer, which factors influenced the arrangement of furnishings in your room? How
did you determine the placement of desks, tables, shelves, rugs, etc.? If you’re training to become a
lecturer, interview a head lecturer regarding these questions.

3. If you’re a lecturer, which factors influenced the “decorations” in your room? How did you
determine the placement of charts, student work examples, etc.? What items hang from the ceiling
or are attached to vertical surfaces (walls, doors, backs of shelving units). If you’re training to
become a lecturer, interview a head lecturer regarding these questions.

4. If you were offered the choice, would you select tables or chairs for your classroom? Would you
make use of both? How and/or why?
5. Consider various common disabilities and challenges. What modifications might be made in
classrooms to better accommodate students who learn, move, sense, or behave differently from
your “typical” student?

6. Look into various rooms where groups gather. Considering the “looks” and arrangements, what
are the purposes? How does the appearance/arrangement of the room affect comfort (physical and
psychological)? What learning format is used? How do the room arrangements affect learning?

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7. If you make use of a lecturer’s desk, where do/will you place it? In the back of the room? In the
front of the room? Somewhere else? Why did you select that position?
8. Expert recommendations say that items that create a high traffic flow near them (lecturer’s desk,
water fountain, etc.) be separated widely. Soooo….have you ever seen a classroom that didn’t have
a trash can under a pencil sharpener? If you separate the pencil sharpener and the trash can, how
are you going to handle the shavings that invariably rain down on the floor?
9. Studies have revealed that lecturers give more attention to students sitting in the front of the
room and down the center of the seating arrangement. How will you assure that all students have
optimal access to your assistance and attention? OR…which students would you place in and out of
the identified zones?
11. In addition to the factors mentioned above, consider the following suggestions. Evaluate your
classroom (or one to which you have access) with this checklist (see below).

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Directions: Consider the following suggestions for room arrangement. Indicate whether your room
meets these criteria. If you do not wish to implement a particular suggestion, devise a well-founded
explanation the variance.

Doorway
___Clearly marked (with number, name of instructor) so that visitors can find it
___An envelope, paper pad, and pencils for writing messages hang outside (or just inside the door) for
others to write there messages to you (avoids interruptions)
___There is plenty of room just inside the doorway for children to line up without knocking things over

Walls
___Students’ academic work is displayed
___Displays are at the students’ eye level
___Displays have educational or motivational value (not solely posted for entertainment value)
___Instructional boards/screens are located within each student's visual range.
___The schedules for daily, semi-weekly, and weekly activities are posted
___The schedules are written so that students can comprehend it (or it has pictures/photos attached
for non-readers)
___The schedules are current
___Some walls are left undecorated in order to provide a visual "rest" when students look up from their
work to reflect and think
___Chipping paint, broken window frames/locks, malfunctioning electrical outlets, etc. have been
reported (And you periodically bring the custodian’s favourite snack/pastry in order to enhance the
chances of the repairs being made)

Furniture
___Each student has his/her own workspace
___Each student's desk is appropriate in size and fully functional
___Each student's desk is arranged so that s/he can view instruction and readily participate in seatwork
activities, lecturer presentations, board lessons, etc.
___The lecturer (and assistants) can move easily from one student desk/table to another
___If students are clustered/grouped together for activities/projects, the composition of the groups is
arranged so that they can work cooperatively in a constructive manner

Storage
___Frequently used materials are stored at the students’ eye level or below
___Material containers are designed in such a way that they draw attention to the materials (not the
containers)

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GENERAL HINTS FOR TEACHING TECHNOLOGY

This chapter has been drawn up primarily on the basis of recommendations that were made by the
Department of Education in Namibia for Namibian teachers involved in Technical Education, as well as
Design and Technology, under the Cambridge system.

1. INTRODUCTION
The traditional concept of teaching in the technology-directed classroom was based on developing skills
and techniques. The standard of workmanship that was achieved, was controlled primarily by the
teacher's demonstrations of techniques and the ability of the learner to imitate these techniques as
successfully as possible. However, the purpose of this chapter is not to engage in a dispute on the
necessity of skills and techniques, but rather to provide a detailed outline of all the critical aspects that
have to be considered by a Technology teacher in teaching Technology, as well as all aspects that a learner
may require in an educational sense, and therefore, what should be included as classroom activities.
Technological education should be interpreted in terms of experience and activity rather than facts that
have to be remembered. To create something represents a natural desire on the part of human kind, and
therefore, also in the learner; that is, to be actively engaged, to experiment, as well as to invent or
manufacture an object. In Technology as a school subject, the learner is given the opportunity to satisfy
this desire under the guidance of the teacher. For this reason, the learner has to be given the opportunity
to discover his creative and technical possibilities, and then to exploit these possibilities in the formation
of his personality and latent talents.

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In making and completing an object which the learner designs and manufactures, the individual
experiences the joys of creativity, which has an activating effect on him/her and therefore other latent
talents, such as the autonomous design of assignments or parts of assignments that are planned for
processes of free transformational design.

It should be made possible for the learner to work in several media. However, his/her work must always
be goal-directed and his/her results should not be reached as a coincidence. Good planning should be
reinforced from an early stage, otherwise, he/she will lose interest. The construction and the finishing of
articles are most important, albeit that these processes should not be the ultimate goals of Technology.
Although a learner derives no pleasure from a manufactured article that does not also appeal to his
inherent sense of beauty and goal-directedness, it is also true that an obsession with detail may also
undermine the learner's interest.

An important point to remember is that all articles that are manufactured must be worthwhile - they
should not be intended, in the first place, to satisfy someone else’s needs. The learner derives pleasure
from manufacturing objects that he/she may find useful, and he/she will work for hours on an article that
he/she may find useful in his school work or in the domain of play.

2. THE ROLE OF DECISION-MAKING

The traditional approach with regard to technological education labels "manufacturing" as a primary
activity. This approach therefore implies that the ability to "manufacture" is the only requirement of adult
life that activities in the Technology venue may offer to learners. However, when the classroom is made
available to all groups of learners who have varying skills and abilities, the emphasis that is then placed
on "manufacturing" may then be questioned. However, in the light of the education of the learner to
achieve maturity, it appears to be more relevant that the emphasis should fall on decision-making.

In the current circumstances, the central role of life, as well as later on in the life of the learner, is to
engage in the process of "decision-making". For this reason, to gain relevance in the classroom, activities
in the Technology class must include "decision-making" as a central concept.

Within the old traditional approach, the teacher played the role of designer and the master workman who
took decisions at various levels in guiding his learners along a specific route.

Decision-making with regard to a product offers the opportunity to judge the designer's work from close
up. The latter aspect is related primarily to the following three points, namely:

 Take from the past what is relevant
 Make optimal use of what is available in the present
 Try to predict future conditions

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This analysis may be most useful to the teacher of today. The task of selecting specific content for a course
and then to draw up a useful structure may lead to enormous problems. However, the teacher may use
the three points as guide-lines for establishing a particular structure (Hughes, 1981: 9).

 Take from the past what is relevant
Take existing products and learning programmes that have been used for teaching a particular subject.
Perform a thorough investigation and evaluation of the relevance of the various aspects that have been
addressed. Analyse further aspects such as, for example, time available for teaching, time spent on
various themes, method of presentation, the amount of work dealt with at a time, etcetera. Thus, when
a thorough evaluation of the various aspects has been performed, those aspects that are useful are taken
and further planning and organisation are carried out on that basis.

 Make optimal use of what is available in the present
Making optimal use of existing sources, the teacher may ensure that the learner derives optimal
advantage from the subject. Learners are introduced, for example, to all possible material that is available
at a particular time for manufacturing, for example, a small vehicle. Initially, learners will probably take
the wrong decisions, but through the necessary intervention of the teacher, the learner may be guided to
a point where he/she may exercise choices independently.

 Try to predict future conditions
To the established teacher and the newly-trained teacher alike, it is necessary to develop a professional
approach to teaching. This means that the concept of teaching has to be extended from the limitations
of the classroom to a much broader educational context. To the established teacher, this may imply that
he/she will be confronted with change. To the young teacher, this implies the identification of a base
from which a philosophy of teaching may be developed.

It is most important to note that there is no recipe that will have the same value for each teacher. When
the educational value and the role of classroom activities are determined, it is important to analyse, group
together and evaluate these options. For this reason, the skills that are required at this stage are related
to a thought process - a thought process that seeks the relevant and essential issues.

This objective may be achieved by outlining the broader context in more specific terms. This context is
one of the classroom activities in teaching design, and is based on the problem-solving approach. The
design process serves as a basis for all problem-solving activities (Hughes, 1998: 11).

3. THE ROLE OF INTEREST

From the preceding, it is clear that learners' interest play a most important role in technology education.
The teacher's method of teaching, as well as the choice of objects, should therefore be aimed at eliciting

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and retaining learners' interest. In this regard, it is most important to the teacher to remember that a
person can only interest other people if he/she takes a keen interest in that aspect.

No teacher is able to elicit and maintain his/her learners' interest if he/she is not thoroughly prepared for
each lesson that he has to give. It is an important issue to the technology teacher because he/she is
required primarily to present individualised education. Material should be prepared timeously and tools
should be maintained with great care so that any unnecessary waste of time will not occur when the
lesson starts.

However, it is not only the material and equipment that have to be taken care of prior to the lesson. The
teacher's lesson should be planned in the finest detail so that he/she may guide the learner to embark
upon the correct work procedure and to use the most economical work methods. Proper provision has
to be made for learners who show rapid progress so that they will not become bored when they complete
an article in quick time and they have to wait for others to catch up with them. On the other hand, the
weaker learners have to be assisted so that they are not discouraged by their backlog. To achieve this
aim, the teacher may use various methods.

 The use of instructional cards is recommended - in this way, the autonomous learner who
progresses faster than his class mates will be enabled to take on and complete new work largely
on his / her own.

 For example, by dividing a class into three competency groups, work may be done that matches
the needs of each group. In other words, differentiated work is then performed which eliminates
the monotony of similar work.

 If an advanced learner completes an assignment before the time, he/she may assist a weaker
learner, or may engage in group work with his equals, or may commence with the manufacturing
of a new article.

4. THE ROLE OF MATERIAL

In the various phases of teaching technology, it is important that learners must be familiar with a large
number of basic materials whose characteristics and finishing possibilities have to be mastered. The
purpose is therefore to foster an awareness in the learner of the media so that he may look at the medium
with understanding and feeling because it is only then that he will develop a sense of the genuine value
of that medium. This is a very important point because through the ages, human kind tried to imitate
things. Imitation marble, wood, leather, etcetera are not only poorly manufactured, but the artificial
appearance of the material shows that it does not have any durability. It is the genuineness of material
and the honest perception thereof that we want to foster in our learners so that expressions such as: this
is genuine cut glass; this is genuine marble; etcetera, are not merely used to express a snobbish attitude.

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Look around you in shops at materials and workmanship, design and use. Sometimes, these articles take
on a contorted appearance where material has been forced into a shape that does not match its
characteristics. This falseness is often foisted on the public. A nation's cultural standard is often measured
in terms of its buying habits. These goods are often of extremely poor quality, put together hastily,
smeared bright and artificially, yet they charge high prices because they are unfamiliar with the
genuineness and beauty of material. The only place to foster these buying habits that are determined by
a sense of values is the school. It is the school with its emphasis on basic techniques in Technology which
may reinforce this awareness of the feel of specific materials. It is at this point where there is a difference
between verbal and visual teaching methods. It is seeing, and not only seeing without feeling or
atmosphere. Thus the learner must therefore develop a broad awareness, namely that of an
understanding of the characteristics, as well as the finishing possibilities of a medium.

The individual must develop the finishing possibilities further in terms of his own view, as well as his own
original finishing. These personal characteristics that are involved in manufacturing an article require
creative thinking. This is what Technological Education should strive for - to create a situation where
learners may think, create and express their thinking. Often, learners work with materials for years
without developing real knowledge of material. The various techniques are prescribed and the learners
are required to imitate parrot-fashion. Large quantities of articles are manufactured with no personality,
sometimes successful merely at a technical level, without displaying any feel for the material.

Thus, one comes up against the problem of how to present Technology. This is the approach to be
selected which is extremely important to place this project on a sound footing. When the old method of
teacher prompts and slavish learner imitation is rejected, a new way has to be found to achieve the
educational goal. It is not advisable merely to provide the learner with a piece of material and to tell him
/ her to "make a project", leaving the learner to his/her own devices. On the contrary, the teacher must
have a much wider knowledge of his subject, he must know why his discipline exists, and he must have a
sound knowledge of teaching. He must realize that it is not merely a game, but rather that the classroom
is a place of serious study, where he has to explore, experiment and create. He must become familiar
with the elements in basic design so that he may find a mode of presenting himself.

Initially, the teacher is required to know whether the learner is motivated for what the teacher would like
her to do. Is the learner's orientation that he would like to do Technology? Thus, is there a willingness to
make contact with a particular material? For this reason, the following phases have to be considered. In
each case, the emphasis is on material and construction and not so much on the finished article.

4.1 Phases in the stages of development

 Predestructive
This implies that to discover, to gain an awareness of articles that are manufactured. Contact with basic
materials: wood, paper, clay, woven material, rope, wire, plate metal, paint, etc. No demands are made
- no special position is taken; in other words, it is not that "if you thread in the way I have shown you, we

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achieve the following effect." The learner becomes aware of what materials look and feel like. Have you
ever seen such a beautiful kite? What has the kite been made of? Is the colour attractive? Why not?
How was the kite manufactured? Etc. This does not mean that the learner has to make the kite directly
afterwards - not at all, it is simply the same kind of talk that is required in grade 1 when one deals with
learners.

Almost concurrently with the predestructive stage, we encounter the destructive dimension, as one may
experience in the act of playing. How may I divide the sheet of paper into two parts? Tear, cut, break the
dowel, cut the dowel, break the wood, beat the clay, stamp on the clay, throw the clay, fray the wool,
trim the material, bend or rumple the wire, make squiggles with the pencil and paper, etc.

Soon the learner becomes bored with this destructive game. He soon discovers the difference between
what is damaged and what is intact. Now, one has to proceed to the next stage.

 The incidental product

This stage should not be made too complicated. While engaging in play, the learner should not display
any planning in his behaviour - instead, the learner should be exposed to tasks such as 'apply the brush
with powder paint over the crayon, and observe; fold the paper and observe; fold and cut the paper and
observe; fold again and cut again, observe; allow two colours to flow into each other, add black and
observe, etc. These incidental results sometimes hold enormous surprises and excitement. He gains the
readiness to explore.

 To discover the characteristics of materials. In this way, knowledge is gained for processing
material

Paper: tear, cut, bend, roll up, fold, perforate, fray, frizz, play, paste, insert folds, etcetra.
Woven material: tear, cut, perforate, fold, inserting folds, drawing in, attaching (by machine & by hand),
etc.

This mode of discovering more about material and exploring processing aspects represents an extremely
important phase that should precede the goal-directed manufacturing of articles. Naturally, one has to
bear in mind that during this phase, learners begin to ask questions about how a particular material has
been attached, etcetera. In such a case, it would be the right time to demonstrate the process. During
demonstrations, learners will participate passively through observation. However, the teacher has to
guide learners to what he would like to do with them. Focusing their attention on certain problems or
through questions, it can be done with ease.

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 Learners have to participate in activities in which they are interested

Knowledge of the material will necessarily elicit interest. Once the learner has explored the processing
possibilities, one may proceed to the actual manufacturing of an article. The emphasis has to be placed
on the multitude of possibilities. Learners have to be made aware of the fact that an article may be
manufactured in many ways and that it may take on many forms.

The technically correct must always be incorporated so that the learner may also learn how to execute a
process. However, remember that when a learner would like to manufacture an item, he must first
engage in planning and if you find that this does not work, then show him the correct way, perhaps he
will find a way that is most original, as well as successful. This leads to active participation. This is now
the time to display his original creative ability. He is required to plan, judge, do, arrange; in other words,
he is required to think.

This approach to material requires meticulous preparation on the part of the teacher. For example, the
teacher must present various materials. The teacher must discuss projects individually and make
suggestions.

The work now becomes a challenge to the learner to produce an item that is a personalised product.
Using this work procedure, a love and an understanding of material are fostered in learners. Other aspects
such as individuality, originality, personality development, satisfaction, solving problems, developing a
sense of design, developing good taste, learning technical skills and many others that contribute towards
making a learner happy, are also fostered by this approach to material.

5. CLASSROOM ROUTINE AND SAFETY MEASURES

A good workman is known for his work, as well as the way that he handles his equipment. He knows his
equipment, uses each in the correct way and only for the purpose for which it has been manufactured.
He looks after each of these items of equipment by putting them away in their correct places. Similarly,
every good teacher is also known on the basis of his work and the way in which he/she handles and
maintains particular aspects in the classroom.

Note the following hints (for practical venues):
 Orderly entering and leaving the centre;
 Cases are placed neatly in the appointed place;
 Jackets are taken off and hung up. Roll up sleeves, take off ties, or stick it into the top of the shirt.
 An apron or overall protects clothes;
 Put away each item of equipment in its place if it is no longer required;
 Hold the sharp ends of equipment, such as chisels, so that they point downwards when you move

around with them;

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 Regard the teaching of safety as a continuous process and not merely as a single lesson;
 As a teacher, set an example to learners so that they know what you expect of them.

Although a more relaxed form of discipline is maintained in the Technology class than in ordinary
classrooms, you should consistently guard against poor discipline, and when learners play with
equipment, they have to be reprimanded immediately and in the strictest terms.

6. BASIC PROCESSES IN TECHNOLOGY

The importance of practical demonstration in Technology cannot be over-emphasised. Furthermore, the
demonstration has to be carried out perfectly, paying meticulous attention to the smallest details. It is
incorrect, as well as confusing, to the learner to call them back after the demonstration only to focus their
attention on aspects that you have left out.

The safest procedure, especially to those who are a little rusty, or who will perhaps present Technology
for the first time, is to demonstrate the process to themselves. Make notes as you proceed. On
concluding the demonstration, you should study your notes, make the necessary changes and do the
demonstration again. Then you will have adequate self-confidence.

You should never accept that the learners are already familiar with certain aspects of practical work. A
good example of this is the correct and safe handling of equipment. Bad habits that are learnt during this
phase, will also be reflected in the quality of the work, in the immediate moment, as well as the future.

Learners are inclined to embark unthinkingly on "making something". This is incorrect. Make sure that
they use the correct processes. More haste, less speed, the saying goes.

7. OUTCOMES

Teaching involving hand work is regarded by educationists as one of the most important means in the
general formative learning and personality development of human kind. Through his activities with the
hand, the learner not only develops his brain; but also meets the demands of his emotional sphere. The
learner experiences the inherent desire for self-development. He wants to express his creative desire; he
would like to do something himself, and he would like to experience the pleasant feeling to create
something with his hands. Learning through doing has enormous formative value, and notwithstanding
the increasing mechanisation of the modern era, handcraft skills continue to play a critical function in
everyday life.

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To present Technology successfully as a subject, it is necessary that you should always take into
consideration the outcomes of Technology. It has to be borne in mind in the teaching methods that you
apply, as well as in the project that has been tackled.

For this reason, you are required to check syllabuses regularly and then you have to note the following:

 To foster sound methods of use and taking care of equipment so that learners will develop respect
and appreciation of equipment.

 To give learners the opportunity to plan and manufacture something themselves and in this way
to experience the joy of creative pleasure;

 To foster a sense of quality among learners; and
 To foster autonomous self-directed work in the learner.

8. GENERAL ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION

When the concepts organisation and administration are applied to Technology, this process entails the
following:

The systematic planning and management of technology venues and classes.

8.1 The centre

The organisation of the centre, the layout, storage and taking care of the equipment play an extremely
critical role in teaching Technology. The arrangement and storage of equipment take place in terms of
local circumstances and depends on buildings and facilities that have been created.

The influence of the environment on character development, as well as the quality of the work that is
rendered, is beyond argument. The technology class must therefore always be neat, and the equipment
must always be kept in their allocated spots. There should be adequate storage place for all the
equipment and items that are not being used, should not be allowed to lie around.

A number of general points pertaining to centre organisation are presented next:

 The allocation of venues will take place in accordance with the nature and needs of the subject to
create a typical atmosphere.

 Appropriate wall charts, pictures and sketches of processes, models, model drawings and safety
placards may be utilized in useful ways. Practice items and projects may, where possible, be used
while they are at various stages of completion.

 Shadow boards could possibly be used.

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 Each venue has its own specific safety needs, and the teacher responsible must, therefore,
perform the necessary safety planning with regard to machines, equipment, material, discipline,
as well as electrical wiring and equipment.

 Ensure that each item of equipment has a specific place and ensure that each item is placed in its
allotted spot.

8.2 Control

Equipment is lost easily and for this reason, strict daily control is required. Thus, equipment has to be
placed and arranged in such a way so that, as teacher, you may exercise control with ease. For each item
of equipment, there has to be a separate place on a shelf or it should be placed in a hole in a shelf.

8.3 Repairs

Items of equipment in a centre are subjected daily to hard work and often too to incorrect handling so
that much wear-and-tear may be caused and many of these items of equipment may therefore end up
broken. Thus, items of equipment must be checked continuously for purposes of repair; moreover,
broken or worn parts must be replaced to prevent the particular item of equipment from becoming
unusable. Loose parts must be checked and fastened.
To facilitate the task of the teacher, the teacher must therefore ensure at all times that the various items
of equipment are handled properly and as required.

9. ESTABLISHING A SUBJECT-SPECIFIC ATMOSPHERE

It is necessary to have educational and goal-directed decoration of the centre in place. These should not
merely be decoration, but represent illustrative aids, they should make a substantive contribution to the
Teaching of Technology. For this particular purpose, the following items may be used to good effect:

 Appropriate wall charts, pictures and sketches of processes, model drawings, technological
inventions and safety placards. Except for certain basic illustrations, the aids should be varied as
progress is made with work.

 An exhibition of various projects is held.
 An exhibition of learners' work - these do not necessarily consist of ready-made articles.

10. THE CLASSROOM AS PROFESSIONAL WORK PLACE OF THE TEACHER

An important aspect of each profession is the work place. It creates a particular impression in the mind
of the outsider. (E.g. compare the impression that the doctor's consulting room makes on a patient). In
the case of the teaching profession, the learner is the direct contact between the professional person and

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society. This makes it difficult to generate an objective and accurate account of the school and the work
of the teacher in the minds of members of the community. However, it also creates a special need that
can be met within the scope of the educational situation. The classroom creates impressions in the learner
that he takes with him outside the classroom and which contributes to the impressions of the teaching
profession that are held by society.

10.1 Which aspects of the teacher's work are involved here?

In brief, this aspect involves the following:

10.1.1 The neatness and appearance of the classroom create an impression that may vary from an
atmosphere that reminds one of a sterile hospital operating theatre where no one may touch
anything in the area to chaos and untidiness where no successful activity is possible. The tidy and
neat atmosphere of a classroom, cleaned regularly, but where work is done, creates the
appropriate environment for the educational and learning situation.

10.1.2 Functionality depends on the particular subject that is being taught in the classroom. Subject-
directedness is a requirement for arranging a classroom in which successful work is completed.

10.1.3 Actuality is a further requirement. Classrooms in which old books are in heaps, where dated
placards decorate the walls, where notes of the previous week are written on the writing board,
create a negative impression in learners. It not only represents a bad example that confuses
learners, but also undermines the teacher as a professional person. A picture or placard loses its
message after two weeks and serves at best as an item of wall decoration.

10.1.4 A teacher who proves through his work place, his action and his attitude that he is involved in his
work will also foster a sense of commitment in learners. The classroom is also the learner's work
place - in certain grades it is even the learner's home. To satisfy the learner's needs of security,
and to elicit his involvement is the best form of advertising.

10.2 Which criteria should the teacher apply to himself?
The following questions may be meaningful:
10.2.1 Appearance: Is the classroom neat and clean?

Is the classroom cleaned regularly?
Is there any trash lying around?
Are the tables and the chairs arranged in orderly fashion or are they placed
haphazardly?

10.2.2 Functionality: Is there system in the arrangement of furniture?
Does the arrangement of work benches comply with the purposes of the
lesson?

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Are all the necessary aids close at hand?
Have aids been stored away effectively?
Are they in serviceable condition?

10.2.3 Subject-directedness: Are there aids, pictures, placards, etcetera available that have
bearing on my subject/subjects?
Are these involved in teaching?

10.2.4 Actuality: Is the writing board cleaned after each lesson?
Are old books and question papers put away?
For how long have pictures and placards been hanging on the wall?

10.2.5 Involvement: Does the classroom show evidence that something is
10.2.6 General: happening in the lessons that are taught?
Is the classroom your work place or is it merely a place where you are
accommodated?
Is your classroom a pleasant place to be?
Do the learners have any share in arranging and taking care of the
classroom (for example, exhibiting assignments, specific spots in the
classroom, etcetera)?

Are all facilities in good serviceable condition?
Are all subject files, teachers' reference works, and etcetera detailed and
available?
Are circulars and information documents attended to?
Is there an interest in professional activities?
Are subject journals read regularly?
As a professional person (that is as an educationist and as a workman in a
particular field), do I make a contribution to the community, also outside the
school?
Is it possible to receive anyone in my classroom without creating a bad
impression?

It is said that Praagt maintained that
(Translation: Words activate, but setting an example is far more effective, it is not
the role that you play, not the mask that you wear, but the person whom you are,
which has educational power.")

This kind of exemplary behaviour commences with a simple issue such as taking care of a classroom and
proper organisation and administration.

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11. NECESSARY HINTS:

Next, a number of general hints are listed that may be useful to the technology teacher and in technology-
directed teaching:
 It is critically important that the teacher must build the various models himself so that he/she may

take note of possible problems and details.
 Build models in various stages of development - it offers the opportunity for discussion and

resolving problems.
 Make sketches easy and understandable.
 Prepare the material that will be required a size larger than specified, and beforehand and not

during lesson times.
 Place a drawing of an intended article on the board or on a large sheet of cardboard. This method

is strongly recommended because it saves much time and may be used repeatedly. It also
encourages autonomous self-directed work on the part of individual learners who become fidgety
when they have to sit and wait. All the necessary measurements are placed on such a drawing
and for this reason, a learner may proceed on his own.
 Keep the classroom clean and neat - remember that a particular impression is created, as well as
transferred, by the appearance of the classroom.
 Always work in orderly fashion - the same principle and regulations must apply to both the teacher
and the learners.
 Be prepared, do not go into class unprepared - learners pick this up and this creates a poor
impression.
 When a particular lesson is presented, provide some information about the various aspects that
are involved. For example, when a paddle-wheel is going to be manufactured, aspects such as
water, energy, structures, mechanisms, etcetera, are involved. First, provide a brief background
for the relevant aspects before the lesson commences.
 Strive to educate the learner not only in terms of subject knowledge, but also to make a
contribution to his/her development. Remember that the school and the parents are involved in
a partnership with each other with regard to the learner's education. Thus, focus your attention
on the development of personality characteristics such as meticulousness, neatness and a feeling
for the aesthetic.
 The teacher should always take on the role of an advisor and a helper in the sense that he/she
should be able to gain insight into the problems of the learner, and by giving the necessary
guidance, to continue to leave the real attempt in the hands of the learner.
 Do not provide examples of problems that are precise in its dimensions and which may be
followed slavishly - such a procedure has very little, if any, purpose.
 Develop autonomy in learners. Learners have to learn to solve their own problems as far as
possible. This will promote insight.
 A sound teaching method often involves allowing the learner to see the article as a whole before
he is confronted with the parts of the whole.

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 Effective teaching of learners may be best extended if, where possible, a high correlation exists
between theory and practice. Thus, learners have to become familiar with the idea that theory
should also be applied in practice. Such a procedure will assist learners to unify theory and
practice, otherwise theory and practice will remain two separate subjects that cannot be related
to each other at all.

12. Conclusion

Last, but not least, it is critical that sound order is maintained in the Technology class. Undoubtedly, this
will be a major contribution towards eliminating accidents. Apart from the fact that legislation requires
good caretaking of the venue, you may also save much time if you do not have to search for equipment
and articles. Moreover, complying with this requirement will eliminate injuries because work places and
aisles will be kept clean of excess material.
It is your responsibility to contribute to preventing accidents through an awareness of safety, and to act
in ways that show your constant commitment to safety. However, this will not be enough. Through your
classroom behaviour, you should set an example that learners will want to follow, and through your
consistency in this regard, learners will develop an ever-increasing awareness of and commitment to
safety measures. You may also allow learners to foster an awareness of this principle by instructing them
to manufacture placcards or make sketches for your venue.
The measure of success achieved by a technology teacher depends, in the first place, on his/her
preparation, presentation and behaviour in class. The teacher should strive to understand each learner,
become familiar with the learner's ability; capture the learner's interest, and motivate him/her to work
hard.

"No written word or spoken plea,
can teach young hearts what men should be;

Not all the books on all the shelves, but
What the teachers are themselves."

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Course and Lesson Assessment

Outcomes

By the end of this unit you will be able to explain:
 Informal vs. Formal assessment
 Assessment Principles
 Uses of assessment
 Continuous assessment
 Key elements of Assessment
 Assessment and equity
 Methods of Classroom assessment
 Keys to Quality Classroom Assessment
 Ways to provide effective feedback for learning

11.1 Introduction

The assessment framework of Technology is based on the principles of outcomes based education.
Assessment should provide indications of learner achievement in the most effective and efficient
manner, and ensure that learners integrate and apply knowledge and skills. Assessment should also
help students to make judgements about their own performance, set goals for progress, and provoke
further learning.

Educators often need to assess students' learning and achievement. There are multiple forms of
assessments that educators use to not only gain knowledge about a student's level of understanding
but also to guide the direction of future lessons and course curriculum. This lesson will differentiate
between formal and informal assessments and paper-pencil versus performance-based assessments
used in educational settings.
'Another test? Why do we have so many tests? We should just be able to learn without feeling stressed
about having to prove what we really know. Don't you agree?' It seems like my friend is a little anxious
about having so many assessments. Let's help her understand the value of assessment in educational
settings.

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11.2 Assessment Principles

11.2.1 Definition

Assessment is a continuous, planned process of gathering information about the performance of
students measured against the Assessment.
It requires clearly-defined criteria and a variety of appropriate strategies to enable lecturers to give
constructive feedback to students and to report to parents, and other interested people.

11.2.2 Key Elements

Outcomes-based education is a way of teaching and learning which makes it clear what students are
expected to achieve. The principle by which it works is that the teacher states beforehand what the
students are expected to achieve. The teacher’s task is to teach in order to help students to satisfy the
requirements of the Assessment Standards in the curriculum; the students’ task is to learn or do what
the Assessment Standards expect. Assessment is essential to Technology education because it must
be possible to assess when a learner has achieved what is required in each grade.

To help students to reach their full potential, assessment should be:
 transparent and clearly focused;
 integrated with teaching and learning;
 based on predetermined criteria or standards;
 varied in terms of methods and contexts; and
 valid, reliable, fair, learner-paced, and flexible enough to allow for expanded opportunities.

11.2.3 Purposes of Assessment

The main purpose of assessing students should be to enhance individual growth and development, to
monitor the progress of students and to facilitate their learning.

Uses of assessment include:

 baseline assessment of prior learning
Baseline assessment usually takes place at the beginning of a grade or phase to establish what
students already know. It assists lecturers to plan learning programmes and learning activities.

 diagnostic assessment
Diagnostic assessment is used to find out about the nature and cause of barriers to learning
experienced by specific students. It is followed by guidance, appropriate support and intervention
strategies.

 formative assessment

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Formative assessment monitors and supports the process of learning and teaching, and is used to
inform students and lecturers about students’ progress so as to improve learning. Constructive
feedback is given to enable students to grow.

 summative assessment
Summative assessment gives an overall picture of students’ progress at a given time, for example, at
the end of a term or year, or on transfer to another school.

 systemic assessment
Systemic assessment is a way of monitoring the performance of the education system. One
component of this is the assessment of learner performance in relation to national indicators.
Systemic assessment is conducted at the end of each phase of the General Education and Training
band. A representative sample of schools and students is selected provincially or nationally for
systemic assessment.

11.2.4 Informal vs. Formal Assessment

First, let's define the term assessment. Assessment is the process of observing a sample of a student's
behaviour and drawing inferences about the student's knowledge and abilities. Yes, many synonyms
exist for assessment, such as test, exam, etc. The use of the word 'assessment' promotes more positive
connotations with students in the classroom. It should be used in place of terms that indicate possible
failure and negative outcome and may cause additional anxiety among students.

Before moving on, let's discuss a few important points from the definition of assessment. First, when
using assessments, lecturers are looking at students' behaviour. We can't see inside a student's head
in order to determine what is going on, so we must take a sample of their behaviour over time in order
to make an inference of their knowledge and development. Secondly, the inferences that are drawn
are only that - inferences. Educators must use a variety of assessment types in order to gain the most
accurate inference of the students' progress overall. Educators should keep in mind assessments are
tools that are only useful depending on how well they are aligned with the circumstances in which
they are used. For example, a written assessment to determine how well a student can keep a beat in
a music class makes no sense and would therefore be an inappropriate tool.

There are two overarching types of assessment in educational settings: informal and formal
assessments. Both types are useful when used in appropriate situations. Informal assessments are
those assessments that result from lecturers' spontaneous day-to-day observations of how students
behave and perform in class. When lecturers conduct informal assessments, they don't necessarily
have a specific agenda in mind, but are more likely to learn different things about students as they
proceed through the school day naturally. These types of assessments offer important insight into a
student's misconceptions and abilities (or inabilities) that might not be represented accurately
through other formal assessments. For example, a teacher might discover that a student has a
misconception about other cultures and languages when she asks, 'What language do people in North
Carolina speak?' Or, the teacher may wonder if Alex needs to make an appointment to have his hearing
checked if he constantly says 'What?' or 'I didn't hear you.'

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Formal assessments, on the other hand, are pre-planned, systematic attempts by the teacher to
ascertain what students have learned. The majority of assessments in educational settings are formal.
Typically, formal assessments are used in combination with goals and objectives set forth at the
beginning of a lesson or the school year. Formal assessments are also different from informal
assessments in that students can prepare ahead of time for them.

11.2.5 Paper-Pencil vs. Performance-Based Assessment

There are many types of formal assessments used in educational settings. In this lesson, we will discuss
the difference between paper-pencil assessments and performance assessments. Additional types of
formal assessments will be discussed in other lessons within this course.

In paper-pencil assessments, students provide written responses to written items. You have probably
taken numerous paper-pencil assessments in your educational career. Assessments in which you fill
out answers on the assessment form itself or electronic forms, like Scantrons, fall under this category.
Typically, paper-pencil assessments include questions to answer, topics to address through paragraph
responses, problems to solve, etc.

Performance assessments, on the other hand, are assessments in which students demonstrate their
knowledge and skills in a non-written fashion. These assessments are focused on demonstration
versus written responses. For example, giving oral presentations, completing physical assessments in
physical education (PE) classes, performing experiments in a lab, or dissecting activities in anatomy
classes fall under this category.

11.2.6 Common Tasks for Assessment

The purpose of Common Tasks for Assessment is to:
 ensure consistency in teacher judgements;
 promote common standard setting;
 strengthen the capacity for school-based continuous assessment;
 increase the accuracy of the assessment process and tools;
 ensure that the school-based assessment tasks properly assess competencies and achievements;

and
 ensure expanded opportunities for students.

Common Tasks for Assessment may be set at national, provincial, district or cluster level, are
conducted at school level, and are moderated externally.

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11.3 Continuous Assessment

Characteristics of Continuous Assessment

Continuous assessment is the chief method by which assessment takes place in the Learning area
Technology. It covers all the outcomes-based education assessment principles and ensures that
assessment:
 takes place over a period of time and is ongoing: Learning is assessed regularly and the records of

students’ progress are updated throughout the year.

 supports the growth and development of students: Students become active participants in learning
and assessment, understand the criteria that are used for assessment activities, are involved in
self-evaluation, set individual targets for themselves, reflect on their learning, and thereby
experience raised self-esteem.

 provides feedback from learning and teaching: Feedback is a crucial element in formative
assessment. Methods of feedback include appropriate questioning, focusing the teacher’s oral
and written comments on what was intended to be achieved by an assessment activity, and
encouragement to a learner.

 allows for the integrated assessment: This may include assessing a number of related Learning
Outcomes within a single activity, and combining a number of different assessment methods.
Competence in particular Learning Outcomes can be demonstrated in many different ways, and
thus a variety of assessment methods and opportunities must be provided through which students
can demonstrate their ability.

 uses strategies that cater for a variety of learner needs (language, physical, psychological,
emotional and cultural): Continuous assessment allows lecturers to be sensitive to students with
special education needs and to overcome barriers to learning through flexible approaches. In any
group of students, there are different rates and styles of learning. All students do not need to be
assessed at the same time and in the same way.

 allows for summative assessment: The accumulation of the results of continuous assessment
activities provides an overall picture of a learner’s progress at a given time. Summative assessment
needs to be planned carefully from the beginning of the year, to include a variety of assessment
strategies – for example, exercises, tasks, projects, school and class tests - which will provide
students with a range of opportunities to show what they have learned.

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11.4 Assessment Strategies

The choice of what assessment strategies to use is a subjective one, unique to each teacher, grade
and school, and dependent on the teacher’s professional judgement. The availability of space and
resources influences this decision, but even when resources are similar, lecturers differ in the way that
they make their choices.

The methods chosen for assessment activities must be appropriate to the Assessment Standards to
be assessed, and the purpose of the assessment must be clearly understood by all the students and
lecturers involved.

Competence can be demonstrated in a number of ways. Thus a variety of methods is needed to give
students an opportunity to demonstrate their abilities more fully.

11.5 Key Elements of Assessment

 What is the PURPOSE of the assessment?
 What EVIDENCE do I need from the learners?
 How do I OBTAIN the evidence?
 What do I want to DO with the evidence?
 When will assessment happen?

11.5.1 Why do you assess students?

There are four main reasons for assessing students:
 to make decisions about the next steps in the learning programme and to decide whether
your intended outcome was achieved;
 to recognize learning difficulties and take action to help students overcome these;
 to given you a clear picture of each students’ capabilities which you can pass on to parents
and other interested parties.
 To be able to measure particular technological skills and abilities.

Assessment is an essential part of technology teaching and learning. When you monitor and assess
how your students are doing, you can see whether they are ready for new learning. You can also see
whether your own teaching has been effective or to adapt your methodology.

11.5.2 How do you assess students?

Education is linked to assessment which is continuous and authentic. Students are assessed while
they work during the year, not only at the end of a unit of work or time period. This continuous
assessment is both formal (where results are recorded) and informal (where you observe students

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and make decisions about how to help them.) Continuous assessment allows you to use different
situations and forms of assessment to make assessment an integral part of your lessons.

When you assess students you should concentrate on what they can do as well as on how they think
and behave in the classroom context. You can also asses other skills, like communication and social
skills (which relate to the critical outcomes for all learning areas.)

You will probably find that when you work in an interactive way with the students, that their views,
ways of working and thinking methods soon become quite clear to you. It should become second
nature to keep track (monitor) of how students are coping without giving them formal test.

 There are five steps involved in the assessment process.
 Monitoring (keeping track off process)
 Observing students at work
 Interacting with students
 Looking at examining work; both product and process
 Analysing data and giving feedback

Each of these steps is described in the following section. However you must remember that the steps
overlap and may not be carried out in the same order at all times.

Monitoring progress

In the past, it was quite easy to monitor progress. Students sat in rows and completed the same piece
of work. They finished at a set time and handed it in. The teacher spent hours marking it and writing
the results in her record book.
Today, things are different. An outcomes based approach requires students to work independently,
often in groups. Groups do not always work in the same way, or even on the same task. This approach
requires us to find creative and workable ways of keeping track of the learner’s progress.

One way of keeping track is to use a standard form. The standard form below should be drawn up by
each teacher, but it is placed on the classroom wall and will be completed by the students. The teacher
can look at it and see what each learner is working on at any given time.

Hands-on technology tracking sheet
Name: ________________________ Programme organiser: Communication

CARD NUMBER DATE I STARTED DATE I FINISHED WAS I ASSESSED?

CARD 1

CARD 2

CARD 3

CARD 4

This form can also be used at the start of a lesson. The teacher takes the form and checks with each
learner how far they are before the students break into groups and continue working.

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This systems has the advantage of involving students in the process of monitoring their progress. It
relieves the burden on the teacher and is an effective way of tracking progress. It is also an effective
way of allowing students to take responsibility for their own learning. When they see that most others
have finished, they realise that they need to draw their project to some conclusion.

Observing students at work

The students are likely to be working in groups for most of the time. The problem for the teacher is
how to assess each when they are working together - the product of the group work does not tell you
how each learner has worked or though.

When you observe groups of students with specific questions in mind, you gain valuable information
about knowledge and understanding, group dynamics, and individual communication styles and
competencies. When you know why you are observing a group, you can decide which questions to
ask.

These steps are useful in planning an observation:
 Decide why you are going to observe the group.
 Decide what you will looking for.
 Write down a list of questions to guide you.
 Decide which group you will observe and set a time limit.
 Decide how you will record your observations.
 Do not try to observe too much at once.

An example of an observation:

Why am I observing?
I am going to watch the groups working together to build a bridge to see whether they are working
co-operatively.

What am I looking for?
I am looking for co-operation, questioning and respect for the ideas of others. I will draw up a list of
questions and record my observations on a chart like this one:

pupils in group sandra koos jurgens marie elsa
Does he/she listen when others
talk?
Does he/she ask others
questions?
Does he/she ask questions about
the task?
Is he/she willing to change his/her
answers?

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Does he/she give others a change
to talk?

I’m am going to give marks in the following category:
 Always
 Sometimes
 Often
 Not yet

The teacher use the terms always, often, sometimes, and not yet rather than a mark. This is in line
with the outcomes based methodology underlying belief that all students can succeed although some
may take a little longer than others. The complete card gives the teacher a picture of each learner’s
strengths and weaknesses. It also allows her to record the information quickly. The teacher can
observe the group in twenty minutes.

Not all the lecturers like to use chars like this one. You should find a method that suits you and your
situation. Here are some more suggestions.

 Use sticky labels or small bits of paper. Write down what you observe about each learner and
stick the label into a book under the learner’s name at a later stage.

 Use the “flick and scribble” method. Have a note-book with a page for each learner. Once a
week, flick through and jot down any observations that you have made about the students.
Every fourth week, look for students that you have skipped and focus on them for the next
few days.

 Keep a file with loose sheets or forms for each learner. Some lecturers like to use plastics
envelopes – that way the can slip anything they write about the learner into the envelope at
any time. The file method has the advantage that it can expand, you are not limited to one
page per learner.

The questions which follow are offered as a guide to help you structure your observations to meet
the needs of your particular situation.

Observing whether learning is taking place
Do the students:

 Show development or progression of ideas?
 Use the material and resources available to express their ideas?
 Give reasons to support their choices and ideas?
 Change their ideas if they can see they are not suitable?

Observing problem-solving skills
Do the students:

 Ask sensible questions?
 Use logic and reason?
 Take responsibility for carrying out the task?

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 Suggest answers, even if they are guessing?
 Use what they’ve already learned to make sense of new concepts?
 Use previous experience and apply knowledge to solve problems?
 Look for patterns?
 Ask questions to clarify ideas and get more information?
 Ask for help when they are struggling?
 Listen to others and consider alternatives?
 Reflect on what they have learned and how they learned it?
 Record their findings by drawing or writing?

Observing communication skills
Do the students:

 Carry their ideas across to others by talking or showing?
 Offer ideas confidently?
 Ask questions which challenge others and make them think about their ideas?
 Discuss different point in a friendly way?

Observing group and social skills
Do the students:

 Show that they want to find out more?
 Willingly tackle new tasks and explore new activities?
 Co-operate with other group members?
 Respect other learner’s ideas?
 Respond honestly and say what they think?
 Change ideas if they see a need to do so?
 Work persistently to get to a solution?
 Care for the equipment and their own working environment?
 Take responsibility for returning equipment and materials and clearing up?
 Enjoy doing technology?

When you look back at all comments you have recorded, it will give you a clear picture of each learner’s
progress. There are many ways to carry out observation and keep records in the classroom. These
are just some examples.

Interacting with students

Interacting is different to observation in that it requires of the students to be part of the assessment
process. You can think of interaction in this sense as “finding out”.

1 Interviews

Many lecturers wonder what their students are thinking and how they arrived at conclusions, but they
seldom ask them. We forget that the easiest way to find out how students thought or worked, is to
ask them. Questions like: “Why did you decide to do it that way? What steps did you follow to make

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the . . . ? How did you find the missing bits?” are all worthwhile and the students are likely to provide
valuable insights into their thinking when they answer.

These questions could be asked in an interview situation, where the teacher and learner sit down
together and talk. The interviews can be recorded or you can write comments as the learner talks or
immediately afterwards.

2. Self assessment

In technology it is essential for students to assess their own work. But, in large classes, it is difficult to
ask all the students questions about how they worked. You might like to get the students to assess
themselves.

3. Reflecting on the process

At the end of a tasks or project it is useful to get the students to reflect (think back) on how they
worked. It will help you if you give the students a structure in which to do this.

Instructions to the learner:
 Spend some time and thinking about your work on this task / project.
 Complete the 10 sentences (on a sheet of the chalk-board). You can write as much or as little
as you like.
 This information will help me to see how you worked and will be added to your personal
assessment portfolio.

The sentences:
 I’m very happy that . . .
 I need to work more on . . .
 My favourite part of the task was . . .
 I’m improving at . . .
 I felt very good when . . .
 The most difficult part of the task was . . .
 I still don’t really understand . . .
 I want to learn more about . . .
 Overall, I thought this task was . . .

Name:
Date:
Task:

It is important to date the response so that you can look back and see how a learner has progressed
over time.

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4 Assessment (Academic) Portfolios

A portfolio is a collection of work. Normally the learner decides which pieces of work they will include
(some lecturers ask them to write why they have selected. Particular pieces of work). A portfolio gives
a clear picture of what students are doing and how well they are achieving the stated outcomes.

Some of the things that can be included in a portfolio are:

 Questions, notes, plans and research procedures
 Sketches, diagrams, concept maps
 Rough drafts of work and records of steps followed
 Finished reports, diagrams or artefacts
 Peer, teacher and parent feedback
 Lists of references that the learner has used
 Personal reflections on processes and reflection forms
 Self assessment sheets.

Almost anything can be included, and the format of the portfolio can be adapted to your needs. Some
schools use files, others use shoe boxes or large envelopes. Whatever method you choose to interact
with the students, there are some points that you should bear in mind about teaching and learning:

 Learning can happen unexpectedly without teacher’s help.
 Learning can appear to go backwards at times.
 Learning takes time.
 Learning doesn’t happen in a neat, progressive way.
 Students almost know more than you think!

Looking at work

When you look at a piece it is important to consider both the process involved, and the final product.
The product itself doesn’t tell you what steps the students followed or how they worked.

It is also useful to let the students know in advance what criteria you will be using to assess their work.
Most lecturers (and students) are familiar with marks and symbols, however, these can be
meaningless if the learner does not know the difference between a high B symbol and a low A symbol?
And how do the students know the difference?

Look at this system of evaluating a tower structure:

Level 6: A well-presented and sound structure. All members of the group participated and can explain
the principles at work. All details attended to and work finished of neatly.
Level 5: Structure is sound and meets the specifications. However, it lacks, attention to detail, for
example, some of the struts are different widths.
Level 4: An adequate structure but very little attention to detail.

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Level 3: A good effort but structure is deficient and unstable.
Level 2: Some effort visible but structure does not meet the specifications.
Level 1: Very little effort. No real evidence of interest or participation in the project.

This system makes it very clear what is being assessed and what “mark” is given to which result. The
symbols A to F can be attached to the 6 levels, or the students can simply get a number indicating the
level.

Analysing data and giving feedback

It does not matter what form of assessment you choose. What matters ultimately is that your
assessment is flexible and adaptable to different learning situations. The aim is to document as much
as possible to give the fullest possible picture of the learner’s development and progress.

Information about the learner’s progress needs to be communicated both to the learner and to their
parents. Parent-teacher meetings once every term or so can be used for this purpose. You can then
use your record book (in whatever form you have chosen) as a basis for discussion.

If the students have kept a portfolio of their work, this can be shown to the parents as well. Many
schools encourage the students to attend these meetings with their parents so that there is no
communication distortion - if the students know how and when they were assessed and how they
have progressed, they should not be embarrassed or surprised by these meetings. Rather, they should
see it as an opportunity to share with their parents how they have done during the year.

As continuous and authentic assessment becomes the norm in schools, it is likely that the format of
report cards will need to change. However, schools and lecturers should begin now to discuss the
best format for passing on written information about progress. Some schools do not have symbols or
marks, only comments from each teacher who works with the students. They also have a space for
the learner to comment and a large space for the parent to write a response. There is no hard and
fast rule and you should develop a system that will work well at your school.

11.6 Assessment and Equity

We often hear that education should be a pump that keeps students moving forward, not a filter that
screens them out. Recently, new curricula and classroom strategies have helped increase students
access to education. But how do they fare when assessed? Past experience tells us that assessment
itself can just as easily act as a filter. What can we change to make assessment a positive factor? The
answers, of course, are complex, but the following ideas may contribute to the discussion.

 Make assessment goals clear from the beginning

Bring assessment to the beginning of the planning process. Let everybody know the expectations and
understand how success will be evaluated before instructional materials are chosen and lesson plans

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made. Better yet, have teachers, students, parents, administrators, and community members take
part in deciding on and clarifying expectations and evaluation standards at every level.

Assessment should relate directly to what students will be learning. Knowing how work will be judged
can clarify what you want students to do and learn. It helps all of us (students, teachers, parents, ...)
know where we're going and how to get there. It gives students chances to study appropriate material
and practice appropriate techniques. If, for instance, students are asked to explain their thinking, they
need time, practice, discussion, and feedback. When teachers know, they can design lessons and units
that give students chances to learn valued Technology. When parents understand, they can help
provide support at school or home (Multicultural and gender equity in the Mathematics classroom,
1997:195).

 Provide opportunities to learn

Knowing what work will be judged and how it will be assessed can give learners an opportunity to
learn what is valued enough to be assessed. The opportunity to learn requires having high-quality
instructional materials available to all, accommodating the variety of student learning styles through
both teaching materials and methods, and allowing students to investigate their own interests and
develop effective ways to communicate their understanding. Assessment can be a catalyst to help
promote these attributes.

As changes involving assessment take place in many states, we have a unique opportunity to open
doors to new ways of thinking about education and how it is learned. Many people feel that some of
the changes have already modified education itself. Students are learning from a new perspective as
they respond to open-ended questions, explain ideas, create portfolios, and take charge of their own
progress. They see a richness to which they have previously had little access. Technology is no longer
a matter of grinding out an answer and moving on to the next problem.

The goals of the classroom and those of assessment have to match. If students spend a large part of
their time on rote drill but are tested on problem solving, not only will their scores drop but their
confidence will dwindle. Conversely, if students experience a strong problem solving program but are
tested on low-level skills, they have no chance to show what they can do. Their motivation to meet
challenges will wither.
The opportunity to learn happens only if we all know how learning is defined. We might say that
anything worth being assessed is worth "teaching to"!

 Use equitable instruments

Is it enough to let people know ahead of time what’s on the test? What about the assessment
instruments themselves? Can they be made more equitable? Some suggestions follow.

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Language

The goal of assessment should be to determine what each student knows about Technology.
Therefore, directions, instructions, problems, or questions should be in plain, simple language easily
understood by all. Make clear the expectations of what is to be done for tasks, without limiting
students thinking. Give students questions or problems that prompt thoughtful responses, and then
give them ample opportunity to respond.

There’s enough complexity in Technology language itself. Analyzing the grade-level readability of
books and tests doesn’t make good sense, because technological vocabulary has so many multiple-
syllable words. The vocabulary is important, however, and not to be neglected. The words used in
assessments should be appropriate to the topic and to the levels of students, not watered down. If we
do use words that are specific to particular contexts or are not common to all students, we can
"shelter" the vocabulary or context and define vocabulary, provide fuller descriptions of contexts, and
include diagrams, graphics, or models. By eliminating potential barriers, we increase student’s access
(Multicultural and gender equity in the mathematics classroom, 1997:197).

Special efforts need to be made to clarify language for students whose home language is not the
language in which teaching is taken place. Allow students to respond as much as possible in their own
languages (a wonderful use for portfolios). This poses a challenge, but several strategies can be useful.
Maintain a list of words that students use. Encourage them to create and use diagrams and pictures
to explain their work. Give students models and examples. Consider videotaping students as they
demonstrate solutions - taping provides the opportunity to "reread" work. Bilingual colleagues, school
staff members, students, neighbors, community members, or parents may provide additional support.
Focus grades and scores for technological work on conceptual understanding, not grammar, spelling,
and punctuation.

Design

The questions themselves should not be complex but should elicit thoughtful and interesting
responses. When students are asked to explain how they solved a problem, why they chose certain
strategies, or how they know their responses make sense, the variation we see is amazing.

 Contexts

An often over looked aspect of curriculum and assessment has been the issue of contexts appropriate
to learners. We need to provide a panorama of contexts that relate to the great variety of learners
ages, cultures, and experiences.

Another part of context is presentation - conditions, tone, and format. Students should take on
assessment tasks in environments that are familiar or friendly. Often the tone and appearance of
assessments are considerably more formal than students are used to seeing in their daily work.
Format, fonts, graphics, and spacing can be critical to understanding. Illustrations or other graphics
need to be related to a task and technologically correct, not misleading. If assessments are authentic

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and accessible, they will seem familiar enough to students and won't inhibit thinking. Thoughtful
presentation leaves room for students to bring their own sense of reality to the task along with their
mathematical thinking, using different ways of working through the task (Multicultural and gender
equity in the mathematics classroom, 1997:198).

If the response is supposed to address a particular audience, make the audience one that helps
students focus on the purpose of the task and the kind of response that is appropriate. Contexts should
be realistic, encouraging the use of Technology as it might be used by competent adults. Students who
are familiar with a given situation may be distracted by oversimplification or misinformation.

No single group should always be the one left out, just as no single group should always reap the
benefit of having the majority of questions fit their particular lives. Give all students chances to share
the uniqueness of their own cultures and gender. Include questions and tasks that allow for a great
variety of personal backgrounds.

 Link instruction to assessment

Lecturer Support

Lecturer support is critical. It's probably not necessary to call in experts from outside so much as to
give teachers plenty of chances to sit down together, discuss what they see in their learners work, and
jointly clarify the goals of their instruction. Each teacher needs to be well informed about current
trends in curriculum and assessment, but what they need most of all is to know that they can
determine what their students understand and what more needs to be addressed. Teachers become
guides and facilitators, helping students understand where they are and what to do next (Multicultural
and gender equity in the mathematics classroom, 1997:199).

Grades

The assessments that have been introduce in the last ten years allow for far more information for both
teachers and students than grades or “percent correct." Grades usually assign a rank or position in a
group. Grades have often been considered to be the motivation for students to work hard. This might
be true for students who are doing well in a particular situation, but for others who are not doing well,
it can have the opposite effect. Can you imagine going through twelve or thirteen years of school and
never being considered good at anything? Why try?

Different systems of assessment and reports allow you to look at the quality of a learner’s thinking.
Once you look at thinking, you can do a better job of helping learners learn. You are accustomed to
looking for objective criteria in a quest for reliable and valid tests. Tests based on this kind of criteria
often focus on skill-based tasks and cannot give us a clear picture of high-level thinking. They usually
limit the ways students can show what they understand about Technology. At best, they are one-
dimensional measures that fall short of reflecting the rich Technology you want learners to learn.
Assessment instruments that allow students the opportunity to show connections and understanding
require us to recognize evidence of sound technological thinking no matter what its form or source.

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Discussion and Writing

Discussion is a powerful key to learning. Talking about ideas is the preliminary step, but students will
still need a lot of help in learning to write things down. They can identify the important ideas in
paragraphs and emphasize these. They can reorder sentences or paragraphs to trace the development
of an idea. What comes first? Then what?

They can identify the relative importance of information and how it is presented. Is there a repetition
of ideas? Can some words be eliminated? What did you really want to say? Would a poster, diagram,
or chart illustrate that point and help make your idea clear? You can encourage the use of not only
clear writing but also diagrams, charts, graphs, and other important ways to represent technological
situations.

The Organization of Materials

Assessment, just like other parts of learning, requires a lot of organization. Teachers should be enabled
to work together to find ways of keeping learners portfolios without having huge mounds of paper
and file cabinets full of file folders that are never reviewed. They can help one another decide what
has enough importance and meaning to be worth keeping (Multicultural and gender equity in the
mathematics classroom, 1997:199).

Manipulative materials and calculators need to be organized so that students can take care of their
distribution and storage and so that materials will be readily available during assessment. Students
themselves need to be full participants in organization. Choosing appropriate tools is part of the
learning process and should be assessed. This is important not only for teacher’s sanity, but also for
the development of learner’s clarity of thinking.

 Include self-assessment

Being able to assess one’s own work is essential to success in most future careers. Artists decide when
they have completed a piece of art. Defense lawyers determine when their case is strong enough to
prove their client's innocence. Each of us faces assessing our work, our position, and our progress
daily. Sometimes we use external standards. Sometimes we impose our own.

Having papers evaluated by a teacher can be effective, but even more effective is a student's own
understanding of what makes success-what it takes, for instance, to get into college. Students can be
given opportunities to give one another feedback in small groups, to present their strategies to the
class for discussion, and to revise their work after it has been reviewed by peers and adults. They can
learn to interpret standards for good work and should have a chance to see samples of top-level
student work. They can learn about rubrics, develop their own, and apply these criteria to their own
work. Some teachers make individual agreements with their students for their learning goals and the
assessment criteria to be used.

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Many educators agree that student self-assessment is the most worth- while feature of all our efforts
to change assessment. If that were the only change made, you still have progress; and if you haven't
given students this tool, the rest may not get you where you want to go. In the end, the student who
takes responsibility will become the most successful.

11.6 Methods of Classroom assessment

Formative (Low-Stakes) Assessments

Formative assessment techniques monitor student learning during the learning process. The feedback
gathered is used to identify areas where students are struggling so that instructors can adjust their
teaching and students can adjust their studying. These are low-stakes assessments (i.e., they have low
point values) that happen early and often in the semester.

INFORMAL TECHNIQUES

Written Reflections. Sometimes referred to as "Minute Papers" or "Muddiest Points," these popular
assessment techniques have students reflect immediately following a learning opportunity (e.g., at
the end of a class or after completing an out-of-class activity) to answer one or two basic questions
like:
“What was the most important thing you learned today?”
“What was the most confusing topic today?”
“What important question remains unanswered?”

Polls/Surveys. Data on student opinions, attitudes, behaviors or confidence in understanding can be
gathered either during class (e.g., with a classroom response system) or outside of class. This can
illustrate student engagement with the material as well as prior knowledge, misconceptions, and
comprehension.

Checks for Understanding. Pausing every few minutes to see whether students are following along
with the lesson not only identifies gaps in comprehension, but helps break up lectures (e.g, with Clicker
questions) or online lessons (e.g., with embedded quiz questions) into more digestible bites.
Wrappers. "Wrapping" activities, using a set of reflective questions, can help students develop skills
to monitor their own learning and adapt as necessary.

FORMAL TECHNIQUES

In-class Activities. Having students work in pairs or small groups to solve problems creates space for
powerful peer-to-peer learning and rich class discussion. Instructors and TAs can roam the classroom
as students work, helping those who get stuck and guiding those who are headed in the wrong
direction.

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Quizzes. Gauge students’ prior knowledge, assess progress midway through a unit, create friendly in-
class competition, review before the test -- quizzes can be great tools that don't have to count heavily
toward students' grades. Using quizzes to begin units is also a fun way to assess what your students
already know, clear up misconceptions, and drive home the point of how much they will learn.

Online Learning Modules. Canvas and other Learning Managment Systems allow students to solve
problems or answer questions along the way. This can provide you with analytics on student
responses and class performance so you can tailor your instruction to their particular learning needs.
Modules enable you establish learning pathways for students by establishing prerequisites and
requirements.

Class Deliverables. In-class activities are designed so students, usually in groups, are required to
submit a product of their work for a grade. Among the variety of techniques that can be used, the
most effective will balance individual and group accountability and require students to think about
authentic complex issues. Team-Based Learning uses four criteria in the design of collaborative
application exercises.

Summative (High-Stakes) Assessments:
Summative assessment techniques evaluate student learning. These are high-stakes assessments (i.e.,
they have high point values) that occur at the end of an instructional unit or course and measure the
extent to which students have achieved the desired learning outcomes.
Exams. This includes mid-term exams, final exams, and tests at the end of course units. The best tests
include several types of questions – short answer, multiple-choice, true-false, and short essay – to
allow students to fully demonstrate what they know.

Papers, projects, and presentations. These give students the chance to go deeper with the material
to put the knowledge they’ve acquired to use or create something new from it. This level of application
is an extremely important and often overlooked part of the learning process. These types of projects
also give students who do not test well a chance to shine.
Portfolios. Submitting a portfolio at the end of a course can be a powerful way for students to see the
progress they’ve made. More than just a collection of students' work from the semester, good
portfolios also include reflections on their learning. Asking students to spell out the concepts or
techniques used with each piece, the themes addressed, and hurdles faced also brings a sense of
completion to the learning process.

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11.6 Ways to Provide Effective Feedback for Learning

While assessment gets all the press, it is feedback for learning that can transform a student’s learning.

When feedback is predominately negative, studies have shown that it can discourage student effort
and achievement (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, Dinham). Like my experience, the only thing I knew is
that I hated public speaking and I would do anything possible to get out of it. As a teacher, most of
the time it is easy to give encouraging, positive feedback.

However, it is in the other times that we have to dig deep to find an appropriate feedback response
that will not discourage a student’s learning. This is where the good teachers, the ones students
remember forever in a positive light, separate themselves from the others.
A teacher has the distinct responsibility to nurture a student’s learning and to provide feedback in
such a manner that the student does not leave the classroom feeling defeated. Here you will find 20
ideas and techniques on how to give

1. Feedback should be educative in nature.
Providing feedback means giving students an explanation of what they are doing correctly AND
incorrectly. However, the focus of the feedback should be based essentially on what the students is
doing right. It is most productive to a student’s learning when they are provided with an explanation
and example as to what is accurate and inaccurate about their work.
Use the concept of a “feedback sandwich” to guide your feedback: Compliment, Correct, and
Compliment.

2. Feedback should be given in a timely manner.
When feedback is given immediately after showing proof of learning, the student responds positively
and remembers the experience about what is being learned in a confident manner. If we wait too
long to give feedback, the moment is lost and the student might not connect the feedback with the
action.

3. Be sensitive to the individual needs of the student.
It is vital that we take into consideration each student individually when giving feedback. Our
classrooms are full of diverse learners. Some students need to be nudged to achieve at a higher level
and other needs to be handled very gently so as not to discourage learning and damage self-esteem.
A balance between not wanting to hurt a student’s feelings and providing proper encouragement is
essential.

4. Ask the 4 questions.
Studies of effective teaching and learning (Dinham, 2002, 2007a; 2007b) have shown that learners
want to know where they stand in regards to their work. Providing answers to the following four
questions on a regular basis will help provide quality feedback. These four questions are also helpful
when providing feedback to parents:

 What can the student do?

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 What can’t the student do?
 How does the student’s work compare with that of others?
 How can the student do better?

5. Feedback should reference a skill or specific knowledge.
This is when rubrics become a useful tool. A rubric is an instrument to communicate expectations for
an assignment. Effective rubrics provide students with very specific information about their
performance, comparative to an established range of standards. For younger students, try highlighting
rubric items that the student is meeting or try using a sticker chart.

6. Give feedback to keep students “on target” for achievement.
Regular ‘check-ins’ with students lets them know where they stand in the classroom and with
you. Utilize the ‘4 questions’ to guide your feedback.

7. Host a one-on-one conference.
Providing a one-on-one meeting with a student is one of the most effective means of providing
feedback. The student will look forward to having the attention and allows the opportunity to ask
necessary questions. A one-on-one conference should be generally optimistic, as this will encourage
the student to look forward to the next meeting.
As with all aspects of teaching, this strategy requires good time management. Try meeting with a
student while the other students are working independently. Time the meetings so that they last no
longer than 10 minutes.

8. Feedback can be given verbally, non-verbally or in written form.
Be sure to keep your frowns in check. It is imperative that we examine our non-verbal cues. Facial
expressions and gestures are also means of delivering feedback. This means that when you hand back
that English paper, it is best not to scowl.

9. Concentrate on one ability.
It makes a far greater impact on the student when only one skill is critiqued versus the entire paper
being the focus of everything that is wrong. For example, when I taught Writer’s Workshop at the
elementary level, I would let students know that for that day I was going to be checking on the
indentation of paragraphs within their writing. When I conferenced with a student, that was my focus
instead of all the other aspects of their writing. The next day would feature a new focus.

10. Alternate due dates for your students/classes.
Utilize this strategy when grading papers or tests. This strategy allows you the necessary time to
provide quality, written feedback. This can also include using a rotation chart for students to
conference with at a deeper more meaningful level. Students will also know when it is their turn to
meet with you and are more likely to bring questions of their own to the conference.

11. Educate students on how to give feedback to each other.
Model for students what appropriate feedback looks like and sounds like. As an elementary teacher,
we call this ‘peer conferencing’. Train students to give each other constructive feedback in a way that
is positive and helpful. Encourage students to use post-it notes to record the given feedback.

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12. Ask another adult to give feedback.
The principal at the school I taught at would often volunteer to grade history tests or read student’s
writing pieces. You can imagine how the student’s quality of work increased tenfold! If the principal
is too busy (and most are), invite a ‘guest’ teacher or student teacher to critique work.

13. Have the student take notes.
During a conference over a test, paper or a general ‘check in’, have the student do the writing while
you do the talking. The student can use a notebook to jot down notes as you provide the verbal
feedback.

14. Use a notebook to keep track of student progress.
Keep a section of a notebook for each student. Write daily or weekly, dated comments about each
student as necessary. Keep track of good questions the student asks, behaviour issues, areas for
improvement, test scores etc. Of course this requires a lot of essential time management but when it
is time to conference with a student or parent, you are ready to go.

15. Return tests, papers or comment cards at the beginning of class.
Returning papers and tests at the beginning of class, rather than at the end, allows students to ask
necessary questions and to hold a relevant discussion.

16. Use Post-It notes.
Sometimes seeing a comment written out is more effective than just hearing it aloud. During
independent work time, try writing feedback comments on a post-it note. Place the note on the
student’s desk the feedback is meant for. One of my former students had a difficult time staying on
task but he would get frustrated and embarrassed when I called him out on his inattentive behaviours
in front of the class.
He would then shut down and refused to do any work because he was mad that I humiliated him. I
resorted to using post-it notes to point out when he was on task or not. Although it was not the most
effective use of my time, it really worked for him.

17. Give genuine praise.
Students are quick to figure out which teachers use meaningless praise to win approval. If you are
constantly telling your students “Good Job” or “Nice Work” then, over time, these words become
meaningless. Make a big deal out of a student’s A+ on that vocabulary test. If you are thrilled with a
student’s recent on-task behaviours, go above and beyond with the encouragement and praise.
Make a phone call home to let mom or dad know how thrilled you are with the student’s behaviour.
Comments and suggestions within genuine feedback should also be ‘focused, practical and based on
an assessment of what the student can do and is capable of achieving’ (Dinham).

18. “I noticed….”
Make an effort to notice a student’s behaviour or effort at a task. For example; “I noticed when you
regrouped correctly in the hundreds column, you got the problem right.” “I noticed you arrived on
time to class this entire week.” Acknowledging a student and the efforts they are making goes a long
way to positively influence academic performance.

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19. Provide a model for example.
Communicate with your students the purpose for an assessment and/or feedback. Demonstrate to
students what you are looking for by giving them an example of what an A+ paper looks like. Provide
a contrast of what a C- paper looks like. This is especially important at the upper learning levels.

20. Invite students to give YOU feedback.
Remember when you finished a class in college and you were given the chance to ‘grade’ the
professor? How nice was it to finally tell the professor that the reading material was so incredibly
boring without worrying about it affecting your grade? Why not let students give you feedback on
how you are doing as a teacher?
Make it so that they can do it anonymously. What did they like about your class? What didn’t they
like? If they were teaching the class, what would they do differently? What did they learn the most
from you as a teacher? If we are open to it, we will quickly learn a few things about ourselves as
educators. Remember that feedback goes both ways and as teachers it is wise to never stop improving
and honing our skills as teachers.

11.7 Conclusion

In no way is the discussion of equity in assessment meant to suggest "dumbing down the test." Rather,
it is an effort to provide opportunity for excellence for all. Competence is not to be sacrificed in striving
for inclusion. What you really want is to make it possible for every student to have a fair chance at as
much high-quality education as possible. Standards should be exactly as high for one group of students
as for another. The way to get there may be different and the pace may be faster or slower, but the
end result should be equally supportive for all. You talk, in national documents, at school board
meetings, and in teacher in-service sessions, about the need for success for every student.' Personal
and group expectations should be rising as all those involved understand how it can be achieved. As
time passes, you should see more and more superb results from all students. If you can create that
level playing field, you'll still have hard work ahead, but wouldn't it be great if assessment didn't have
to mean that half of your students were failures?

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