Creative Use of Resources
Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will have:
designed a teaching aid;
made a teaching aid.
7.1 Introduction
The selection of teaching and learning materials is an integral part of curriculum planning and delivery in
schools. Learners come into contact with many different kinds of print, visual and multimedia materials in
their daily lives. Their exposure to such materials is mediated by parents and other caregivers, by legislation
and by social conventions. Teachers also have a duty to ensure that the teaching and learning materials
with which children and students are presented, or towards which they are directed, fit their profiles. These
materials should help them in achieving their outcomes.
7.2 Principles for selecting teaching and learning materials
The principles for the teaching and selection of learning materials that follow are adapted from
recommendations made by the Department of Education in Namibia for teachers in Technical Education
and in Design and Technology who follow the Cambridge system. However, these principles are also
relevant to our Technology classrooms. Keep these principles in mind when you are choosing learning
and teaching material for your learners.
Teaching and learning materials, whether they are bought or donated, should be selected in such a way
that they:
are directly related to the policy and program, based on the department’s framework of standards and
accountability;
include, where relevant, support for the recreational needs of children and students;
support an inclusive policy, thus helping learners to gain an awareness of our pluralistic society and the
importance of respectful relations with others;
motivate the learners;
are relevant to the age of the children or students for whom they are selected;
relevant to their emotional, intellectual, social and cultural development. This includes the assurance
that children and students will not be exposed to offensive materials; that is, materials which describe,
depict, express or otherwise deal with matters of nudity, sexual activity, sex, drug abuse or addiction,
crime, cruelty, violence or revolting or abhorrent phenomena in a manner that a reasonable adult
would generally regard as unsuitable for minors;
145 | P a g e
provide opportunities for children and students to find, use, evaluate and present information and to
develop the critical capacities to make discerning choices, so that they are prepared for exercising their
freedom of access, with discrimination, as informed and skilled adults;
represent a range of views on all issues.
Activity 7.1: Displaying Data on a Chart - Questions to Consider
Work in pairs
Discuss the meaning and relevance of the following questions to guide you in the design and display of data
on a chart.
i. Questions to ask about your abilities
Do you understand the source data? ____________________________________________________
Can you trust the source? _____________________________________________________________
Can you do the calculations involved in converting the data to a chart? _________________________
Can you use the correct equipment to produce the chart (calculators) __________________________
Can you draw the chart skillfully? )_______________________________________________________
ii. Questions to ask about the purpose of your chart:
Is it indented to impress? ______________________________________________________________
Is it indented to entertain? _____________________________________________________________
Is it indented to reveal information? ______________________________________________________
Is it indented to accompany explanations? _________________________________________________
Is it indented to store information? ______________________________________________________
iii. Question to ask about your readers:
What will they do with your chart? ________________________________________________________
What do they know about the subject? _____________________________________________________
What do they expect of data? ____________________________________________________________
Do they speak a specialized graphic language? _______________________________________________
Are they prepared to work at understanding your chart and at revealing its information?
Now turn to your assignment which appears after this unit. You will be able to devote the rest of your
contact session time to designing and making a teaching aid to make your lesson more interesting and
effective.
146 | P a g e
7.3 Conclusion
This unit has provided you an opportunity to design and make a teaching aid for your classroom. This
was just an eye-opener and to inspire you to do the same for all your lessons and teaching in future to
ensure that your learners understand concepts better and that your lessons come alive!
Glossary
Abhorrent: phenomena: things that cause strong dislike
Discerning: choices: wise, enlightened, informed choices
mediated: parents mediate (act as go-between to interpret material, e.g. pictures, for
their children)
minors: persons under the age of full legal responsibility
pluralistic society: different social classes, religions, races are together in a society, but continue
to have their different traditions and interests
recreational needs: needs when people relax; when people are not working
social conventions: common beliefs, behaviour, standards of a group of people
147 | P a g e
Assignment: 7 Making a Creative Teaching Aid
Design and make a poster OR any other teaching aid that can be used in your class to
enhance your teaching.
TOPIC: Design Process
CONTENT:
How we will be working – the development of a Technology Task:
Investigate: finding, using and acknowledging information.
Design: design brief, specifications, constraints; initial idea sketches; choosing the best
design; selecting materials.
Make: drawing plans; develop the manufacturing sequence; make the item / model
Evaluate: learners evaluate both their design stages and their final product.
Communicate: learners present their solutions; learners compile all notes and
drawings into a project report in their class-work books.
Design considerations:
Fit-for-purpose:
o Who is it for?
o What is it for?
o Will it do the job?
o Is it cost effective?
o Is it safe?
o Is it easy to use (ergonomics)?
o Does it look good (aesthetics)?
o Will it affect society?
o Will it affect the environment?
Marks: _________
Hand in date: ________
148 | P a g e
Rubric:
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1 Mark
Title Title can be read Title can be read Title can be The title is too
from 2m away and from 2m away read from small and/or does
Content - is quite creative. and describes 1,5m away not describe the
Accuracy content well. and describes content of the
At least 7 accurate the content poster well.
Graphics - facts are displayed 5-6 accurate well.
Clarity on the poster. facts are 3-4 accurate Less than 3
displayed on the facts are accurate facts are
Graphics - Graphics are all in poster. displayed on displayed on the
Originality focus and the Most graphics the poster. poster.
content easily are in focus and Most graphics Many graphics are
Attractiveness viewed and the content are in focus not clear or are
identified from 2m easily viewed and the too small.
away. and identified content is
from 2m away. easily viewed No graphics made
Several of the and identified by the student are
graphics used on One or two of from 1.5 included.
the poster reflect the graphics away.
an exceptional used on the The graphics The poster is
degree of student poster reflect are made by distractingly
creativity in their student the student, messy or very
creation and/or creativity in their but are based poorly designed. It
display. creation and/or on the designs is not attractive.
The poster is display. or ideas of
exceptionally The poster is others. Total: / 20
attractive in terms attractive in
of design, layout, terms of design, The poster is
and neatness. layout and acceptably
neatness. attractive
though it may
be a bit
messy.
149 | P a g e
Barriers to Learning
Outcomes
When you have completed this unit, you will be able to:
identify learners with specific barriers;
apply practical ideas to address the identified barriers;
reflect on how to identify and address these barriers effectively.
8.1 Introduction
Remedial and special needs-teaching is a specialised field and requires years of intensive study. However,
it is important for you to know how to identify your learners’ barriers to learning. It is estimated that ‘one
in five’ learners in a class will have special educational needs during their school career. The aim of your
current policy (RSA DoE 2011:38) is that every learner must experience success. Therefore learners need
to be assisted and developed in addressing barriers to learning. Identifying these barriers and supporting
these learners who are in need of extra help will raise their self-esteem, confidence and level of
achievement.
8.2 White Paper 6
Who of you know the content of White Paper 6? Most of us never read policies as we think they are not
relevant to use. White Paper 6 focuses on special needs and on inclusive teaching. However, this policy has
everything to do with each and every teacher in education. Making an effort to understand what the policy
is saying will guide you to assist the learners in your class and make education more relevant. It will improve
the success level of all children.
The aims of Education White Paper 6 on Special Needs Education are to:
address the needs of all learners in your classes.;
identify any barriers to learning and developmental needs;
understand the barriers so that learning and assessment can be adapted and modified where
necessary.
In order to achieve these aims, we have to change the way in which we think, prepare and teach in the
Technology class.
The White Paper highlights the following principles. All learners should participate in all activities regardless
of the barriers that they might have. Conditions need to be created for learners to succeed.
Support should be based on the levels of support needed and not on the categorisation of your learners’
abilities or disabilities.
150 | P a g e
In order to achieve this in your classroom, inclusivity must become a central part of organising, planning,
teaching and assessing in every classroom. It is important to remember that it is not the category of a
disability that will influence how you plan, teach and assess, but the level and type of support the learners
need. Different teaching strategies should be used to ensure the angle of teaching differs from the
method used in class. Alternative methods of assessment should also be planned and used to ensure
learners with identified barriers are treated fairly.
8.2.1 Types of barriers to learning
There are two main types of barriers:
1. Intrinsic barriers: refers to barriers ‘inside’ the learner which can be caused by medical aspects linked
to sight, hearing or speech impairment; emotional or behavioural problems; neurological, cognitive
etc.
2. Extrinsic barriers: refers to factors outside the learner. These barriers can be caused by the following.
Problems in the education system, e.g. overcrowding of classrooms, lack of resources etc.
Problems with teaching methods and strategies, specifically related to aspects of
communication and language linked to the LoLT of the school, unfair methods of assessment, etc.
Social problems like poverty, family issues, discriminations, alcohol abuse etc.
8.2.2 Identifying learners with barriers to learning
All of us can tell stories about the ‘naughty’ child in every class that we teach. The learner who simply
cannot sit still, talks all the time and constantly tries to get the attention of other learners. What about the
learner whose behaviour suddenly changes, who is quiet and withdrawn? There is also the learner who is
not interested in academic / practical tasks, or complains that the tasks are too difficult or too easy and has
limited interaction with classmates. These are characteristics of learners with barriers to learning.
To assist you in identifying learners with specific barriers refer to Annexures C as part of the resources and
Section 2 of ‘Barriers to Learning’ on the reference list.
151 | P a g e
Activity 8.1: The Design Process and Strategies to Address
Barriers to Learning
Instructions:
1. Work as a group and use the information that you have received up to now on barriers to
learning to answer the questions below.
Complete the following questions:
1. Explain how learners with special needs will benefit from support and assistance.
2. Explain your understanding of the difference between remedial and special needs teaching.
Remedial teaching:
Special needs teaching:
3. What are the principles of White Paper 6?
4. Describe how you will achieve the aims of White Paper 6 in your class.
5. List and explain the two main types of barriers to learning.
152 | P a g e
8.2 TECHNOLOGY AND PUPILS WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
(SEN)
8.2.1. WHO ARE THE ‘ONE IN FIVE’ LEARNERS?
It is estimated that 20 per cent (one in five) of learners will have special educational needs at some time
during their school life. Learners are said to have special educational needs if they have significantly greater
difficulty in coping with their schoolwork, compared with other learners of the same age group. They are
in need of some form of extra help to try to raise their levels of understanding and achievement.
These learners may have difficulties that are:
of a physical or intellectual nature;
connected with a sight, hearing or speech impairment; emotional or behavioural;
specifically related to aspects of communication and language;
more general, covering some or all aspects of school work.
The usual definition of special educational needs comes from the 1981 Act and refers to learners with
disabilities and learning difficulties. Some schools also include gifted learners (Banks, 1994:194).
As indicated above, the term ‘special educational need’ covers a wide range of learning difficulties. Many
learners have special needs that are only temporary and so the actual percentage of learners with a special
need at any one time is probably nearer 16 per cent than the 20 per cent quoted (figures taken from Getting
in on the Act, Dill 1990). Of this number, approximately 2 per cent have statements of special educational
need.
8.2.2. ASPECTS OF TECHNOLOGY SPECIFIC TO CERTAIN LEARNERS WITH SEN
Many schools will have established within their curriculum development plan and subject policies a
coherent and detailed curriculum for learners of all abilities. For some learners with special educational
needs this may mean that they are taught material specific to levels outside the range specified for their
particular age and key stage.
The following two statements apply to certain learners with special educational needs. In relation to the
attainment targets: “Learners unable to communicate by speech, writing or drawing may use other means
including the use of technology or symbols as alternatives”. In relation to the programmes of study: “A
learner who, because of disability, is unable to undertake a practical activity required under the
programmes of study, may undertake an alternative activity which closely matches that activity” (Banks,
1994:171).
153 | P a g e
What are the practical implications of these two statements?
The first statement is about communication difficulties, and suggests alternatives to assist communication
which could include the use of:
computer programs and hardware such as concept keyboards;
a scribe or mentor who is familiar with the difficulty;
prepared cards containing symbols, phrases, messages or prompts;
acquired alternative methods such as sign language, lip-reading or touch;
audio / video tapes and recording to provide the learner with appropriate information and to enable
the learner to record him or herself.
The second statement is about carrying out practical work and could mean in practice that:
a learner unable to prepare hot food products using an electric or gas cooker, for safety or other
reasons, could use a microwave oven, be helped by a friend or teacher or even work with cold
ingredients;
a learner unable to co-ordinate or control certain tools or machines to cut, shape or form materials
could use pre-cut or prepared pieces and/or be assisted considerably.
8.2.3 Flexibility in Technology processes
The Technology processes indicated by the attainment targets do not always form a linear or mechanical
route through a Technology activity and should not be viewed or taught as rigid steps or stages. Technology
activities involve, in differing intensities and to different extents, a complex interplay of exploring and
clarifying the task; generating, developing and communicating ideas; evaluating; planning; making artefacts
and products; and testing.
In relation to these processes learners with special educational needs will have particular gifts and abilities
in particular types of work. Because these Technology processes can and will vary from one Technology
activity to another, it is possible for teachers to devise activities for some learners on the basis of their
strengths and successes.
Centring Technology on making artefacts and products does not mean that other processes should be
neglected. Indeed, learners will need to have access to these other Technology processes to provide
balance in their programme over a whole key stage, and of course to provide assessment opportunities
within the attainment targets.
From time to time teachers will need to devise short technology activities which provide a particular
emphasis and opportunity for learners to achieve success in one or more technology processes. For
example, a focused task where learners cut, shape, form and test strips of different materials provides
excellent opportunities, through discussion and recording of comments, to assess aspects of evaluation,
materials awareness and knowledge (Banks, 1994:176). This can also provide opportunities to identify uses
and possible projects in which these materials could be used.
154 | P a g e
8.2.4 Structuring the depth of focus in a Technology activity or task
When devising Technology activities for learners, teachers should consider the appropriateness and depth
of focus, or level, at which the activity is pitched. For example, is it appropriate to introduce a Technology
task relating to “transport” at the same depth of focus for all abilities and needs? In this case, could all the
learners begin successfully if the tasks ask them to “design a model vehicle and devise a way of moving it
using stored energy”? In many instances there is a scope or flexibility available for the teacher to structure
different layers within the activity and guide particular learners to an appropriate, achievable yet
challenging task.
The two examples in Figure 1 and Figure 2 show how this might be done. Both these examples help to
illustrate not only flexibility and opportunities for different abilities, but also how planning the task in this
way can help the teacher to manage the activity and provide an element of progression as learners take on
more open tasks toward the top of the diagram.
155 | P a g e
Figure 1 – Adjusting the depth of focus in a control technology task
Design and make a moving vehicle using More open
stored energy task
Design and make a wheeled vehicle
powered by a motor and a battery
Select one of the three designs available, More focused
to make a motorised vehicle. Make task
modifications and improvements to the
design
Make a powered vehicle using the pack
of parts and the drawings provided.
Complete the vehicle by adding some
attractive graphics and other features
156 | P a g e
Figure 2 – Adjusting the depth of focus in a food technology task More open
task
Design and manufacture a snack food
product which incorporates sealed
packaging
Design and make a snack food
product based upon fruit and cereal.
Devise a simple but effective package
Test and evaluate the three snacks
foods provided, using the notes
provided. Produce a version of one
product with a change of ingredient
incorporated. Design an appropriate
package
More focused
task
Make a snack bar using the
ingredients, mould and the
instructions provided. Within your
group, devise an efficient way of
producing 20 such bars
Likewise, by providing a range of outline ideas for solutions to a “design and make” activity, the teacher
will be able to support the learners and provide a good start for them to begin generating, developing and
communicating their own ideas based on these beginnings. Again this would provide opportunities for
assessing particular successes in particular statements of attainment.
157 | P a g e
8.2.5 Devising short 'extending tasks' in Technology
For some learners with special educational needs the nature of their difficulty may not unduly affect their
working and achievement in technology. For example, a learner with a slight hearing impairment can
probably cope well with most technology work, given appropriate aid and any necessary support.
For other learners with special educational needs the nature of their learning difficulty can greatly affect
success in technology. Many of these learners can gain success and achieve progress by being involved in
fairly short “extending tasks”. Short time-span projects that are devised to promote and provide small
elements of success are not only very rewarding for the learner, but also provide opportunity for that
success to be assessed.
The accumulation of success and achievement in this way can be structured so that a gradual move towards
a statement of attainment or level of attainment can be achieved. Without this structure a learner may
remain between two national curriculum levels of attainment for months or even years (Banks, 1994:178).
An example of a short “extending task”
The example of a short extending task given below could be devised to support progress and achievement
in, for example, a learner's communication skills in drawing.
The task might follow the pattern outlined below:
1. learner uses a light-box, tracing paper or grid paper to produce a copied drawing of
a shape;
2. learner follows faint guidelines or dotted lines to produce a drawn shape;
3. learner produces own drawing of a shape alongside printed version on page, with
key lines provided dotted;
4. learner produces own drawing alongside printed version;
5. learner produces own drawing of shape from observation.
In this example it is possible to trace the learner's progress from being able to communicate by drawing
with considerable help through to communication with little or no help and with intention. It should be
noted, however, that such structuring and the devising of short extending tasks requires a great deal of
teacher time and planning (Banks, 1994:178).
8.2.6 The support teacher
In some instances learners with SEN will have the assistance of a support teacher in the classroom, and for
working in Technology. Support teachers have the experience, patience and expertise, in co-ordination
with the class teacher, to provide a range of valuable services for the learner. Such support work requires
close collaboration and agreement on roles and responsibilities between teacher and support teacher. For
many teachers the presence of another colleague in a teaching situation is a new and often unsettling
experience. Figure 3 indicates some of the roles of a support teacher and could be used by teachers and
support teachers to help formulate and agree upon responsibilities.
158 | P a g e
Figure 3 – The role of the support teacher
To suggest and be involved
in appropriate teaching
strategies
To assist individual pupils The role To work alongside a
in their work of the Technology teacher, to meet
support
To, wherever possible, be teacher the educational and
involved in and contribute individual needs of the pupil
to input To monitor and record
progress of pupils with SEN
To modify and adapt
teaching materials and To identify in advance the special
resources needs and problems of the pupil and
to advise the staff accordingly
To assist and advise on
aids to improve pupil
performance
To be aware of the nature
and implications of the
particular “statement”
159 | P a g e
8.2.7 SOME POSSIBLE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR SOME LEARNERS WITH SEN
Depending on the nature of their special educational needs, learners may experience problems relating to
certain technology processes, for example when generating their own ideas. Such learners might achieve
more success in other aspects of technology work. The following provides guidance for teachers on some
of these problems, and offers some possible solutions. For convenience this guidance is presented under
the three types or groups of “learning difficulty”, namely:
physical and sensory difficulties;
intellectual difficulties;
emotional and behavioural difficulties
Table 1 – Some possible problems and solutions for certain learners with physical and sensory
difficulties
Possible problems Possible solutions
Exploring opportunities and clarifying the task
Certain project titles could be inappropriate. Consider project areas carefully and
incorporate learner interests and
experiences if possible.
Difficulties may directly restrict access to Plan for provision and access. Provide
resources and situations, e.g. a visit. alternatives where necessary.
Speech or other impairment could limit Provide alternatives for communication
ability to communicate and approach the such as scribe or concept keyboard.
task.
Learner lacks appreciation of likely Highlight the positive and achievable
problems their learning difficulty may aspects. Provide alternatives to assist
bring to bear on later design and situation, e.g. some pre-cut parts for
technology processes, for example when making.
making.
Generating, developing and communicating design ideas and proposals
Clumsiness or difficulties in expressing Use a scribe to help record ideas and
ideas and in producing drawings. provide drawing aids.
Learner has very limited range of ideas and Provide plenty of appropriate resources,
experiences. stimuli and ideas.
Difficulty in relating needs and concepts Provide a range of achievable though
of tasks to ideas and solutions. challenging ideas and solutions for learners
to develop.
Frustration and failure caused by Teacher needs to value and make
restricted methods of communication provision for a range of communication,
imposed. e.g. talk or ideas communicated directly
by working materials.
Planning and making
Manipulation and co-ordination problems. Direct practical support. Adapted tools
and equipment. Use of jigs and devices.
160 | P a g e
Preparation and making lacks accuracy and quality. Use of templates, jigs, some pre-cut parts. Tactful
inputs by the teacher.
Unfair dependence on other learners in the class or Provide more support. Provide some additional
group. time for learners. Share support around class.
Increase independence.
Lack of time to consolidate and practise skills and Provide extra time if possible. Less complex tasks.
processes demotivates the learner. Shorter tasks.
Frustration and demotivation. Reward all forms of progress. Devise short
extending tasks. Relate activities to learner
interests.
Testing, evaluating and modifying Ensure comparisons with peers. Highlight progress
Expectations of failure if comparisons are made as an individual.
with high achievers. Use of scribe applications.
Difficulties in recording and communicating
thoughts and information. Provide check-lists of considerations, questions,
Low levels of evaluation and testing, e.g. “I like it” options.
or “ It doesn’t work”. Make the improvements with the learner
Learner has little interest in improving or and highlight the increased value.
modifying work done, wants to finish Reward slower working.
quickly.
161 | P a g e
Table 2 – Some possible problems and solutions for certain learners with intellectual difficulties
Possible problems Possible solutions
Exploring opportunities and clarifying the task
Inability to see value or point of the Is the task appropriate? Teacher leads
technology task. and feeds ideas including the showing of
some finished examples.
Lack of confidence and inability to grasp Lower the level of expectation. Focus
or start the activity. Task is too “open” the task to suit ability and provide clear
and demanding. boundaries and sub-tasks.
Ideas developed are impractical. Highlight any positive part of ideas.
Explain why other learners cannot realise
some ideas.
Learner has very limited ideas and Provide a range of appropriate stimuli
experience to draw upon. and/or some possible ideas for learner to
develop.
Generating, developing and communicating design ideas and proposals
Inability or low interest to connect Use product examples to illustrate the
designing with making. “Why design?” importance and enjoyment of designing.
Design directly with materials.
Ideas are stereotypic and narrow.
Provide plenty of ideas and stimuli.
Learner only wants to “make” something. Develop ideas with learner.
Lack of confidence and pride in design
work. Devise short “making” tasks having small
and compulsory elements of designing.
Praise small achievements. Pair up with
helpful and sympathetic learner.
Planning and making Provide regular reminders and/or information
Inability to retain instructions and to listen at cards. Use shorter tasks and instructions.
length.
Low levels of co-ordination accuracy and detailing. Use jigs, templates, patterns, pre-cut parts.
Teacher contributions.
162 | P a g e
Health and safety problems. Low appreciation of Take all reasonable precautions. Restrict access if
potential dangers. necessary. Reward safe working. Provide clear
rules.
Work is rushed and sloppy. Inability to transfer and Reward slower work. Provide short extending
repeat previous skills and knowledge. tasks. Repeat and practise skills. Teacher assists
finishing.
Frustration and behavioural problems. Set clear rules and expectations. Reward all
progress. Short productive tasks. Build upon
learner interests.
Testing, evaluating and modifying Use examples to show value of improvements.
Low levels of expectation and appreciation of Illustrate good and bad design products.
quality.
Limited vocabulary and understanding of concepts. Provide check-lists and plenty of group discussions.
Help learner to evaluate and discuss some
favourite products.
Learner sees little value in testing and evaluating. Make testing and evaluating fun. Show how
Wants to “make it and take it home”. modifications can greatly improve product before
taking it home.
163 | P a g e
Table 3 – Some possible problems and solutions for certain learners with emotional and behavioural
difficulties.
Possible problems Possible solutions
Exploring opportunities and clarifying the tasks
Low interest and concentration span. Base activities on learner interests and strengths.
Short tasks. Provide choices.
Low standards of behaviour. Provide clear and precise rules and methods of
working.
Poor communication skills and low interest in Promote discussion of ideas. Reduce amount of
forming own ideas. writing and research.
Learner withdraws and does not take part. Trigger interest and involvement via learner
interests and previous successes in technology.
Devise short tasks.
Generating, developing and communicating design, ideas and proposals
Ideas are unrealistic and do not match ability to Re-develop an idea generated by the learner.
“make”. Provide a range of ideas and solutions for learner to
adopt.
Learner doesn’t want to design and only wants to Devise a “make” task which will only work if some
make. designing is done. Show importance of “design” in
learner’s favourite items.
Ideas are few and stereotypic. Provide plenty of ideas, alternatives and stimuli.
Low level of communication. Teacher acts as scribe for ideas. Plenty of
discussion.
Planning and making Reward slow steady progress. Short tasks.
Low level of patience. Wants to finish quickly.
Learner destroys or hides poor work or mistakes. Highlight mistakes in the work of others. Show
how many mistakes can be corrected. Remove fear
of making errors. Teacher makes intentional
mistake during a demonstration.
164 | P a g e
Learner loses interest over long period of time. Use short achievable tasks. Work on two tasks to
Learner is moody and stops unexpectedly. provide variety and rotation. Include learner
interests.
Use friends in class to assist. Teacher patience.
Discussion.
Testing, evaluating and modifying Assist with some improvements to show value.
Processes regarded as irrelevant. Learner wants to Make testing and evaluating fun.
finish quickly.
Learner has fear of judging own work against Discreet individual or peer group evaluation. Praise
higher achievers. small amounts of success.
Learner cannot associate these processes with the Explain reasons for testing, evaluating and
technology activity. modifying. Teacher undertakes processes to
highlight the value.
(Banks, 1994:180 – 184)
165 | P a g e
8.2.8 SUGGESTIONS TO ASSIST LEARNERS IN PRACTICAL CLASSROOM TASKS
This section provides some practical suggestions to help certain learners with SEN in the classroom and is
based upon the experiences and ideas of teachers.
The list is not exhaustive and you should also endeavour to consider other methods of supporting
learners. Some of the suggestions relate to particular types of learning difficulty and to particular areas of
technology , but many of them could benefit all learners, for example the suggestion relating to the use of
cutting guides. The suggestions are grouped as follows:
- communication;
- safety;
- organisation;
- tools, adaptations and alterations.
Communication
Using an audio tape or dictaphone
In many classes a tape recorder is used to record learners’ ideas, comments and evaluations. For many
learners this form of communication allows them to express their ideas and comments in a way that writing
or drawing might not. A teacher can also use a recorder to store an explanation or the stages of a
demonstration, so that some learners can play back the information at their own pace and be reminded of
ordering and detail (Banks, 1994:184).
Using a concept keyboard
A concept keyboard is a touch-sensitive electronic panel linked to a computer to provide learners with an
easy input facility. Overlay panels or sheets can be placed on the concept keyboard to provide symbols or
words which, when touched, trigger signals on the keyboard beneath, and thus to the computer. Plastic
key-panels are also available that fit directly over the existing computer keyboard to simplify and enlarge
the range and uses of keys. In technology activities a concept keyboard could be useful for some learners
as they undertake an evaluation exercise, for example.
Using grid papers
To assist learners to draw particular shapes and forms on paper, a range of grid papers can be purchased.
Some papers have lines at various angles to help learners form 3-D drawings. Used in conjunction with a
light-box, grid paper can be a very useful aid. Grid-printed cards are now available to assist in card-
modelling. In trials this has proved successful with learners of all abilities (Banks, 1994:185).
Using patterns, templates and guides
The provision of commercial and classroom-made templates and guides is essential for speedy and
accurate work in Technology. Professional designers, craftworkers, chefs and fashion designers, for
example, all rely on such aids. For many learners the assistance given by a pattern or similar aid can make
the difference between success and failure.
166 | P a g e
Braille and large-print rulers.
For learners who have visual difficulties, a range of Braille and large-print rulers, measures and other
devices are available from specialist suppliers.
Using coloured overlays
Research has shown advantages in using colour-tinted clear plastic overlay sheets with learners who
experience difficulties with reading and with remembering key words. This method could be used to
highlight particular words, stages and instructions in technology work. For example, some key words or
parts of a diagram, relating to safety or hygiene, could be overlayed in red when using an overhead
projector (Banks, 1994:185).
Making storyboards
Although time-consuming to produce, storyboards can provide an excellent reminder and visual tutor for
many learners undertaking procedures and tasks in technology for the first and second time. A stage-by-
stage description of an operation can be produced using suitable artwork, symbols, notes or signs.
4.2 Safety
Low-temperature electric glue-guns
Glue-guns are an excellent tool for the classroom, but can be quite dangerous due to the high temperatures
of the glue and their tendency to suddenly spurt out quantities of hot glue. A number of suppliers now
stock low-temperature glue-guns that are much safer and still provide the quick-joint facility.
A sewing-machine-foot needle guard
When using an electric sewing machine, the curved front edge of the foot not only directs the fabric
correctly towards the needle, but can easily draw in fingers too. A small and low-cost simple-to-fit
attachment is available, which is essentially designed to protect the needle during transportation, but can
be used to reduce the hazards of machine use with some learners (Banks, 1994:186).
Safety rulers and cutting guides
The use of modelling knives for Technology activities and art work has increased in recent years. A
traditional 'M' section finger-profile safety ruler is essential when a teacher allows craft knives to be used
to cut straight lines.
One other version, and probable improvement on this design, is the home-made “T –Shape” safety ruler.
The inverted 'T' provides a good straight cutting edge and keeps the holding fingers behind a protective
ledge. 'T' rulers can be made from old aluminium window-frame strips or from extruded 'T -shape'
aluminium available in lengths from some DIY stores and builders’ suppliers.
A “safe-cut” electric modelling saw
Reasonably priced electric saws are available which cut using the principle of a vibrating rather than
rotating or sliding blade. The fine-cutting blade vibrates and hums and will cut only rigid materials such as
wood, plastic and card. If skin accidently touches the small blade, it will vibrate at the same frequency as
the blade and so no damage will occur. Under supervision, these saws can be used by a wide age and ability
range and are excellent for model-making and for cutting out curved profiles and templates (Banks,
1994:186).
167 | P a g e
Using low-voltage and rechargeable power tools
Many manufacturers supply low-voltage power tools and transformers for use in schools and industry,
there by cutting down the risks of electrical injuries and accidents. A range of rechargeable power tools is
also available now; these can be of excellent benefit for working in Technology by cutting down the number
of trailing electric leads and in some cases, the potential power available within the tool.
Rotary guillotines for cutting sheets of paper, card and plastic
Although all guillotines of the pull-down type are now fitted with blade-guards, they can be difficult to use
as vision is reduced by the protective shielding. A number of roller, wheel or rotary-cutting guillotines are
available which provide easy action with safety, in situations where the teacher allows use of a guillotine.
Very often the risks in using rotary guillotines can be far less than in letting some learners use scissors
(Banks, 1994:187).
Organisation
Large labels on equipment, tools, racks and cupboards
Putting large and clear name labels on equipment, tools, racks and cupboards will greatly assist all learners
as they learn about equipment and its location. For learners with severe visual impairment other strategies
will need to be used, for example braille and/or raised silhouettes.
The positioning of learners
Through experience most teachers know the best places to position learners with particular needs when
undertaking a demonstration or lesson. It is easy to forget that many of the children are seeing and
following the operation from an upside-down view. It takes little planning to ensure that learners with
learning difficulties are positioned on the same side as the teacher if that will help, or that the teacher
adapts the explanation or demonstration to cater for particular learners.
Tools, adaptations and alterations
Using sticky pads and tape
A range of tapes, sticky pads and rubber feet are available in stores and from suppliers. Products such as
these, which help learners to hold things still, are of great benefit in improving their co-ordination and
manual control. As adults you often forget that your own strength and co-ordination overcomes many of
these problems that children experience when trying to hold something still.
A hand-drill stand
Using a hand-drill properly is quite a difficult operation for many learners. When analysed it is apparent
that there are five or six physical and mental actions involved in using a hand-drill. A stand or holding jig
can be purchased or made which clamps the drill in a vertical position, thereby releasing the hands to assist
the drilling and removing some of the complexity of use (Banks, 1994:188).
Adjusting work-table or chair heights
A range of school furniture is available that has height adjusters on the legs and feet. Attachments can also
be purchased to fix to existing furniture so that height adjustments can be made. Adapting working heights
is essential for many younger learners and those requiring wheelchair access, for example.
168 | P a g e
Using a light-box
A light-box is a worktop or unit that has a clear or translucent top, under which is fitted a fluorescent light.
The upward shining light will penetrate a few layers of paper and thus allow learners to make successful
tracings, copies and drawings.
A light-box can be made by replacing the lid of an old school desk with a clear plastic top, and mounting a
neon strip-light in the desk space. Aluminium foil can be used to line the inside of the desk to help reflect
light upwards. Warning: do not use a standard light bulb because of the heat generated. Have your unit
checked by a qualified electrician and a safety officer (Banks, 1994:188).
Modified handles and knobs
For learners who have difficulties in gripping, holding and manipulating the smaller knobs and handles on
some classroom equipment, one idea is to slit a tennis ball, or other suitable ball, and slip it over the
problematic knob or handle. This provides a useful temporary adaptation where necessary.
In some cases, the reshaping or enlarging of a handle can prove to be a valuable modification to a tool or
appliance. One way of doing this is to surround the existing handle with car-body filler and then for the
learner to grip the soft filler whilst wearing a rubber glove or a covering of Clingfilm .
The filler will quickly set after the hand is removed. Some fillers produce heat when hardening, so care is
needed.
A jig for sanding wheels and discs
Accurately making and shaping a model wheel or disc can be quite difficult. If a classroom is equipped with
an electric rotating sander, a simple jig can be made to fit onto the machine to help produce accurate discs.
The rough-cut disc or wheel is temporarily fixed by a nail or screw to rotate on a base-board, which is
clamped in front of the sanding surface. Slight forward pressure into the sander is applied whilst the disc is
rotated by hand on the nail or screw. Quick and accurate discs can be produced in this way, and this jig is
especially useful when large quantities are required. Use of such a jig by learners is the responsibility of the
teacher in charge (Banks, 1994:189).
A measuring board and stick
There are many ways of helping learners to measure and mark sizes onto materials. One such method is as
follows. A stepped board is made with standard or required distances clearly marked or coded with colours.
Different sections of material can be placed against the appropriate step and the length marked off at a
common edge. Such a device can be incorporated into a sawing block or bench hook.
Similar assistance can be provided by using a stick or strip of card. A plain piece of wood-strip or card can
be marked off with appropriate distances and/or symbols for a particular project. Learners then only have
to deal with a few marks on the stick, as opposed to the many on a standard ruler, and distances can be
easily transferred onto the materials being used. Such simple aids are also useful for all abilities, for example
when learners need to quickly check dimensions of products on a small production-line project (Banks,
1994:190).
169 | P a g e
A hint to help with nailing
Holding nails in position whilst hammering them in is often a difficult and painful experience no matter
what one's age or ability .One useful tip is to first push the nail into the end of a strip of thin card or foam.
The nailing is then started by sliding the card into position and hammering with the fingers well back. The
card or foam can be pulled away as the nail is driven in. As well as saving the fingers, this tip is valuable
when trying to hold and start a nail in a difficult corner or position.
An “extra hand” when using scissors, cutters and snips
Mastering the use of a pair of scissors, snips or general-purpose cutters can be difficult for some learners,
especially for some of those with physical difficulties, when cutting complicated shapes from tougher
materials. A hint is to carefully clamp one of the handles into a vice or fix it to the edge of an old worktable.
This leaves just one handle to be operated and provides an easy-to-use fixed guillotine or shears.
Co-ordination and accuracy can improve quickly, and downward pressure on the one free handle increases
cutting efficiency. Please note that scissor handles do not last long if over-tightened regularly in a vice. Also
remember to remove the tool or cover the blades when not in use (Banks, 1994:1990).
170 | P a g e
8.3 TECHNOLOGY AND THE GIFTED CHILD
8.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The professional commitment of any educator worthy of the name is the full development of the abilities
and talents of all children with whom he/she works. This is an ideal that anyone who believes in education
as a force for the improvement of human attainment must support. Any deviation from this ideal, any
failure to support is in its full meaning, imposes a limitation on the opportunity for learning that is available
to children.
The task of the educator is that of preparing children for effective living. This must be done through giving
them opportunities to use their abilities in satisfying, productive ways. Fulfilment of this responsibility
requires close and constant attention to the full range of individual differences within the schools. Yet most
schools have not analysed and developed means for systematically providing optimum learning
opportunities for those most able to learn. Efforts in this area have largely been those of individual
dedicated teachers, and therefore have been sporadic in nature.
For a long time the idea was accepted that the expectations of the regular classroom are improper for the
handicapped child. It had been less willing to accept the idea that the classroom fare may be equally
improper for the child who, because of exceptional ability to learn, may deviate even more dramatically
from his/her chronological peers than the handicapped child.
In some respects the unresolved problem of adequate provisions for the most able is a result of our more
immediate awareness of the special needs of the handicapped. In certain other respects, however, the
problem has historical roots. One of these is the literal interpretation placed upon the view that, for the
young child, the school provides a bridge between the family and the community. This view, which is
changing gradually, accounted for educational and geographical restrictions placed upon the learning
environment of the child during the primary years, despite the effects of modern media for communication
and travel.
The need for content of proper level for the young gifted child is especially crucial. The exposure to
satisfying learning opportunities at the outset will provide a sound basis for psychological health,
motivation for learning, and continued educational accomplishment. The young child comes to school
with certain expectations. If the conditions fall short of his expectations, he tells us about it in some way.
He reacts more directly to frustration than would an older child who has learned ways to conceal his
frustrations and has found substitute means for satisfying his needs, and therefore he is more likely to
encounter trouble. Although in the main the gifted child displays great skill in assessing a situation and
adapting to it, the young gifted child has had little practice, and the greatest number of problems among
the gifted are to be found in those just starting grade 0.
The opportunity to learn freely and fully, to satisfy one’s desire to know, to be fully involved and
absorbed in learning, will produce concomitant psychological benefits. The child who is able to satisfy his
intellectual needs has a far greater sense of total well-being than the child who is deprived of such
opportunity is.
171 | P a g e
8.3.2 EXPLORING DEFINITIONS OF GIFTEDNESS
What is this “gifted” thing all about anyway?
(Gillian I Erikson 1987)
What is giftedness? Who are?
Gifted? What is the characteristics of giftedness? How
can we understand the gifted?
children in our classroom and
homes? How does giftedness
manifest in the child’s behaviour? These questions
need to be addresses if gifted children are to be guided in their development.
Identification of unique capacities in young children requires two qualities in educators. The first is a
willingness to seek differences and the outstanding abilities in children even at the point of school entry.
The other is a willingness to provide an environment rich in opportunities for the manifestation of varying
abilities.
A good definition of giftedness should help to clarify understanding of what giftedness is thus help us to
recognise gifted children. Unfortunately, giftedness is not a phenomenon that lends itself easily to a simple
definition. People have been trying to define giftedness for many years and the fact that no consensus has
yet been reached regarding the aptness of a single definition is an indication of the divergent views that
exist regarding this very complex matter. The word itself has misguided people. In a number of languages,
including English, the word giftedness means a gift or a present and as such is taken to be a personal
possession, which does not have to be shared with the society. In Latin languages the meaning of the term
surdoue is “overgifted” which implies that the gifted are more talented but others also have talents (Kokot,
1992:36).
The United States Office of Education offers the following definition of gifted people: “Gifted and talented
children are those, identified by professionally qualified persons, who, by virtue of outstanding abilities are
capable of high performance. These are children who require differentiated educational programs and/or
services beyond in order to realise their contribution to self and society. Children capable of high
performance include those with demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability; specific academic
aptitude; creative or productive thinking; leadership ability; visual on performing arts and psychomotor
ability.” (Neethling, 1984:16).
In most definitions, giftedness seems to be an umbrella term used to describe an outstanding capacity for
achievement shown by a particular group of pupils. There are, however, still differences in shades of
meaning given to the concept. Therefore the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) in Pretoria
recommended a universal definition, to avoid confusion, and offer the following (Kokot, 1992:49):
172 | P a g e
“Giftedness may defined as remarkable potential or ability possessed by a person to achieve
outstandingly in various fields or in just one field. Giftedness is an umbrella term covering all exceptional
abilities and the realisation of these through outstanding achievement.”
Since a widely accepted definition and categorisation of giftedness are so basically important to the
identification of gifted pupils, it seems wise to consider the possibilities of accepting a definition such as
the one above so that effective identification programmes and educational provision for gifted pupils may
be designed and implemented throughout the country. Care must be taken that the definition reflects all
aspects and all categories of gifted children. This includes underachievers, handicapped and disadvantaged
gifted pupils.
8.3.3. EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF GIFTED CHILDREN
Special teaching for the gifted originated in the USA when it became clear that these children had special
educational needs that were not being met in the normal classroom. Countries such as Britain, Russia,
Holland and Germany followed. In South Africa the Transvaal Education Department took the lead in this
field when, in 1958, it made some provision for these children at secondary school level. Since that date,
certain schools try to accommodate the educational needs of gifted pupils by various means.
In the changing educational order that South Africa is facing, it seems unlikely that special provision will be
made for our gifted pupils.
Correcting the unequal standard of education for the different population groups that has existed for so
long entails spreading too little money among too many and extra-curricular activities, programmes and so
on may have to fall by the wayside. Teachers and parents may well have the responsibility of supporting
and enriching the education of gifted children within the normal classroom and school situation. This is not
entirely negative as recent developments tend to favour the idea that gifted children should not be
removed from the mainstream but should receive enrichment in the school setting.
In view of this fact it becomes even more important that our teachers are trained to recognise, understand
and support giftedness because these children will be found in their classrooms and be dependent on them
for their well-being. It is only with correct educational support from the home and the school that gifted
children will gain enough courage to choose to actualise their potential. We all choose to behave in certain
ways: gifted behaviour is also a choice.
What do gifted children need?
The specific educational needs of gifted children can be deduced from the concise summary of their chief
characteristics as set out by Kokot (1992:198):
Gifted children differ from others in their learning pace; in conceptualisation and generalisation skills; in
length of attention span; in the maturity, diversity and intensity of their interests, in their achievement
level; in their critical thinking skill; in their need for intellectual challenge; and in their ability for
173 | P a g e
independent learning. In addition, gifted persons tend to assume distinctive roles as leaders in the school
and society; they tend to be intellectually curious.
Thus gifted children need learning tasks that present them with the necessary challenge so that they need
sustained exertion to reach the learning goals. Because of their special love of independent discovery, they
need self-activity during which they can read, experiment, explore, think and evaluate critically and draw
their own conclusions.
Because they have a greater need than other children to be left alone at times in the teaching and learning
situation, they have a particular need for individualisation. In addition such children also need
communication with fellow pupils who are more or less their equals in intelligence, aptitude and/or
interest, in order to discuss learning assignments and their own findings in an orderly way (Kokot,
1992:199).
Because of the characteristic excellence in executing learning assignments, which children need an
educational programme that offers, in particular, possibilities for advanced thinking, making connections,
reasoning, forming concepts, gaining insight, abstracting, making demands with regard to fluency,
suppleness, originality, ordering, analysing, synthesising, integrating or insights, evaluating critically, and
generalising.
The educational needs of these children also come to the fore when one notes the characteristic problems
of undifferentiated education for the gifted.
Problems of gifted children in the school situation
Intellectually gifted pupils
They often rebel against school authority because the fixed school routine restricts their
development.
They are often the victims of rigid systems that classify gifted children into classes regardless of
their abilities and needs.
The necessary accelerated promotion from one standard to the next is withheld because it is
feared that they will become affectively unstable when placed among older pupils, regardless of
their individual affective stance.
They often have to repeat subject matter to the point of screaming boredom.
Creative pupils
Their actions are often misinterpreted by teachers who allow no elbow room for creative
expression by their pupils.
They are faced with a curriculum that is often irrelevant and there is a lack of acknowledgement
and reward for their creative approach to learning assignments.
The thoughtless reaction of others to their venture sameness, spontaneity and self-revelation
often hurts their feelings.
They often have difficulty in joining and maintaining themselves in peer groups at both the social
and affective levels.
174 | P a g e
Gifted girls
Their interest, perspective and aspirations with regard to subject choice, fields of study and
future careers often clash with stereotyped views and expectations about obvious and suitable
fields of study and career choices for women. In particular this applies to career choices that
conflict with tradition.
They lack information about academic preparation and career exploration, and this
phenomenon is encountered as early as the grade 0, Foundation- and Intermediate phase.
Gifted boys
Boys tend to mature slowly than girls in the verbal and reading areas. Their naturally higher level
of activity also often results in boys being designated hyperactive, distractible or disorderly. Such
developmental lags and behaviours mean that their giftedness may go unrecognised.
Gifted boys with “multi potentials” are often thought to have an abundance of career options.
Having too many choices can cause confusion and uncertainty.
Because of sex-role stereotyping, boys may be forced into the maths/ science areas which may
cause job dissatisfaction later in life.
(Kokot, 1992:200)
Talented children
They do not have enough opportunities in the school situation to express their artistic talents.
They tend to give exaggerated attention to their specific talent and its realisation at the expense
of their other school work.
They display a high degree of dedication to learning assignments, set high expectations for
themselves and are usually perfectionists.
Gifted pupils with a dissimilar cultural background
On the one hand they are under pressure from the dominant cultural environment and on the
other they struggle with meagre support from their own cultural environment towards their self-
actualisation.
They experience alienation from their peers, relatives and sub-culture as a result of intense
pressure to achieve success.
They find that teachers concentrate on their scholastic shortcomings while their special abilities or
gifts are not noticed.
Underachieving gifted pupils
They cannot cope with the interaction between their home environments and situations, their
personal characteristics and the structure of their school situation.
At the end of their primary school years they find themselves caught in a fixed behaviour pattern
that has been going on for years and has led to continual failure or at least achievements that do
not accord with their superior potentials.
The above serves to indicate that school can be ` problem for gifted pupils. In order to alleviate the
difficulties experienced by these children, consideration should be given to the design of a curriculum that
would encompass their special needs.
175 | P a g e
So, throughout the world one finds widespread agreement that gifted children should receive such a
qualitatively different education. There is, however, considerable disagreement about the form of such an
education.
8.3.4. INDIVIDUALISATION AND THE GIFTED-CHILD
This approach to meeting the educational needs of gifted pupils implies that learning tasks are tailored to
the individual gifted child. Such tailoring does not only use the child's achievement level as a guide. In
particular, criteria such as the child's interests, learning styles and modalities and special talents are
carefully considered.
Individualisation may be defined as a way of organising learning experiences is that the rate of learning,
the content, and the experiences selected to optimise learning and the depth of exploration available to
pupils is decided according to the individual pupil’s achievement and interest. Park, as mentioned by Kokot
(1992:206), point out that this does not suggest that pupils should be doing something different than their
classmates at all times. Rather, it suggests a process through and interests from which learning experiences
are organised. These may appear in the form of large or small group instruction if more than one student
or the entire class is in need of the same experience.
This implies that pupils are allowed to:
Assume some responsibility for their own style
Become independent learners
Learn at their own pace
Learn via material related to their own style
Learn on a level appropriate to their abilities
Be evaluated in terms of their own achievements
Experience a sense of perceived control and achievement which will enhance their self-esteem.
What is individualised?
Kokot (1992:206) gives five areas of an educational programme that can be individualised:
The rates at which pupils progress through their work
The actual learning alternatives, meaning the subjects offered
The schedule, or number of subjects studied
The content of the instruction, which refers to the range or breath studied
The depth of exploration that is allowed. These areas correspond to characteristics of gifted pupils that
necessitate differentiated education, such as their ability to learn more quickly, understand with
greater depth and their wide range of interests.
176 | P a g e
Advantages of individualisation
Perhaps the greatest advantage to this form of education is that it allows pupils to receive instruction that
is appropriate for their abilities in content and pace, achievement levels and interests. Additional benefits
may be (Kokot, 1992:207):
provides success rather than failure for pupil
builds self -concept
permits peer interaction that causes retention
decreases pupil dependence on the teacher and initially transfers it to peers and eventually to self
provides for problem-solving experiences
develops internal motivation rather than peer competition
develops critical analysis abilities.
Thus pupils are given the opportunity to take control over their own learning and gain the tools to become
life-long learners.
Although a few teachers do small amounts of individualisation, such as permitting children to select reading
books at their own level, very few totally individualised classrooms exist in school today. This may largely
be due to the fact that teachers are uncertain as to how to implement this form of education and they are
not responsible for planning the curriculum.
It is not within the scope of this book to discuss curriculum or teaching methods in any great detail, but in
order to understand gifted children's educational needs, it is necessary to overview the type of curriculum
that may best satisfy such needs.
8.3.5. AN APPROPRIATE CURRICULUM FOR GIFTEDNESS
Recent writers have stressed a confluent approach to a curriculum for the gifted. Kokot (1992:208)
summarise it with the following points:
Content specialisation, which means that specific content areas are selected to provide the appropriate
match for specific aptitudes.
Enrichment, acceleration and other special services that may be utilised to serve the gifted. This
answers to the principle of economy, which aims at preventing children having to waste time re-
learning acquired skills.
Recognition of the role of thinking skills in developing pupils' potential. Higher level thinking skills is an
important tool for pupils who may become producers rather than consumers of knowledge.
Application of skills such as critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision making are
essential for meaningful work in any context.
Sufficient exposure to non-traditional school subjects. This includes areas of traditional arts curriculum
not usually offered in schools, such as logic, law and philosophy.
Opportunity for self-directed learning, to develop responsibility for their own learning and growth.
177 | P a g e
Appropriate experiences in the arts. Real enrichment includes awareness about the world which is
offered by arts more than any other field. Knowledge of gifted children shows a need for the arts:
sensitivity, keenness of perception and the ability to understand interrelationships all point to a need
for exposure to aesthetic experiences. Teaching the arts is also critical in developing an understanding
of self and others, based on the interrelationship of thoughts and feelings.
Thus, all of the humanities offer a medium for understanding the congruence of ideas and emotions.
Progressive and sequential development of broad curriculum areas from Grade 1 to Grade 12. Such
development should concentrate on the interrelationships among bodies of knowledge. The concept
of content integration by schemas and systems is seen to rank at the highest order of importance.
Table 1 (Kokot, 1992:209) attempts to highlight the curricular components considered important. It also
provides examples of topics or courses that might be offered at a particular level. The aim of the table is to
suggest ideas and principles rather than to prescribe a particular curriculum.
General principles
Continuity A well-defined set of learning activities that reinforce the specific curriculum objective.
Diversity Provisions for alternative means to attain determined ends within a specified curriculum
framework.
Interaction with peers and significant others Provisions to learn about and meet with individuals who
share similar and different talents/gifts.
Value system Inclusion of consistent opportunities to develop and examine personal and societal values
and to establish a personal value system.
Communication skills Provision of a variety of material and human resources as part of the learning
process.
Specific principles for gifted curriculum
Appropriateness Curriculum based on assessment of abilities, interests, needs, and learning styles of
gifted students.
Openness Elimination of present expectations that limit the learning within the curricular framework.
Independence Provisions for some type(s) of self-directed learning.
Complexity Provision for exposure to systems of knowledge, underlying principles and concepts and
key theories about what students study.
Interdisciplinary learning Provisions for transfer of learning to other domains of knowledge, new
situations, etc.
Decision making Provisions for students to make some appropriate or relevant decisions regarding
what is to be learned and how.
Creation/re-creation Provisions to apply the creative process to improve and modify one's creations
and to challenge prevailing thought and offer more appropriate solutions.
Timing Appropriation of time span for learning activities that is consistent with characteristics of gifted
learners for shorter/longer allotments.
Accelerated/ advanced pacing of content Provision for quickness and aptness of gifted students to
master new material.
178 | P a g e
Economy Compressed and streamlined organisation of teaching material to match learning capacity of
gifted students.
Haasbroek (1998) suggested certain requirements that curricula for gifted children should satisfy in order
to cater for their educational and learning needs. These may serve additional criteria toe evaluate the
curriculum principles given above.
Commitment to a task
A curriculum should ensure that pupils are challenged and given sufficient outlet for their mental energy.
Furthermore, a curriculum should create an atmosphere that encourages gifted children to undertake
exacting work. Gifted pupils learn easily and enjoy learning but they should also realise that achieving
something really meaningful takes considerable effort and commitment. If they are not challenged to exert
themselves from early on in life, they will not be able to cope with the pressures of later life when much
may be expected of them.
Attention to the gifted child as a totality
Because the intellectual abilities of gifted children are so obvious, the danger exists that development and
nurturance of other aspects of these children may be neglected. Haasbroek (1988:206) warns that
intellectual precocity is not adulthood, and therefore curricula for these pupils should cater specifically for:
acquisition of knowledge
moulding of character and attitudes
development of skills of thought processes
motivation and guidance
balance responsible education of the child in totality.
It is believed that none of these factors can exist independently. Intellectual capacity cannot be seen as a
separate entity and its development is interdependent and interrelated with the development of other
aspects of the personality. The teacher or curriculum designer should, therefore, continually assess
whether the curriculum includes sufficient activities aimed at the development of physical, affective,
spiritual, social, cultural, aesthetic and intellectual development. Such a curriculum would form a unit and
attest to the fact that it is compiled for the total child.
Specific provision for the actualisation of creativity
If children are to make significant contributions in later life to various fields, they should be given the
opportunity to develop their creativity as well as their intellectual abilities. Interestingly, Japan, long
admired for its outstanding educational system which produces high IQ pupils and extremely capable
workers, is no longer satisfied with the system. They believe that they have paid too much attention to
developing convergent thinkers, who are apt copiers and adapters, but who lack creative ability or the
ability to think divergently. The resourcefulness and the ability to produce original creations are
important if such able people are to improve the quality of life in a community.
179 | P a g e
Fluidity and openness
This entails the acknowledgement of the learning situation as being open to independent thought and
critical and creative thinking. Openness means to allow pupils to follow their own route to a conclusion or
other outcome; a tolerance for values and views that may differ from society's or ones own. The concern
here is to create a better learning situation than the one where education is believed to be something
that the teacher does to a child; the narrow view that the educator intervenes consciously with a child. It
is possible to allow children some autonomy in their learning.
Compatibility with the existing framework
Any new curriculum should take the existing educational framework into account. Any programmes for
gifted pupils must be able to be implemented in the classroom without serious disruption of other pupils
or school activities. Haasbroek (1988:209) suggests a model for curriculum development which focuses
on self-activity by the pupil. It may be illustrated by means of several steps:
Step one: Consideration must be made of the following:
the special abilities of the gifted pupil, for which opportunities should be created
the special needs of the pupil as an individual gifted person
the interests of the pupil
national and societal needs, as well as social issues of which the pupil should be aware in order to
integrate with the community/society.
Step two: Based on assessment of the needs in step one, a choice may be made of suitable subject fields
(severally and jointly). These may be divided into relevant topics, themes, problems, and so on.
Step three: This entails the selection and design of activities or other learner experiences, bearing in mind
the accepted components of lesson planning, such as determining needs, formulating aims, content,
learning strategies, evaluation, and so on.
Step four: At this stage, self-activity is introduced by explaining the aims, implementing a variety of
learning strategies by means of appropriate learning experiences and utilising the serves of available
persons or institutions both in and outside the school situation. Evaluation of the activity can in turn
indicate further topics.
Step five: This level assesses further interests and needs that are generated by the preceding steps.
Provision for extramural programmes
Haasbroek (1988) believes that to cater optimally for the educational needs of gifted pupils, the
curriculum should include programmes for implementation both in the classroom and outside it.
Enrichment programmes based on the subject curriculum should be supplemented by interdisciplinary
programmes within the school.
180 | P a g e
Extramural activities that cater for the special needs of gifted pupils should be available after school
hours. Such supplementary programmes and activities will ensure that proper provision is made for every
gifted child as a totality.
8.3.6 THE CLASSROOM CLIMATE
Within the classroom in which open opportunities for learning are available to every child, the philosophy
of individual opportunity prevails. This means that, insofar as the teacher can manage, every child has some
opportunity to function within a psychologically and academically unguarded system, with materials and
ideas suitable to his abilities.
The ungraded classroom is not a new or recent idea. Willard Olsen advocated the concept along with self-
selection and individualised materials in the early 1940s (Martinson, 1968:16). The actual practice of
individualisation, common during the early years of the present century, became increasingly difficult to
maintain with large enrolments and increasing class size; as a result, the compromise practice of forming
several groups within a single classroom, while providing materials appropriate for each group, was
adopted.
Even after grouping, each classroom often contains one or two children who need special materials
because of unusually high abilities. The child who is slow has apparent needs, and the teacher tries to
provide for him so that he may learn. If the child is exceedingly bright, the pressure upon the teacher is
lessened, for the child generally will learn whether special provisions are made or not.
Thus the greater challenge to the teacher lies in making sure that he is actually providing significant learning
opportunities for the child who needs direct, detailed attention the least.
Some of the conflict facing the teacher who accepts this responsibility undoubtedly rests in his/her basic
preparation. The knowledge in which the teacher bases the curriculum planning comes from child
development literature, much of which is based upon norms. Usually and necessarily, most of her attention
is directed toward the “typical” performance and the expected behaviour of the “average”. Little or no
attention is given in basic courses to the exceptionally able child, so that the teacher is relatively
unprepared for the child who is dealing with abstract knowledge and symbols in the primary grades. It is
difficult to accept the fact that certain children are ready on all counts, psychological, intellectual,
emotional, and physiological to go into fields for learning which are far in advance for their chronological
age.
The use of interests
One of the chief problems confronting the teacher of the young is that of avoiding over control and of
allowing the child freedom for learning. The dilemma is presented well by Murphy (1958):
“We know relatively little about how to encourage but all too much about how to impede. We find a
thousand devices for regularising, stabilising, restraining, or even for poking fun at the earliest
exploratory efforts of children who are transported by a great challenge or a great discovery.”
181 | P a g e
One of the important words in the vocabulary of a 4 year old is "Why?" The need for information and
understanding at that age is acute. Given open opportunity for inquiry, the use of the word should continue
into the early school years, and should form the basis for inquiry. Through the added information which is
the end product of inquiry, further interests should unfold. The interests of children expand directly as they
are able to discover the answers to "Why?"
The question emanates from their interests. Thus the interests of children form an important basis for
learning. These interests are readily apparent to a discerning teacher, even in such traditional fields as
reading, if the child is permitted free access to library materials. In capitalising on an interest, the skillfull
teacher uses questions to assist the child in clarifying his goals, frees the child to pursue the topic
independently, make available whatever pertinent reading resources and other resources he/she can
command, discusses progress with the child periodically to guide and encourage. The use of judiciously
spaced contact with the child, rather than frequently scheduled or even daily contact, makes available
more time to the teacher for the individual activity (Martinson, 1958:19).
Pupils in the Foundation phase who read independently and who are encouraged to do so do not impose
bounds on the subjects which they explore. The curiosity which they possess about the world in general
makes it important that they have access to a wide variety of materials.
Strategy for teaching
The role of the teacher in dealing effectively with the young child who is highly capable of self-initiated and
self-directed learning is that of a guide and ally. The teacher contributes to added and deeper learning on
the part of the child by assisting him and opening possibilities within topics and projects. As an aid to
learning, you can ask searching questions, asks for evidence, helps the child identify problems, helps him
clarify goals, refers him to sources for assistance, discuss progress and conclusions with him. Provides him
with time for independent research and study, even though he may be very young.
The young investigator sets his own standards, defines his own schedule, and chooses his own method of
presenting his findings. With sufficient time and freedom, the young researcher is able to develop some of
the habits common to the productive adult, namely a habit of inquiry, a willingness to test and search for
information, a willingness to work beyond brief time limits, and a desire to produce at a level which brings
him satisfaction in the knowledge that he has done well. With some opportunity available to the child for
such activity during the course of the school day and week, problems of indolence and underachievement
would not exist to the extent that they now do (Martinson, 1958:22).
The tactics employed by the teacher must be appropriate to the situation. Children do not need to employ
techniques of discovery or inquiry or problem-solving in every enterprise. In some situations, principally
science and mathematics, such approaches are effective and are frequently employed. In others, such as
the arts, appreciation may be the primary purpose, and attempts to inject inquiry or extended analysis may
spoil the effectiveness of the lesson. In still others, quite legitimately, children may have the responsibility
for direct study and learning, or even memorisation. All learning does not have to be problem centred to
be legitimate.
182 | P a g e
If the teacher does find occasion to involve the children in inductive learning, as she should whenever
reasonable, she must provide ample time for the process to develop. Teaching for discovery is a process
which cannot be tightly scheduled, particularly with bright pupils. This is especially important because the
bright child may be the one who arrives at the final response slowly, after much analysis and involved
deliberation. The children must be given sufficient opportunity to discover relationships, to make
comparisons, to draw conclusions, so that they perceive and identify the principals involved. This process
the teacher guides through questioning, but it cannot be rushed. The advantage in taking sufficient time is
not only that the pupils retain and apply their leanings better, but also that they learn a mode of thinking
which is essential to scholarship. Then, too, thinking at the level of generalisation appropriate to the very
capable child, for at this level he/she can use his/her ability without limitations.
An important, and perhaps crucial, aspect of teaching strategy is the manner in which the teacher leads the
discussion. Whether working with one child or with a group, the purpose of the teacher should be to elicit
ideas and then to provide for the discussion, analysis, and evaluation of them. Listing proposed ideas on
the chalkboard for all those concerned to see is helpful, as is asking questions which lead to clarification.
But such questions must be completely noncommittal, so that pupil response is not curtailed. Such
questions as "Are you sure that's right?" or comments like "That isn't exactly what we need" are doubt
generating, and carry the connotation that the contributor is wrong. A comment like "What a wonderful
ideal" will be made at the termination rather than in the middle of a discussion, by the teacher who gives
full time for contributions, so that premature closure does not occur (Martinson, 1958:23).
After ideas are presented and discussed, the teacher affords opportunity to the children to consult various
sources, to verify or alter or discard their hypotheses, and to come together appropriately for discussions
and generalisations. It may be necessary for them to repeat the process in several cycles as they learn more
and more about a subject. Wherever there is a question or an issue or an idea which needs to be analysed,
tested, and verified, the process is especially pertinent and should be employed.
The art of questioning
Because questioning is so crucial in effective teaching, especially with bright children, it is considered
separately here. Many psychological as well as academic factors are involved in the teacher's use of
questions. The skill which he/she uses in questioning, and the understanding which he/she has of the
implications of his/her questions affect directly and markedly the extent of learning by the child.
Psychologically, the teacher may structure response in several ways. The tone of voice may be one factor.
For example, the teacher may ask (in a despairing tone) "Why did you do this?" or (in an inquiring tone)
"Why did you do this?" The teacher may place responsibility for decision upon the child by her question, or
she may imply negative reaction, or he/she may structure the child’s response directly.
For example, she may solicit added thought and improvement on the part of the child by asking, “Can you
think of any way in which you could improve this?” In such an instance, the decision is the child’s. A
question: "Why don't you do such-and-such to improve it?" takes the decision from the child, and places
him in the role of executing the teacher's request.
Academically, the teacher may obtain response in two general ways. One is through the use of step-by-
step questioning on a given topic, and the other is through the use of infrequent, broad questions. Step-
183 | P a g e
by-step questioning brings forth step-by-step response from the child or group, and, while useful in some
situations, is less productive and challenging for the bright child than is the type of question which sets a
framework for the child, serves as a guide to him, and clarifies his purpose (Martinson, 1958:24). Key
words within the same question may either limit or extend possibilities for response. For example: "Can
you tell us what the boy did in X situation?" requests a single, factual response, while "Can you tell us why
the boy did this?" presents a more open, challenging question on the same content. Similarly limiting is the
question, "Is that right?" which receives a single answer, as compared with "Does anyone have another
idea?" or, more structured but still open, "Which do you think would be better? Why?"
Questions for all children should open possibilities for learning, pique their curiosity, produce thinking (not
necessarily orderly), clarify thinking, and furnish adequate challenge. The adequacy of challenge for
exceptionally able children lies at the level of application, analysis, interpretation, and transfer rather than
at the level of fact, detail, and repetition.
In order that children operate at the proper level, questions must be structured to produce desired
response. The teacher who asks, "Can anyone think of another way in which we could make good use of
this information?" questions for transfer. The teacher who asks a child to select the most important
contribution among many from a children's author and prepare to explain the reasons for his choice asks
a broad question which leads, too much analysis and interpretation.
The teacher who asks what three or four stories have in common asks for interpretation. Many children
will not be capable of meaningful response to complex questions, but a few will.
Occasionally teachers may be concerned with the appropriateness of a question for a child or group of
children of a given age. Questions from the children themselves often give valuable cues. It is sounder
educationally to use subjects of concern to the children than to postpone them “until the children are old
enough”.
The content
One truth which is distressing to some is the knowledge that there is no correct body of content which can
be prescribed as the learning fare for bright children. This was recognised long ago by Leta Hollingworth,
who, after working with gifted children for many years, recommended only broad frames of reference as
curriculum guides for bright children, is that it would be possible for children to roam widely in their study
(Martinson, 1952:26).
In addition to the broad framework for common learnings, the special, independent, unique interests of
individual children should be accommodated. Many gifted children become intrigued with a topic which is
not relevant to the general curriculum topic under study. They should be allowed time to pursue
independent interests as a valuable aspect of their education. The teacher should expect that these
interests will manifest themselves frequently, and they should be encouraged and fostered. The inclusion
of special interests will mean that some strange and unrelated activities will go on in the classroom. These
should be regarded as valuable adjuncts to the total learning enterprise, and the teacher should expect
that occasionally the child will be more engrossed with his own activity than with activities of the group. If
the learning meets the criterion of value and contribution to the child, that is criterion enough.
184 | P a g e
The listing of specific activities and areas of study for the bright child is a difficult if not an impossible task.
The complex array of multiple interests which bright children display makes it necessary to include almost
any field of knowledge, given the appropriate level. In topical areas, these may range into a study of facets
which had not occurred to the adult as possibilities. The listing of ideas for enrichment, as found in some
guides, is not especially helpful to the teacher because of the isolated nature of the ideas. Furthermore,
some ideas may be "gimmicks" which have no place in the curriculum. Probably the best single criterion
for inclusion of a given topic in the curriculum is that of lasting contribution to the child. The content should
have legitimate value at a level appropriate for the consumer. Any content which has permanent value of
an informational or aesthetic character should be regarded as valid.
The use of legitimate and purposeful pursuits in both informational and aesthetic areas will lessen the
dichotomising of the intellectual and creative fields, as sometimes has been the case. Part of the
dichotomising of intellectual and creative pursuits has resulted, no doubt, from failure to provide
purposeful activities for children. If the content is challenging and satisfying in both fields, the child derives
pleasure from his activities and, whether engaged in the primarily intellectual or the primarily creative, he
does not lose incentive toward full expression in both.
Auxiliary resources
The school is the centre of the learning enterprise, for bright children as well as for other children. Auxiliary
aids, human or inanimate, operate as adjuncts to the educational process in the school setting. Both types
of aids contribute immeasurably, if properly utilised. Mechanical aids should serve the purpose of
extending learning at an appropriate level, in ways not available through books. A filmstrip which portrays
geological formations about which the child has read, for example, provides illustration not easily given
through words. A recording which describes and illustrates musical instruments which the child has studied
is similarly useful. A well-executed program may be used by the child in strengthening his grasp of a foreign
language. In all cases, the device, whether listening post or programmed material, should provide
qualitatively adequate reinforcement or unique opportunity for learning, but should not displace more
conventional resources. This is particularly true for the bright child, since he often can use books more
effectively and more efficiently than he can use the frequently more repetitive content of the teaching aid.
The best programmed instruction for the bright child probably will continue to be the book (Martinson,
1958:27).
Human resources should meet a similar criterion that of supplement, enrichment, and unique contribution
rather than displacement. If schools develop and use effectively community resource files, teachers may
have access to persons who will talk informally and work with children in class groups or in small special
interest groupings.
The visits of outside personnel will be far more effective if the adults are asked not to make a speech, but
rather answer questions, if, the children have prepared for the visit through study and discussion, if they
have prepared questions which they deem important, and if a small group of children have made any
needed advance visits to a given facility. In addition, adults should be carefully selected on the basis of skill
and rapport in communicating informally with young children.
185 | P a g e
8.3.5 THE TEACHER OF GIFTED CHILDREN
The teacher of the Foundation- and Intermediate phase gifted child has a responsibility unique to teachers.
He/she is the person who establishes for the child an understanding of school and of what is expected.
He/she is the one who determines whether the child who entered school eager to learn will retain his
eagerness. Young children, on coming to school, believe in themselves and in their teacher. They quite
willingly engage in learning and in all types of creative enterprise, feeling no hesitation in singing,
composing songs, painting, doing rhythms, or speaking before the class on the spur of the moment.
Spontaneity is characteristic of the young child. In a classroom where he has the opportunity to express
ideas without impediment or fear of ridicule, his behaviour is easy, open, and natural.
The greater responsibility of the teacher also rests in the very fact of the affection and trust of the young
child toward the teacher. The typical foundation- or intermediate phase child wants very much to please
this particular adult, and the gifted child is no exception. He will function in accordance with the
expectations of the teachers and the opportunities provided. If the teacher provides wide opportunities
for learning, and permits learning to flourish, the gifted child is fortunate. If on the other hand, the teacher
adheres to a structured uniform curriculum, the child will conform to the offering and may efface his
giftedness very effectively (Martinson, 1958:30).
A thorough study of the child's potential and interests is essential if one is to provide adequately for the
child. A complete study of any child serves to reveal his unique characteristics, and stresses the qualities
which differentiate him from all others. The teacher who uses an individual study as the basis for curriculum
planning is in a better position to understand giftedness and to deal with it intelligently. Complete study
also tends to reduce the fear that some teachers feel in working with the gifted.
The individual study is most useful in that it provides the teacher with objective reasons for allowing
children to learn outside of the curriculum framework, to use different materials, to follow different
schedules from the class, and to work with individuals other than their peers. The teacher who takes the
time and effort to discover that a given 6 year old child is capable of reading independently is not likely to
subject the child to unnecessary reading readiness activities. The teacher who knows that a child has
learned all of the technology concepts common to the curriculum will not feel guilty at having the child
work independently at advanced technology projects. Similarly, the teacher who discovers that a child has
a special talent or interest will allow him time to pursue the interest, and will actively attempt to provide
means for him to do so.
The individual study is a fundamental justification for individualisation, and gives the teacher a perspective
from which to work which, is quite different from that which occurs if presentation of the curriculum is the
primary concern. With the individual study as the basis for planning, the child is the important factor; with
the curriculum as the basis, the course of study is of first importance, and too often the child is adjusted to
it rather than the reverse (Martinson, 1958:30).
The test of success in the individualisation of learning lies in two factors: the child's continued interest in
learning and his increasing variance from the average. In a successful environment, the gifted child
maintains an avid interest in learning, and acquires new interests. As he grows older he also becomes
increasingly differentiated from the average in achievement and knowledge. In a sense, therefore, the
186 | P a g e
successful teacher of gifted children compounds the problem of teaching them adequately through the
very success of his/her teaching.
In discussing means for teaching the gifted, it is not necessary to repeat in great detail the presumed
qualities of the teacher. Neither is it necessary to delineate the academic professional training necessary
for the teacher of the gifted. This is not to say that special preparation is unimportant, for it is.
Consideration of the useful principles. Will be of value to the teacher, whether dealing with a group or with
just one gifted child. First, the teacher should be aware constantly of the crucial importance of
himself/herself as a model to the child. He is influenced as a young child to a far greater extent than he will
be in the future by adult approbation or disapproval of his activities, by the interest the teacher displays in
his work, by the enthusiasm he/she shows for his interests and hobbies, and by the personal model which
he/she presents as an adult who manifests a love for books and learning. His/her own curiosity, the interest
in reading, the love of music and poetry, his/her delight in finding new ideas, all tell him what is important
to an adult whom he admires. His very personal regard for his teacher magnifies the impact of her attitudes
and values.
Second, the teacher should foster a classroom atmosphere of freedom. The teacher allows and accepts
mistakes, and uses questions to encourage the pupil to arrive at his own correct answer. He/she avoids
direct criticism and discouragement. By his/her open approval she encourages unusual ideas, new ways of
doing things, and imaginative production.
Third, the child should be permitted to follow his learning task at his own level and his own rate. The
resources he uses are chosen as appropriate for him, without regard for the actual grade level of the
materials. The primary role of the teacher is seen as that of the adult who gives the child free access to any
resources which he can use profitably. His/her chief objective is the release and development of potential.
Fourth, the teacher is aware that many young gifted children are psychologically mature, as well as
intellectually mature. This means that they can easily take responsibility for their activities frequently as
much as a child in the middle elementary grades and that they do not require the constant supervision
which is necessary for their age peers. It means also that many young gifted children violate the usual
growth and development expectations in their long range, intense concentration on a single interest. If
such an interest is displayed, the teacher nurtures it as a legitimate avenue to learning.
Fifth, the teacher accepts and understands the fact that growth of young children is often uneven. The
discrepancy between physical growth and. intellectual growths may be especially apparent. The very young
child who reads fluently may write laboriously, or not at all. Because of his superior academic performance
his co-ordination may appear even poorer than it actually is, and the child may be more than ordinarily
frustrated by his relative ineptness with physical tasks. This may be true even though the child actually
compares well with his age mates. The teacher who understands the gifted child will accept the fact that
his physical growth may not be advanced, and will allow him to communicate verbally, to dictate ideas
when possible, or to use a tape recorder if one is available. Physical tasks which would impede expression
of ideas will be avoided.
Sixth, the teacher should not be concerned that the gifted child is not taking part in all activities of the
group. His/her concern is that the child have satisfying contacts, and to this end she may arrange for
187 | P a g e
different activities for him, or contacts with older children who have similar interests, with equally bright
peers, with adults, with other teachers, or with other school personnel. He/she realises that adapting the
child entirely to the classroom pattern is a profound disservice to him.
Seventh, the teacher should habitually ask him-/herself the question, ""What is the value of this activity for
this child?" to determine whether a particular activity is providing a bona fide learning opportunity for the
pupil. It may be necessary to provide alternate activities frequently for some individuals, or to send the
child to another classroom or the library for certain activities.
Eighth, the teacher should assume that interests expand through exposure to interesting ideas and
materials. Therefore, teachers should be alert not only to the existing interests of children, but also to the
possibility of introducing new interests through various media, other personnel, demonstrations, and so
on (Martinson, 1958:34).
Ninth, the teacher should assume responsibility for utilising available human resources effectively, whether
these are members of community organisations who are willing to aid small groups of children for a period
of time, or older children with background and knowledge which would be of value to the young gifted
child. The classroom teacher functions on the assumption that effective teaching can be done in many
ways.
Finally, the teacher should assume that knowledge about the gifted is fundamental to excellent
performance with them. If possible, as part of her in-service study, he/she maintains contact with other
teachers and professional personnel who work with the gifted, and she reads those professional materials
available to him/her.
8.3.6 CONCLUSION
However, it is important to perceive the human being as an entity whether he is sixty years old or only six.
Persons who comment on the need to attend to the affect and disparage attention to the intellect negate
the unity of the person. The teacher cannot neglect either the mind or the emotions. Human systems are
interdependent.
Nature of the mind of the young child then, and attention to his intellectual pursuits and activities will
contribute to his total capacity for effectiveness. If teachers can intelligently capitalise upon the young
child’s self-directing interests and his natural curiosity and desire to know, they can sustain and enhance
his pleasure in intellectual activity.
It is safe to say that we have not yet fully recognised the meaning of superior powers of perception and
absorption in those who are the most capable among us. These powers in a real sense extend themselves,
for as the individual learns and absorbs, he expands his knowledge and his potential for further absorption.
The oft-noted intellectual drive found in the gifted is based upon their greater background of information
and therefore their greater awareness of possibilities for learning.
The ultimate promise of groups of young gifted individuals is unknown. It is probably true that no person
of unusually high capacity has ever been given consistent opportunity in the schools to use his potential to
188 | P a g e
the full. Attention to the means for improvement intellectual growth can only mean improvement in the
function of the schools themselves and the individuals in them.
Activity 8.2: The Design Process and Strategies to Address
Barriers to Learning
6. Compare the barrier to learning or special educational need in Column B with its
characteristics described in Column A. Write the letter of the leaning barrier (A, B,C) next to
the matching description in the Answer Column. The first match is completed as an example.
No Column A Answer Column B
Learner capable of high performance,
1 demonstrated achievement, potential F A Emotions and behaviour.
ability, creative / productive thinking,
leadership ability etc.
A child who suddenly changes behaviour, Attention and impulse
control.
2 becomes aggressive or becomes very quiet B
and withdrawn
Children who are not interested in
3 academic tasks, who are afraid to fail and C Hearing impairment barrier
always complain that tasks are too difficult
Children who are not able to sit still, do
something before thinking about it, cannot
4 work independently, find it difficult to D Physical impairment barrier
listen, shout out answers, usually have
poor concentration etc.
A child who does not respond to questions
5 asked to him/her; does not react to E Intellectual barriers
F Gifted child
instructions given to him/her
6 Johnny is clutched to a wheel chair
Children who are willing to work but
7 struggle to master the amount of work to G Self – esteem barrier
be done, normally cannot communicate
properly and have mathematical problems
189 | P a g e
8.4 CREATIVITY AND TECHNOLOGICAL TEACHING
8.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Creative thought is much more than just an aid, a technique or a group of techniques, and it is more than
a system of ways of thinking. Creative thought is the way according to which man lives. Despite what one
does for a living, enhancing the ability to think creatively will contribute more to personal and professional
success than anything else. Grossman, Rodgers and Moore (1988:7) state that creative thought is the ability
to find a solution to a problem by changing the point of view, when normal channels do not succeed in
providing the necessary answers. Easy solutions are for all, creative solutions are for the most successful
people.
Despite what one does for a living, by increasing the ability to think creatively, one moves increasingly
towards personal and professional success.
There are about 400 definitions of creativity, and none of these fully describe the wonder of creativity.
Erich Fromm (quoted by Boshoff, 1977:4) distinguishes for instance two meanings of the term creativity,
namely an action and an attitude which the self must take up in respect of his surrounding world.
Boshoff quotes the Britannica World Language Dictionary’s definition of “create”:
1. to cause to come into existence;
2. to produce as a new construction out of existing materials;
3. to be the cause of; originate; produce,
and the “Tweetalige Woordeboek: (1988:371) states “creativity” means creative impulse.
In 1994, in an article in the Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, quoted by Du Plessis (1977:1), Sam
Stern also concluded that it is very difficult to define creativity. However, he sees creativity as an
experience, a new outlook on life where you see yourself, your business, your organisation, your teaching
career in a different light.
Many interesting facts came to light in an international review. The same five creativity tests were used for
four different groups. The groups were as follows:
Group 1 Toddlers (3-5 years)
Group 2 Children (10 years)
Group 3 Teenagers (15 years)
Group 4 Adults (above 25 years)
The results were informative:
98% of toddlers displayed a superior level of creative behaviour.
By the age of 10 years, the percentage of children in this category dropped to 32%.
By the age of 15 years, only 10% displayed the same creative abilities.
190 | P a g e
And then the catastrophe - only 2% of adults older than 25 years are creatively superior, according to
internationally accepted research.
In our modern, highly sophisticated technological environment, where only continuous renewal can
guarantee our place in the labour market, two percent of superior creative people are just not enough if
we want to survive and progress.
The good news is that it is possible to rediscover the creative abilities we had in our childhood years.
However, this rediscovery will not happen accidentally; it will require a deliberate attempt.
8.4.2 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF CREATIVITY IN TEACHING
Before the 1950s, a few individuals paved the way for empirical research and subsequent development of
programmes in creativity: F Galton studied hereditary geniality,;G Wallis designed a model which described
the steps of the creative process; in the late 1930s Catherine Patrick Wallas designed a model similar to
experimental research; J Grossman came up with a similar model after studying the report on the
achievements of a large number of American discovers and Harvey Lehman studied the biographies of
productive people in various fields in order to establish the connection between both quality and quantity
of creativity and age during adulthood (Shallcross, 1981:4).
The 1950s saw a revival of activities regarding creativity. Research centres spent much time and paid
considerable attention to the design and the developmental use of new knowledge in respect of creative
persons and creative processes. One of the most important centres that developed at that time was the
Aptitude Research Project at the University of South California where J P Gulford conducted his work. The
primary objective of the project was to understand human intelligence in general, including the thought
processes of individuals during creative production. Gulford and his colleagues were determined to prove
the hypothesis that one of the most important aspects of intelligence is the ability to think creatively.
The approach of the Aptitude Research Project was to study individual differences in the achievements of
trained people in general, assuming that whatever the essential functions of creative thinkers, they are to
a certain extent shared by most people. They designed tests that succeeded in identifying certain creative
abilities which served as the most important motivation for subsequent studies in the field. The abilities
they identified were sensitivity, four kinds of fluency (word, understanding, association and expression)
and two types of flexibility (spontaneous and adaptation) (Shallcross, 1981:4).
Headed by Donald McKinnon and Frank Barron, another approach was followed at the Institute of
Personality Research and Assessment at the University of California in Berkeley. Their objective was to
study people who are recognised as creative - productive in various areas and to establish which traits or
qualities distinguish them from the trained person in general. Leaders in the fields of writing, architecture,
administration and mathematics were assessed on a large scale.
At the University of Minnesota, E Paul Torrance studied the creative achievements of both children and
teachers who tried to teach in creative thought. Except for linking creative achievements with the ages of
children, Torrance also made important contributions which link creative achievements with
environmental factors that influence them (Shallcross, 1981:5).
191 | P a g e
At the University of Utah, Calvin Taylor and his colleagues developed a biography inventory which denotes
creatively promising persons in the sciences. They also sponsored numerous conferences on creative
scientific talent.
In the early 1950s, Alex Osborn published his book “Applied Imagination” and founded the Creative
Teaching Foundation. In 1954, he sponsored the first annual Creative Problem-Solving Institute in Buffalo,
New York. Sidney J Parnes continued Osborn’s work. The Institute celebrated its 25th anniversary in 1979.
The Foundation published “The Journal of Creative Behavior”, the only journal exclusively devoted to
creativity (Shallcross, 1981:5).
Inspired by the important leaders of the 1950s, the federal government under Elementary and Secondary
School instituted a law in the 1960s (Title 3, Programme for the promotion of creativity in teaching). In the
1970s, the federal government supported programmes for gifted children and adolescents. The vast
majority of these programmes emphasised the development of creative talents.
Important implications for creativity programmes in teaching can be found in recent findings regarding
left/right brain orientation. Public schools traditionally emphasise the development of left brain functions;
this is the language processes and the logical, sequential processing of information.
Research findings indicated that the learning styles of some persons are right brained, i.e. they absorb
information best by means of visual and intuitive methods. These findings granted credibility to the wave
of interest in the last two decades in the Eastern philosophies, which emphasise the intuitive function and
remind us that the intuitive is essential for the learning process of many individuals.
8.4.3 SIGNS OF CREATIVITY IN PUPILS
It is felt that pupils are often not stimulated as to what to do with what they have learned. Knowledge is
necessary for creativity. There are mainly two types of motivation, namely intrinsic motivation - “to do
something because it is interesting, full of challenges, etc.” and extrinsic motivation - “to do something
because of a reward or evaluation”.
However, a teacher will be able to observe certain signs in pupils to confirm that a pupil has creativity,
namely:
Curiosity, eagerness to learn, ability to investigate, incisive questions, etc.
Original thoughts and deeds, unusual solutions, unusual questions, unusual approach to solving
problems.
Independent thought and behaviour, individualism.
Good imagination, creating fantasies, storytelling.
Non-adaptability and not caring for the acceptance by others.
Dr Neethling mentions a special ability to generate original and unique ideas, to solve problems, and to
display originality, audacity, unorthodoxy, as traits of creativity or productive reasoning capacity. The
creative child will not necessarily have a high IQ, but will show a keen ability for observation, spot logical
connections and have the audacity to think and act in a novel and original way.
192 | P a g e
8.4.4 PRINCIPLES ON WHICH CREATIVITY IS BASED
Creative thought includes the ability to find solutions to problems by changing the visual field when the
normal channels do not provide the necessary answers.
Grossman, Rodgers and Moore (1988:5) mention eight basic principles on which creativity is based,
namely:
1. Anybody is creative.
2. Creativity reduces risk.
3. There are four visual fields in creativity.
4. One does not live on data alone.
5. One picture is worth more than a thousand words.
6. There are no impossible dreams or problems (only a limited number of dreamers and problem-solvers).
7. The subconscious mind is a full-time partner in the creative process.
8. Creative thought forms a win/win situation, without having to negotiate.
(Grossman et al. 1988:4)
Anybody is creative
Many people feel that they are not creative because they never played a music instrument or they cannot
draw well, or they have never discovered something. They thus join a non-creative lifestyle. If you spend
your time deluding yourself into believing that you are not creative for the above reasons, you are wrong,
you are just out of practice.
Think about it. Have you ever taken another road home from school or work when something was wrong
with the old route? Have you ever chosen something other than your favourite dish in a restaurant because
you are tired of the same dish each time? Now, if you have done so, you are creative. This is all you need
to be creative.
The fact is that creativity is intrinsic in respect of your life. You are only human if you are not aware of where
and how creativity functions in your body. We are all unique. In fact, you are ten times more creative than
you think you are.
You must bear in mind that you can always raise your standard. However, you only have to believe in
yourself in order to carry change into effect.
Creativity reduces risk
Creative people are frequently considered as persons who take risks. Reality, however, shows the opposite.
People who live creatively take less risks than those who believe that they are not creative (Grossman et
al, 1988:4).
The main reason for the above statement is the fact that creative persons are sure of their abilities, they
can take any outcomes and make something of them. However, there are “occasional thinkers” who see
193 | P a g e
any problem or failure as a challenge. Some people see failure as the end of the world, creative persons
see failure as an evaluation process with success as the end result.
History is full of examples of discoveries where products developed from failed attempts. For example
“3M’s Post-its; Proctor and Gamble’s; Ivory soap; vulcanised rubber products; Silly Putty and weed-killer
2,4D” are all products that developed from previous failures. However, some creative person had to turn
the failed attempts into something profitable.
Active creative persons develop the ability to see potential in any situation. They develop an immunity to
the fear of failure because each failure is a challenge for the subsequent failure. By allowing yourself to live
to your maximum level of creativity, you protect yourself against failure and you eliminate risks (Grossman
et al, 1988:4).
Visual fields in creativity
There are mainly four different visual fields in creativity that form the basis of creativity and that are present
when a person acts creatively, namely:
the analytical field;
the organisation field;
the imagination field;
the co-operation field.
During a development process, the specific problem is analysed and a specific structure or solution is
organised. During this process, imagination is continuously present and at the same time a person must be
able to co-operate with others (Grossman et al., 1988:4).
Ideas alone do not suffice in order to be innovative. Ideas must first be sifted to establish which ideas are
useful and which are not. The useful ideas must be implemented with a specific discipline and technique in
such a way that others can understand and use them.
A person does not live on data alone
There is little information which a computer does not have and if the computer does not have it, it is surely
in the process of getting it. Whatever a person does with his/her information, how he/she processes it and
what he/she sees therein is each person’s choice and the fact that a person is creative plays a big role.
We live in a data-orientated world, and by means of the computer it is increasingly easy to fall into an entire
information system. However, it is important for a person to realise that information is only the basis of
any solution. It is still his responsibility to take the information and to process it into something productive.
It is, however, very important to exercise control over the information, to establish whether the
information is useful or not. Solutions based on information are idle and of little value; the subjective use
of the human brain with the qualification of the information is extremely important for true and solid
answers (Grossman et al., 1988:4).
194 | P a g e
The words you are searching are inside this book. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking here.
TEGT4705 - STUDY NOTES
Discover the best professional documents and content resources in AnyFlip Document Base.
Search