1.52 Frank Gehry, Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, 2003. The unique design of Gehry’s
Walt Disney Concert Hall was only possible by using computer software during the design phase to
model the building. The wildly expressionistic exterior soars, dips, and bends in a number of directions,
calling to mind flowers, ships, wind, and, of course, music. © Anthony Arendt/Alamy.
highly complex and idiosyncratic build- of metalwork, and current trends in 1.53 Tom Muir, Orchid Vase, 1997. Sterling
ings that could otherwise not be calcu- other mediums—sculpture, architecture, silver, 111⁄2 3 43⁄4 in. (28.9 3 11.8 cm). In this
lated. This may be seen in Frank Gehry’s graphic arts, fashion—influence metal- beautiful presentation, organic and geometric
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, work artists. Constant cross-fertilization shapes are delicately integrated. The geometric
and the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los occurs among the various areas of art, shapes of the base contrast with the flowing
Angeles (fig. 1.52). and metalwork is not immune to these organic stem support which subtly balances
influences. Indeed, the metalworker the piece, draws the viewer’s eye around the
Metalwork benefits from studying the concepts of work, and highlights the presence of the orchids.
both two- and three-dimensional art
Most of the changes in metalworking (fig. 1.53). Courtesy of the artist. Photograph by Tim Thayer.
(jewelry, decorative and functional ware,
etc.) have been in concept rather than Glass Design
technique. Traditional techniques (such
as hand-welding, forging, soldering, riv- As in metalworking, glassworking makes
eting, and lost-wax or open casting) are use of modern equipment that simplifies
still in use, although modern equipment traditional techniques. Although glass-
has made procedures simpler and more works have been around for centuries,
convenient. To a large degree, cultural current glass design has evolved into a
styles and tastes determine the designs highly sophisticated art form. Many free-
40 C HAPTER 1 Introduction
1.54 Dale Chihuly, Nepenthes Chandelier, 2004. Blown glass, 111 3 68 3 54 in. This magnificent form and figurative pieces have the look
glass piece is most unusual and creative in its scale, coloring, shape definition, and ability to control an of contemporary sculpture. Colors aug-
environmental setting. © 2011 Dale Chihuly. ment design in a decorative, as well as an
expressive, sense. Thus, the principles of
art structure are integrated with the craft
of the medium (fig. 1.54).
Ceramics
In recent years, as ceramic work has
become, in many cases, less functional,
the basic shape of the ceramic object has
become more sculptural. The ceramist
must be equally aware of three-dimen-
sional considerations as well as the
fundamentals of graphic art, because
individual surfaces may be altered by
incising, painting with colored slips,
fuming, or glazing (fig. 1.55).
Fiberwork
Fiberwork has undergone a consider-
able revolution recently. Three-dimen-
sional forms are becoming increasingly
more common, particularly as tradi-
tional production of rugs and tapes-
tries by hand has diminished. Woven
objects now incorporate a vast array of
materials into designs of considerable
scale and bulk. Traditional as well
as contemporary concepts of fiber-
work require a fundamental under-
standing of both 2-D and 3-D concepts
(fig. 1.56).
Product Design
Relative newcomers to the art scene,
contemporary product designers create
forms that are aesthetically pleasing and
still fulfill their functional requirements.
The same abstract quality of expressive
beauty that is the foundation for a piece
of sculpture underlies such functional
forms as automobiles, televisions, cell
phones, computers, industrial equip-
ment, window and interior displays,
and furniture (fig. 1.57). Designers of
these 3-D products organize elements
like shapes, textures, colors, and space
Areas of Three-Dimensional Application 41
1.55 Paul Soldner, Pedestal Piece (907),
1990. Thrown and altered clay with slips and
low-temperature salt glaze, 27 3 30 3 11 in.
(68.6 3 76.2 3 27.9 cm). The coloring resulting
from the controlled firing process enhances the
sculptural composition of the clay piece. Scripps
College, Claremont, CA. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Fred Marer,
92.1.154.
1.56 Eta Sadar Breznik, Space, 1995. Woven
rayon, 1571⁄2 3 1377⁄8 3 1377⁄8 in. (400 3 350
3 350 cm). Contemporary textile design frequently
goes beyond its largely two-dimensional traditions.
Photograph by Boris Gaberšcˇek, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
42 C HAPTER 1 Introduction
1.57 Apple iPhone. Apple’s iPhone revolutionized the cell phone industry. Known for its
sleek and user-friendly design, the iPhone combines simplicity with high-level functionality.
© Oleksiy Maksymenko Photography/Alamy.
1.58 Library table designed by Frank Lloyd Wright
for the Sherman Booth House, Glencoe, IL, c. 1915.
Walnut, Tabletop 28 3 108 3 38 in.; storage cabinet
34h in. To Wright, form and function were inseparable,
so that a table, which functions for writing and reading,
should be considered along with the whole architectural
environment. Courtesy of Associated Artists, LLC. From the collection
of the Rhode Island School of Design.
according to the same principles of har- his structures. The table he created for can be seen in the highly selective repe-
mony, variety, balance, and proportion the Sherman Booth House (fig. 1.58) titions, proportional relationships, and
that are used in the fine arts. is a good example of this combination refinement of details.
in product design. The sophisticated
Frank Lloyd Wright, the celebrated design and formal balance that Wright The balance that exists between
American architect, combined archi- incorporated into this ordinary object design, function, and expressive content
tectural engineering with art to shape varies from work to work. For instance,
Areas of Three-Dimensional Application 43
1.59 David Delthony, Lotus (rocking chair), 2002. Laminated plywood, 40 3 29 3 35 in. Delthony COMBINING
combines ergonomics and aesthetic appeal to create organic furniture that transcends function and THE INGREDIENTS:
becomes sculptural form. Courtesy of the artist. A SUMMARY
when designing his rocking chair, David outer contour and its open shape. This In this chapter, we have mentioned
Delthony placed strong emphasis on unique piece of furniture resembles a some of the means by which an artist
expressing form without sacrificing freely expressed contemporary sculp- can achieve self-expression in a work.
comfort (fig. 1.59). At first glance, we ture. Expressive form follows function You have been introduced to the compo-
are drawn in by the chair’s dominant in a new and creative way. nents, elements, and principles involved
in making visual art. You have some
idea of how these factors are analyzed
and considered in an ongoing work, and
you should be able to view your own
work and the work of the “masters” with
greater awareness. In the next few chap-
ters, the fundamentals will be described
in more detail, and their application will
prove even more relevant to the creation
of your own artwork.
Aside from satisfaction, one of the
benefits gained by a better understand-
ing of the visual arts is that it puts us
in touch with some remarkably sensi-
tive and perceptive people. Our lives
are improved from contact, however
indirect, with the creations of great
geniuses. Einstein exposed relation-
ships that have reshaped our view of
the universe. Mozart created sounds
that, in an abstract way, summed up the
experiences and feelings of the human
race. Though not always of this same
magnitude, visual artists also expand
our frames of reference, revealing new
ways of seeing and responding to our
surroundings. When we view artwork
knowledgeably, we gain insight into
the problems and solutions before us
and can gather a new sense of direction
for our own art.
44 C HAPTER 1 Introduction
Form
THE VOCABULARY OF FORM Balance CHAPTER TWO
Symmetrical Balance (Formal Balance)
FORM AND VISUAL ORDERING Approximate Symmetrical Balance
Radial Balance
THE PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION Asymmetrical Balance (Informal/Occult Balance)
Harmony
Repetition Proportion
Rhythm Dominance
Pattern Movement
Closure (Visual Grouping) Economy
Visual Linking
Shared Edges SPACE: RESULT OF ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES
Overlapping
Transparency THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORM AND THE PRINCIPLES
Interpenetration OF ORGANIZATION
Linking through Extensions (Implied and Subjective
Edges/Lines/Shapes) Harmony and Variety
Excessive Use of Harmony Balance
Variety Proportion
Contrast Dominance
Elaboration Movement
The Dualism of Harmony and Variety Economy
FORM UNITY: A SUMMARY
Jerome Paul Witkin, Jeff Davies, 1980. Oil on canvas, 6 3 4 ft. (1.83 3 1.22 m). 4455
Palmer Museum of Art, Pennsylvania State University. Gift of the American Academy
and Institute of Arts and Letters. Hassam and Speicher Purchase Fund.
Charles Sheeler, Composition around Red (Pennsylvania), 1958. Oil on canvas, 26 3 33 in. (66.1 3 83.9 cm).
THE VOFCOABRUMLARY OF
Form — 1. The total appearance, organization, or inventive arrangement of all the visual elements
according to the principles that will develop unity in the artwork; composition. 2. In sculpture, form
can also refer to the three-dimensional shape of the work.
accent organization, that achieves a unified whole. Often between extremes. 2. Golden section—a tra-
Any stress or emphasis given to the elements of used interchangeably with the term design. ditional proportional system for visual harmony
a composition that brings them more attention design expressed when a line or area is divided into
than other features that surround or are close to The organizing process or underlying plan on two sections so that the smaller part is to the
them. Accent can be created by a brighter color, which artists base their total work. In a broader larger as the larger is to the whole. The ratio
darker value, greater size, or any other means by sense, design may be considered synonymous developed is 1:1.6180, or roughly 8:13.
which a difference is expressed. with the terms form and composition.
harmony
allover pattern dominance A principle of organization in which parts of a
A design that is formed through the systematic The principle of organization in which certain composition are made to relate through
repetition of smaller designed units over an visual elements assume more importance than commonality—repeated or shared character-
entire surface. others within the same composition or design. istics, elements, or visual units. Harmony is the
Some features are emphasized, and others are opposite of variety.
approximate symmetry
The use of similar imagery on either side of a subordinated. Dominance is often created by interpenetration
central axis. The visual material on one side may increased contrasts through the use of isolation, The positioning of planes, objects, or shapes so
resemble that on the other but is varied to pre- placement, direction, scale, and character. that they appear to pass through each other,
vent visual monotony. economy which locks them together within a specified
The distillation of the image to the basic essen- area of space.
asymmetry tials for clarity of presentation; one of the prin-
“Without symmetry”; having unequal or non- ciples of organization. kinetic (art)
corresponding parts. An example: a two- From the Greek word kinesis, meaning “motion”;
dimensional artwork that, without any neces- form art that involves an element of random or
sarily visible or implied axis, displays an uneven 1. The total appearance, organization, or inven- mechanical movement.
distribution of parts throughout. tive arrangement of all the visual elements
according to the principles that will develop mobile
atectonic A three-dimensional, moving sculpture.
Three-dimensional work characterized by con- unity in the artwork; composition. 2. In sculpture, moments of force
siderable amounts of space; open, as opposed to form can also refer to the three-dimensional The direction and degree of energy implied by
massive (or tectonic), and often with extended shape of the work. the art elements in specific compositional situa-
appendages. Gestalt, Gestalt psychology tions; amounts of visual thrust produced by such
balance
A German word for “form”; an organized whole matters as dimension, placement, and accent.
A sense of equilibrium between areas of implied in experience. Around 1912, the Gestalt psy- motif
weight, attention, attraction, or moments of chologists promoted the theory that explains A designed unit or pattern that is repeated often
force; one of the principles of organization. psychological phenomena by their relationships enough in the total composition to make it a
closure to total forms, or Gestalten, rather than their significant or dominant feature. Motif is similar to
A concept from Gestalt psychology in which parts. In other words, our reaction to the whole “theme” or “melody” in a musical composition.
the mind perceives an incomplete pattern or is greater than our reaction to its individual parts
information to be a complete, unified whole; or characteristics, and our minds integrate and movement
the artist provides minimum visual clues, and the organize chaotic stimuli so that we see complete Eye travel directed by visual pathways in a work
observer brings them to final recognition. patterns and recognizable shapes. of art; one of the principles of organization.
Movement is guided by harmonious connec-
composition golden mean, golden section tions, areas of variety, the placement of visual
s The arranging and/or structuring of all the 1. Golden mean—“perfect” harmonious pro- weights, areas of dominance, choices in propor-
n art elements, according to the principles of portions that avoid extremes; the moderation tions, spatial devices, and so on.
l
46 C HAPTER 2 Form
pattern repetition tectonic
1. Any artistic design (sometimes serving as a The use of the same visual effect—and/or The quality of simple massiveness; three-
model for imitation). 2. A repeating element similar visual effects—a number of times in the dimensional work lacking any significant extru-
and/or design that can produce a new set of same composition. Repetition may produce sions or intrusions.
characteristics or organization. the dominance of one visual idea, a feeling of
harmonious relationship, an obviously planned transparency
principles of organization pattern, or a rhythmic movement. A visual quality in which a distant image or ele-
Concepts that guide the arrangement and inte- ment can be seen through a nearer one.
gration of the elements in achieving a sense of rhythm
visual order and overall visual unity. They are A continuance, a flow, or a sense of move- variety
harmony, variety, balance, proportion, domi- ment achieved by the repetition of regulated Differences achieved by opposing, contrasting,
nance, movement, and economy. visual units; the use of measured accents. changing, elaborating, or diversifying elements
in a composition to add individualism and
proportion scale interest. Variety is an important principle of
The comparative relationship of size between The association of size relative to a constant organization; the opposite of harmony.
units or the parts of a whole. For example, the standard or specific unit of measure related to
size of the Statue of Liberty’s hand relates to human dimensions. For example, the Statue visual unity
the size of her head. (See scale.) Proportion is of Liberty’s scale is apparent when she is seen A sense of visual oneness—an organization of
one of the principles of organization. next to an automobile. (See proportion.) the elements into a visual whole. Visual unity
results from the appropriate ratio between
radial symmetry harmony and variety (in conjunction with the
Emanating from a center. The exact duplication of appearances in other principles of organization).
mirrorlike repetition on either side of a (usu-
ally imaginary) straight-lined central axis.
FORM AND VISUAL
ORDERING
We know from the last chapter that a
work of art always has three essential
components: subject, form, and content.
These components may vary in degree
of emphasis, but their interdependence
is so great that no single one can exist
without the others, nor can it be fully
understood in isolation from the others.
The entire artwork should be more im-
portant than any one of its components
(fig. 2.1). In this chapter, we explore the
component form in order to investigate
2.1 Diego Rivera, The Liberation of the Peon,
1931. Fresco, 6 ft. 2 in. 3 7 ft. 11 in. (1.88 3
2.41 m). Here we see a political artist making
use of appropriate and expected subject mate-
rial. Without the effective use of form, however,
the statement would be far less forceful. Philadelphia
Museum of Art, PA. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Cameron Mor-
ris. Philadelphia Museum of Art/Corbis Media. © 2011 Banco de
México Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo Museums Trust, Mexico,
D.F./Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Form and Visual Ordering 47
the structural principles of creating These principles of organization The development of
visual order. Here, the term form refers are not laws, however, with only one
to the total arrangement of the composi- possible interpretation or application. Form
tion and the organizing methods used Rather, they are flexible guides to orga-
to achieve that arrangement. nizing the elements. Their use is highly involves media and techniques
intuitive and subjective for each work. and uses
When we see images, we take an ac- Although we will study the principles
tive part in making sense of what we separately, they do not function sepa- The Elements of Art
see. Our minds are flooded with visual rately within the overall structure of a
information, so we instinctively and composition. Instead, they affect and Line
subconsciously look for visual connec- influence each other (for example, an Shape
tions and relationships to create order area’s degree of dominance affects the Value
out of the confusion. A group of hori- whole composition’s sense of balance). Texture
zontal and vertical lines might be inter- Principles can be combined or omitted Color
preted as a chair, a detailed shape might as necessary, as long as the artist under- which are organized according to
be recognized as a figure instead of the stands what effect that choice may have
background, and a series of shapes in on development of the other principles. The Principles of Organization
different positions might be seen as a Incorporating any particular one may
moving object. This instinct for order not be enough to guarantee a successful Harmony and Variety
is the basis of our appreciation of struc- work, because principles are not ends
ture, and it is only natural that an art- in themselves. bringing the elements into an apporopriate
ist should apply it to his or her creative ratio while establishing
process. The organizing process, which can
be variously termed composition or Balance
THE PRINCIPLES design, is usually a mix of intuition Proportion
OF ORGANIZATION and intellect. By applying the various Dominance
principles of organization, the visual Movement
It is often said that an artist’s task is to artist controls and integrates the art Economy
bring order out of chaos. Whether the elements—building relationships that
imagery is figurative or nonobjective, are harmonious and yet varied enough creating
the artist’s intent is to develop an inte- to create excitement. He or she also
grated and unified visual whole out of imparts a certain feeling of balance Space
diverse elements. This process is dia- or visual equilibrium, appropriate
gramed in figure 2.2. Having selected relationships of size and scale, areas and
the appropriate media, the artist be- with varying degrees of dominance
gins by organizing the elements of art or emphasis, and pictorial movement. Visual Unity
(line, shape, value, texture, and color) This is done as efficiently as possible
according to the seven principles of and establishes a spatial relation- 2.2 This diagram illustrates how the compo-
organization—harmony, variety, bal- ship between objects. The work may nents of form relate to each other. Although the
ance, proportion, dominance, move- undergo much change as it progresses, process of composing artwork may sometimes
ment, and economy. These principles but the final arrangement (image) occur in this order, artists can begin their work
guide the artist in developing the vari- should effectively communicate the by focusing on any of these items and can con-
ous elements and creating a sense of artist’s feeling. tinue in any sequence.
space. If the artist’s plan is successful,
the result is visual unity—a sense of To some extent, the structure of direction, provides pauses, and, in a
visual oneness. The artist has created visual elements leads the viewer’s sense, manipulates the volume (by
an organization of parts that fits into experience much like a musical score using loud or soft colors, clashing lines,
an ordered visual whole where every guides musicians. Just as a score indi- or softly related shapes).
element is vital. cates tempo (the speed or pace of the
music), placement of notes, rests, and The individual elements of art are
the degree of sound to be produced, so integral to this organizational pro-
so the visual composition controls cess that they really cannot be sepa-
eye movements in both speed and rated from it. However, for the sake of
clarity, we will first address the guid-
ing principles and then discuss the
elements individually in the chapters
that follow, along with an explana-
tion of how the principles of organiza-
tion may be applied to each. In view of
this interconnectedness, the principles
should be reviewed repeatedly to fully
48 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.3 Ai Weiwei, Bubble, 2008. The repetition in this work is very uniform, making for a piece with a high degree of harmony. To avoid
monotony, Weiwei constructed the bubbles from highly polished porcelain, which then reflect the constantly changing environment,
such as the city lights, the water, and the colors of the sky. Lynne Sladky/AP Photo.
understand how each element can be thought of as the factor of cohesion that creation of visual groupings through
used and developed to achieve har- relates the various parts of a composi- closure, visual linking, and linking
mony, variety, balance, proportion, tion to each other. through extensions.
dominance, movement, and economy.
Even vastly different areas or Repetition
Harmony images will begin to harmonize if they
are treated in a similar manner. For A primary way of creating harmony
Harmony, the first of the principles of example, an artist can begin to relate or harmonious relationships in a
organization, may be defined as a pleas- two different kinds of lines, verti- composition is through the use of
ing relationship between different sec- cal and horizontal, by making them repetition. As the term implies, rep-
tions of a composition. It occurs when all straight. If they were all the same etition occurs when the same visual
elements or independent parts have length, they would harmonize even element or effect is used over and over
characteristics in common—such as re- more, and if they were all drawn with (see fig. 2.3).
peated colors, similar textures, shared an ink pen on damp paper, their simi-
edges, and so forth. These areas be- lar character would relate them even Repetition does not require exact
come vitally linked; their commonality further. We will look individually at duplication—just similarity or near
makes them visually related or “pulls the many ways an artist may create likeness. Slight variations will add sub-
them together.” Harmony, then, may be harmony, including the repetition of tle interest to an image that might oth-
an element, the creation of rhythm, the erwise be tiring (figs. 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5).
repetition of a pattern or motif, and the Repetitive similarities express relat-
edness, much like family members
The Principles of Organization 49
2.4 Pauline Gagnon, Secret Little Door, 1992. Mixed media on and hammering are all human activities
canvas, 48 3 72 in. Repetition is introduced in this image by the theme of archi- that have a constantly repeated move-
tectural surface and shape. But, by repeating those items in differing ways, the art- ment and beat. In visual art, that “beat”
ist creates variety, and a potentially monotonous composition is greatly enlivened. is a visual unit (an element, characteris-
tic, or design). Consequently, the repeti-
Courtesy of the artist and Jain Marunouchi Gallery. tion of visual units will result in rhythm
when strategically placed and, if neces-
resemble each other. In art, the rela- subtle emphasis and draw attention to sary, suitably accented (fig. 2.6; see also
tionships created by such resemblances their dissimilarity. fig. 9.1). These also serve to direct eye
give a work a degree of harmony. movement from one part to another.
Additionally, carefully handled repeti- Rhythm
tion can produce paths for an observ- Depending on how they are used,
er’s eyes to travel. Repeated elements One attribute of repetition is the ability repetition and rhythm can confer
may also create small areas of empha- to produce rhythm. Rhythm is a contin- excitement and harmony on an art-
sis that draw attention away from one uance, a flow, or a sense of movement work. The rhythm of visual movement
location and to another. Conversely, that results from repeated beats, some- may be smoothly flowing, or it may be
the least related elements may achieve times regular, sometimes more eccen- less regular and rather jerky. A gentle,
tric. Walking, running, wood chopping, smoothly flowing rhythm may instill
a sense of peace, as in a quiet land-
scape (see fig. 2.63), while a very active
rhythm, as in a stormy landscape, may
feel rougher or suggest violent action
(see fig. 4.3). The type of rhythm will
depend on how regularly the units are
repeated and how similar they seem.
This includes the likeness of their char-
acter (e.g., rough versus smooth surface
textures), their direction (horizontal
versus diagonal lines), their type (regu-
lar versus irregular shapes), their value
(dark versus light), their size (large
versus small), and so forth. Repeating
a series of extreme contrasts will create
a strong beat, while subtler variations
will create a quieter pulsing.
The creation of rhythm also relies
on the repetition of pauses between
repeating units. When a drummer plays
a steady rock rhythm, the even beats
are separated by spaces of silence. For
a slower rhythm, the silent spaces in
between the beats will be longer; for
quicker rhythms, these pauses will be
shorter. Furthermore, emphasizing cer-
tain beats (accents) can greatly change
the feel of the rhythm. In the visual arts,
rhythm is also created using “pauses,”
which are negative visual spaces. Unfor-
tunately, artists often overlook these neg-
ative intervals—but the pauses are just
as responsible for creating rhythm as the
repeating element(s). The importance
50 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.5 Paul Manes, Eiso, 1995. Oil on canvas, 60 3 66 in. (152.4 3 167.6 cm). The visual units in Manes’s painting are
ovoid saucer shapes. The repetition of this shape creates harmony. Variety develops out of differences in the shape’s size
and color. Courtesy of Paul Rogers/9W Gallery, New York, NY.
The Principles of Organization 51
2.6 Katsushika Hokusai, Under the Wave off Kanagawa (from the series The Thirty-Six Views of Fuji), 1829–33.
Colored woodblock print, 101⁄2 3 15 in. (26.7 3 38.1 cm). The rhythmic surging of the driving sea is established by the
repeated zigzag and curving diagonals of the waves and boats, the recurring pattern of the rolling sea-foam motif, and the
blue and black stripes of the waves. Takahashi Collection. Sakamoto Photo Research Laboratory/Corbis Media.
of spacing (visual silence) can be seen curvilinear shapes, relating their direc- dressmaker uses to make a skirt. If the
in the sculpture of Alexander Calder tion, and using colors of modified value basic pattern (model) is repeated nu-
(fig. 2.7) or in the intervals between the and intensity (fig. 2.8). merous times, then that basic pattern
heads in Andrew Stevovich’s Internet can be referred to as a motif. The repeti-
Café (see fig. 5.24). A great variety of Pattern tion of a motif then creates a new design,
rhythms can be created by changing the called an allover pattern, which is seen
size or character of the visual units (see Pattern is another important concept, only when the entire whole is viewed.
fig. 1.7) and the duration of the pauses established through repetition, that con- For example, the smallest repeating de-
(see fig. 3.24). Bridget Riley successfully tributes to the harmony of a work. At sign in wallpaper is the motif, whereas
charges her painting Evoë 1 with inter- the most elementary level, pattern may the larger design seen when viewing the
esting rhythmical order; she uses several be seen as any arrangement, design, entire wall is the allover pattern.
different rhythms simultaneously and or organized series of elements, and
ties the picture together by repeating it may function as the model for some Patterns and motifs may be com-
sort of imitation—like the pattern a posed of arranged elements, from simple
52 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.7 Alexander Calder, Vertical Foliage, 1941. Sheet metal, wire, and paint, 157.5 3 167.6 3 142.2 cm.
Calder liked to think of his mobiles as paintings in motion. In this view, rhythm is obvious in the interplay
between the repeating positive shapes and negative intervals. As the mobile begins to turn, those relation-
ships change and create a great variety of new rhythms. © 2011 Calder Foundation, New York/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York. Photo credit: Calder Foundation, New York/Art Resource, NY.
2.8 Bridget Riley, Evoë 1, 1999–2000. Oil on linen, 6 3 19 ft. (194 3 580 cm). Shapes related in color, value, and 53
curving edges create a dramatic sweep across the composition. Interest is added to the rhythmic movement and ordered
beat by changing the size and type of shape and the diagonal accents. Courtesy Karsten Schubert, London. © 2000 Bridget Riley. All
rights reserved. Photograph by Prudence Cumming, London.
The Principles of Organization
2.9 (A) This pattern is created by an arrangement of lines and positive
and negative shapes based on an abstraction of tree reflections
(see fig. 2.10). (B) The basic pattern of Warhol’s work (see fig. 2.11) is a
single image of a soup can. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, Jr., 1963. Art © 2011 The Andy
Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc./Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. Albright-
Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, NY/Art Resource, NY.
AB
2.10 M. C. Escher, Rippled Surface, 1950. Although the subject is trees, the distinctive 2.11 Andy Warhol, 100 Cans. 1962. Oil on canvas,
pictorial characteristic of this work is the pattern produced by the rippling reflections of framed: 74 3 541⁄2 3 23⁄4 in. (187.96 3 138.43 3 6.98
the trees—a pattern that is developed, though not identically, in all areas of the work, cm); support: 72 3 52 in. (182.88 3 132.08 cm).
creating unity. © 2011 The M. C. Escher Company-Holland. All rights reserved. www.mcescher.com. Here, the basic pattern, or motif, is an image of a soup
can. The allover pattern is constant, geometric, and
static. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, Jr., 1963. Art © 2011 The Andy
Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc./Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York. Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, NY/Art
Resource, NY.
marks to more complex relationships of regulated repetitions are used, as in the texture, and placement to allow a
line, shape, value, texture, or color. They soup-can artwork of Pop artist Andy new pattern of diagonals, squares, or
may be totally invented, suggested by Warhol (see fig. 2.11). Here, the motif is diamonds to emerge from the allover
natural objects, or inspired by man-made easy to identify, and the allover pattern is pattern (fig. 2.12). In a similar man-
objects (fig. 2.9A and B). When the repeti- quite regular and geometric. ner, Chuck Close alters his repeating
tions are irregular, the total organization design unit (a diamond with circular
may appear casual, as in the reflected- However, systematic and regu- internal shapes) by changing the color
tree pattern and the soup-can pattern in lated repetition does not always have and value in each cell (motif block),
figures 2.10 and 2.11. The composition to result in a predictable allover pat- and as a result, the allover pattern is
can also be more controlled when more tern. Quiltmakers often rotate their a portrait of Paul III (fig. 2.13). Here,
motifs and change the color, value,
54 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.12 Sandy Benjamin-Hannibal, Potholders and Dervishes Plus, 1996. Pieced cotton quilt, 108 3 96 in. Using traditional
quilting techniques, Sandy Benjamin-Hannibal has repeated the basic design unit of a diamond. However, differences
in color, value, and texture to the repeating motif create an allover pattern that is dynamic and vibrant. Purchase 2001 The
Members’ Fund and Emma Fantone Fund, 2001.32. Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey/Art Resource, NY.
The Principles of Organization 55
2.13 Chuck Close, Paul III, 1996. Oil on canvas, 102 3 84 in. (259.1 3 213.4 cm). A very interesting allover pattern
emerges as a larger-than-life portrait. Because of the changing treatment in color and value, the allover pattern dominates
the repeating motif, or design unit—a diamond with a series of internal circles. Image © The Cleveland Museum of Art, Mr. and Mrs.
William H. Marlatt Fund, 1997.59. Photograph by Ellen Page Wilson. © Chuck Close. Courtesy of The Pace Gallery.
56 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.14 Don Jacot, What Makes You Tick? 2003. Oil on linen, 28 3 40 in. In this painting, clocks fied wholes. We will be referring to this
are a repeating theme, although the motif is really the idea of “clock” instead of one particular mental process as closure.
image that is identically duplicated numerous times. Notice the variety of style, size, and shape
involved with the repetition. Courtesy of Louis K. Meisel Gallery. Closure occurs when an artist pro-
vides a minimum of information or
it is quite obvious that the allover In each individual painting, the cat visual clues and the observer mentally
pattern (a face) would be impossible would be the subject, but in consider- completes the pattern. The following
if the motif were repeated without ing the total series, the cat becomes the examples demonstrate this concept. In
alteration. artist’s repeating theme, idea, or motif. figure 2.15A, some viewers will see an X
Two examples from a larger series may formed by the black circles, and others
Many studio artists prefer an even be seen in Impressionist artist Claude will see a 1 created by the blue squares.
subtler use of motif. Instead of repeat- Monet’s Waterloo Bridge paintings (see In figure 2.15B, the mind connects those
ing similar patterns, these artists fig. 7.27) and the work of Piet Mon- objects that help us see the configuration
repeat an idea or theme. For example, drian (see figs. 1.5–1.8). of an arrow. The four triangles with con-
in Don Jacot’s What Makes You Tick? cave hypotenuses in figure 2.15C seem
the clocks are the repeating theme Closure (Visual Grouping) to create a complete circle, but remove
(fig. 2.14). The clocks are not repeated some triangles or move them out of
over and over exactly alike but rather In the early part of the twentieth cen- alignment and the circle becomes harder
are constantly changed and accen- tury, Max Wertheimer, a German Ge- to “see” or is destroyed completely.
ted in differing ways. This is similar stalt psychologist, began to investigate (These four shapes also demonstrate
to the famous theme in Beethoven’s how the viewer sees form, pattern, or how negative areas can become “posi-
Fifth Symphony (“ta-ta-ta-TUM”), shape in terms of group relationships tive” shapes: when the positive black
which is repeated throughout the rather than as individual items. He shapes appear to connect into a circle in
composition but constantly changes discovered that several factors, such as figure 2.15C, the negative central area
in terms of tempo, pitch, volume, and nearness, size, and similarity in shape, becomes important, and we see the cen-
instrumentation. help the mind relate objects visually. tral area as a positive circle.) However,
When the arrangement of visual units the same small shapes that created the
Sometimes the theme (motif) devel- suggests that they are part of a larger circle can be rearranged to suggest a ser-
ops for an artist over a long series of pattern or shape, people mentally “fill pentine line instead (figure 2.15D).
works. Consider thirty paintings by an in” missing gaps and tend to see in-
artist, each of which deals with a cat complete patterns as complete or uni- With the concept of closure, the
in some different attitude or position. whole (the collective pattern or orga-
nization) is greater than its individual
parts. In practice, this means that when
images are evenly spaced across a pic-
torial field, they must be experienced
individually—such as the circles, rect-
angles, and triangles in figure 2.16A.
But as they are moved closer together
and the negative spaces are reduced,
it becomes easier to see a develop-
ing circular shape in the upper half
and a horizontal line in the lower half
(fig. 2.16B). At this stage, the grow-
ing awareness of the larger groupings
becomes more important than any one
individual triangle, circle, or rectangle.
As the individual shapes are moved
closer, they appear to “bond” together
at some point before they physically
touch each other (fig. 2.16C). How close
do the objects have to come before
they optically link? Recognition of the
The Principles of Organization 57
A
BA B
C C
D 2.16 (A) Individual shapes without any implied organization. (B) Individual shapes moving closer
together and beginning to establish a visual grouping. (C) Shapes close together, with closure suggesting
2.15 Examples of closure. The total con- patterns of an oval, a circle, and a horizontal bar.
figuration is more important than the individual
components, as our minds “see” incomplete
patterns as complete wholes. (A) The similar
shapes are mentally connected to see an X or
a + instead of small circles and squares. (B) The
similar shapes optically join to form an arrow.
(C) The shapes seem to form a circle within a
square. (D) The shapes optically connect into a
serpentine object.
visual connection is a matter of expe- Determine at what point shapes begin spacing creates the most tension
rience that improves with practice but to join visually. Can a third shape be between the units and if any particular
requires an awareness of the adjusted made to join a grouping of two? Is spacing becomes too static.)
negative space. (Try to discover how the more or less space needed between the
mind fills in the missing information. units to do so? Try to determine what In the final image (fig. 2.16C), all
the various shapes have a harmonious
58 C HAPTER 2 Form
relationship because of their spacing. 2.17 Gunther Gerzso, Personage in Red and Blue, 1964. Oil on fabric, 393⁄8 3 283⁄4 in. (100.33 3
The individual circles, rectangles, and 73 cm). In this painting, shapes are united by shared edges as well as similar color and textural develop-
triangles have become related, although ment. Though the sense of space is shallow, it is heightened by the contrast of value. Courtesy of the Gene C.
variations in the negative intervals
between shapes allow the new group- Gerzso 1999 Trust.
ings to appear dense in one location
while fading away in another. The sense
of harmony may be further enhanced
by similarity in color, surface texture,
shapes, direction, linear quality, and
the like. Shapes also visually join more
easily wherever their edges are made to
align.
Admittedly, with closure many fac-
tors are at work, including proximity
and similarity. For Wertheimer, this
visual ordering helped explain how
artists organize structure and create
pattern in their work.
Visual Linking
While closure unifies shapes that share
an implied group relationship, bring-
ing these elements so close together
that they physically touch suggests
other ways of unifying a composition.
When this occurs, the shared space
itself becomes the cohesive factor. We
will study the concept as it applies to
shared edges, overlapping, transpar-
ency, and interpenetration.
Shared Edges
Shapes that share a common edge
(contacting, touching, or abutting) are
often united because the shared edge
imposes common spatial relationships
that help draw them together. For ex-
ample, shapes with shared edges tend
to be on the same limited spatial plane
or share a similar spatial or pictorial
depth. The Cubists and other recent art-
ists like Gunther Gerzso (fig. 2.17, see
also fig. T.51) have used this idea quite
successfully. Shapes of the same size
and related color or value will further
unite compositions dealing with flat or
limited space.
This harmonizing technique, how-
ever, can somewhat restrict the illu-
sion of three-dimensional images. When
The Principles of Organization 59
connected shapes are of the same size Although sharing spatial relation-
and value, they limit the ability to cre- ships will pull areas of a composition
ate spatial references (fig. 2.18A, left). together, there may be additional com-
Changing the value makes them more plications with using shared edges.
A distinct, but their spatial depths become When shapes with a common border
more ambiguous—sometimes advanc- share a similar value level or color, the
ing, sometimes receding (fig. 2.18A, cen- dividing edge where they merge is often
ter). However, altering both the value obscured—visually they become one
B and size of the connected shapes begins new shape (fig. 2.18B, left). In addition,
to establish a spatial reference in which connected shapes seem to retain their
the shapes more easily pass behind or individual character when the common
C in front of each other (fig. 2.18A, right). dividing edge is rather nondescript,
Additional variations in shading also but when the edge begins to suggest
serve to enhance the illusion of depth, something recognizable, the suggested
however shallow (see fig. 2.17). (When image becomes a positive shape, and a
D connected shapes no longer share the specific spatial reference is created that
same depth, harmony can be further forces the remaining shape to recede
established, if needed, through some as a negative area (fig. 2.18B, right).
other method—such as similar use of tex- Differences in value or texture further
ture or color.) exacerbate the situation. M. C. Escher
2.18 (A) Denied or implied spatial refer- 2.19 M. C. Escher, Day and Night, 1938. Woodcut in two colors, 151⁄2 3 263⁄4 in. (39.3 3 67.9 cm).
ences involving shared edges. (B) Dissolved and In this print, Escher effectively incorporates shapes with shared edges, structured ambiguity, and stable
altered spatial references involving shared edges. figure/ground relationships in the transition from light to dark. His use of variety (separation and elabo-
(C) Little spatial reference created by overlapping ration) helps make the light and dark ducks stand out as figures against the opposite-value background.
shapes. (D) Greater spatial reference created
by overlapping shapes. (E) Shapes related by © 2011 The M. C. Escher Company-Holland. All rights reserved. www.mcescher.com.
transparency.
60 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.20 Jerry Uelsmann, Untitled (rowboat, ocean,
and clouds in cupped hands), 1996. Gelatin silver
print, 16 3 20 in. Overlapping images share
the same space in this work, commenting on
the relationship between humans and nature.
Despite the digital revolution, Uelsmann still
prefers to create images like this one using
analogue techniques in a darkroom. Courtesy of
Jerry N. Uelsmann.
explored this phenomenon, using it to often achieved this effect by overlap- Transparency
his advantage when he made patterns ping multiple views of the same object
of dark ducks fly through patterns of (see fig. 9.9). An artist can also add harmony to im-
light ducks (fig. 2.19). As the ducks ages that occur in the same area through
fly farther away from the central part Overlapping does not always mean the use of transparency (see fig. 2.18E;
of the image, the detail becomes more limited space or cohesive relationships. see also figs. 1.56 and 8.9). When a
and more distinct, whereas the “duck” A difference in treatment may cause shape or image is seen through another,
shapes toward the middle take on the visual separation of the two shapes and harmony is created through the shared
imagery of the landscape. deeper spatial references, in which the area itself, the layers of space they both
overlapped object is seen as the reced- pass through, and the surface treatment
Overlapping ing shape (fig. 2.18D). Color and value of all the images (highlights, shading,
choices may exaggerate or minimize color, texture). Like simple overlap-
With overlapping, the areas involved the spatial effect. ping, this technique tends to limit visual
are also drawn together by a common depth but still serves as another harmo-
relationship, and the shared item is a bit In an artistic context, independent nious device.
more involved than a simple edge; it be- symbolic information can not only
comes a shared area. As long as the col- overlap but even occupy the same Interpenetration
ors, values, and textures are the same or shared physical space. For example,
related, the overlapping tends to unite in Jerry Uelsmann’s Untitled (rowboat, When several images not only share
the areas involved (fig. 2.18C). How- ocean, and clouds in cupped hands), very the same area but also appear to pass
ever, the space defined may be shal- different images are brought together through each other, they are brought
low and rather ambiguous—one time through overlap (fig. 2.20). Using dark- into a harmonious relationship not only
the circle is seen on top; the next time room techniques, Uelsmann combines by the common location but also by the
the square is seen on top. The Futurists human and natural subjects to create a physical depth of the space in which
unique visual experience. they all appear (see figs. 8.10 and 8.11).
The Principles of Organization 61
2.21 Clouret Bouchel, Passing Through, 2001. Digital imagery, 7 3 101⁄2 in. (17.8 3 26.7 cm). This
is an example of interpenetration, with lines, shapes, and planes passing through one another. Courtesy of
the artist.
Whether shallow or deep, illusionistic to towers and then to each other, the away. Placing new shapes along the
or stylized, the space itself pulls the extensions in a composition help the implied extended edge links distant
various images into a visual harmony. artist organize and bring all parts shapes, thereby harmonizing the areas.
Notice that in figure 2.21 there are two of that structure into a harmonious Artists often use such alignment to
series of shapes. Some seem to plunge relationship. integrate an entire composition and
toward the left end and the rest to- create space by implied tension.
ward the right end of the composition. While we have seen harmony
Even though the two sets of planes achieved through shared edges, over- Extensions reveal “hidden” rela-
are treated in very different textures lapping shapes, transparency of sur- tionships. They harmonize by setting
and colors, the sharing of the internal face, or forms passing through each up related directional forces, creating
space created by the interpenetration other, the related items are relatively movement, and repeating predictable
of shapes helps unify this work. close to each other. However, the con- intervals between units. The directional
cept of extensions—implied edges, impulse of these invisible, implied lines
Linking through Extensions (Implied lines, or shapes—provides the artist or shape edges suggests—sometimes
and Subjective Edges/Lines/Shapes) with a system of visual alignment that subconsciously—an expectation that
can relate shapes much farther apart something will be discovered in a new
A variety of dissimilar images and from each other. area and pulls the eye toward this new
shapes can be made to relate by location. These impulses integrate a
being visually linked through the By simply extending the edge of a work as they wind through the com-
use of extensions. Like the invisible shape across the composition, the art- position along the contours of informa-
signals that connect our cell phones ist can establish new objects, images, tion (fig. 2.22A and B).
or shapes in locations some distance
62 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.22A Johannes Vermeer, Diana and the Nymphs,
c. 1655–56. Oil on canvas, 331⁄2 3 41 in. (97.8 3
104.6 cm). Here, Vermeer uses extended edges to
interlock the images, find the location for new forms,
relate shapes, and create directional movement across
the painting. Royal Cabinet of Paintings, Mauritshuis. The Hague,
Netherlands, Scala/Art Resource.
2.22B This overlay shows some of the extended
edges with solid lines of various weights and their ex-
tensions by dots and dashes. Notice how the implied
direction is often interrupted or disguised by subtle
changes.
The Principles of Organization 63
2.23 Designers often use a grid system to
help with the layout and organization of text and
visual information. The system can be applied to
one image or made to relate a whole corporate
campaign. © Gene Anderson.
As an element in its own right, line organizational tool, form cohesive intersect or align. In this way, a group-
draws all sectors of an arrangement (harmonious) relationships with other ing of shapes in one part of the composi-
together (see figs. 3.10 and 3.11). This shapes. Shape can create directional tion can create tension or subconscious
line may be clear and dominant or force or visual movement in two ways: closure with other groupings or indi-
less emphasized, fading away to a dis- (1) when the shape points in a general vidual shapes some distance away.
solved contour (see figs. 5.24 and 5.25). direction (for example, a long triangle
As strong indicators of direction, new points in the direction of the narrow The use of subjective edges, lines,
lines introduced anywhere along the end), it directs the viewer across the and shapes allows eye movement to
extension of a first line may relate the composition; and (2) when the out- be controlled and directed anywhere,
original to the new by implied direc- side edges of that pointing shape can even, through illusion, outside of the
tion. Invisible linear extensions (sub- be extended by hidden lines, they will picture plane. Extensions may cross
jective lines) are exceedingly strong direct the viewer in two other direc- over areas enclosed by other images
devices for relating compositional tions. Each of these implied or subjec- and shapes as well as across open
areas, and designers usually rely on tive edge extensions may be used to areas of color and texture. Further-
them in the form of grid systems for emphasize certain shapes or objects more, although we have discussed
the layout and organization of blocks across the composition, harmonizing these harmonizing concepts in terms of
of type, logos, and graphic information the image. Irregular shapes can also be two dimensions, the unifying concepts
(fig. 2.23). brought into harmonious relationship of extension may be applied equally
by moving them around until their sub- well to plastic space, and they are not
Like line, shape can create a str- jective edges (invisible extended edges) restricted to any particular degree of
ong directional movement and, as an abstraction.
64 C HAPTER 2 Form
Because extensions are such an the work may feel static, lifeless, and 2.24 Franklin Jonas, Geostructure 1, 1998.
important tool of organization, great unemotional. Visual boredom is a sign Acrylic on linen, 200 3 200 cm. Variety is
care must be taken so that their use of an overly harmonious composition. achieved by making repeated units dissimilar.
does not become too obvious. There- By adding degrees of variation, the Here, Franklin Jonas repeats a series of triangles,
fore, artists delight in hiding direc- artist introduces essential ingredients circles, and squares, but all are different in
tional forces by interrupting them with (such as diversion or change) for sus- size, color, value, and placement. The balance
countermovements, accents, or subtle taining attention. between harmony and variety can be tipped to
misalignments. favor either principle. In this case, making all the
Visual interest, then, results directly colors lighter and not as intense could swing the
Excessive Use of Harmony from adding variety to the composi- composition toward harmony but compromise
tion. Variety causes visual separation— the visual interest. With study, the viewer will
To briefly summarize the first principle a pulling apart of related elements continue to discover new relationships and var-
of organization: areas of a composition or images, differentiating and disas- ied patterns within the work. Courtesy of the artist.
harmonize when they exhibit similar el- sociating the components. This sepa-
ements, characteristics, or designs and/ ration is achieved through the use of Photo by Kerry Bowman.
or when they share the same grouping, contrast and elaboration.
space, or alignment. value, and placement. These contrasts,
Contrast which include shapes placed at varied
Although harmony brings a vital and interesting angles, make the com-
cohesion to the work, it is potentially Contrast, by definition, means “oppo- position dynamic and stimulating.
dangerous if overused. When com- sition or dissimilarity,” and it occurs
monality is employed to an inappropri- wherever elements with opposing Elaboration
ate extreme, the composition may be characteristics are placed in the same
plagued with an overwhelming feeling area. When artists repeat elements Another way to increase variety is to
of monotony. In those situations, the in a way that makes them appear elaborate certain areas that lack visual
problem may be relieved by slightly unrelated—such as a few wide lines interest. Elaboration may be thought
reducing the degree of similarity or in a group of narrow ones—the dif- of as the enhancement of an area with
by establishing harmony in a different ferences, or contrasts, stand out. Dis- subtle (sometimes contradictory) in-
manner. When the proper adjustments similarities are exaggerated when formation, minute details, and pat-
have been made, the individual rela- opposing elements and/or their char- terns. It builds and embellishes on ob-
tionships will be pleasantly interactive, acteristics are juxtaposed or placed in jects already present in the work. For
and the overall composition will not close proximity, such as red against example, in figure 2.19, notice how
feel monotonous. green or dark against light. As con- M. C. Escher added more and more
trasts are heightened, the areas in- detail to the duck shapes as they move
Variety volved become less harmonious but away from the center, making them
more visually exciting. stand apart from the opposite-colored
Variety is the counterweight to har-
mony, the other side of organization Through contrast, an area, image,
essential to unity. Although an artist or shape is emphasized or made dom-
might bring a work together with har- inant. A varying level of interest will
mony, it is variety that imparts indi- help move the eye through the compo-
viduality, arousing the viewer’s curi- sition, so it may be necessary to make
osity and holding his or her attention. some contrasts stronger than oth-
It creates visual contrast—a separation ers. Subtle contrast occurs when the
of elements and images. Like a good difference between elements is less
sheepdog that singles out one animal extreme, and it is important to note
from the flock, the introduction of vari- that even slight changes in texture,
ety actively separates areas or images to color, value, size, spacing, or align-
make them more exciting and let them ment can draw a viewer’s attention,
stand apart. however briefly.
If an artist creates a work using In figure 2.24 Franklin Jonas has
a complete equality of visual forces, repeated circles, squares, and triangles,
but they are different in size, color,
The Principles of Organization 65
area, which slowly becomes back- When an artist organizes a compo- produce too much visual excitement
ground. Artists rework areas persis- sition, a subjective balance is required and, as in the musical composition,
tently, making subtle changes to build between harmony and variety, because requires resolution.
dramatic strength and impart purpose- one cannot be altered without affect-
ful meaning. ing the other. As areas decrease in har- For artists, one of the most difficult
mony, they increase proportionately in concepts to grasp is how to apply har-
Picture surfaces become more excit- visual excitement. Likewise, making mony and variety at the same time by
ing as variations are introduced. In certain areas more related will reduce using the same element. Consider the
music, contrasting elements—loud/ the amount of variety in those areas use of shape. In Orion, Victor Vasarely
soft, notes/rests, solo/ensemble—can and increase the feeling of harmony. uses circles as unifying devices to create
all add energy to a composition. Simi- Some degree of harmony is needed to a harmonious relationship (fig. 2.27).
larly, in visual art, variety can “pump hold contrasting areas together, but However, to avoid monotony, the artist
up the volume” of a piece. However, these two principles do not have to be seeks all the different ways that circles
excessive use of variety can create a of equal proportions; harmony might can be introduced by changing their
feeling of chaos; it is the task of the art- outweigh variety, or variety might size, point of view, and angle. Thus,
ist to decide the proper amount. outweigh harmony (fig. 2.26; see also he has introduced variety by the very
fig. 2.24). same element used to create harmony—
The Dualism of Harmony circular shapes. The same thing could
and Variety In music, if the composition needs be done with any of the elements of
more variety, a composer may inten- art. The color red, for example, could
Visual unity and organization in art tionally introduce dissonance (sounds be used to make a series of different
depend on an intricate relationship of that are unstable and tense) and then shapes relate to each other, providing
similarity and contrast—a dualism of resolve it later in the piece using harmony. Changing the value of the
harmony and variety. For the sake of consonance (sounds that are stable color, by making it lighter or darker,
clarity, we have tried to present har- and without tension). Dissonance can also add variety. Again, vari-
mony and variety separately; however, in visual art results when unrelated ety and harmony are developed by
in actual practice, they are opposite parts are put together so that vari- the thoughtful use of the same basic
sides of the same coin and must be con- ety far outweighs harmony. This can component.
sidered at the same time (fig. 2.25).
2.25 Frank Stella, Damascus Gate Stretch Variation, 1968. Acrylic on canvas, 60 3 300 in. (152.4 3 763.9 cm). Stella
has harmonized the painting through his inventive and repeated use of the curved and straight-edged shapes, light shades
of most colors, and the same flat surface texture; he has provided variety by using shapes of varied size and direction,
contrasting colors and intensity, and accents of darker red and green against the remaining light shades of color. Collection
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Edmond R. Ruben, 1969. © 2011 Frank Stella/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
66 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.27 Victor Vasarely, Orion, 1956–62. Paper
on paper mounted on wood, 6 ft. 101⁄2 in. 3
6 ft. 63⁄4 in. (2.09 3 2 m). While harmony is
provided through the recurring use of circles,
the artist achieves interest through the variety
of the same shapes: Some are tipped; some are
larger or smaller than the norm; and some are
emphasized by their contrasting backgrounds.
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, DC. Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1966.
Photograph by Lee Stalsworth. © 2011 Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
2.26 Nancy Graves, Perfect Syntax of Stone and Air. 1990. Watercolor, gouache, and acrylic on
paper, 481⁄2 3 483⁄8 in. (123.2 3 122.9 cm). So many colored brushstrokes and color marks are re-
peated that some degree of relatedness (harmony) is apparent, but variety is by far the dominant factor
because of the array of complementary colors (yellow/violet, red/green, blue/orange) and the introduc-
tion of elaborated patterns. Though dynamic in presentation, every inch has some rich detail awaiting
discovery. Photo courtesy of Gerald G. Peters Gallery. Art © Nancy Graves Foundation/licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
A sensitive use of harmony and Balance expectations are so strongly ingrained
variety will become a means by which in our subconscious that they also have
the other principles of organization are Gravity is universal, and we spend an effect on the art we experience and
expanded and given vitality. The ways our daily lives resisting its influence. produce. Most artwork is viewed in an
in which similarity and contrast are While walking, standing on one leg, or upright orientation—there is a top and
blended will affect the development of tipping back in a chair, we experience a bottom. As a result, gravity affects
balance, appropriate proportions, vary- its effect and intuitively seek a state of the visual components. For example
ing degrees of dominance or emphasis, balance. When we are off balance, we (fig. 2.28A), a shape (here, a circle or
pictorial movement, economy, and spa- have a strong fear that gravity will pull ball) placed high in the pictorial field
tial order (see fig. 2.2). us over and we will fall down. Those creates a sense of tension between the
The Principles of Organization 67
AB C DE
2.28 Balance: gravitational forces and the resulting pictorial tensions. (A) Objects placed high in the pictorial field
often create a sense of tension with the bottom, top, and sides because of the expectation that gravity will cause the
objects to drop. (B) Objects placed low in the pictorial field often create a sense of peace or resolution because of the
feeling that gravity has already acted on the objects. (C) The expected effect of gravity on recognizable objects can be
altered by their placement; unusual locations can add to psychological tension. (D) Equal dimensions of a mat around
pictorial artwork may make the work feel unstable. (E) Increasing the width at the bottom of the mat will help stabilize
the picture.
shape and the baseline of the picture that we will see the work separated or groups of units (such as lines or
plane. We expect that gravity will from the everyday world. But, even shapes) that are arranged on either
cause the shape to drop, giving it a here, psychological factors can affect side of a central axis. This concept is
latent energy.When it does not, a ten- the visual weight and balance. In the best illustrated by simple scales like a
sion is created. On the other hand, a case of a mat with two-inch top, sides, horizontal beam poised on a fulcrum
shape placed low in the pictorial field and bottom, the bottom may have the (or pivot point), much like a child’s
feels at rest and more stable—gravity illusion of being pinched or smaller see-saw. The forces are balanced hori-
has already acted upon it (fig 2.28B). than the other sides (see fig. 2.28D). zontally, left and right, with respect to
When a shape becomes figurative, This is an optical illusion that would the supporting balance beam. If more
we have a knowledge of the image, make the artwork appear to be unsta- weight is applied to the beam on either
including a sense of its mass, weight, ble, even rising on the wall. To com- side of the fulcrum, that side will tip
and function. Our preconceptions of pensate, the bottom measurement is down. The beam is balanced when the
an object affect how we judge balance generally made wider than that of the weights and fulcrum are positioned
on a picture surface. For example, if top and sides so that the whole image so that neither side of the beam tips
the shape in figure 2.28A becomes a seems stabilized or balanced (see fig. (fig. 2.30A–C).
hot-air balloon, a large negative area 2.28E).
under that shape will tend to support When we apply this concept to
or balance it—we may even have the Balance is so fundamental to unity art, balance does not result from
sensation of the balloon lifting up from that it is impossible to consider the the actual physical weighing pro-
that area (fig. 2.28C). But, if that shape principles of organization without it. cess. The visual weight or force of
is a grand piano, the viewer will have At the simplest level, balance refers any area within an artwork depends
the opposite expectation. Whether ob- to the distribution of weight or force on the amount of attention that area
jective or nonobjective components within a composition. Try placing a draws—its level of visual impact.
are used, the impact of psychologi- single colored shape on a white surface Such judgments are based on the
cal weight and tension is immense anywhere but in the center. The place- experience of the artist and his or her
(fig. 2.29). ment will show a balance between the intuitive grasp of the principles of
object and the amount of open space physics. In art, compositions are not
Artists often mat their work to around it. Balance can also refer to restricted to balancing elements on
aesthetically highlight it. The hope is the gravitational equilibrium of pairs the left with elements on the right.
68 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.29 Deborah Oropallo, Sleep, 2005. Permanent pigment print and acrylic Instead, balance may be established
canvas, 42 3 37 in. (106.7 3 94 cm). Our normal expectation for images placed radially (around a fixed point), hori-
high in the picture plane is for them to drop. Pictorial shapes that resist gravity zontally, vertically, and diagonally
create visual tension and interest. In this image, there is a subtle adjustment in our (fig. 2.30 D–H).
psychological expectations. Because of the strategic placement of the high pillows,
they psychologically join through closure with the top edge of the picture frame. In graphic composition, balance
The surrounding value contrasts reinforce the attraction to the area, with the net refers to the optical equilibrium felt
effect being a sense of the pillow shapes drifting away. Courtesy of the artist. among all parts of the work. The
artist balances forces horizontally,
A D F vertically, and diagonally in all
B G directions and positions (fig 2.31).
Several factors contribute to balance
CE in a work of art. These factors include
position or placement, size, propor-
H tion, character, and direction of the
elements. Of these factors, position
2.30 Diagrams A, B, and C illustrate the basic concept of balance by using horizontal balance beams plays the lead role. If two shapes of
and fulcrums (pivot points). Diagrams D and E illustrate balance that radiates around a central point. equal physical qualities are placed
Diagrams F, G, and H show components balanced horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. The pictorial near the left side of a picture frame,
layout can have a bearing on which system is emphasized. the work will appear out of balance
with the right side. Such shapes
should be positioned to contribute
to the total balance of all the picture
parts involved. Similarly, the other
factors can put a pictorial arrange-
ment in or out of balance according
to their use.
As the eye travels over the picture
surface, it pauses momentarily at
the significant picture parts—areas
where there is an increased degree of
visual impact. These points of inter-
est represent moving and directional
forces that may be termed moments
of force. In seeking balance, the art-
ist should recognize that variety
in the elements creates moments of
force, and discriminating placement
of the elements will result in con-
trolled tension. Such forces should
be used to contribute to the total bal-
ance of the work as a whole. In the
painting Handball (fig. 2.32), Ben
Shahn creates tension between the
two figures in the foreground and
the number “1” at the top of the wall.
These forces together support one
another. The buildings above the
large wall are balanced by the dark
wall and billboard on the left and the
figures in the lower portion of the
painting.
The Principles of Organization 69
2.31 Ansel Adams, Moonrise, Hernandez,
New Mexico, 1941. Gelatin silver print. Adams
used the moon to achieve balance and unity
between the various elements in this image. The
moon’s position is slightly off center, giving the
work a dynamic quality. © Ansel Adams Publishing
Rights Trust/Corbis.
2.32 Ben Shahn, Handball, 1939. Tempera on paper over composition board, 223⁄4 3 311⁄4 in. (57.8 3 79.4 cm).
The figures, numbers, and buildings may be seen as moments of force. The artist strategically arranges them to establish
tension between areas within the composition and create a sense of balance. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, Abby Aldrich
Rockfeller Fund. Photo © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY. © Estate of Ben Shahn/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
70 C HAPTER 2 Form
Symmetrical Balance
(Formal Balance)
A symmetrical image represents the
simplest form of artistic balance. It
has elements and visual units re-
peated on both sides on an imaginary
central axis in mirrorlike fashion
(fig. 2.33). When those visual units are
exactly the same on both sides, pure
symmetry is created.
Symmetrical images can be confron-
tational; they can stare directly at us in
an intimidating manner. This impos-
ing quality can capture our attention,
but its hold on us is usually short-lived
because of the static quality of the com-
position. However, secondary features
may tend to alleviate this somewhat.
Because of the nature of symmetry,
unity can be readily achieved, but the
artist is challenged to maintain our
interest with details and contrasts.
Approximate Symmetrical Balance 2.33 Valerie Jaudon, Big Springs, 1980. Gold leaf and oil on canvas, 96 3
48 in. (243.8 3 121.9 cm). This symmetrical composition is divided equally
The potential monotony of pure sym- by a subtle vertical axis. Each side of this center line is repeated in mirrorlike
metry can be reduced by subtly vary- duplication. The active interlacing pattern helps prevent this work from being
ing the nature of the repetition to visually static. © Valerie Jaudon/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
achieve approximate symmetry. Bal-
ance is still the objective, and the so-
lution is similar, but the artistic com-
ponents, instead of being identical,
are different. With approximate sym-
metry, the parts on either side of the
imaginary central axis are positioned
in the same manner, but they are
slightly altered in size, color, number,
and so on so that both sides are simi-
lar without being exact replicas. Ap-
proximate symmetry requires more
sensitivity from the artist regarding
the various weights of the compo-
nents, for both sides must still balance
out. Overall, compositions with ap-
proximate symmetry are potentially
more interesting than those with pure
symmetry—the differences produce
more interest and thereby hold the
viewer’s attention. With approximate
symmetry, the potential monotony of
pure symmetry is somewhat relieved,
The Principles of Organization 71
2.34 Unknown artist, The Marriage of Shiva
and Parvati: The Wedding of the Charming One,
South India (Madurai), 1766. Carved ivory with
traces of tamarind juice, 16 3 11 cm. This
Hindu ivory carving has approximate symmetrical
balance. Relatively equal visual weights are placed
on either side of a subtle vertical axis, although
neither side is exactly the same. © V&A Images,
Victoria and Albert Museum.
although the image is still fairly static tion, adding a new dimension to what this principle in quatrefoils and “rose”
(figs. 2.34 and 2.35; see also figs. 4.20 might otherwise be static, symmetrical windows, where the panes of glass
and 8.45). balance. Pure radial balance balances are radially arranged like flower pet-
opposing forces, but interesting varie- als. Plates and vessels of all kinds
Radial Balance ties can be achieved by modifying the evolve on the potter’s wheel in a
spaces, numbers, and directions of the radial manner and often the symme-
Another type of arrangement, called forces (figs. 2.36 and 2.37). try can be seen in the finished texture.
radial balance, can create both pure Radial balance may be seen in two-
and approximate symmetry. In radial Radial balance is widely used in dimensional work as well, and the
balance, however, the visual forces the applied arts. For instance, jewel- visual material producing the radial
are distributed around a central point ers often use radial patterns for stone effect can be either nonobjective or
and radiate from it. The rotation of settings on rings, pins, necklaces, and figurative.
these forces results in a visual circula- brooches. Architects have featured
72 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.35 Scott Fraser, Black and White, 2004. Oil on board, 75 3 59 in. Black and White makes effective use of
approximate symmetry. At first glance, the left and right sides of the painting may appear to be mirror images, other
than the obvious value contrasts of the human figurines. However, note the wall socket, the shadows, and the variety
of paper-airplane positions on the floor and the chair. Private collection. Courtesy of Scott Fraser.
The Principles of Organization 73
2.36 Fred Tomaselli, Bird Blast, 1997. Pills,
hemp leaves, photocollage, acrylic, resin
on wood panel, 60 3 60 in. (152.4 3 152.4
cm). With radial balance, there is frequently a
divergence from some (usually central) source.
Here, too, the linear development of the red
leaves and the birds seems to explode from the
center of the composition. Gift of Douglas S. Cramer.
The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. U.S.A. Digital
image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art
Resource, NY.
2.37 Marc Chagall, I and the Village,
1911. Oil on canvas, 6 ft. 35⁄8 in. 3 4 ft.
115⁄8 in. (1.92 3 1.51 m). The fairy-tale
world of the imagination is found in this
example by Chagall, an artist who evades
fixed classification. Recent—for the
time—technological concepts (X-rays and
flight) are reflected in the freely interpreted
transparent objects and in the disregard for
gravity. © 2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/ADAGP, Paris. The Museum of Modern Art, New
York, NY. Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund. Digital image
© The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art
Resource, NY.
74 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.38 László Moholy-Nagy, A XX, 1924. Oil
on canvas, 533⁄8 3 451⁄4 inches (135.5 3 115
cm). This asymmetrical painting relies on an equi-
librium that is felt between the visual weights and
forces of the shapes, colors, lines, and surround-
ing negative area. Each element is strategically
placed and accented to balance another. Art ©
2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York, VG Bild-Kunst,
Bonn. Photo © CNAC/MNAM/Réunion des Musées Nation-
aux/Art Resource, NY.
Asymmetrical Balance degree of symmetry but rather bal- the size of the negative area around it.
(Informal/Occult Balance) ances forces horizontally, vertically, There are no rules for achieving asym-
and diagonally in all directions. Visual metrical balance. If, however, the artist
Balance created through asymmetry units that have very different moments can establish the opposing forces and
achieves equilibrium of the elements of force (degrees of emphasis) may be their tensions so that they seem to bal-
that is “felt” or implied among all parts made to balance each other depending ance each other within a total work,
of the work. Asymmetry is also some- on the position of the units. The visual the result will be vital, dynamic, and
times referred to as an informal or occult center of balance may thus be in any expressive.
balance because it is hidden, somewhat location. For example, a “felt” balance
mysterious, and intended to be expe- might be achieved between a small As an artist works on an image, the
rienced across the entire composition area of strong color and a large empty sense of compositional balance changes
(figs. 2.38 and 2.39; see also figs. 2.32 space. The placement of that colored each time an element is added, sub-
and 8.42). area would depend on its qualities such tracted, or altered—one adjustment
as size, shape, and so forth, as well as may require subsequent modification
As the name suggests, asymmetry in other areas. Asymmetrical artwork
does not involve a central axis or any
The Principles of Organization 75
2.39 Pablo Picasso, Family of Saltimbanques,
1905. Oil on canvas, 6 ft. 113⁄4 in. 3 7 ft. 63⁄8 in.
(2.13 3 2.30 m). An intuitive balance is achieved
through the asymmetrical distribution of varying
shapes, similar values, and related colors. Chester
Dale Collection. © 2011 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of
Art, Washington, DC. Photograph by B. Grove © 2011 Estate
of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
entails an intricate balancing act for the related to size and refers to a standard may be seen in a geometric relation-
artist, but the potential compositional gauge or “norm” in order to judge the ship when a line is divided into what is
arrangements are varied and countless. relationship between objects. For exam- called the mean and extreme ratio (fig.
ple, the human figure is a norm used by 2.40). When a line AB is sectioned at
Proportion architects for scaling buildings as well point C, AC is the same ratio to AB as
as by artists for representing scale in CB is to AC; that is, AC:AB 5 CB:AC.
Proportion deals with the ratio of in- artworks. Expressed mathematically, the mean
dividual parts to one another or to the ratio has a numerical value of 0.6180.
whole. For example, the length of an Artists have been seeking an ideal Any new unit will be this much smaller
arm in comparison to the length of the standard for proportional relationships or larger than the original unit, mak-
whole body is a proportional relation- since ancient times. Classical Greek phi- ing those units in a ratio of 1 to 1.6180.
ship. In works of art, appropriate pro- losophy expressed the view that math- Applying this concept to geometry,
portions are often difficult to determine ematics was the controlling force of the the Greeks sought the most beautifully
and the relationships of parts are hard to universe, and it established the golden proportioned rectangle that could be
compare with accuracy because propor- mean, sometimes called the golden sec- created out of a square. They arrived
tion is often a matter of personal judg- tion, to represent the ideal standard for at what is referred to as the golden
ment. When the ratios of parts to the proportion and balance in life and art. rectangle (figs. 2.41A and B and 2.42A
whole seem logically related, the pro- The Greek mathematician Euclid held and B).
portions create harmony and balance. that the golden mean was the “mod-
Those parts that are disproportionately eration of all things,” a place between Holding the human figure in high-
enlarged or diminished create variety two extremes. The golden section, as est esteem, the ancient Greeks devised
that can aid in expressing an idea. The it applies to works of art, states that a special proportional standards for their
term scale is used when proportion is smaller part relates to a larger part as figurative works. We can find these
the larger part relates to the whole. It standards in their sculpture. The scale
76 C HAPTER 2 Form
A CB
2.40 This line is divided into a geometric re-
lationship known as the mean ratio, also referred
to as the golden mean or golden section.
was based on certain mathematical A CB A CB
canons, or rules, that established ideal 2.41A A golden rectangle may be found by 2.41B A diagonal line drawn across the new
relations of human parts. A human fig- extending the baseline of a perfect square in one rectangle will cross the original square where the
ure, for example, was determined to direction. With a compass point fixed on the golden mean should be drawn parallel to the
be seven and one-half heads tall, and center of the square’s baseline, draw an arc from baseline. Measuring the sides of the golden rect-
the distance from the top of the head the upper corner of the square down to the ex- angle will expose some interesting mathemati-
to the chest was said to be one-quarter tended baseline. Having thus located the length cal relationships. Comparing the original length
of the total height. The Greek sculp- of the new rectangle, draw a line upward to the of the square (AC) to the length of the new
tor Polyclitus is thought to be the first line extended from the top of the square. rectangle (AB) will reveal the same ratio as that
to have codified these proportions in of the length of the new addition (CB) to the
the form of a written treatise (which 2.42A A golden mean may also be estab- original square (AC). That ratio will be 1:1.6180.
has since been lost). The bronze copy lished inside of a square. From the center of the (See the discussion of the Fibonacci series in this
of his sculpture of a spear bearer (the base of the square, draw a semicircle inside the chapter.)
original also lost) is sometimes called square. Next draw a line from the center of
“the canon” because it best demon- the baseline to the square’s upper corner. 2.42B Lines drawn parallel to the top and
strates his standard for figure propor- Where the diagonal crosses the first circle, side of the square from the points of intersec-
tions (fig. 2.43). The Greeks’ fondness establish a radius from the upper corner, and tion by the second arc will subdivide the square
for pleasing proportional relationships draw an arc to the top and side of the square. into golden rectangles with the mathematical
extended into all areas of their daily life. ratio of 1:1.6180. This process may be done
again from the opposite side or repeated in the
These ancient Greek ideals have new squares just created. This subdivision could
had continuing effects throughout his- continue on indefinitely revealing the same ratio
tory. Leonardo Fibonacci, a medieval of 1:1.6180. (See the discussion of the Fibonacci
mathematician of the thirteenth cen- series in this chapter.)
tury, discovered a series of specially
related numbers. The sequence was
created by adding together the two
previous numbers to arrive at each
new number: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,
34, 55, and so on. Published in Liber
Abaci (Book of the Abacus) in 1202, this
sequence is called the Fibonacci series.
It also demonstrates an increasing
ratio of approximately 1:1.6180. The
sequence can start with any number.
Using 10 as an example, multiply by
1.6180 to get the number 16. From that
point, adding the previous two num-
bers will provide the next number
(10, 16, 26, 42, 68 . . .), and consecu-
tive numbers in the growing sequence
will have the same ratio as the golden
section.
The Principles of Organization 77
2.43 Polyclitus of Argos, Doryphoros (Roman copy), 450–440 B.C.E. Marble,
6 ft. 11 in. (212 cm) high. Polyclitus wrote a theoretical treatise and demonstrated a new
system of ideal proportions in a sculpture, which took the form of a young man walking
with a spear (the spear is no longer extant). The Greeks called the figure “Doryphoros”
(spear carrier). The Polyclitus style was characterized by harmonious and rhythmical com-
position, and it influenced Roman culture. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy.
SCALA/Art Resource, New York.
2.44 Examples of spiraling curves taken from nature. From top left to bottom left: © Gemini Observatory-GMOS
Team. © C Squared Studios/Getty Images. © Brand X Pictures. © Nicole Duplaix/NGS/Getty Images. © StockTrek/Getty Images.
© Martin Harvey/Getty Images.
2.45A The spiraling
curve is created by the
continuing projection
of the golden section
and may be drawn with
the aid of a compass.
The inside corner of
the square locates the
compass point, which
traces an arc from
corner to corner. This
D G line is continued into
the next square with
E AC a new compass point
B
located on the inside
center corner of that
square. The process
continues from square 2.45B This diagram illustrates the same spiral, created by plotting the numbers
F to square until the from the Fibonacci series (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144) on a horizontal and
spiral is completed. vertical axis.
78 C HAPTER 2 Form
Today, scientists recognize this rela- 2.46 Leonardo da Vinci, Proportions of the Human Figure (after Vitruvius),
tionship in nature. It is found in the c. 1485–90. Pen and ink, 131⁄2 3 93⁄4 in. (34.3 3 24.8 cm). Here, Leonardo demon-
expanding curve of the nautilus shell, strates his interest in human anatomy. By positioning a male figure within a circle and
the curve of a cat’s claw, the spiral a square, Leonardo was investigating the proportional relationships of the head, body,
growth of a pinecone, the seed patterns arms, and legs. Note that the figure’s height is equal to its outstretched arms and that
in a sunflower’s head, and the center of the square’s center is located where the legs join while the circle’s center is the navel.
a daisy (fig. 2.44). Botanists study this
spiral arrangement (called phyllotaxy) their elements until they relate well to scale for emphasis, the artist will find
in leaves, scales, and flowers. This spi- the whole work. that he or she can immediately grab
raling curve may be demonstrated in the observer’s attention. In the Jerome
the continuing projection of the golden Still, many artists find a need for enl- Witkin painting Jeff Davies (fig. 2.49),
rectangle into progressively larger and arging and/or diminishing the sizes of the artist uses enlargement as a means
larger units (fig. 2.45A and B). certain elements to aid the expression of emphasizing the presence of his
of an idea or to create emphasis or figure. The subject, a large, physically
During the Renaissance, artists like dominance. When using changes in
Leonardo da Vinci renewed interest
in mathematically formulated propor-
tional scaling. This can be found, for
example, in Leonardo’s drawing Pro-
portions of the Human Figure (fig. 2.46).
Modern artists also have composed
pictures that conform to the shape of the
golden rectangle. The French painter
Georges Seurat used subtle variations
of golden rectangles and squares in his
painting Circus Sideshow (La Parade)
(fig. 2.47A and B). Notice how he stra-
tegically placed the softly rounded fig-
ures, the tree, the geometric forms, and
the various decorative motifs at golden
section points. Continuing in the math-
ematical spirit, Seurat was also known
for his scientifically measured use of
the Post-Impressionistic technique of
Pointillism.
Most artists seek balance and logi-
cal proportions. However, some artists
choose to disregard the essentials of
proportions—that is, harmonious and
balanced relationships—in order to
emphasize the extremes of scale. When
a very large shape is placed alongside
a much smaller one in an artwork, the
effect is disproportionate. A spectator
may feel unsettled when confronted
with extreme examples of dispropor-
tionate scale. Common objects become
unnerving when made monumental
(fig. 2.48). When making judgments in
determining proportions, most artists
will rely on an educated intuition and
will adjust and readjust the sizes of
The Principles of Organization 79
A 2.47 Georges Seurat, Circus Sideshow (La
Parade), 1887–88. Oil on canvas, 391⁄4 3 59
B in. (99.7 3 149.9 cm). (B) When this Seurat
80 C HAPTER 2 Form painting is divided by a diagonal from upper
left to lower right (large dashes), it crosses the
large square where a golden rectangle would be
subdivided by a heavy horizontal line. Smaller
golden rectangles are created in the vertical
rectangle on the right. These small rectangles
may be further divided by intersecting diagonals.
This could continue indefinitely. In addition,
when another large square is established on the
right side of the picture (small dotted lines) and a
diagonal is drawn from lower left to upper right,
the left side may be broken down into smaller
golden rectangles that mirror those on the right
side of the diagram. Notice how Seurat has
used these lines and their intersections for the
strategic placement of figures and imagery. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Stephen C. Clark,
1960. (61.101.17) Photograph © The Metropolitan Museum of
Art. Art Resource, NY.
2.48 Claes Oldenburg and Coosje
van Bruggen, Saw, Sawing, 1996. Steel,
epoxy resin, fiber-reinforced plastic,
urethane and polyvinylchloride foams,
painted with polyester gelcoat, 50 ft.
8 in. 3 4 ft. 9 in. 3 40 ft. (15.4 3 1.5 3
12.2 m). This clearly recognizable object
far surpasses the scale expected of it.
Courtesy Oldenburg van Bruggen Studio. Photography
by Spatial Design Consultants Co., Ltd., Yokohama.
imposing man, is presented with a religious, political, military, and social 2.49 Jerome Paul Witkin, Jeff Davies, 1980.
bulky torso in simple, light values, sur- personages. Hierarchical scaling is a term Oil on canvas, 6 3 4 ft. (1.83 3 1.22 m). If
rounded by the darker forms of the used to describe this system, whereby there was ever a painting in which one subject
head, arms, jacket, and pants. The art- figures of greatest importance are made dominated the work, this must be it. Most
ist has positioned the white torso in the relatively larger to denote their status. artworks do not need this degree of dominance,
center of the composition for primary In the painting Madonna of Mercy, Piero but Witkin evidently wanted a forceful pres-
attention and has sized the figure’s della Francesca doubled the size of his ence—and he got it. Palmer Museum of Art, Pennsyl-
image so that it seems to burst the lim- Madonna figure in order to elevate
its of the painting’s format. Witkin’s her to a lofty object of reverence (fig. vania State University. Gift of the American Academy and
exaggerated enlargement and relative 2.50). The proportions in this paint-
scaling came from his perceptions of ing, and others like it, are subjective in Institute of Arts and Letters. Hassam and Speicher Purchase
the subject, resulting in an overpower- their intent rather than representational
ing portrait. (fig. 2.51). Fund.
Another way artists have used The physical size of the work can also
inordinate proportion or scaling is to be utilized for expressive purposes. The
indicate rank, status, or importance of artist Chuck Close tends to overwhelm
The Principles of Organization 81
us with paintings of enormous human within the medium—some features are
heads (fig. 2.52). Resulting from their emphasized, and others are subordi-
overall size—the portraits range from nated. This creates both primary focal
five to eight feet in height—there is points and secondary areas of interest
a proportional enlargement of facial that help move the eye around the work.
details, such as hairs and skin pores. The
view of the artist in his studio illustrates Areas become dominant when they
the overpowering scale of these enlarge- are emphasized by contrasts that make
ments (see fig. 2.13). The heads, at first them stand out from the rest. Contrast
heroic, become intimidating and, in draws attention like the spotlight in a
some respects, even frightening. dramatic production or crescendo in a
musical piece. In general, the greater
Dominance the contrast, the greater the empha-
sis and the more dominant an area
While developing an image, an artist becomes.
strives for interest by creating differences
that emphasize the degrees of importance The following methods of empha-
of its various parts. These differences re- sis can be used to achieve dominance:
sult from compositional considerations (1) isolation—a separation of one part
from others; (2) placement—“center
stage” is most often used, but another
2.50 Piero della Francesca, Madonna of
Mercy (center panel of triptych), 1445–55.
Oil and tempera on wood, height about
4 ft. 9 in. (1.44 m). The figure of Mary extends
her arms to make a shelter of her cape for the
smaller figures at her feet. The positioning of the
worshipful figures who surround the central
figure helps give a sense of depth to the scene.
The artist’s use of hierarchical scaling also
strengthens the feeling of the maternal and
merciful power of the Madonna. Italian Civic
Museum, Sansepolcro, Italy/SuperStock, Inc.
2.51 Nancy Spero, Artemis, Acrobats, Divas and Dancers, 1999–2000.
Glass and ceramic mosaic. Comparing the Madonna of Mercy (fig.
2.50) from 1445–55 with the female figure in Spero’s Artemis, Acro-
bats, Divas and Dancers reveals a variety of ways to impart dominance.
Even though the Madonna was made for a sacred space while Spero’s
Artemis resides in the profane space of a New York City subway stop,
both use centrality to establish dominance. Francesca’s Madonna also
uses scale relationships within the painting to establish her importance.
Staring directly at the viewer, Artemis spreads her arms in a gesture
of independence, using her cape as an extension of her body. Gazing
downward, the Madonna also spreads her arms but to envelop her
dependents in a gesture of protection, making her cloak a refuge. While
different, each pose expresses dominance. Public commission for MTA Arts for
Transit, New York, NY. © Nancy Spero. Courtesy Galerie Lelong, New York.
82 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.52 Chuck Close working on John, 1992. Oil on
canvas, 100 3 84 in. The colossal size of the head in
Close’s painting requires an examination and interpre-
tation of every textural and topographical feature of
the model’s face. Courtesy of PaceWildenstein. Photograph by
Bill Jacobson.
position can be dominant, depending 2.53 Milton Glaser, Dylan Poster, 1966. Offset lithograph,
on the surroundings; (3) direction—a 33 3 22 in. (83.8 3 55.8 cm). Glaser created an area of dominance
movement that draws focus; (4) scale in this poster through the use of size and color. The psychedelic hair
or proportion—larger sizes normally becomes the focal point, contrasting with the black silhouette. Further-
dominate, but unusual scale or pro- more, the swirling rhythms of the hair create a pattern that mirrors
portion also attracts attention; (5) Bob Dylan’s music. © Milton Glaser, Inc.
character—a significant difference in
general appearance is striking (such as just as vital, as they produce the back- tance from its change in value, whereas
a change in line quality). These meth- ground against which the dominant another might rely on its busy or excit-
ods of dominance can be enhanced by parts are emphasized. ing shape (figs. 2.53, 2.54, and 2.55).
exaggerating contrast in the various
elements—color, value, texture, and Artists have two important consid- Movement
so forth. erations when dealing with dominance.
First, they must see that each part has Many observers do not realize that
Artwork that neglects varying de- the necessary degree of importance; in looking at artwork, they are being
grees of dominance seems to imply and second, they must incorporate “taken on a tour.” The tour director is,
that everything is of equal importance, these parts, with their varying degrees of course, the artist, who makes the eye
resulting in a confusing image that of importance, into the balance of the travel through visual pathways and
gives the viewer no direction and fails entire work. In doing this, artists often settle on areas of rest. The roadways
to communicate. This does not mean find that they must combine different leading to the rest stops have certain
that areas of secondary dominance are methods to achieve dominance. One speed limits established by the artist,
insignificant to an overall composition. significant area might derive impor-
Those subordinate areas are actually
The Principles of Organization 83
2.54 Poteet Victory, Symbols of Manifest Destiny, 1999. Oil and mixed media and the rest stops are of a predeter-
on canvas, 60 3 40 in. (152.4 3 101.6 cm). In this work, the yellow-orange mined duration.
striped rectangle becomes dominant because of the contrast of light against dark
and warm color against cool color. Courtesy of the artist. The way an artwork dictates these
visual pathways is called movement.
2.55 Giambattista Tiepolo, Madonna of Mt. These paths are, in fact, transitions
Carmel and the Souls in Purgatory, c. 1720. Oil between optical units, and the time
on canvas, 822⁄3 3 256 in. (210 3 650 cm). The required to negotiate them depends
movement weaves its way through this work on the amount of harmony and vari-
because the lighting gives the figures dominance. ety applied to each. The eye move-
ments dictated by these transitions
© SCALA/Ministero per i Beni e le Attivita culturali/Art are produced by the direction of lines,
Resource, New York. shapes, and shape edges (or contours)
that seem to relate and connect to one
84 C HAPTER 2 Form another. The lines, shapes, and shape
contours are generally pointed at one
another or in the same general direc-
tion. They may be touching but are nor-
mally interrupted by gaps over which
the eyes skip as they move about.
Sometimes “leaps” are necessary,
requiring strong directional thrusts and
attractions.
The optical units that attract our
attention contain vital information.
In works that lack multiple areas of
great emphasis, a single figure may be
the dominant unit, as in the Mona Lisa
(see fig. 5.12). Although extreme eye
movement is not required throughout
this composition, secondary material
within the image may be of consider-
able interest and used to create its own
pattern of movement. In other works,
there may be several units of great
interest that are widely separated, and
it thus becomes critical that the observ-
er’s vision be directed to them. There is
usually some hierarchy in these units,
with some calling for more attention 2.56 Lorraine Shemesh, Propeller, 2002. Oil on canvas, 671⁄2 3 711⁄2 in. Shemesh controls the
than others. Their degree of dominance movement through this painting with an interesting value pattern of light and dark colors. This move-
usually determines the amount of time ment is enhanced by an undulating repetition of shapes, the intersecting of curved lines, and the visual
spent at each location. rhythms and patterns that they create. Private collection, courtesy Allan Stone Gallery, New York City.
The written word is read from side movement must be developed through necessary phase in developing the
to side, but a visual image, whether the artist’s configuration of composi- work, such isolated solutions may
two-dimensional or three-dimensional, tional parts. result in a lack of visual unity in the
can be read in any direction. The move- overall composition.
ment of the viewer’s eyes is dictated Economy
by the artist, who must ensure that Sometimes order may be restored
all areas are exploited with no static As a work develops, the artist may by returning to essentials, elimina-
or uninteresting parts. Carefully han- realize that the solutions to various ting elaborate details, and relating the
dled repetition and subtle variations compositional problems are resulting particulars to the whole. This sacrifice
entice eye movement from one part of in unnecessary complexity. This situ- is not easily made or accepted because,
the composition to another. Areas of ation is frequently characterized by in returning to essentials, interest-
related values or colors may appear to broad aspects of the work deteriorat- ing discoveries and effects must
move across a composition as a value ing into fragmentation, and it com- often be sacrificed for legibility and
pattern (fig. 2.56), while the pauses monly results from the artist’s work- a more direct expression. However,
and beats of visual rhythms can create ing on one segment of the composition by applying the principle of econ-
subtle changes that draw the eye along. at a time. Although this may be a omy, the work may regain a sense of
By varying the negative space between unity.
individual shapes, movement can occur
where groupings appear dense in one
location and fade away in another. The
movement should be self-renewing,
constantly drawing the eye back into
the work.
Artists can not only control eye
movement across the surface of the
composition but also direct move-
ment into the depth of the pictorial
space. Historically, the illusion of spa-
tial positioning has been based in lin-
ear perspective. Perspective is effective
but not necessary. There is also “intui-
tive” space, which can suggest depth
by using certain artistic devices—for
example, overlapping, transparency, or
a series of successively smaller objects
that recede into the distance (see Chap-
ter 8).
Some art, particularly kinetic (mov-
ing) sculpture, involves the physical
movement of the work itself. As parts
of the sculpture move about, the viewer
stays to watch their changing relation-
ships—this begins to incorporate the
element of time into its movement
(see Chapter 9, “Time and Motion”).
However, most sculpture and pic-
ture surfaces are physically static, and
The Principles of Organization 85
2.57 Milton Glaser, I NY, 1977. Preceding today’s Employing the principle of economy
use of emoticons, Glaser used an image of a heart means composing with efficiency—
as a symbol for the word “love.” Through the use of expressing an idea as simply and
economy, the artist managed to capture an enduring directly as possible with no arbitrary or
emotional theme in only four characters. Courtesy of Milton excessive use of the elements (fig. 2.57).
Economy has no rules but rather must
Glaser and the State of New York. be an outgrowth of the artist’s instincts.
If something works with respect to the
2.58 Milton Avery, Seated Blonde, 1946. Oil and charcoal whole, it is kept; if disruptive, it may be
on linen, 52 3 333⁄4 3 1 in. (132.1 3 85.7 3 0.4 cm). Avery reworked or rejected.
has simplified the complex qualities of the surface structures
of his two figures, reducing them to shapes and flat color. Economy is sometimes associated
Through the use of economy, the artist abstracted the figures with the term abstraction. Abstraction
to strengthen their distance and isolation. Collection Walker Art (simplification and rearrangement) im-
plies an active process of selecting the
Center, Minneapolis. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Roy R. Neuberger, New York City, essentials that strengthen both the con-
1952. © 2011 Milton Avery Trust/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. ceptual and organizational aspects of
the artwork. In some measure, the ar-
86 C HAPTER 2 Form tistic style dictates the kind of abstrac-
tion, though all art requires abstraction
to some degree.
Although the early Modernists
Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were
among those most influential in the
trend toward economical abstraction,
economy is easy to detect in many con-
temporary art styles (fig. 2.58; see also
figs. 4.1 and T.51). The hard-edged
works of Ellsworth Kelly, the “field”
paintings of Barnett Newman and
Morris Louis, and the analogous color
canvases of Ad Reinhardt all clearly
feature economy (fig. 2.59; see also figs.
2.59 Barnett Newman, Covenant, 1949. Oil on canvas, 3 ft. 113⁄4 in. 3 4 ft. 115⁄8 in. (1.21 3 1.51 m). This example is
characteristic of Newman, an early Color Field painter. Such works generally feature carefully placed stripes superimposed
on a flat color. Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institute, Washington, DC. Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1972. Photograph by Lee
Stalsworth. © 2011 Barnett Newman Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
7.15 and T.78). The absence of elabora- SPACE: RESULT as when working with sculpture), but
tion results in a very direct statement. OF ELEMENTS for those working in a two-dimensional
AND PRINCIPLES medium, it results as the elements are
In economizing, one runs the risk of put into action and altered by the vari-
being monotonous. Sometimes embel- The artist is always concerned about ous principles of organization. In this
lishments must be preserved or added space as it evolves in an artwork. Some section, we will only briefly cover some
to avoid this pitfall. But if the result is people regard space as an element (such general aspects of spatial organization;
greater clarity, the risk (and the work) Chapter 8 will explain in greater detail
may be well worth it.
Space: Result of Elements and Principles 87
the different types of space and what spatial order. An artist who begins might be only a partial answer in a
the artist must do to achieve them. with one kind of space, say, a flat two- work seen from many different posi-
dimensional representation of a figure, tions. Adjustments of adjacent areas
In transferring our three-dimen- should continue to develop 2-D con- must be intriguing enough to urge the
sional world to the canvas, the painter cepts throughout the piece and in the viewer to move around the work, but
faces problems that have been dealt succeeding stages of the artwork. Con- changes to one area should not ruin the
with in various ways in different his- sistency contributes immeasurably to successful results of another. A series of
torical periods. If the illusion of spa- visual unity. calculated adjustments are required to
tial phenomena is to be represented totally unify a piece.
in the artwork, the artist must use THREE-DIMENSIONAL
the art elements to produce the effect FORM AND THE Compositionally, a three-dimen-
sought. Quite often the artist uses the PRINCIPLES OF sional work may be tectonic (closed,
frame as a window into the space, ter- ORGANIZATION massive, and simple), with few and
minating at some point or continuing limited projections, as in figure 2.61,
to infinity. Such space is called three- The organizational principles used or atectonic (open, to a large degree),
dimensional or plastic because all of this in three-dimensional art are the same with frequent extensive penetrations
seems to be condensed into the picture as those used in two-dimensional art. and thin projections, as in figure 2.62.
plane. These surfaces have their limits, However, three-dimensional forms, Both tectonic and atectonic arrange-
but the illusion of depth gives a further with their unique spatial properties, call ments can be found in nearly all 3-D
dimension—a sense that actual 3-D for somewhat different applications of art, and each of these arrangements can
space is involved. Artists not interested the principles. be used individually to achieve differ-
in developing the illusion of volume ent expressive and spatial effects.
and depth may choose to work with a Three-dimensional artists deal with
flat or shallow two-dimensional inter- forms that have multiple views (fig. Harmony and Variety
pretation known as decorative space. 2.60). Composing is more complex.
What might be a satisfactory solution We know that harmony and variety
When considering space in a work, for an arrangement with one view are indispensable concerns in the cre-
an artist usually looks for consistency ation of two-dimensional artworks.
of relationships. Nothing can throw an Their careful consideration is equally
artwork so “out of kilter” as a jumbled
2.60 Shawn Morin, Treasure Mountain Dove, 2003. Colorado yule marble, 26 3 17 3 15 in. This sculpture encour-
ages the viewer to move around the work. Relationships of shape and form are constantly changing with each new
position. The change in the appearance from one view to the next represents the sculptor’s challenge during creation—to
make adjustments to the components in one view without destroying the structure of the next. Photos courtesy of the artist.
88 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.61 James DeWoody, Big Egypt, 1985. Black 2.62 Kenneth Snelson, Dragon, 2000–3. Stainless steel, 30.5 3 31 3 12 ft. (9.3 3 9.5 3 3.65 m).
oxidized steel, 72 3 30 3 30 in. (182.9 3 Kenneth Snelson has developed sculptures that are “open,” or atectonic. Based on technical principles
76.2 3 76.2 cm). In this example of a tectonic related to the geometry of atoms, helixes, and weaving, his works are often referred to as “floating
arrangement, James DeWoody has cut planes compression” or “tensegrity” installations. This work, Dragon, uses a steel cable to suspend individual
that project in and out of his surfaces without steel tubes in the air with only minimal ground support. Courtesy of the artist. Photo © Jan Cook.
penetrating voids or opening spaces. This is
sometimes referred to as “closed” composition.
Courtesy of the Arthur Roger Gallery, New Orleans, LA.
as important in 3-D works, although Extensions are an important con- The sculptor can calculate this
applying them is more complex due sideration in producing harmony and movement to give a sense of rhythm
to the added dimension of depth. in leading the viewer around a sculp- that is either agitated or comparatively
One must keep in mind that to fully ture. These subjective edges, lines, and calm. Predictable rhythm incorporates
view a three-dimensional work such shapes suggest directions around the proportional transitions that give flow
as sculpture, the viewer must circum- work in the same way extensions unify to a work (fig. 2.64). If the sculptor
navigate the work, which has an al- 2-D work. They imply connections with considers some areas as significant,
most infinite number of viewpoints. other such lines and shapes, thus creat- closure—employing the proximity of
The multiple viewing angles of a 3-D ing a continuous movement encircling certain shapes or lines—may be used
work produce an inherent degree of the work. The repetition of elements— to draw attention to those passages.
variety, and this must be balanced line, shape, color, value, and texture— There are instances where the ten-
with harmony for the benefit of the helps establish harmony and adds to sion between close forms is empha-
work’s totality. the sense of visual flow (fig. 2.63). sized and the work harmonized by the
Three-Dimensional Form and the Principles of Organization 89
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Art Fundamentals Theory and Practice, 12th Edition by Otto G. Ocvirk, Robert Stinson, Philip R. Wigg, Robert O. Bone, David L. Cayton
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Art Fundamentals Theory and Practice, 12th Edition by Otto G. Ocvirk, Robert Stinson, Philip R. Wigg, Robert O. Bone, David L. Cayton
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