2.63 John Mishler, Wind Seeker, Stainless steel,
paint, and bearings, 14 3 5 3 6 ft. (4.3 3 1.5 3 1.8
m). The repetition of the grasslike shapes, their grace-
ful curves, and the shared markings of the polished
surfaces help create harmony in this sculpture. In
addition, the upward thrust and implied connection of
the extended shape edges add to the unity and create
visual movement within the piece. Commissioned for the
Wolf Ranch Mall, Georgetown, TX. Courtesy of John Mishler.
2.64 Sebastian, Variación Nuevo Mexico, 1989. Painted steel,
27 3 24 3 24 ft. The rhythmical repetition of the stepping planes in
Sebastian’s sculpture creates an exciting, flowing movement. Photograph by
Jonathan A. Myers, 2008. Funded by the City of Albuquerque, 1% for Art Program and The
Albuquerque Museum, 1987 General Obligation Bonds. In commemoration of the Sister City
relationship between Albuquerque and Chihuahua, Mexico.
application of interpenetration, with one sometimes make use of overlapping to only a small change—the aim being, of
form passing through another. These produce harmony among the sections course, to create greater interest.
areas, however, should not imprison a of their building structures. Addition-
viewer. An observer should always feel ally, in sculpture, there are instances The ultimate goal is an effective
free to move continuously about the of interpenetration, notably in large combination (sometimes a precarious
work. metal pieces or works with reflective balance) of both harmony and vari-
surfaces. ety. This goal is a concern of all three-
Some sculptors make use of trans- dimensional artists, whatever the nature
parent materials, such as glass (fig. Variety, as in 2-D works, is achieved of the work. It might be added that
2.65), rather than opaque media. The by increasing the dissimilarities be- sculptural work in low relief (having shal-
superimposition of such material cre- tween areas or by reducing or reversing low surface depth) is closely related to
ates genuine transparency. This can the means by which harmony is pro- 2-D work, whereas high-relief sculpture
suggest space, albeit usually in a lim- duced. Contrasts in shapes, textures, is somewhat of a hybrid production,
ited way. Architects, who are increas- values, colors, and lines will all increase necessitating considerations similar to
ingly sculptural in their visions, the amount of variety, even if there is those of freestanding 3-D artworks.
90 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.65 Lucas Samaras, Mirrored Room, 1966.
Mirrors on wooden frame, 9 3 9 3 10 ft.
(2.44 3 2.44 3 3.05 m). This is an example of
Environmental Art, which, by its size and struc-
ture, may actually enclose the observer within
the form of the work. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, 1966.
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY/Art Resource, NY.
Courtesy Pace Gallery, New York.
Balance appears symmetrical from any view, asymmetrical (fig. 2.67), and radial
a rectangular box may appear sym- (fig. 2.68). Of the three, symmetrical
When considering balance and the ef- metrical only when one of its sides is and radial balance are considered for-
fects of spatial positioning in three- seen straight-on. If the rectangular box mal and regular. Radial balance is
dimensional art, we need to examine is seen at an angle, the multiple views spherical, with the fulcrum in the center.
some special conditions. For example, seen in depth may influence the sense The parts that radiate from this point
when balancing a 3-D piece of work, of balance. are usually similar in their formations.
the added dimension of depth affects However, artists more commonly make
its multiple views. Although a sphere Three types of balance are possible use of asymmetrical balance because it
in actual space: symmetrical (fig. 2.66),
Three-Dimensional Form and the Principles of Organization 91
2.66 Donald Judd, Untitled, 1969/1982. 2.67 Nancy Graves, Unending Revolution of Venus, Plants, and Pendulum, 1992.
Anodized aluminum, 6 3 27 3 24 in. (15.2 3 Bronze, brass, enamel, stainless steel, and aluminum, 97 3 711⁄2 3 561⁄2 in. (2.46
68.6 3 61 cm). In this minimal work, Judd is pri- 3 1.82 3 1.44 m). In this sculpture, we see a variety of form parts. We also see an
marily interested in perceptually explicit shapes, excellent example of an asymmetrically balanced sculpture. © Nancy Graves Foundation/
reflective surfaces, and vertical interplay. There
is a rhythm between shapes and negative space, Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY. Photograph by Sam Kwong.
and the work invites the eye to travel from one
square to the next. Collection Walker Art Center, Min- provides the greatest individual lati- touched or caressed, stood on, walked
tude and variety. on, or passed through puts special em-
neapolis. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Edmond R. Ruben, 1981. Art © phasis on the relation of the parts to
Proportion the whole. A sense of proportion must
Judd Foundation. Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY. apply continually in a 3-D work as we
When we are viewing a three- look at it from multiple views.
dimensional work, the effect of propor-
tion (the relationship of the parts to the The actual size of a 3-D work when
whole) is fundamental in determining compared to the physical measure-
the basic form, for it sets the standard ment of the human figure is referred
for relationships and permeates the to as its scale. Scale is most dramatic at
other principles. Experiencing a 3-D the extremes, whether the works are
work that can not only be seen but also small enough to be held in the palm of
the hand or immense enough to tower
92 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.68 Mark di Suvero, Eviva Amore, 2001. Steel, Size unknown. The fulcrum of this sculpture is at the center of
the work, identified by the circular shape, as the diagonal beams radiate in outwardly thrusting directions. Art © Mark
di Suvero. Photo courtesy of Raymond and Patsy Nasher Collection, Dallas, Texas. Photographer: Tim Hursley.
above or engulf the viewer (see figs. tures are emphasized, and others are This infuses the element of time into
1.28 and 1.31). Small jewelry and min- subordinated. This creates both pri- the composition and emphasizes those
iaturized models (maquettes) are con- mary focal points and secondary lev- moving parts, thereby elevating their
sidered small scale. Larger works made els of interest that help move the eye degree of dominance.
for public places—like malls, parks, around the work (see figs 2.63, 2.67,
religious temples, mosques, or cathe- and 2.70). These differences result The actual movements found in
drals—can be awe-inspiring in their from compositional considerations kinetic art are set into motion by air,
size (see fig. 2.62). within the medium. water, mechanical devices, or computer
programs. Alexander Calder, an early
Dominance Movement innovator and the father of mobile
sculptures, at first used motors to drive
While developing a 3-D image, an Two types of movements are used his pieces but later made use of air cur-
artist strives for interest by creating by three-dimensional artists. Implied rents (fig. 2.70). Many contemporary
differences through contrast that call movement, the most common type, is sculptors also work with wind, water,
attention to significant parts, mak- illusionary (fig. 2.69; see also fig. 2.64), and air propulsion. Jean Tinguely
ing them dominant. As with 2-D or- but actual movement—as with kinetic (see fig. 9.27), Arthur Ganson (see fig.
ganization, the emphasis or degree sculpture—involves the physical move- 9.28), and José de Rivera (see fig. 3.31)
of contrast for the visual elements is ment of the work itself. As parts of the use motors. Other artists today use
varied to ensure that a hierarchy of sculpture move about, the viewer stays computer software to control various
importance is established; some fea- to watch their changing relationships. electronic elements of their works (see
fig. 2.71).
Three-Dimensional Form and the Principles of Organization 93
2.69 Ernst Barlach, The Avenger, 1914,
later cast. Bronze, 171⁄4 3 223⁄4 3 8 in.
(43.8 3 57.8 3 20.3 cm). This figure is not
actually moving, but it does depict a power-
ful forward thrust. Movement is implied by
the long, sweeping horizontal and diagonal
edges of the robe, the projection of the
head and shoulders, and the base plane.
© Ernst Barlach Lizenzverwaltung Ratzeburg. Photo Tate
Gallery, London/Art Resource, NY.
2.70 Alexander Calder, Myxomatose, 1953.
Steel plate, rod, and paint, 101 3 161 3
521⁄2 in. This noted artist introduced physically
moving sculptures called mobiles. In this mobile,
movement requires time for the observation of
the changing relationships, thereby introducing
a new dimension to art in addition to height,
width, and depth. The result is a constantly
altered, almost infinite series of views. © 2011
Calder Foundation, New York/Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York. Photo credit: Calder Foundation, New York/Art
Resource, NY.
94 C HAPTER 2 Form
2.71 Jenny Holzer, Purple, 2008. 33 double-
sided, curved electronic LED signs. In this work,
Jenny Holzer uses electronics and programming
to create an atmospheric and colorful installation,
which incorporates both movement and stasis.
The half-arcs remain solid and unmoving, while
the digital texts scroll across their surface, provid-
ing a literal, as well as aesthetic, meaning. Displayed
at the Beyeler Fondation in Riehen, Switzerland, 30 October
2009. Georgios Kefalas/EPA/Newscom.
When properly combined, the prin-
ciples of order produce vibrant three-
dimensional forms. New conceptual
uses of time, space, and movement
have brought three-dimensional works
to new and exciting places.
Economy
Artists working with 3-D form, like
their counterparts working in 2-D form,
are most successful when they express
their ideas as simply and directly as
possible. Examples in which the prin-
ciple of economy is the primary focus
are found within the group known as
Primary Structurists or Minimalists.
Like their fellow painters, the Minimal-
ist sculptors want to create stark, sim-
ple, geometric shapes stripped of any
emotional, psychological, or symbolic
associations. They prefer instead to cel-
ebrate form for its own sake, exploring
contour and shape in actual space. Rep-
resentative of this group, Jenny Holzer,
Judy Chicago, and Donald Judd have
reduced their shapes to simple geomet-
ric forms (figs. 2.71 and 2.72; see also
fig. 2.66). In addition, the alignments
of these shapes integrate economy with
repetition and rhythm.
FORM UNITY: 2.72 Judy Chicago, Rainbow Pickett, 1965/2004. Latex paint on canvas-covered plywood, 10 ft. 6 in.
A SUMMARY high 3 10 ft. 6 in. wide 3 9 ft. 2 in. deep. In this minimalist work, brightly colored surfaces heighten
the basic visual relationship of the simplified nonobjective geometric volumes. In keeping with the desire
Artists select a picture plane framed to reduce the form to the barest essentials, Minimalists often prefer to work with the less sophisticated
by certain dimensions. They have their sculptural materials of plywood and canvas over the more technically demanding materials of cast
tools and materials and with them bronze or welded metal. © 2011 Judy Chicago/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Form Unity: A Summary 95
begin to create elements on the surface. play their parts to create a total musi- becomes, through persistent practice,
As they do so, spatial suggestions ap- cal effect. The thematic materials are natural and instinctive.
pear that may conform to the artist’s woven through the work, harmonizing
original conception; if not, a process of its sections. The repetition and contrast The elements of art—line, shape,
adjustment begins. The adjustments, of beats, rests, and accents help cre- value, texture, and color—on which
which affect harmony and variety, are ate layers of rhythm and movement. form is based can do little in isolation.
applied to achieve balance, proportion, And yet, there is a sense of economy, They join forces in the total work as
dominance, movement, and economy. as nothing is overdone. A successful their development is guided by the
As the development continues, artists musical composition sounds eloquent, principles of organization. The individ-
depend on their intellect, emotions, with every measure perfected. ual contributions of the elements can be
and instincts to achieve a resulting studied separately, but in the develop-
artwork that has its own distinctive In every creative medium, be it ment of a work, the ways in which they
form. If the work is successful, its form music, art, dance, poetry, prose, or relate to one another are paramount.
has unity—all parts belong and work theater, the goal is unity. For the cre- Because each element makes an indi-
together. ator, unity results from the selection of vidual contribution and has an intrin-
devices particular to a given medium sic appeal, the elements are discussed
A unified artwork develops like and the use of certain principles to separately in the following five chap-
symphonic orchestration in music. The relate them. An understanding of the ters. As you study each element in turn,
musical composer generally begins with principles of form is indispensable. In please keep the others in mind. In the
a theme that is taken through a number the first chapters of this book, we can end, you must consider all the elements
of variations. Phrases are balanced by begin to see the vast possibilities in the both individually and collectively. The
other phrases. Tempo and dynamics creative art realm. With further study, task is great but necessary for that one
are fluid. The individual instruments we can develop an understanding that vital ingredient—unity.
96 C HAPTER 2 Form
Line
THE VOCABULARY OF LINE LINE AND THE OTHER ART ELEMENTS CCHHAAPPTTE ERR T OH NR EEE
Line and Shape
LINE: THE ELEMENTARY MEANS OF COMMUNICATION Line and Value
Line and Texture
THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE Line and Color
Measure
Type THE SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE
Direction
Location LINE AS REPRESENTATION AND EXPRESSION
Character
THREE-DIMENSIONAL APPLICATIONS OF LINE
Rico Lebrun, Seated Clown, 1941. Ink and wash, with red and black chalk, 39 3 29 in. 9977
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur B. Sachs, Santa Barbara Museum of Art.
THE VOLCAI BNULEARY OF
Line — The path of a moving point made by a tool, instrument, or medium as it moves across an
area. A line is usually made visible because it contrasts in value with its surroundings. Three-
dimensional lines may be made using string, wire, tubes, solid rods, and the like.
arris cross-contour hatching
On three-dimensional objects, the sharp edge A line that moves across a shape or object to Repeated strokes of an art tool, producing
or ridge formed by two surfaces meeting at an define the surface undulations between the clustered (usually parallel) lines that create
angle. Made visible by cast shadow, it is often outermost edges. values. In cross-hatching, similar lines pass over
interpreted as a line. the hatched lines in a different direction, usually
cross-hatching resulting in darker values.
calligraphic lines (See hatching.)
Lines that are generally flowing and rhythmical, implied line
like the qualities found in the kind of writing expression A line that dims, fades, stops, and/or disap-
called calligraphy. 1. The manifestation through artistic form of pears. The missing portion of the line is implied
a thought, emotion, or quality of meaning. to continue and is visually completed by the
calligraphy 2. In art, expression is synonymous with the observer as the line reappears. Also known as a
Elegant, decorative writing. word content. subjective line.
contour gestural lines line
In art, the line that defines the outermost limits Lines that are drawn freely, quickly, and The path of a moving point made by a tool,
of an object or a drawn or painted shape. It seemingly without inhibition in order to instrument, or medium as it moves across an
is sometimes considered to be synonymous capture the intrinsic spirit and animation area. A line is usually made visible because it
with outline; as such, it indicates an edge that seen in the subject. Gestural lines can imply contrasts in value with its surroundings. Three-
also may be defined by the extremities of dark, the past, present, and future motion of the dimensional lines may be made using string,
light, texture, or color. subject. wire, tubes, solid rods, and the like.
LINE: THE concepts where words alone fail. “A maybe the line even became straggly
ELEMENTARY MEANS picture is worth a thousand words” is at some point. A standing line often
OF COMMUNICATION an old saying that speaks to the power exhibits differences in width because
of an image. of the different sizes of the people in
Line may be the most familiar element the line or because people are bunched
of art because we use it every day. As a The term line is also used in many together—although in a military for-
graphic device, lines provide a means of other contexts: the checkout line, the mation, uniformity and perfection is
sharing ideas. They are used by every football line, a police lineup, the line required.
literate culture to create ideograms of sight, the gas line, and so on. These
(pictorial symbols of objects) or sound everyday expressions imply some- Lines can be seen everywhere in
symbols (alphabets) that are the basis of thing that is strung out or stretched a life. We can perceive lines in the cracks
written language. In art, line is the pri- certain distance. You have undoubt- of a sidewalk, the rings of a tree stump,
mary element in sketching and drawing, edly stood in line for something and a row of pebbles, or bolts of lightning
and it is often employed in preparation felt impatience turn to relief as you across a sky. From a distance, even tall
for larger works. Combined pictori- reached the front. Your line may have buildings, such as skyscrapers, can be
ally, lines can communicate difficult been single file (narrow) or two abreast seen as lines. These real-life lines have
(wider). More than likely, the people in many characteristics in common with
your line were irregularly spaced, and the lines used in art.
98 C HAPTER 3 Line
Really, a line begins with a dot 3.1 Linda Richards, How to Peel an Orange, 2009. Mixed media. These assembly
and describes the motion of that dot directions rely primarily on line to convey what actions need to be taken. © Linda Richards,
or shows the connection between that
dot and another. When people stand www.lindarichardsart.com. Courtesy of Mendola Art.
in a line, the first person in line holds
his or her place like a single dot. But as on the other hand, is devious and un- may be of any length and breadth. An
other people line up, with their differ- trustworthy. In most cases, we have infinite number of combinations of long,
ent dimensions and positions, the line’s adjectives that fit the lines we see. And, short, thick, or thin lines can, according
characteristics change. In art, these line like the word associations just cited, to their application, unify, divide, bal-
variations are called physical characteris- those meanings are part of line’s sub- ance, or unbalance an image. Indeed, an
tics, and artists can use them to imply conscious power of suggestion. emotional dynamic is set up by line’s
meanings as well as to produce the measure. For example, thick lines tend to
likeness of an object. Measure communicate more of a sense of stabil-
ity than thinner lines. When applied to
The artist can use line to repre- Measure refers to the length and width the development of typeface, a thick font
sent complex ideas, record something of line—its measurable properties. A line seems more forceful than a thinner one
observed, or simply document an activ-
ity or action (fig. 3.1). An objective use
of line can describe simple measure-
ments and surface characteristics and
can indicate a sense of depth. Line can
describe an edge, as on a piece of sculp-
ture; it may mark a meeting of areas
where value, texture, or color differ-
ences do not blend in a drawing (fig.
3.2); or it may define the outer limits of
an object’s shape (see fig. 3.11). How-
ever, line can be subjectively modified
to suggest many emotional states and
responses, including such complex
feelings as anger, tension, calmness,
energy, movement, weight, and so on.
Thus, the artist uses line, whether objec-
tively or subjectively, to add meaning
to an image (fig. 3.3).
THE PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
OF LINE
The physical characteristics of line are
many. Lines may be short or long, thin
or thick, straight or curved, direct or
meandering, zigzag or serpentine, dis-
tinct or blurred. These characteristics
have certain built-in associations that
the artist may make use of. When we
say that a person is a “straight arrow,”
we mean that he or she is straightfor-
ward and reliable; a “crooked” person,
The Physical Characteristics of Line 99
3.2 Lebbeus Woods, Terrain 10, 1999. Sanded paper collage with electrostatic print, ink, pencil, pastel, and colored
pencil, 233⁄8 3 193⁄8 in. Woods combines abstract mark, text, and realistic rendering in this image. In the top half of the
image, line is used to create the illusion of planes, alluding to natural and architectural forms. In the top right and left of
the image, the line disintegrates into mark where no modeling or value is used. The bottom half of the image employs
writing/documentation and a realistic rendering of Manhattan in an altered landscape. The text functions as line and mark
and balances the light areas on the top. The central positioning of the cityscape draws the viewer’s attention by its realistic
rendering, extreme dark and light values, and tightly rendered mark. Notice how this area is echoed in the top middle of
the image to balance the white of the values. © Lebbeus Woods.
100 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.3 Pat Steir, Summer Moon, 2005. Oil on canvas, 1091⁄2 3 137 in. (278.1 3 348 cm). In this image, the artist presents a
very personalized and subjective use of line, which makes the viewer aware of line’s flowing movement across the canvas.
Her application is reminiscent of the technique perfected in her waterfall series. Courtesy Cheim & Read, New York.
and provides a hierarchy for delivering Type arc, reverse its curve to become wavy,
information such as titles, subtitles, and or continue turning within itself to
so forth. Thin lines are generally more There are many different types of line. produce a spiral. Alterations of move-
elegant, gentle, or delicate. In figure 3.3 If the line continues in only one direc- ment become visually entertaining
the repetition of fine fluid lines ties the tion, it is straight; if changes of direc- and physically stimulating if they are
image together and suggests movement. tion gradually occur, it is curved; if rhythmical. A curved line is inherently
The measure of the line must be appro- those changes are sudden and abrupt, graceful and, to a degree, unstable (see
priate for the development of the image, an angular line is created. By join- figs. 3.23 and 3.29). The abrupt changes
but context can also influence the im- ing the characteristics of measure and of direction in an angular line create
pact of a line’s measure. For example, a type, we find that long, short, thick, or excitement and/or confusion (fig. 3.4).
drawing of a fragile flower could be de- thin lines can be straight, angular, or Our eyes frequently have difficulty
stroyed by using bold, wide lines. Con- curved. A straight line, in its continu- adapting to an angular line’s unex-
versely, you would probably not want ity, ultimately seems stiff and rigid pected deviations of direction. Hence,
to use thin, gentle lines on an important and, if rendered thinly, may appear the angular line is full of challenging
traffic sign. brittle. The curved line may form an interest.
The Physical Characteristics of Line 101
3.5 Mel Bochner, Vertigo, 1982.
Charcoal, conté crayon, and pastel on
canvas, 9 ft. 3 6 ft. 2 in. (2.74 3 1.88
m). Line, the dominant element in this
work, is almost wholly diagonal, imparting
a feeling of intense activity and stress.
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY. Charles Clif-
ton Fund, 1982. © Mel Bochner.
3.4 Clouret Bouchel, Fight or Flight, 2000.
Mixed media, 91⁄4 3 121⁄2 in. The abrupt changes
of direction in the diagonal angular lines in this
drawing create the excitement and tension of
combat. Courtesy of the artist.
Direction ward direction, the line delivers less Printmakers know of the impor-
energy. In addition, direction can facili- tance of location and the development
Another element of line is its basic tate a sense of continuity in a composi- of line’s visual weight. Having spent
direction, which can exist irrespective of tion that contains lines with contrasting many hours developing a composition
the component movements within the properties. For example, lines of vari- on a plate or woodblock with a left-to-
line. That is, a line can be a zigzag type ous widths and lengths can harmonize right orientation, they find the image is
but take a generally curved direction. if they all share the same direction. reversed during printing. The feeling of
Thus, the line type can be contradicted or balance within the composition is often
emphasized by its basic direction. A gen- Location so disturbed by the new orientation that
erally horizontal direction could indicate it requires adjustment. The same line
serenity and perfect stability, whereas a The specific location of a line can en- in a new location appears to assume a
diagonal direction might imply agita- hance or diminish the visual weight new visual weight. As with any other
tion, motion, and instability (fig. 3.5). A and our psychological response to characteristic of line, location should be
vertical line generally suggests poise and the other characteristics of the line. In carefully considered, because a line’s
aspiration. Chapter 2 we saw that the location of placement can serve to unify or divide,
an image on the picture plane, with re- balance or unbalance a composition.
The direction of line is very impor- gard to the effect of gravity, could cre-
tant, because in large measure it con- ate emotional responses ranging from A line’s location is also important
trols our eye movement within the excitement and anticipation to relief because it can affect the way in which
composition (fig. 3.6). A slanted line and calmness. Line is affected by its lo- we perceive the line. In the work of
could move our eyes in either direction, cation in the same manner. A diagonal Ann Jonas, noted children’s illustrator,
but usually additional elements are line high in the picture plane might ap- the line’s location has a bearing on the
involved that give it direction. Gener- pear to be soaring, while that same line interpretation of what image the line
ally, when lines slant upward, there is placed in a low position might appear is suggesting. In figure 3.7, you can
a sense of strength, expectation, or posi- to be plunging. see lines depicting people in a movie
tive energy. When slanted in a down- theater. However if the illustration
102 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.6 Janice Lessman-Moss, #305-703,
2003. Cotton, stainless steel, Jacquard
tapestry, power-loom-woven, Beljen
Mills, NC, 71 3 70 in. The curving lines
in this woven tapestry guide our eyes
throughout the work while creating both
harmony and variety. Many of the dark
lines seem to imply circular shapes be-
fore they fade and disappear into other
lines, while the patterns in light values
act as a background, providing additional
rhythm and movement. The image and
ground seem to be in constant motion.
© 2003 Janice Lessman-Moss. Photo: Gerry Simon.
3.7 Ann Jonas, illustration from Round Trip, 1983. Printed illustration, 10 3 15 in. Ann Jonas 103
has designed this illustration to be viewed from two directions. In the current orientation, the lines
at the bottom appear to be people in a movie theater. However, by turning the illustration upside
down, those lines appear to be ceiling tiles in a diner. This shows how the location of a line can
influence how we interpret it. Illustration © 1983 by Ann Jonas. Used by permission of HarperCollins Publishers.
The Physical Characteristics of Line
3.8 Line character of various media and tech- A B
niques. (A) Lines on smooth (left) and rough (right) CD EF
paper, made with (top to bottom): 6B pencil; 3B GH IJ
pencil; HB pencil; 2H pencil; ebony pencil; black
conté; sepia conté on its end; sepia conté on its
side; Prussian blue crayon; blue oil pastel; blue-
green pastel; wide charcoal stick; thin charcoal
stick; blue chalk; and graphite powder applied
by charmois, finger, and cotton ball. (B) Lines on
dry (left) and wet (right) paper, made with (top
to bottom): eye dropper; narrow-nib Speedball;
medium-nib Speedball; wide-nib Speedball;
glass pen; medium bamboo-reed pen; narrow
bamboo-reed pen; mat board, using its flat sur-
face; mat board on its edge; finger; foam brush,
wet with ink; dry foam brush, dragged through
ink; brush of rosewood fiber in red watercolor;
Japanese brush in blue watercolor; toothbrush
spatter in red watercolor; ochre medium felt-tip
marker; ochre wide-felt-tip marker; ochre fine-
felt-tip marker. (C) Examples of tools: (on left, top
to bottom) 6B pencil; 3B pencil; HB pencil; 2H
pencil; ebony pencil; black conté next to graphite
stick; sepia conté; blue crayon; oil pastel; charcoal
sticks; blue chalk; and powdered graphite on cot-
ton ball; (on right, top to bottom) eyedropper; nar-
row-nib Speedball; medium-nib Speedball; wide-
nib Speedball; glass pen; medium bamboo-reed
pen; narrow bamboo-reed pen; foam brush; mat
board; rosewood brush; bamboo brush; Japanese
brush; toothbrush; and felt-tip marker. Lines
made with additional media:
(D) graphite stick applied with varied pressure;
(E) pencil on very rough paper; (F) string and
cardboard in collage; (G) felt-tip pen;
(H) reticulating inks and tusche washes;
(I) watercolor paint; (J) oil and enamel scraped
with razor blades; (K) line animations in the
opening credits of Catch Me If You Can; (L) en-
graving and mezzotint rockers on copper printing
plate; (M) linoleum block cut with chisels and
gouges; (N) scratches on the sculptural surface
and lines caused by the meeting of adjacent
planes. Close-up sections of artworks courtesy of the artists.
Opening graphics for Catch Me If You Can, 2002. Directed by
Steven Spielberg. Photofest.
K L MN
104 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.9 Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, Nathan Admonishing David, no date. Pen and brush with bistre, 75⁄16 3
95⁄16 in. (18.6 3 23.6 cm). The crisp, biting lines of the pen contrast effectively with the broader, softer lines of the
brush. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, H. O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929. (29.100.934) Image © The
Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY.
is rotated 180 degrees, the image of varying density to the feathery firm lines of pen and ink (fig. 3.9). As
becomes something completely differ- reticulated edge of an ink line burst- artists become familiar with materials
ent; what we previously saw as people ing across a wet surface. Some media, and the range of their expression,
now become ceiling tiles. The way we like ink, can provide a wide range they quickly discover the formal
interpret the line is greatly influenced of textures and edge qualities, from properties and expressive possibili-
by its location on the picture plane. soft and blurred to sharp and crisp, ties of each.
while other media, like an assortment
Character of pencils or conté crayons, have a To create visual interest, the artist
wide range of potential values de- can exploit all the individual charac-
Along with measure, type, direction, pending on the pressure applied and teristics of a medium or use an assort-
and location, line possesses character— the hardness of the drawing material ment of different media in the same
a visual surface quality related to the (fig. 3.8). work. A consistent use of lines of the
medium with which the line is cre- same character could result in monot-
ated. Each instrument—brush, burin, The personality or emotional qual- ony, unless the unity was balanced
stick, pencil, finger, and so forth—has ity of the line is rooted in the nature by varying other physical properties.
distinctive characteristics that re- of the medium chosen. In Rem- The artist, who is the real master of
spond in different ways to different brandt’s sketch Nathan Admonishing the situation, controls whether the
surfaces. As such, the character of a David, you can see expressive quali- viewer sees lines of uniformity or
line can vary from chalk’s grainy dots ties created by the soft brush lines of accent, certainty or indecision, tension
ink, juxtaposed with the precise and or relaxation. It is the artist’s ability,
The Physical Characteristics of Line 105
3.10 Bill Watterson, Calvin & Hobbes, 1995. Bill Watterson almost exclusively uses line in this comic strip to create a
winter scene. Employing many different types of lines—from the wide tree trunk to the thin letters—along with abundant
negative space, he is able to capture the stillness of a snowy wonderland. ©1995 Watterson. Dist. By UNIVERSAL UCLICK. Reprinted
with permission. All rights reserved.
experience, intention, and mental and linear components of a work of art. The (fig. 3.11). A contour line may be con-
physical condition that determine the elements cooperate in such a way as to tinuous and intentional (see fig. 4.14),
effectiveness of line character. give line an intrinsic appeal that allows or it can be created by contrasting areas
it to be admired for its own sake. Art- of value, texture, or color (see fig. 7.25).
LINE AND THE OTHER ists often exploit this appeal by creating A contour line that does not change,
ART ELEMENTS pictures where the lines are dominant or modulate, at all often creates a flat,
while the other elements are subordi- articulated outline that emphasizes a
The physical characteristics of line are nate. Cartoons and graphic novels are shape’s two-dimensional aspect. How-
closely related to and dependent on the excellent examples of this (fig. 3.10). ever, when a contour line modulates
other elements. Line can possess value, On the other hand, some works are and undergoes various changes, it can
texture, and color, and it can create line-free, consisting entirely of other generate a feeling of depth in addition
value, texture, and shape. Some of these elements. to length and width.
factors are essential to the very creation
of line, while others are introduced as Line and Shape Cross-contours, on the other hand,
needed or may be the result of the line’s are lines that seem to follow the rise
application. In visual art, lines can indicate the and fall of a shape’s surface to create a
outer edges (outlines) of shapes. They sense of three-dimensionality. Instead
It is often difficult to make a com- can also be used to describe the sur- of describing just the extremities of a
pletely arbitrary and absolute distinc- face undulations of shapes or objects. shape or mass, cross-contours provide
tion between the elements, but it is still The line that defines the outermost information about the nature of the
possible to recognize and analyze the limits of a drawn or painted figure, surfaces contained within those edges,
object, or mass is known as a contour somewhat in the manner of a topo-
graphical map (fig. 3.12). Imagine an
106 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.11 Ellsworth Kelly, Briar, 1963. Graphite on
paper, 223⁄8 3 283⁄8 in. (57 3 72 cm). Line becomes
contour as it encircles an object, giving it a distinc-
tive, and often recognizable, shape. Whitney Museum
of American Art, New York. Purchase, with funds from the Neysa
McMein Purchase Award. 65.42. Photograph by Geoffrey Clements.
© Ellsworth Kelly.
275 260200
100 100
20
18
260
200
3.12 The lines on a topographical map
indicate the various elevations of the earth’s
surface. In a similar way, the artist uses cross-
contours to show the configuration of the
subject.
Line and the Other Art Elements 107
A
3.13 Front of dollar bill. The cross-contours illustrate the dips
and swells of Washington’s features. This technique can be used
to describe the surface of any subject being interpreted.
© PhotoEdit/Alamy.
B
ant, saturated with ink, making several value helps a line stand out from its A common way of creating value
trips crawling up and down and across surroundings—the greater the con- with parallel lines is called hatching.
a face—leaving a visual path. The trast, the more visible the line. Value These clustered lines not only produce
resulting ink trail would describe the differences can result from layers and value but can also be used to define
features of that face by cross-contour mixtures of media, the amount of pres- the direction of the image at any given
(fig. 3.13). One can use modulated lines sure exerted on a tool, or line charac- point. Darker values can also be cre-
(thick and thin, irregular and curved) to teristics (wide, heavy lines appear ated by cross-hatching—passing a
enhance cross-contours; one can even dark in value, and narrow lines appear group of parallel lines across another
vary the pressure when producing lighter in value). group of lines, in a different direction
the lines so that their darkest portions (fig. 3.15). This helps create the sensa-
would seem to advance and the lightest Groups of parallel lines can also tion of shading (cast shadows) and
to recede. Massed together, lines can be create areas that differ in value. Value three-dimensionality.
varied in spacing from narrow to wide changes within those areas can be con-
to produce a similar advancing and/or trolled by varying the thickness of the Line and Texture
receding effect. lines (wide lines appear dark, and nar-
row lines appear light) or by chang- Groups of lines can combine to create
Line and Value ing the spaces between the lines (widely the illusion of a visual texture, suggest-
spaced lines appear light, and closely ing a tactile feel for an image. Visual
The degree of lightness or darkness spaced lines appear dark). These line textures can indicate degrees of rough-
that a line exhibits against its back- variations often make interesting tran- ness or smoothness that simulate our
ground is called value. A change in sitions between areas of contrasting sensation of touch (fig. 3.16). Regardless
value or color (fig. 3.14).
108 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.14 Grouped lines produce value and transi-
tion. (A) Darker areas are created when the
black lines (straight or irregular) are drawn more
closely together. (B) Darker areas appear when
the black lines increase in width but remain con-
stant in spacing. (C) Changes in line spacing and
A width act as a transition between areas of dark
and light, black and a color, a color and white,
and two different colors.
B
C
3.15 Andres Zorn, The Toast, 1893.
Etching, 125⁄8 3 107⁄16 in. (32 3 26.5 cm). In
this work, Andres Zorn used hatching and
cross-hatching to create degrees of value—
darks where lines are densely drawn and
lighter values where more paper can be seen.
Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden.
Photo Deutsche Fotothek, Dresden.
Line and the Other Art Elements 109
3.16 Jean-Michel Basquiat, Untitled,
1981. Acrylic and mixed media on
canvas, 205.7 3 175.9 cm. Basquiat,
first known for his poetic graffiti in
New York during the 1970s, trans-
lated his emotional and personal
expression onto canvas. In this work,
Basquiat did not try to duplicate
textures in nature but invented his
own textural surfaces using many line
combinations. The Eli and Edythe L. Broad
Collection, Los Angeles. Photograph by Douglas
M. Parker Studio, Los Angeles, CA. Art © 2011
The Estate of Jean-Michel Basquiat/ADAGP,
Paris/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
of whether it is invented or based on applied and the type of paint medium of etched line (see fig. 3.15) to the linear
something seen, a work’s texture can be used. Soft-haired brushes can produce texture of brushwork (see fig. 3.16) or the
enhanced by the choice of the medium smooth textured lines with thin paint textural lines created on a woodcut (fig.
and the way in which it is used (fig. 3.17). and thick blotted lines with heavy, vis- 3.18). Although each of these works relies
The texture of marks made by hard- cous paint. When line is translated into heavily on line, the differences in tools
bristled brushes can range from sharp any new medium, it has its own unique and media vastly affect the way in which
to rough, depending on the pressure textural quality. Compare the texture the lines create texture.
110 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.17 Banksy, Street Art from West Bank Wall. This work by Banksy
incorporates the textures of both the West Bank barrier wall and
the land in front of it. The rough textures of the dry earth contrast
eloquently and expressively with the smooth painting of blue sky and
child. Courtesy of the artist.
3.18 Emil Nolde, Fischdampfer (Fishing Boat), 1910. Print (woodcut), 11¾ 3 153⁄8 in. (29.84 3
39.37 cm). When knives and gouges are used to cut the wood, the lines and textures created are
different from those produced by another medium. Nolde-Stiftung Seebüll, Germany. Inventory number Ho41.
Photograph by Kleinhempel, Hamburg.
Line and the Other Art Elements 111
3.19 Zdenek Sykora, Line No. 50, 1988. Oil on canvas, 78.7 3 78.7 in. spatially, while thinner lines in the
(200 3 200 cm). Variations in the continuous curvilinear lines within this painting create illusions of same medium tend to recede by com-
open space. These variations include changes in the physical properties of the measure, direction, loca- parison. A line that modulates from
tion, and character of the lines, as well as changes in value and color. © National Gallery in Prague. thick to thin will become very active
spatially, and when combined with
Line and Color yellow to suggest cowardice or warmth, changes of value, the darker, thicker
and so forth (see the “Color and Emo- portions become even more dynamic.
The introduction of color to a line adds tion” section in Chapter 7). Value contrast alone can cause a line to
an important expressive potential. advance and recede, and an individual
Color can accentuate other line prop- THE SPATIAL line with varied values throughout its
erties. A hard (crisp, sharp, or distinct) CHARACTERISTICS length may appear to writhe and twist
line combined with an intense color OF LINE in space. A line that curves and twists
produces a forceful or even harsh ef- can even appear to move away from
fect. This effect would be considerably Depending on their application, the the viewer, especially if the width of
muted if the same line were created in physical characteristics of graphic line that line varies. In addition, texture and
a neutral color. In addition, colors have can create a sense of space (fig. 3.19). color contribute to a line’s spatial effect:
come to be identified with different Thick lines tend to advance forward a line with greater textural detail can
emotional states. Thus, the artist might suggest closeness, less textural detail
use red as a symbol of passion or anger, can suggest distance; and warm colors
generally advance, while cool colors
generally recede.
When a line indicates space that
is flat or shallow, it is a decorative line.
This two-dimensional quality is caused
by a consistency in width, value, tex-
ture, color, and so on (see fig. 3.11).
By comparison, a plastic line, having
greater variation of the same elements,
will advance and recede along its path
and suggest an illusion of deeper plas-
tic space (see fig. 3.9). Both types have
their uses, depending on the type of
spatial feeling the artist wants to create
in an image.
Whether isolated, modulated,
grouped, or used in combination with
other elements, every factor involved
with line has something to say about its
location in space. The artist’s job is to
use these factors to create spatial order
(fig. 3.20).
LINE AS
REPRESENTATION
AND EXPRESSION
Line creates representation on both
realistic and abstract levels. The lines
drawn in an architect’s plan for a
112 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.20 Denyse Thomasos, Urban Jewels, 1995. Acrylic on canvas, 10 3 16 ft. (304.8 3 487.68 cm). The spatial illusion,
of such obvious importance in this example, is largely the product of the physical properties of the lines strengthened by
contrasting areas of value and color. Courtesy of Lennon, Weinberg, NY.
building can symbolize walls or con- information to a rider. The variety that subject. Artists who deal with
struction materials; the lines drawn on among the lines makes it easy for a per- typography also consider the expres-
maps can represent rivers, roads, or son to see a route or connecting points sive characteristics of line when select-
contours; and the lines that form let- (fig. 3.21). ing font or typeface—fonts composed of
ters and words in a textbook can repre- various thicknesses, length, direction,
sent thoughts and concepts. Such use However, lines may also suggest cer- and so forth can reinforce or enhance
of line is primarily utilitarian, a conve- tain emotional or psychological mean- the emotional impact of the words.
nient way of communicating ideas to ings. In a linear portrait of a person,
another person. the artist might use line properties to In addition to its ability to describe
describe that person’s physical details, facts and emotions, line can express
Artists may indicate a wealth of fac- but the artist’s use of line quality might action in a “gestural” sense. The gesture
tual information by employing a vari- also be able to convey—either satiri- in graphic work implies the past, pres-
ety of line characteristics. For example, cally or sympathetically—important ent, and future motion of the drawn
in a map of London’s train system, dif- information about the object’s char- subject. Gestural drawing in any
ferences in line color, thickness, length, acter (fig. 3.22). In this way, the work medium displays lines that are drawn
and value convey specific, practical becomes a subjective interpretation of freely, quickly, and seemingly without
Line as Representation and Expression 113
3.21 Map of London’s Underground. In this
transit map, lines represent the many train routes
and are color-coded to facilitate viewing. Courtesy
of the London Transportation System.
3.22 Rico Lebrun, Seated Clown,
1941. Ink and wash, with red and
black chalk, 39 3 29 in. The power
and fluid quality of the line used for
the lower body gives the figure a solid,
sturdy, and substantial presence, while
the delicate rendering of facial features
seems to reveal a complex personality.
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur B. Sachs, Santa
Barbara Museum of Art.
114 C HAPTER 3 Line
3.23 George Hergé, Tintin. In this Tintin illustration, Hergé uses several lines to illustrate different movements.
For example, the horizontal lines indicate the bike’s forward motion and the squiggly line captures the furious
squeal of the back tire. © Hergé/Moulinsart 2011.
inhibition. If preserved in the work, Whatever the approach, the energy which the wrist may move and relies
such lines capture the intrinsic spirit suggested by the line, and even the act more on the elbow as a pivot point.
and animation seen in the subject. This of making the line, is often related to Such differences in body movements
spirit can pertain to both animate and the physics of body movement. West- alter the expressive character of the
inanimate subjects—a towel casually ern artists tend to hold the brush on an lines (figs. 3.27 and 3.28).
thrown over a chair has a unique “ges- angle like a writing pencil and make
ture,” resulting from the way it falls, its small circular strokes or arcs by piv- Lines drawn with graceful curves
weight and texture, and the surface it oting the wrist. Asian cultures, on the that seem to flow effortlessly, swelling
contacts. Obviously, this gestural con- other hand, have a rich tradition of and suggesting movement, are known
cept applies even more conspicuously writing with brushes rather than pen- as calligraphic lines. Highly personal
to those subjects that are capable of cils. They hold the brush more verti- in nature, calligraphic lines are simi-
movement (figs. 3.23 and 3.24). Many cally by using the first two fingers lar to the individual qualities found in
paintings are preceded by and based to pull the brush handle against the handwriting; they are fluid and rhyth-
on the artist’s initial gestural response thumb and the back of the bottom fin- mical and intriguing to the eye as they
(fig. 3.25). gers. This changes the subtle manner in enrich an artwork. In comparing the
calligraphy of figure 3.26 with that of
Line as Representation and Expression 115
3.24 Steve Magada, Trio, c. 1966. Oil on canvas, size unknown. The gestural
lines in this work evoke the energy of the performers. Photograph courtesy of Virginia
Magada.
3.25 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Study for Figure
of Falsehood on the Ceiling of the Palazzo Trento-
Valmarana, Vicenza, no date. Pen and brown ink, 63⁄8 3
6 in. (16.2 3 15.4 cm). This gestural drawing clearly illus-
trates the dramatic motion of drawing as an activity. Artists
often try to sustain this effect beyond the initial stage of a
sketch. Princeton University Art Museum. Bequest of Dan Fellows Platt,
Class of 1895 x1948-863.
116 C HAPTER 3 Line
figures 3.27 and 3.28, one can see the
shared qualities of fluid movement
and unique gesture. The written calli-
graphic line can be made to take on the
quality of the object being described
(see figure 3.28) or instill a sense of
space, leaping upward and outward
(see figure 3.27). This wide application
of line includes the creation of value
and texture, illustrating the impossibil-
ity of truly isolating the elements of art
from one another.
In the lithograph Jane Avril, the artist
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec creates cal-
ligraphic lines with a gestural character
3.26 Annie Cicale, Untitled, 2001. Pen and ink drawing, 7 3 10 in. In the words of the artist, “Beauti-
ful writing, called calligraphy, captures the power of the written word and elevates it so that the writing
becomes an image as powerful as the words.” Like the individual styles of painters or sculptors, such
beautiful calligraphy evolves only after years of practice. Courtesy of the artist.
3.27 Wang Hsi-chih, from Three Passages of Calligraphy: “Ping-an,” “Ho-ju,” and “Feng-chu,” Eastern Ch’in dynasty, 117
fourth century (321–379 C.E.), Calligraphy. Ink on paper. Certain meanings intrinsic to line arise from its character. These
meanings are the product of the medium, the tools used, and the artist’s method of application. Calligraphy is esteemed
in China as an art form equal to painting. Created with brush and ink on paper (the Chinese invented paper), the lively,
abstract ideographs of Chinese calligraphy appear to leap upward and outward, “like a dragon leaping over heaven’s gate.”
National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
Line as Representation and Expression
3.28 Wu Zhen (attributed to), Bamboo in the Wind, early-fourteenth- 3.29 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Jane Avril, first plate from Le Café
century hanging scroll, Yuan dynasty, China. Ink on paper, 295⁄8 3 213⁄8 Concert, 1893. Lithograph, printed in black, 101⁄2 3 87⁄16 in. (26.7 3 21.4
in. (75.2 3 54.3 cm). Wu Zhen uses meticulous, controlled brushwork to cm). The lines in this image seem to have been drawn with great freedom,
describe the flowing linear (calligraphic) qualities of the bamboo tree. communicating the graceful action of the subject. Gift of Abby Aldrich
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Chinese and Japanese Special Fund, 15.907. Photograph © 2013 Rockefeller. (167.1946) The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
that captures the spirit of the dance and asks the viewer to complete miss- are created as an artist manipulates a
(fig. 3.29). The calligraphic line in this ing sections (see the “Linking through line’s physical properties.
print also becomes a broken implied Extensions” section in Chapter 2).
line, a variation in application that The qualities of line can be described
further suggests spatial change, move- Line has many objective and subjec- in terms of general states of feeling—
ment, and animation. An implied line tive implications. In its role of signify- somber, tired, energetic, brittle, alive,
seems to fade, stop, and/or disappear ing ideas and conveying feelings, line and the like. An infinite number of
and then reappear as a continuation moves and lives, pulsating with signifi- conditions of varying subtlety can be
or an extension of the same line, edge, cant emotions. It describes the edges or communicated by the artist. The vari-
or direction. You can see this effect in contours of shapes, it diagrams silhou- ous attributes of line can act in concert
figure 3.29 as you follow the line of the ettes, and it encompasses spaces and toward one goal or can serve separate
skirt around. It suggests movement areas—all in such a way as to convey roles of expression and design. Gently
a variety of meanings. These meanings curving lines, long lines, thin lines, and
118 C HAPTER 3 Line
lines placed low in the frame may all
contribute to the feeling of calmness in
a composition. However, in a work of
art, as in the human mind, such feel-
ings are rarely so clearly defined. The
viewer’s recognition of these qualities
is a matter of feeling, which means that
the viewer must be receptive and per-
ceptive and have a reservoir of experi-
ences to draw on.
For the artist, an intuitively sensi-
tive use of line evolves when one is
empowered by a thorough understand-
ing of line’s physical properties and
understands the relationship between
line and the other elements. When these
properties are internalized, an artist
can use line to create spontaneously,
using mind and body to express an
idea or feeling. Whether line is used to
create a sketchy interpretation, express
a deep emotion, reveal the gesture of an
action, or record factual information,
it remains a basic means of commu-
nication and one of the first elements
employed.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL 3.30 Bill Barrett, Kindred, 2001. Bronze, 10 ft. high 3 9 ft. wide 3 5 ft. deep. The contour
APPLICATIONS lines in this sculpture come alive as it is “washed” with values ranging from highlights to deep
OF LINE shadows. Other internal lines occur along the arris (edge) where two planes meet abruptly
and a contrasting shadow is cast. The sharper the edges, the greater the contrast. Where
For the 3-D artist, line is a visual phe- those edges are softened, the line becomes indistinct—dissolving completely in some loca-
nomenon that, for the most part, does tions. Just as line can be used to harmonize a graphic image, line used in 3-D work can control
not actually exist in nature or in the the eye movement and unify the form. Commissioned by the University of Michigan School of Social Work,
third dimension. What we visually in-
terpret as line is primarily a change in Ann Arbor, MI. Photo by Tanya C. Hart Emley.
value, color, or texture that indicates the
meeting of planes or the outer edges of
shapes. When two planes come together,
they form a ridge, or an edge known
as an arris. Whether we are looking at
tree bark or cracks in the sidewalk, this
edge can be perceived as a line when it
is enhanced by a cast shadow (fig. 3.30).
That line can fade away as the ridge, or
arris, is softened and rounds over. In
three-dimensional art, the spatial char-
acteristics of line are physical, as they
literally move in space with measurable
Three-Dimensional Applications of Line 119
3.31 José de Rivera, Construction 8, 1954. Stainless steel forged 3.32 Richard Lippold, Variation within a Sphere, No. 10, the Sun,
rod, 10 3 16 3 13 in. (25.4 3 40.6 3 35.5 cm) including base. The 1953–56. 22-karat gold-filled wire, 11 3 22 3 51⁄2 ft. (3.35 3 6.70
concept of attracting observers to a continuous series of rewarding 3 1.68 m). The development of welding and soldering techniques
visual experiences as they move about a static three-dimensional for use in sculpture made the shaping and joining of thin linear metals
work of art led to the principle of kinetic, or mobile, art, as with this possible, as in this work by Lippold. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund,
sculpture set on a slowly turning motorized plinth. Gift of Mrs. Heinz Schulz.
1956, (56.106.1) Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art /Art Resource, NY. Art © 2011
The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. Digital Image © The Museum of Modern Art/
Estate of Richard Lippold/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY.
distances between them. These three- line may be experienced tactilely
dimensional lines can carry a great deal because of the inscribed valleys and
of energy, swooping and swirling in ridges. In three-dimensional art, inc-
space (fig. 3.31). ised lines are used to accent surfaces
for interest and movement. Italian art-
Materials like string, wire, tubes, ist Giacomo Manzu employed such
solid rods, and the like have been used lines to add sparkle to relief sculpture
for their linear quality and have added (fig. 3.33).
to the repertoire of the plastic artist.
The use of these materials creates a 3.33 Giacomo Manzu, Death by Violence, 1950.
more obvious instance of line, referenc- Bronze cast from clay model, 365⁄8 3 25¼ in.
ing characteristics of two-dimensional (93.5 3 64 cm). This is a study for one of a
art within three dimensions. Such lin- series of panels for the doors of Saint Peter’s
ear explorations of space can be seen (Vatican, Rome). The confining spatial limitations
in the works of artists such as Richard of relief sculpture are evident. To create a
Lippold (fig. 3.32), Alexander Calder greater feeling of mass, Manzu used sharply
(see. fig. 2.70), and Kenneth Snelson incised modeling that is similar to the engraved
(see fig. 2.62). lines of the printmaker’s plate. The crisp incising
creates sharp value contrasts that accentuate
Incising line in clay or in any other movement as well as depth. © David Lees/Corbis.
soft medium is similar to the graphic
technique of drawing, but in addition
to being made visible by cast shadows,
120 C HAPTER 3 Line
Shape SHAPE AND COMPOSITION
Harmony and Variety
THE VOCABULARY OF SHAPE Dominance
INTRODUCTION TO SHAPE Movement
SHAPE TYPES Balance
SHAPE DIMENSIONS Proportion and Economy
SHAPE AND EXPRESSIVE CONTENT CHAPTER FOUR
THREE-DIMENSIONAL APPLICATIONS OF SHAPE
Hayao Miyazaki, Ponyo, 2008. 112211
© Photos 12/Alamy
THE VSOHCAABUPLAERY OF
Shape — An area that stands out from its surroundings because of a defined
or implied boundary or because of differences of value, color, or texture.
actual shape kinetic (art) shape
A positive area with clearly defined boundaries From the Greek word kinesis, meaning An area that stands out from its surroundings
(as opposed to an implied shape). “motion”; art that includes the element of actual because of a defined or implied boundary
movement. or because of differences of value, color, or
amorphous shape texture.
A shape without clear definition: formless, indis- mass
tinct, and of uncertain dimension. 1. In graphic art, a shape that appears to stand silhouette
out three-dimensionally from the space sur- The area between or bounded by the contours,
biomorphic shape rounding it or creates the illusion of a solid body or edges, of an object; the total shape.
An irregular shape that resembles the freely of material. 2. In the plastic arts, a physical bulk
developed curves found in living organisms. of material. (See volume.) subjective
That which is derived from the mind, instead
Cubism objective of physical reality, and reflects a personal bias,
The name given to the painting style invented by That which is based, as closely as possible, on emotion, or innovative interpretation; the oppo-
Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque between 1907 physical actuality or optical perception. Such art site of objective.
and 1912, which uses multiple views of objects tends to appear natural or real; the opposite of
to create the effect of three-dimensionality while subjective. Surrealism
acknowledging the two-dimensional surface A style of artistic expression, influenced by
of the picture plane. Signaling the beginning of perspective Freudian psychology, that emphasizes fantasy
abstract art, Cubism is a semiabstract style that Any graphic system used to create the illusion of and whose subjects are usually experiences
continued the strong trend away from represen- three-dimensional images and/or spatial relation- revealed by the subconscious mind through the
tational art initiated by Cézanne in the late 1800s. ships in which the objects or their parts appear use of automatic techniques (rubbings, doodles,
to diminish as they recede into the distance. blots, cloud patterns, etc.). Originally a literary
curvilinear shape (See the discussion of atmospheric perspective movement that grew out of Dadaism, Surrealism
A shape whose boundaries consist of predomi- and linear perspective in Chapter 8.) was established by a literary manifesto written
nantly curved lines; the opposite of rectilinear. by André Breton in 1924.
planar (shape)
decorative (shape) Having to do with planes; shapes that have three-dimensional
Ornamenting or enriching but, more importantly height and width but no indication of thickness. Possesses, or creates the illusion of possessing,
in art, stressing the two-dimensional nature of an the dimensions of depth, height, and width. In
artwork or any of its elements. Decorative art plane the graphic arts, the feeling of depth is an illu-
emphasizes the essential flatness of a surface. 1. An area that is essentially two-dimensional, sion, while in the plastic arts, the work has actual
having height and width. 2. A two-dimensional depth.
equivocal space pictorial surface that can support the illusion of
A condition, usually intentional on the artist’s advancing or receding elements. 3. A flat sculp- two-dimensional
part, in which the viewer may, at different times, tural surface. Possesses the dimensions of height and width,
see more than one set of relationships between especially when considering a flat surface or pic-
art elements or depicted objects. This may be plastic (shape) ture plane.
compared to the familiar “optical illusion.” 1. Element(s) used in such a manner as to cre-
ate the illusion of the third dimension on a void
geometric shape two-dimensional surface. 2. Three-dimensional 1. An area lacking positive substance and consist-
A shape that appears related to geometry; usu- art forms, such as architecture, sculpture, and ing of negative space. 2. A spatial area within an
ally simple, such as a triangle, rectangle, or circle. ceramics. object that penetrates and passes through it.
implied shape rectilinear shape volume
A shape that does not physically exist but is A shape whose boundaries consist of straight A measurable amount of defined, three-
suggested through the psychological connec- lines; the opposite of curvilinear. dimensional space. (See mass.)
tion of dots, lines, areas, or their edges. (See
Gestalt in the Glossary.)
122 CCHHAAPPTETRER1 4IntrSohdaupcetion
INTRODUCTION As lines crisscross and connect to one or realistic, depending on the context.
TO SHAPE another, spaces become enclosed and However, when shapes are more imagi-
appear as shapes, while areas of con- nary or seem to have been invented by
Shapes are often referred to as the trast emerge from the background and the artist, they are often called subjec-
building blocks of art structure. Like materialize into other shapes. With this tive, abstract, nonobjective, or non-
the bricks, stones, and mortar used to progression, the act of doodling turns realistic (see the “Abstraction” section
construct architectural edifices, shapes shapes with vague beginnings into in Chapter 1). Shapes may also belong
in art build strength into the structure refined images that capture the view- to a number of other categories or fami-
of the composition. With careful place- er’s imagination. lies of shape type, according to the con-
ment and treatment, shapes also cre- figuration of their edges.
ate various illusions of depth and di- Whatever the development, shape
mensionality and engage the viewer may be defined as an area distinguished Man, in his need to make order from
through their expressive nature. from its surroundings by an outer edge the chaos of the natural world, devised
or boundary. Whether explicitly pre- shapes that were structured, precise,
As artists begin their work, they fre- cise or simply implied, that edge exists and often sharply defined. Known as
quently have some preliminary vision of as either a contour line that encloses the geometric shapes, these include circles,
shape, whether planning composition- area or as a contrast in value, texture, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles,
wide patterns or just thinking about or color between the shape and its sur- hexagons, pentagons, and other math-
individual subjects. The artist may have roundings (fig. 4.1). ematically derived shapes. Although
a clear concept in mind for an abstract geometric shapes may have a vari-
image and know instinctively what SHAPE TYPES ety of configurations, they generally
shapes will give that idea substance retain the character of being curvilin-
and structure. Or he or she may prefer The configuration of a shape’s outer ear (made of curved lines), rectilinear
an evolving process in which shapes edge helps give it a character that distin- (straight-lined), or some combination
gradually reveal themselves through guishes it from others. When the shapes thereof. Architecture, machinery, and
experimentation. used by an artist imitate observable other man-made technologies abound
phenomena, they may be described as with standardized geometric shapes.
Sketches that start with rambling objective, naturalistic, representational, However, as man-made as these shapes
lines or hatch marks may suggest ideas seem, they do occur in nature as well.
that evolve into more defined shapes.
4.1 Henri Matisse, The Burial of Pierrot,
Plate VIII from Jazz, 1947. Pochoir
(stencil printing), 161⁄4 3 251⁄8 in. (41.2
3 63.5 cm). Matisse’s biomorphic shapes,
which are abstracted from organic forms,
stand out from the background area due
to the contrasts in color and value. Though
decorative in nature, the shapes give the
composition a sense of energy and move-
ment. SCALA/Art Resource, NY. Photograph by
Archives Matisse. © 2011 Succession H. Matisse/Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Shape Types 123
4.2 Juan Gris (José Victoriano González), Breakfast, 4.3 Dorothea Tanning, Guardian Angels, 1946. Oil on canvas,
1914. Cut-and-pasted paper, crayon, and oil over canvas, 35 3 57½ in. Here, Tanning combines a realistic rendering of form with
317⁄8 3 231⁄2 in. (80.9 3 59.7 cm). Gris, a Cubist, not only the fantastic. Like other Surrealists, Tanning was interested in the inner
simplified shapes into larger, more dominant areas but also psychic life of human beings. Courtesy New Orleans Museum of Art: Museum
gave each shape a characteristic value, producing a carefully
conceived light-dark pattern. He also made use of open- Purchase, Kate P. Jourdan Memorial Fund, 49.15 © 2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
value composition, where the value moves from one shape
into the adjoining shape, as we see in this example. The York/ADGP, Paris.
Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. U.S.A. Acquired through the Lillie
P. Bliss Bequest. Digital image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by
SCALA/Art Resource, NY.
They can be seen in spiral seashells, hon- We can see these irregular shapes in geometric shapes (fig. 4.4). In addi-
eycombs, snowflakes, flowers, and pre- the human form as well as in stones, tion, biomorphic shapes can be used to
cious stones like quartz and diamonds. leaves, puddles, plant life, and clouds. symbolize abstract thoughts, ideas, and
Whatever the origin, visual artists often Such shapes may also be referred to concepts, or simply give a decorative
find inspiration in geometric shapes and as organic or natural, because the term quality to flat surfaces (fig. 4.5; see also
use them to manifest ideas in an ordered biomorphic was coined in the early figs. 3.11, 4.1, and 4.22).
way (fig. 4.2; see also figs. 4.23 and T.77). twentieth century. Sculptors and pic-
torial artists often use biomorphic, Although the most obvious shapes
In contrast to the regulated, often or organic, shapes in their respective are created by distinct and continuous
severe nature of geometric shapes are media to represent human, plant, and boundaries, such unequivocal contours
the flowing qualities of biomorphic animal forms and the natural world in are not absolutely necessary for a shape
shapes. Biomorphic shapes are made general. Architects and designers also to be seen. Instead, the edges need
from rounded, curving, and sometimes use biomorphic forms to add a natural only to be suggested. We know from
undulating edges and suggest living or human element to otherwise very our study of closure (a Gestalt concept
organisms or natural forces (fig. 4.3). explained in Chapter 2) that the mind
124 C HAPTER 4 Shape
4.4 Joan Miró, The Painting, 1933. Oil on canvas,
68½ in. 3 6 ft. 5¼ in. (174 3 196.2 cm). Some
shapes in this work seem to be veiled references to
unlikely creatures and deserve the term biomorphic
because of their organic configuration. Loula D. Lasker
Bequest (by exchange). (229.1937) The Museum of Modern Art, New
York, NY. Digital image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by
SCALA/Art Resource, NY. © 2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/ADGP, Paris.
4.5 Hayao Miyazaki, Ponyo, 2008. In this still 125
from Miyazaki’s film Ponyo, biomorphic shapes
abound—in the ocean waves, the clouds, the
little girl, and the bubble that covers her. These
rounded shapes convey a comforting aesthetic,
as well as a visual reminder of the natural world
in which the story takes place. © Photos 12/Alamy
Shape Types
4.6 The spectator automatically infers fully
drawn shapes from those suggested by the dots
and lines.
A B C
4.7 Yvonne Jacquette, Lower Manhat-
tan—Brooklyn Bridge View II, 1976. Pastel
monotype on off-white wove paper, 45.8
3 58.6 cm. This pastel by Jacquette is similar
to Monet’s paintings from the nineteenth
century. She notes that Van Gogh and Seurat
have influenced her soft, atmospheric style.
A winter landscape, seen through flurries of
snow, lends itself well to the blurred contours
and high-key palette in this drawing. Gift of
Anne Marie Davidson, 1989.482.12, The Art Institute of
Chicago. Photography © The Art Institute of Chicago.
tries to see completed wholes and defined outer contours. Instead, each is Soothing? The ability to see implied
group relationships rather than just an implied shape, created by the psy- shapes allows us to be aware of our
individual parts. So eager is the human chological connection of the dots or environment in a highly sensitive way.
mind to interpret pieces as whole lines. Our minds can even sense shapes when
images that it will even fill in missing we cannot determine exactly where
information and impose a shape or This ability to “see” shapes may be their edges exist. On a foggy day, we
form in places where none exists. As due, in part, to the insatiable need to can sense blurred, fuzzy, and indistinct
illustrated in figure 4.6a–c, the mind impose meaning on what we experi- trees or buildings long before we can
can perceive four dots as a square, par- ence. When an area is surrounded by see them clearly. This vague shape is
allel lines as a triangle, and dashes as a a boundary, it often transforms from known as an amorphous shape (figs.
circle. Although we intuitively experi- negative background into a positive 4.7 and 4.8). The name is somewhat of
ence these shapes, they are not actual shape, which allows us to focus on it an oxymoron, for the “image” is more
shapes, for none of them have clearly and decide how to interact with it. Is a promise of something yet to be—a
it familiar? Unfamiliar? Dangerous?
126 C HAPTER 4 Shape
4.8 Claude Utley, cover art for Bill
Frisell’s album Ghost Town, 1999. Artist
Claude Utley uses exclusively biomorphic
and amorphous shapes in this cover for Bill
Frisell’s recording, Ghost Town. The vague
tree shapes in the background suggest mys-
terious and unfamiliar territories. Courtesy of
Claude Utley, Bill Frisell, and Nonesuch Records.
subtle suggestion of shape without def- objective to subjective, from geometric dimensional bodies. The term volume,
inition or certain dimensions—a shape to biomorphic, from actual to implied, on the other hand, describes what ap-
without shape. One group of painters, and so forth. Using this variety, an art- pears to be a three-dimensional void,
the Impressionists, often created amor- ist can use shapes to convey meaning or an amount of measurable space.
phous shapes as they explored the in an endless amount of ways (fig. 4.8). Rocks and mountains are masses,
atmospheric effect of sunlight on their while holes and valleys are volumes;
imagery. From haystacks to cathedrals SHAPE DIMENSIONS cups are masses, while the amounts
to bridges, the impression of light’s of space they contain are volumes
effect on the surface of the object was Shapes may also have either two- (fig. 4.9A and B). (In the plastic arts,
more important than a naturalistic ren- dimensional or three-dimensional shapes that physically exist in three di-
dering of the object itself (see figs. 7.27, identities. In pictorial artwork, shapes mensions are commonly referred to as
7.28, and T.40). are created on the two-dimensional pic- masses or volumes.)
ture plane; however, artists may create
In some works, the classification of the illusion of mass, volume, and space Shapes that have width and
an individual shape is not always eas- on their flat working surfaces through height but no indication of thickness
ily made, because shapes often share the careful juxtaposition and treatment are referred to as planar shapes, or
multiple properties. For example, a of two-dimensional shapes. When we planes. Depending on their configu-
shape may be clearly defined as geo- use the term mass to describe shapes ration and juxtaposition, these planes
metric or biomorphic on one side only on the picture plane, we mean that they range from having a flat, or decora-
to become amorphous on the other and have the appearance of solid three- tive, appearance to one that seems to
blend into the background. Shapes can occupy deeper space. When a planar
vary endlessly, ranging in type from shape seems to lie flat on the surface
Shape Dimensions 127
4.9 Masses and volumes: Arches and
Canyonlands National Parks, Utah. (A) The
mountainous rock formations and their valleys
represent mass and volume. (B) A close-up view
illustrates a gigantic rock formation (mass) with
an enormous hole (volume). (A) Robin Wilson
Photography/Getty Images; (B) Frank J. Wicker/Getty Images.
A
B
of the picture plane, it has a decorative tilt in space and have a foreshort- an appearance of three-dimensionality
or shallow appearance (fig. 4.10, col- ened appearance, they make an even (fig. 4.11). First, however, the artist
umn A). However, a simple overlap- stronger visual statement of depth must identify parts of the subject that
ping of two or more planar shapes can (fig. 4.10, column C). The addition of can be represented by planar shapes.
convert the flat working surface into a gradient color, value, or texture can On masses such as cubes and rectan-
“window” through which shapes can further enhance the illusion of reced- gular solids, it is fairly obvious that
be seen at different distances beyond ing planes, especially when used in their flat sides can be recognized as
the picture plane (fig. 4.10, column B). combination with overlapping or planes. However, rounded masses like
Contrasts in size, color, value, or tex- interpenetration. spheres and ovoidal solids have no
ture can further establish this impres- flat surface areas, so identifying their
sion of depth. Of course, planar shapes To produce the illusion of mass planar shapes presents a challenge—
do not have to appear parallel to the or volume on the picture plane, two the artist must apply value or color
picture plane. When they appear to or more planes must be arranged in changes to areas that can be interpreted
relation to one another to give them
128 C HAPTER 4 Shape
4.10 The spatial illusions of planar
shapes. (Column A) Curvilinear, rectilin-
ear, and biomorphic planar shapes can
appear flat or shallow in depth. (Column
B) Overlapping and contrast in size, value,
color, or texture can create an impression
of deeper depth. (Column C) Shapes can
also appear tilted in space with adjust-
ments in length and gradation in value,
texture, or color.
4.11 Planes and their three-dimensional equivalents.
Shape Dimensions 129
4.12 Richard Linklater, scene from A Scanner Darkly (film based on
novel of the same name by Philip K. Dick), 2006. Actor Keanu Reeves
is pictured here as a cartoon image, which was created through the use
of a technique called interpolated rotoscope. Areas of value or color
are interpreted as planar shapes that, when put together, indicate light
and dark and create the appearance of a three-dimensional image. War-
ner Bros./Photofest.
as flat shapes (fig. 4.11, bottom row). more clearly and allows greater flexibil- planes are juxtaposed and touching,
When done correctly, these changes ity in the pictorial exploration of vol- the spatial illusion of mass and depth is
will indicate reflected light and sha- ume and space. greater than that provided by the use of
dow and create the illusion of depth parallel-edged planes. This is because
(fig. 4.12). Presenting the planes in this way the appearance of planes receding
highlights the importance of the edges’ in depth more closely relates to our
There is no limit to the number of function in creating the illusion of mass optical perception of images growing
shapes that can be shown three dimen- and depth. In figure 4.13A, the dia- smaller as they move further into the
sionally on the picture plane, although gram shows planes that have parallel, distance.
geometric shapes may be the easiest. angled edges. Because the angles lead
Squares, triangles, circles, hexagons, away from the front edge or corner of However, planes with converging
and ovoids all have their counterparts the cube, they establish a directional edges may not always provide the illu-
in three dimensions: cubes, pyramids, movement into space. This combina- sion of solid mass. If the edges seem to
spheres, hexagonal solids, and ovoi- tion of planes seems to provide three- converge toward the viewer instead of
dal solids. The planes that constitute dimensional solidity, whereas any toward a distant point, the solidity of
these 3-D objects do not even have to plane on its own would appear rela- the object becomes more ambiguous.
be closed or joined at the corners to tively flat. In figure 4.13B, the angled At first glance, figure 4.13C appears
suggest three-dimensionality. As seen edges of each plane are not parallel; in to show the outside surface of a cube.
in figure 4.11 in the middle row, the fact, if they continued, they would con- After further inspection, the front
planes could be detached and tilted verge at some distant point. As a result, vertical edge becomes the back of an
back at an angle. Although detaching the planes appear to tilt or tip into empty nook, and the white plane that
the planes makes the 3-D objects less space and recede away from the specta- was originally seen from above is
substantial, it shows their development tor. When several of these receding now seen from below, as a “ceiling.”
130 C HAPTER 4 Shape
A Figure 4.13C may even seem to switch
4.13A A combination of planes that show parallel edges in depth creates back and forth from a hollow corner to
the illusion of mass (shape). a strangely formed solid block. This is
a situation of ambiguous or uncertain
B depth, known as equivocal space—an
4.13B A combination of planes that show converging edges in depth optical illusion that can be described as
(moving away from the viewer) creates the illusion of mass (shape). “now you see it and now you don’t,”
or more accurately, “now you see it
C and now you see it another way.” Such
4.13C A combination of planes with edges converging toward the viewer ambiguities can add challenge, spice,
creates the illusion of equivocal mass (shape). (This is the reverse effect of and interest to the viewing of a composi-
the shape in figure 4.13B.) tion. They exaggerate and distort shape
definitions and impart some decorative
qualities to the image.
Shapes with parallel and converging
edges have been instinctively used by
artists to create an intuitive space. Some-
times appearing shallow or decorative,
this sense of space is created by layer-
ing, overlapping, and manipulating
(aiming) the planes within the picture.
Examples may be found in the early
church work of the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries. However, with the
arrival of the Renaissance and the inter-
est in the sciences, the “felt” or intuitive
spatial relationships were replaced by
the invention of linear perspective. With
this graphic system, artists could create
a sense of deeper space in which objects
diminish in size at a predictable rate as
they recede.
While work employing linear per-
spective has remained popular, many
contemporary artists have returned to
the use of intuitive space. For them,
the methodical systems of perspective
are too predictable and limiting. They
enjoy the freedom of creating imagi-
native three-dimensional shapes that
are unencumbered by the restrictions
of formulas and mechanical processes.
Ron Davis, in his painting Parallelepi-
ped Vents #545, employs flat planes,
shapes with parallel edges, shapes
with converging edges receding, and
shapes with converging edges adv-
ancing (fig. 4.14). Al Held creatively
employs the same types of shape-edge
development in his painting B/WX
(see fig. 8.40).
Shape Dimensions 131
4.14 Ron Davis, Parallelepiped Vents #545,
1977. Acrylic on canvas, 9 ft. 6 in. 3 15 ft.
(2.90 3 4.57 m). While the strict order of lin-
ear perspective is not observed here, a sense
of space is achieved by other means under the
control of the artist’s instincts. Los Angeles County
Museum of Art, CA. Gift of the Eli and Edythe Broad Fund.
Photography © 2001 Museum Associates/LACMA.
For more information on mechani- The repetition of general directional • An appropriate ratio of harmony
cal drawing systems used to create forces thus becomes a factor for har- and variety results
intuitive and plastic space, refer to the monizing the inside with the outside.
discussion on linear perspective and For this reason, landscapes, reclining • The observer’s attention is
related mechanical systems in Chapter 8, figures, or abstract images that move controlled both in terms of direc-
“Space.” across the image are more easily devel- tion (movement) and duration
oped within a horizontal rather than a (dominance)
SHAPE vertical frame. Likewise, vertical picture
AND COMPOSITION frames encourage harmony with verti- • The desired degree and type of
cal components and the use of horizon- balance is achieved
Shapes often become a key element in tal marks or shapes stand out as accents
the structure of a unified composition, (see figs. 4.2 and 4.20). Portraits, tall still • The space concept achieves consis-
like the pieces in a building’s founda- lifes, and stained-glass windows are tency throughout
tion. Their placement and physical examples that work well within a verti-
characteristics help establish a sense of cal frame. However, exceptions can be • An appropriate sense of propor-
harmony, variety, balance, and so forth. found for every convention (see fig. 4.19, tion and economy is established
So important are shapes to composition which shows a horizontal landscape in a
that the contour of the picture frame is vertical frame shape), so these observa- The principles determining the
among the first considerations an artist tions are offered only as general guide- ordering of shapes are the same as for
must make, and that choice affects the lines. the other elements of form. However,
relationship of all images and elements shape is such a primary element that
developed within. For example, a hori- When artists want to create order the concepts of harmony, variety, dom-
zontal frame harmonizes with horizon- or unity as they work with shape, they inance, and so forth deserve a more
tal images, shapes, or linear movements have to apply the principles of orga- specific review.
and makes vertical shapes stand out as nization to their designing process. In
accents in relief (see figs. 4.1 and 4.23). their search for meaningful order and Harmony and Variety
expression, artists modify developing
shapes and the elements until: The repetition of similar shapes is
an easy way to create a sense of har-
mony in most compositions (see fig.
2.7). When shapes share similar edge
132 C HAPTER 4 Shape
characteristics, they seem to belong to a 4.15 Kwang-Young Chun, Aggregation 06-AU044, 2004. Mixed media with Korean Mulberry
related group and may be referred to as paper, 86 3 123 in. (218.4 3 312.4 cm). The work is constructed of thousands of triangles wrapped
a “shape family.” As with members of in century-old mulberry paper to produce variations of surface texture and composition. It depends
a human family, the likeness need not on a variation of trompe l’oeil using a range of tones from gray to black to create the illusion of deep
always be identical but merely enough depressions or craters and the patterns of drying earth. For those familiar with Korean culture, there is
to see their relationship. By using the an additional layer of meaning. Evocative of childhood memories, the triangles suggest herbal medicine
same number of sides on each shape or bundles wrapped in paper and hung in clusters from the ceilings of the family-run pharmacy. Courtesy of
by using similar contour qualities (such
as rectilinear, curvilinear, or amorphous the Kim Foster Gallery, New York.
edges), the shapes will appear to belong
together. Their similarity in structure invented shapes. To individually of similar shapes. Because the degree
can then be enhanced by common ap- examine each shape in the progression, of dominance is established by the de-
plications of value, texture, or color. draw the shapes on a stack of tracing gree of contrast, the amount of change
paper, putting a fresh sheet down for within the shape family helps establish
An emphasis on shape harmony can each new shape. the amount of dominance of each new
result in a relatively peaceful interac- shape. The more similar a shape is to its
tion between shapes. However, over- Dominance neighbors, the less dominant it is.
stressing harmony may curtail our
interest; repeating the exact same shape Artists develop dominance intuitively Shape dominance can also be a mat-
over and over can lead to monotony as they respond to each area and shape ter of association. Each shape must be
and boredom. Enough differences must within a composition, using the prin- appreciated purely for the aesthetic
exist to make for challenging viewing. ciples of organization, from harmony quality of its form, but when the design
When trying to develop shapes within a and variety to economy. Obviously, of a shape begins to take on the appear-
composition, it is important for the art- the relative dominance of a shape may ance of something familiar to the
ist to recognize how to make the shapes be altered by contrasts in size, color or viewer, the relative dominance of that
harmonize and still maintain enough value, visual detail, textural emphasis, area is increased (fig. 4.16). For exam-
variety to retain interest. Accent and directional force, and so forth (fig 4.15). ple, when a shape begins to suggest the
excitement are created by dissimilarity— But on a more basic level, simply chang- letter B, it demands our attention in a
but how much change can be tolerated ing the design of one shape can make it new way with multiple levels of associ-
by the viewer’s eye before the shapes’ the dominant member among a group ation: (1) the pure design of the shape;
original sense of family is lost? (2) any subconscious association with
To discover this, try changing a
rectangle into a circle through a series
of morphed shapes. First, draw the
rectangle on a piece of paper. Then, by
drawing on top of the previous image,
gradually change the outer contour of
the shape—change the number of sides
and the length or angle of the sides, let
the outer edges swell out or become
indented, and so on. After draw-
ing twenty or thirty new shapes, you
should eventually end with a circle.
The shapes in that progression will be
related up to the point where the outer
contour changes enough that it starts
a new, different family grouping. You
may see a couple of shape families in
your long progression of shapes—try
to spot the point of transition from
one to the other. Try the same experi-
ment with biomorphic shapes or purely
Shape and Composition 133
the letter; and (3) the related sound
accompanying the letter. If the letter is
grouped with other letters to become
a word—such as bat—there is another
layer of meaning that could bring up
memories of baseball or an animal fly-
ing into your hair. Although contrasts
of size, color, value, clarity of focus,
texture, and so on remain the principal
devices for creating dominance, artists
can use the power of association to cre-
ate dominance and specific meanings.
4.16 Poster from the film Moon, 2009. Directed by Duncan Jones. In this poster from the film Movement
Moon, the designer creates a dominant shape by using size, visual detail, texture, and pattern. In addition,
viewers will relate the circular shape to the actual moon, an object that carries many meanings and Artists can use shape, along with the
associations. Photofest. other elements of form, to generate vi-
sual forces that direct our eyes as we
view the work. Some shapes, like circles
and squares, are excellent at anchoring
or holding a location in a composition.
Because of their stable nature, they
can also establish tension and create
subconscious movement: when other
shapes are located close enough to these
focal points, the eye bounces back and
forth, trying to make them join together
or become part of a group relationship
(see figs. 2.16 and 2.38).
Other shapes, such as the triangle,
have a general body movement that
points in one specific direction, based
on the design and orientation of the
shape. Obviously, not all shapes are
equally important in contributing to
movement, for some provide more of
a directional force than others. Com-
pare, for example, the “dynamic” tri-
angle to the “stable” but less directional
square. As a general rule, the longer
the shape, the greater the directional
force. Sometimes a shape’s directional
force is a function of its edges rather
than its bulk. Contours can be “aimed”
so that they imply a linkage with the
edges of other shapes elsewhere in the
composition. In this manner, eye move-
ment may be encouraged to proceed in
a certain direction by “joining” distant
shapes through their related contours
(fig. 4.17A and B).
134 C HAPTER 4 Shape
A
B Whether an artist is using shapes to
create movement through shallow or
4.17 Pablo Picasso, Guernica, 1937. Oil on canvas, 11 ft. 5½ in. 3 25 ft. 5¼ in. (3.49 3 7.75 m). deep space, the movement of the eyes
The linear diagram (B) overlaying Picasso’s Guernica is one of several possible interpretations of the along these paths should be rhythmic,
way shape is used as a directional device. The arrows in the middle of the shapes indicate their major providing pleasurable viewing and
directional thrust. The thick solid lines show the edges where a perceived direction seems to line up unification of the work. The charac-
with a corresponding implied shape contour (indicated by broken lines). These create the major shape ter of the rhythm produced—jerky,
directions in overall composition. Secondary shapes, related in a similar way, are shown by middleweight smooth, swift, or slow—depends on the
lines. The lighter lines show curving shape edges that provide contrast to the straighter and more artist’s intentions (fig. 4.18). The control
broadly arced edges of the design. Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid, Spain. SuperStock, Inc. Art © 2011 of direction helps us see things in the
proper sequence and according to the
Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. degree of importance placed on them.
The unifying and rhythmic effects
created through eye movements are
modified by the number and length
of the pauses in the eye’s journey. In
figure 4.19, the duration of a pause is
determined by the visual importance of
the area or shape—often a focal point
in the artwork. When the planned
pauses are of equal duration, the view-
ing experience is more monotonous.
An artist, therefore, should organize
pauses so that their lengths are related
to the importance of the areas, creating
a hierarchy of increasing importance
or interest as the figures come to the
foreground.
Shape and Composition 135
4.18 Georges Braque,
Still Life with Fruit and Stringed
Instrument, 1938. Oil and
sand on canvas, 32 3 393⁄8
in. (114.3 3 147.3 cm). The
shapes of white line or light
value define the designed
pathways of eye travel. The
visual tension and rhythmic
movement result from the
placement, size, soft accent,
and general character of the
shapes involved. Gift of Mrs.
Albert D. Lasker in memory of her
husband, Albert D. Lasker, 1959.505.
Photo © The Art Institute of Chicago.
Art © 2011 Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
In a depiction of the Crucifixion, repetition of the similar head shapes amorphous edge can reduce the sense
for example, we would expect an art- of the figures and the consistent use of of focus on that shape and thereby re-
ist to make the figure of Christ particu- yellow, red, and green throughout the duce its visual weight and degree of
larly significant. In the case of Ismael painting. dominance.
Rodriguez Rueda’s painting El Sueño
de Erasmo (fig. 4.20), this emphasis is Balance Shapes of various visual weights
achieved by the accentuated size of are found in all types of balance (sym-
the shape created by Christ’s body; In the search for compositional bal- metrical, radial, asymmetrical, etc.).
by making that shape more clearly ance, artists work with the knowledge No single shape family lends itself to
defined than other shapes; by its central that a shape’s visual weight is a result a specific type of balance—geometric
location; and by accenting the color, of how the shape is used, the develop- shapes, for example, are not the only
value, and brushwork in that area. The ment of the negative area around it, configuration that can be used in asym-
shorter pauses within the composition and how the elements of art are used in metrical balance.
are also brought about by contrast- composing both. The placement, size,
ing the rectilinear quality of Christ’s accent or emphasis, and general shape As an artist adds shapes to his or her
T-shape with the ovals in the right all affect the amount of visual weight work, different factors, such as shape
and left foreground, the arch tops in a shape has. A dark value adds weight type, location, value, color, and size will
the background, and the differences in to a shape; substituting a narrow con- affect the visual weight of the shapes and
value and color. Adding to the orga- tour line for a wider contour line re- change the balance of the composition.
nized coherence of the painting is the duces the shape’s visual weight; and an The artist manipulates the shapes and
their characteristics until the relation-
ships result in the desired equilibrium.
136 C HAPTER 4 Shape
4.19 Sassetta, workshop of, The Meeting of
Saint Anthony and Saint Paul, c. 1440. Tempura
on panel, 183⁄4 3 135⁄8 in. (47.6 3 34.6 cm). In
this painting by the Italian artist Sassetta, epi-
sodes in a journey are indicated by contrasts of
value, and eye paths are provided that lead from
figure to figure. This painting also illustrates how
late-Gothic artists used shallow space in com-
positions prior to the full development of per-
spective. Samuel H. Kress Collection. © Board of Trustees,
National Gallery of Art, Washington.
This also means that the artist must dimensional appearances, the thrust- involved, balancing the spatial forces
balance the spatial forces developed ing and recession of shapes in deeper depends on adjustments in shape
within the work. With decorative “space” must also balance; otherwise, size and position, as well as varia-
shapes, the balance occurs only on the the picture plane can appear twisted. tions in the application of the other
surface of the picture plane. With three- Regardless of the degree of depth elements.
Shape and Composition 137
4.20 Ismael Rodriguez Rueda, El Sueño de
Erasmo (The Dream of Erasmus), 1995. Oil on
canvas, 391⁄3 3 471⁄2 in. (100 3 120 cm). The
figure of Christ is made dominant by its size and
central location. In the creation of varied visual
pauses, the artist has skillfully played opposites
of differing contrasts against each other—
sometimes strongly accented, sometimes
subdued: blues against oranges, reds against
greens, yellow against violets, light against dark,
and biomorphic shapes against the geometric
shapes of architectural settings. Courtesy of Ismael
Rodriguez Rueda.
Proportion and Economy ing step, the lighter shapes become more value. This use of planar shapes creates
defined as their contours are articulated economical, stable, and ordered units
When trying to develop appropriate pro- by the darker shapes that surround and that are useful for preliminary sketches
portions and a sense of economy, an art- overlap them. In the end, as shown in and for developing the work’s final
ist may benefit from breaking down the figure 4.21A, shape layers indicate not organization. Such a study helps the
subject into simple planar shapes (fig. only the overall scene but also the rela- artist establish appropriate propor-
4.21A and B). This allows the vastness tionship of humans to nature, and the tions within an image, progress from
and intricacies of a subject to be simpli- image becomes quite refined. the general to the specific, introduce
fied for easy translation onto the picture increasing detail, and create a sense of
plane and provides a method for study- This “planar analysis” is a way of space. Although these examples focus
ing the compositional arrangement of learning to see information. By breaking on responsive drawing (which uses
those shapes. Working from light to down the complexities of an image, it is physical references as subjects), planar
dark, general planar shapes are blocked easier to distinguish the relationship of development is also a good approach
in, one layer at a time. In each succeed- the parts to each other and to the whole for working nonobjectively.
with respect to proportion and overall
138 C HAPTER 4 Shape
A
4.21A Paul Cezanne, The Bathers, c. 1890–92. Oil on canvas, 60 3 82 cm. In this work, Paul
Cezanne used heavy lines to create the contours of the human figures. These contour lines help set off
the people from the background shapes, which are more amorphous. Musee d’Orsay, Paris, France. Erich Lessing/
Art Resource, NY.
4.21B Paul Cezanne paintings. Top to bottom: Five Bathers, c. 1875–1877. Oil on canvas, 22 3 33 cm; B
Bathers, c. 1890–1900. Oil on canvas, 22 3 33.5 cm; Group of Bathers, c. 1895. Oil on canvas,
8 1⁄8 3 12 1⁄8 in. (20.6 3 30.8 cm); Bathers, c. 1885–1890. Watercolor and pencil on paper, 5 3 8
1⁄8 in. (12.7 3 20.6 cm). In these four images, we can see how Cezanne experimented with different
backgrounds, shape positions, and colors before he arrived at the final version as seen in figure 4.21A.
Over the course of many years, he refined the scene, adding more details and darker shapes to each
subsequent image. Top to bottom: Photo by René-Gabriel Ojéda. On deposit from the Musée d’Orsay. Musée des Beaux-Arts,
Lyon, France. Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France. Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art
Resource, NY; The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, 1950. The Philadelphia Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY; Lillie P. Bliss
Collection. (2.1934). The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. Digital Image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/
Art Resource, NY.
Shape and Composition 139
The words you are searching are inside this book. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking here.
Home
Explore
Art Fundamentals Theory and Practice, 12th Edition by Otto G. Ocvirk, Robert Stinson, Philip R. Wigg, Robert O. Bone, David L. Cayton
View in Fullscreen
Art Fundamentals Theory and Practice, 12th Edition by Otto G. Ocvirk, Robert Stinson, Philip R. Wigg, Robert O. Bone, David L. Cayton
Discover the best professional documents and content resources in AnyFlip Document Base.
Search