Art Fundamentals Theory and Practice, 12th Edition by Otto G. Ocvirk, Robert Stinson, Philip R. Wigg, Robert O. Bone, David L. Cayton

and complete neutralization in the cen- presence of all color, because it occurs White
ter, there are actually an infinite num- when a surface reflects all the color
ber of possible steps, but, for the sake wavelengths to an equal degree. Black, Value Value
of space, we have presented only two then, could be thought of as the absence Neutrals
inner rings in our illustration. This will of color, because it results when a surface
be more fully explained in the coming absorbs all the color rays equally and Intensity Hue
section called “Intensity.” reflects none of them. Absolute black is
rarely experienced except in such places Intensity
It should be noted that the color as deep caves or ocean depths. There-
illustrations presented here are cre- fore, most blacks will contain some trace Hue
ated by inks and should be used as of reflected color, however slight.
guides rather than absolutes. The Value Neutrals
actual mixing of pigments will reveal, Any gray is an impure white, Value
for instance, that each manufacturer’s because it is created by only partial
“red” is different and that the color reflection of all the color wavelengths. Black
of your mixed “green” depends on If a great amount of light is reflected,
what you use as primaries; lemon the gray is light; if very little light is 7.8 This diagram demonstrates the
yellow mixed with ultramarine blue reflected, the gray is dark. The neutrals relationship between the three physical
will create a different green than one are concerned with the quantity of light properties of color: hue, value, and intensity.
that uses cadmium yellow and cobalt reflected, whereas color involves the Based on this, we can imagine all the color
blue. Color-mixing experiments will quality of light reflected. variations existing on a three-dimensional solid
disclose much about opacity, staining (a double cone). As the colors move circularly
power, and the adulterants mixed in THE PHYSICAL around the solid, they change in hue. When
by manufacturers. PROPERTIES the hues move upward or downward on
OF COLOR the solid, they change in value. As the colors
We will see later in this chapter on the outside move towards the center,
that photographers, printers, and some Regardless of whether the artist works they become more neutralized (closer to the
other artists use alternative systems for with chromatic paints, dyes, or inks, achromatic neutrals) and lose their intensity.
organizing color (see “The Evolution every color used must be described in
of the Color Wheel”). Those systems terms of three physical properties: hue, ber of steps (variations) may be created
involve a different set of primaries value, and intensity (figs. 7.8 and 7.9). by mixing any two hues—many steps
and secondaries from those mentioned exist between yellow and green, for ex-
here. However, for the majority of this Hue ample. Yet, for the sake of clarity, artists
chapter when we discuss color, we will recognize the hues as those identified on
be concerned with the triadic color sys- Hue is the generic color name—red, the twelve-step color wheel.
tem of the painter’s palette. blue, green, and so on. It is determined by
the specific wavelength of the color in a Value
Neutrals ray of light (fig. 7.10; see also fig. 7.1).
Hue also designates a color’s position in The second physical property of color,
Not all pigments, of course, contain the spectrum or on the color wheel. Each known as value, indicates the relative
a perceivable color. Some, like black, hue exists in many subtle variations, al- degree of lightness or darkness in an
white, or gray, do not look like any of though the differences in wavelengths image. More specifically, chromatic
the colors of the spectrum. No color are so small that they can still bear the value refers to the lightness of darkness
quality is found in these instances; they same simple color name. Many reds, of a color—or the quantity of light a
are achromatic. They differ merely for example, differ in character from the color reflects. A large amount of light is
in the quantity of light they reflect. theoretical red of the spectrum, yet we
Because we do not distinguish any one recognize the hue “red” in all of them. A
color in black, white, and gray, they are color’s hue can be changed by adding it
also called neutrals. to another hue; this actually changes the
wavelength of light. An unlimited num-
Even though we may not realize it,
neutrals do reflect varying amounts
of the color wavelengths. One neu-
tral, white, could be thought of as the

190 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.9 This three-dimensional model illustrates the three main characteristics of reflected from yellow, whereas a small
color. The center wheel could also be slightly tilted to indicate that yellow (at amount of light is reflected from violet.
maximum intensity) is lighter in value than violet (at maximum intensity). See also Each color at its maximum intensity
figure 7.8. Photograph courtesy of Ronald Coleman. has a normal value that indicates the
amount of light it reflects. It can, how-
ever, be made lighter or darker than
normal by adding white or black. When
a hue is mixed with varying amounts of
white, the colors produced are known
as tints. When a hue is mixed with vary-
ing amounts of black, the resulting col-
ors are called shades. Many value steps
can exist between the lightest and dark-
est appearance of any one hue.

Although a wide range of chromatic
values can be produced by simply add-
ing black or white, value changes can
also be made by mixing a pigment
of one hue with a pigment of another
hue that is darker or lighter; this mix-
ing will also alter both the color’s value
and hue. The only dark or light pig-
ments available that would change the
value without altering the hue are black,
white, or a gray. (For example, red
mixed with white will become the color
pink, but the hue will remain red.)

7.10 The electromagnetic spectrum. The sun, being the most 10– 5
efficient source of light, sends radiation to the earth in a series of 10–4 X–unit
waves known as electromagnetic energy. This may be likened to 10–3
throwing a pebble into the middle of a pond. Waves radiate from 10–2
that point and can be measured from the crest of one ripple to 10–1 Angstrom
the crest of the next ripple. Similarly, waves from the sun range 1 Nanometer
from mere atmospheric ripples—gamma rays, which measure no 101
more than six quadrillionths of an inch (0.000000000000006 in.) 102
—to the long, rolling radio waves, which stretch 181⁄2 miles 103 Micron
from crest to crest. The wavelengths visible to the human eye 104
are found in only a narrow range within this electromagnetic 105
spectrum; their unit of measure is the nanometer (nm), which 106 Millimeter
measures one-billionth of a meter from crest to crest. The shortest 107 Centimeter
wavelength visible to mankind measures 400 nm—a light violet. 108
The sensations of yellow, orange, and red are apparent as the 109 Meter
waves lengthen to between 600 and 700 nm. Contained in a ray 1010
of light but invisible to the human eye are infrareds (“below reds”) 1011
and ultraviolets (“above violets”). See figure 7.1. 1012 Kilometer
1013
1014
1015
NANOMETERS
GAMMA RAYS UV INFRARED RADAR RADIO WAVES

X-RAYS MICROWAVES TV BROADCAST

HEAT FM SHORT LONG

WAVE WAVE

VISIBLE SPECTRUM

ULTRAVIOLET
400
450
500
550
600
650
700

INFRARED

The Physical Properties of Color 191

To use colors effectively, you should WARM NEUTRAL COOL
know the normal value of each of them.
This normal value can be most easily Yellow White HIGH KEY Yellow-
seen when the colors of the wheel are Yellow-Orange High light Green
placed next to a scale of neutral values Orange Light Green
from black to white, where the colors Red-Orange Low light Blue-Green
can be matched with their equivalent Medium
achromatic values (fig. 7.11). All colors
that are above middle gray are called Red High dark LOW KEY Blue
high-key colors. All colors that are Red-Violet Dark Blue-
below middle gray are referred to as Low dark Violet
low-key colors. Violet

Whether a color remains low or Black
high key is up to the artist. As noted,
a low-key violet may be lightened with 7.11 Color values. This chart indicates the relative normal values of the hues at their maximum
white. That adjustment will raise vio- intensity (purity or brilliance). The broken line identifies those colors and neutrals at the middle (50
let’s value level, which can be increased percent) gray position. All neutrals and colors above this line are high key; those below it are low
until it corresponds to the value level key. Warm colors are found on the yellow and red side, and cool colors are found with the greens
for any color along the neutral scale; and blues.
violet could even be made equal in
value to yellow-orange on the gray closest to resembling this color is said are also reflected, the red’s brightness is
scale. Similarly, a high-key color such to be at maximum intensity. dulled or neutralized. If the green and
as yellow may be adjusted with enough red rays are equally absorbed by the
black that it becomes a low-key color The purity of the light waves re- surface, the resulting effect is a neutral
(fig. 7.12). flected from a pigment produces the gray. Consequently, as a color loses its
brightness or dullness of the color. For intensity, it tends to approach gray.
Regardless of how the value level example, a pigment that reflects only
is obtained, color can be used to create the red rays of light is an intense red, but There are several ways to alter
a value pattern in the organization of a if any of the complementary green rays the intensity of a color. One common
work. A wise artist once said, “Color gets
all the glory . . . but value does all the
work!” While many artists work intui-
tively using only color and its brilliance,
the most insightful also understand and
employ color’s value as a compositional
tool (see figs. 2.55 and 5.25).

Intensity

The third property of color, intensity
(also sometimes called brightness,
saturation, or chroma), refers to the
quality of light in a color. Intensity dis-
tinguishes a brighter appearance from a
duller one of the same hue; that is, it dif-
ferentiates a color that has a high degree
of saturation or strength from one that is
grayed (neutralized) or less intense. The
saturation point, or the purist color, can
be found in the wavelengths produced
when a beam of light passes through a
prism. The artist’s pigment that comes

192 C HAPTER 7 Color

AB

7.12 Color value chart. Chart A shows how colors that are high key or low key at maximum intensity can be
adjusted until they cover a wide range of values; chart B shows those colors at their equivalent achromatic gray
levels. The use of chromatic value is an important component in creating effective color and value patterns.

approach is through placement; by lower the intensity without altering the impurities and an inability of surfaces
placing a color next to its comple- value. By mixing the hue (pigment) to absorb all the wavelengths, a neutral
ment, the extreme contrast makes with a neutral gray of the same value gray is actually produced. In the studio,
the intensity of both colors appear to (as illustrated in the middle of fig. 7.13), the combination of some complements—
increase. (This will be discussed more the resulting mixture is a variation in blue with orange, for example—may
thoroughly in the section “Simultane- intensity without a change in value. The produce “better” grays than others.
ous Contrast.”) Other methods usu- color becomes less bright as more of Note: the gray ink in these diagrams
ally involve the mixing of pigments—a that same gray is added, but it will not may appear darker and characterless
physical blending of two or more col- become lighter or darker in value. when compared to your experiments.
ors—which will automatically decrease
the intensity of the color. The most efficient way to decrease When complements are mixed
the intensity of any hue is to add the together, the three primaries are com-
Figure 7.13 shows the alteration of complementary hue (fig. 7.14). Mixing bined, and a tertiary color is produced.
a hue (pigment) by adding neutrals two hues that occur exactly opposite If the mixture has uneven propor-
(black, white, or gray). When white is each other on the color wheel (such as tions, the dominating hue creates the
added to any hue, the color loses its red and green, blue and orange, or yel- resulting color character, or tonality.
brightness or intensity as it becomes low and violet) actually results in the Although the hue and intensity are
lighter in value. In the same way, when intermixing of all three primaries. In neutralized to varying degrees relative
black is added to a hue, the intensity theory, the two complements would to the amount of complement used,
diminishes as the value darkens. We cancel each other out and a black would the resulting color will have a cer-
cannot change value without lowering be created, which would absorb all tain liveliness of character not present
intensity, although these two proper- wavelengths and not allow any colors when a hue is neutralized with a gray
ties are not the same. We can, however, to be reflected. However, because of pigment. Hundreds of tertiary colors

The Physical Properties of Color 193

Intensity change (–) 7.13 This diagram illustrates the way neutrals may be used to change the
intensity of a color. When a neutral gray of the same value level is added to
White a bright red, the color character is changed, the intensity is lowered, but the
value level is neither raised nor lowered. When white is added to the red,
the value level of the color is raised, but the intensity level is lowered. When
black is added to the red, the new color will have a lower value level and a
lower intensity level. This suggests that any color’s hue may be altered and its
intensity lowered without altering the value level by adding a neutral of the
same shade of grayness to the original color.

(–) Value change (+)
Scale of neutrals

Black 7.14 This diagram indicates the change of intensity
that results from adding to a color a little of its
complement. For instance, adding a small amount of
green to red produces a gray-red. In the same way,
a small amount of red added to green results in a
gray-green. When the two colors are balanced (not
necessarily in equal amounts), the resulting mixture is
a neutral gray.

may be observed between one color the (incomplete) neutralization of a is only theoretical, of course; in actual
and its complement. A neutralization color by its complement. This neutral- practice, the proportions may differ
scale will show incremental steps as the ization also occurs when mixing any due to variations in the color, grade,
color is mixed with more and more of combination of colors that contain the and opacity of materials.)
its complement until complete neutral- three primaries. For example, mixing
ization occurs (see figs. 7.7 and 7.14). yellow-orange (y1y,r) with yellow- On the color wheel in figure 7.7,
green (y1y,b) and red-violet (r1r,b) the tertiary colors are placed between
Of course, tertiary colors may also would, in theory, mix about four yel- the outermost ring and the completely
be created by mixing two secondary lows with three reds and two blues. neutralized center circle. Tertiary col-
colors or by mixing two non-analogous Here, the four yellows are neutralized ors of the same degree of neutralization
intermediate colors that share a com- by two reds and two blues (the equiv- create inner rings and appear as the
mon color—for example, yellow-orange alent of four violets), which leaves browns (neutralized oranges), olives
and red-violet both contain the hue red. behind an extra red part. As a result, (neutralized greens), and so on. They
When certain colors are combined, they the tertiary color has a muddy red- are characterized by a change of value,
will have about the same character and dish tone. (The “math” in this example a loss of intensity, and an alteration
appearance as those colors created by of hue. They are never found on the

194 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.15 Ellsworth Kelly, Spectrum, 1972. Collage on paper, 45 3 in different ways, and some are better
48 in. (114.3 3 121.9 cm). In this color study, Kelly has employed all than others at creating harmonic effects.
the contrasting colors in the spectrum. The addition of white to each The same is true for an artist’s colors. A
color brings them into a harmonious relationship by raising their value color is rarely important in itself; each is
level and lowering their intensity. © Ellsworth Kelly. Private collection. seen on the picture surface in a dynamic
interaction with other colors. The way
outermost ring with the primary, sec- and blue-green. They are the only pair in which a color is presented—in an
ondary, and intermediate colors. of complements that may be used to objective or nonobjective format—can
lower each other’s intensity without play on our emotions and evoke content
When mixing a color with its com- changing the value level. This occurs or meaning (see figs. 7.35 and 7.38).
plement, it is difficult to change the because they begin with the same value
color’s intensity without also chang- level—middle gray. To develop a discerning eye for com-
ing its value level (see fig. 7.14). If a binations that are pleasing, study the
small amount of green (lighter value) is DEVELOPING colors found in nature—which range
added to red (darker value), the result AESTHETIC COLOR from the vibrant golds, greens, blues,
is a loss of intensity and a lightening RELATIONSHIPS and violets on a peacock’s feather to
of value for the neutralized red. Con- the soft muted browns and grays on
versely, when a small amount of red When listening to music, we find a the surface of a rock. Study the percent-
(darker value) is added to the green single note played for a long period of age of colors in those objects, and try
(lighter value), the green loses some time can be boring. When the composer applying that same correlation to the
of its intensity and becomes darker in begins to combine notes into chords, color schemes in your own work. There
value. This dual relationship involv- however, harmonic relationships of are no exact rules for creating pleasing
ing intensity and value is perhaps more sound are created. Sounds combine color relationships, only some guiding
easily seen with yellow and violet. principles.
However, it occurs with every pair of
complements except one—red-orange The successful use of color depends
on an understanding of some basic
color relationships. A single color
by itself has a certain character and
can create a mood or elicit an emo-
tional response, but those effects can
change the moment another color is
introduced. Just as the musician can
vary combined tones to form different
harmonies, so too can the artist create
different relationships (harmonies)
among colors that may be consonant,
dissonant, or any mixture in between
(figs. 7.15 and 7.16).

Complements
and Split-Complements

Color organizations that result in the
greatest contrast in hue occur when
two colors that appear directly opposite
each other on the color wheel (comple-
mentaries) are placed next to each other
in the composition (fig. 7.17). We know
that a color is caused by the reflection
of a particular wavelength, as well as
by the absorption of the wavelengths of
the color’s complement. When a color

Developing Aesthetic Color Relationships 195

7.16 Pictured here
are nine variations of a
composition, each containing
a different color scheme:
(A) monochromatic, (B)
analogous, (C) primary triad,
(D) secondary triad,
(E) tetrad, (F) complements,
(G) split-complements,
(H) warm, (I) cool. The
scales beneath each block
display some of the hues,
values, and intensities
available for use within
each color scheme.

A BC

D EF

G HI
196 C HAPTER 7 Color

and its complement are placed in close changes in the intensity or value level complementary system, especially
proximity, a unique and vibrant rela- of one or both colors (see figs. 7.15 and when incorporating changes of inten-
tionship results from the contrast. Each 7.16F). sity or value. The color bars below the
color tends to increase the apparent illustration 7.16G show the range of
intensity of the other color, and when A subtle variation with slightly less values and colors available for use in
used in equal amounts, they are difficult contrast would be the split-complement that split-complement composition.
to look at for any length of time (see the system, which incorporates a color Color schemes in which the colors are
section “Simultaneous Contrast”). This and the two colors on either side of fairly close to spectrum intensity are
is overcome by reducing the amount its complement (see figs. 7.16G and relatively easy to identify, but, as the
of one of the colors or by introducing 7.17). This color scheme provides a colors become altered by neutralization
more complex palette than the straight or change of value (as indicated on the
color bars), color schemes become more
7.17 Complementary colors. In this difficult to categorize. For example,
diagram, complementary colors are the colors in figure 7.18 have all been
connected by solid lines. They are of adjusted in value or intensity. As a
extreme contrast. An example of split- result, the image would probably not be
complementary colors (yellow, red-violet, readily identified as a split-complement
and blue-violet) is shown by dotted composition, but its general tonality
lines. Though yellow is the example is based on the relationship of yellow-
used here, the idea may be applied to orange, red-orange, and blue, as shown
any color and would include the color in the color bars.
on either side of the hue’s complement.
Split-complements are not as extreme in
contrast as complements.

7.18 Jenny Saville, Fulcrum, 1999.
Oil on canvas, 103 3 192 in.
(261.6 cm 3 487.7 cm). While
developing a very painterly surface,
Saville confronts our traditional
view of beauty regarding the female
body. The color scheme, though
not easily recognizable, makes use
of hues altered in value or intensity.
It seems to be based on a split-
complementary organization of blue,
yellow-orange, and red-orange. The
color bars show the range of color
available with such a color scheme.

© Jenny Saville. Courtesy Gagosian Gallery.

Developing Aesthetic Color Relationships 197

Orange

7.19 Color tetrad intervals (squares and rectangles). The color Red Blue
tetrad is composed of four colors equally spaced to form a square.
A more casual relationship would have a rectangle formed out of Violet
two complements and their split-complements. The rectangle or 7.20 Analogous colors (close relationships).
square may be rotated to any position on the color wheel to reveal
other tetrad color intervals.

Triads Tetrads Analogous and
Monochromatic Colors
A triadic color organization is formed Another color relationship is based
by an equilateral triangle on the color on a square rather than an equilateral Analogous colors are those that
wheel. Color triads can be used in many triangle. Known as a color tetrad, this appear next to each other on the color
combinations. A primary triad, using system is formed when four colors wheel. They have the shortest interval
only primary colors, creates strik- are used in the organization. They are and therefore an extremely harmoni-
ing contrasts (see figs. 7.5 and 7.16C). equally spaced around the color wheel ous relationship, because neighboring
With the secondary triad, composed of and contain a primary, its comple- hues always contain a common color
orange, green, and violet, the interval ment, and a complementary pair of that dominates the group (fig. 7.20, see
between hues is the same, but the con- intermediates (fig. 7.19; see also fig. also fig. 7.16 B). Analogous colors can
trast is softer (see figs. 7.5 and 7.16D). 7.16E). A tetrad has also come to mean, be found in all rings of the color wheel,
This effect occurs because any two hues in a less strict sense, any organization from the spectrum intensity levels (the
of the triad share a common color: or- of color forming a “rectangular struc- outermost ring of the color wheel) to
ange and green both contain yellow; ture” that could include a double split- the inner rings made by color neutral-
both orange and violet contain red; and complement. This system of color ization (intensity changes) and value
green and violet both contain blue. In- harmony is potentially more varied changes (fig. 7.21).
termediate color schemes may be orga- than the triad because of the additional
nized into two intermediate triads (see colors present, depending on which On the other hand, monochro-
fig. 7.6). Here, too, as we move farther colors are selected for use and in what matic color schemes use only one hue
away from the purity of the primaries, proportions. Avoiding the temptation but explore the complete range of tints
the contrast between the two triads is to use all the colors in equal volumes (value levels to white) and shades (value
softer. will add interest to a work. levels to black) for that hue (see figs.
7.33 and 7.16A). Even with thousands

198 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.21 Benjamin Butler, In the Forest,
2005. Oil on canvas, 48 3 72 in. In
this work, Benjamin Butler has created
a composition using analogous colors,
featuring yellow-greens, greens, and
blue-greens. For greater variety, he has
added complementary colors in the form
of browns (low-key oranges), pinks, and
red-violets. Courtesy of the artist.

of variations of tints and shades, a Tertiary colors can also have a sense such effects, however, can be altered by
monochromatic scheme has the poten- of color temperature based on their differences in the value and/or inten-
tial to be monotonous. Sometimes, how- tonality. Brown, earthy tones gener- sity of the color.
ever, a monochromatic scheme is just ally feel warm, while olives are cool. In
the right color treatment for a particular addition, artists working with neutral These spatial characteristics of color
subject. grays can introduce a hint of warmth or were fully developed by the French art-
coolness to the grays to extend the pal- ist Paul Cézanne in the late nineteenth
Warm and Cool Colors ette; the gray changes from achromatic century. He admired the sparkling, bril-
to chromatic, creating a subtle increase liant color of the Impressionist artists
Color “temperature” is another way in variety and interest (see fig. 5.4). of the period but thought their work
to organize color schemes. All of the had lost the solidity of earlier painting.
colors can be classified into one of two Plastic Colors Consequently, he began to experiment
groups: “warm” colors or “cool” colors. with expressing the bulk and weight of
Red, orange, and yellow are associated Colors may also be organized according forms by modeling with color.
with the sun or fire and thus are consid- to their ability to create compositional
ered warm (see fig. 7.16H). Any colors depth. Artists are able to create the illu- Before Cézanne’s experiments, the
containing blue (such as green, violet, sion of an object’s volume or flatten an traditional academic artist had mod-
and blue-green) are associated with air, area using color. This ability to model eled form using a technique known as
sky, plants, and water; these are con- a shape comes from the advancing grisaille, or dead painting. With this tech-
sidered cool (see fig. 7.16I). This quality and receding characteristics of certain nique, the object was first painted in
of warmth or coolness in a color can be colors. For example, a spot of red on a differing neutral values and later over-
affected by the hues around or near it. gray surface seems to be in front of that glazed with a thin layer of the object’s
For example, the coolness of blue, like its surface; a spot of blue, similarly placed, local (natural) color. Cézanne, how-
intensity, may be heightened by plac- seems to sink back into the surface. In ever, discovered that a change of hue
ing a touch of its complement, orange, general, warm colors advance, and cool on a form could serve the purpose of a
nearby (see fig. 7.4B). colors recede (fig. 7.22). The character of change of value, while imparting new
possibilities of expression. He modeled
the form by placing warm colors on the

Developing Aesthetic Color Relationships 199

7.22 Emily Mason, Suddenly Encroaching,
2006. Oil on canvas, 36 3 44 in. (91.44
3 111.76 cm). The advancing and
receding character of color is apparent
in this painting, as the warm reds and
yellows seem to jump forward from the
cooler blues and greens. The artist also
adjusts the plasticity of those colors by
changing their values and intensities. © Emily

Mason/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.

part of the subject that was to advance flattened the pictorial space, making it Gobelin tapestry works were receiving
and adding cool colors where the sur- more decorative than plastic (fig. 7.24). complaints about the color stability
face receded (fig. 7.23). Cézanne felt Likewise, abstract artists use the prop- of certain blues, browns, light violets,
that rich colors and their textural behav- erties of balance, movement, and space, and blacks. In charge of tints and dyes,
iors expressed well the actual structure giving content to a painting although no Chevreul discovered that the problem
of a solid object. Later, modern artists actual objects are represented (fig. 7.25). was not a question of the dyestuffs but
realized that Cézanne’s advancing and Line, value, shape, and texture are gre- rather a phenomenon of color contrast.
receding colors could also be used in atly complemented by color’s ability to The appearance of these colors varied
more abstract ways, creating backward create space and meaning. depending on which color they were
and forward movements on a picture’s placed beside.
surface (see fig. 7.30). The use of plas- Simultaneous Contrast
tic colors is only a technique, however, These discoveries were the starting
and there is no single correct way to While trying to match colors, an art- point for the Law of Simultaneous Con-
employ it. ist may mix a color on a palette only trast of Colors, published in 1839. With
to find that it appears entirely differ- this publication, Chevreul became the
Paul Gauguin, for example, often ent when juxtaposed with other colors “technical prophet” of two schools of
applied the same principles in reverse to on the canvas. Why does a red-violet painting that followed—Impressionism
flatten the spatial qualities in an image. appear to change color when placed and Post-Impressionism. Both groups
By placing cool colors in the foreground, beside a violet? During the early nine- of painters often juxtaposed comple-
he made it appear to recede. By paint- teenth century, a French chemist, M. E. ments that increased the intensity of
ing the background in warm colors, he Chevreul, wanted to discover why the each other through simultaneous con-
caused it to advance. This combination trast. Another early student of these

200 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.23 Paul Cézanne, Apples and Biscuits, c.
1879–1882. Oil on canvas, 46 3 55 cm.
Cézanne used block-like brushstrokes and
change of color as a means of creating volume
and modeling form. Rather than merely
indicating an adjustment in value, warm colors
made the apples come forward while blended
cooler tones forced their outer edges to
recede. In addition, warm browns were used
to pull the table front forward while cool blues
made the background recede. Musée de l’Orangerie,

Paris, France/Lauros-Giraudon, Paris/SuperStock, Inc.

7.24 Paul Gauguin, Vision after the Sermon
(Jacob Wrestling with the Angel), 1888. Oil on
canvas, 283⁄4 3 361⁄2 in. (73 3 92 cm). Gauguin
has used the nature of plastic color to reverse
a normal spatial order. Instead of items in the
foreground advancing toward the viewer and
objects in the background receding to create a
deep illusionistic space, he made the pictorial
space shallow. Cool blues and blue-blacks pushed
the foreground figures back, while warm reds and
oranges pulled the background forward, flattening
the space within the image. National Gallery of

Scotland, Edinburgh, Scotland/SuperStock, Inc.

principles, Eugène Delacroix, once said, decrease, and their dissimilarities seem surrounded by yellow it seems more
“Give me mud and I will make the skin to increase. In short, contrast intensi- green. Differences can be seen in the
of a Venus out of it, if you will allow me fies the difference between colors. This characteristics of intensity and value
to surround it as I please.” effect is most extreme, of course, when as well as in hue. A grayed blue looks
the colors are directly contrasting in brighter if placed against a gray back-
The effect of one color on another is hue, but it occurs even if the colors ground and will tend to make the gray
explained by the rule of simultaneous have some degree of relationship. For take on an orange cast; however, the
contrast. According to this rule, when- example, a yellow-green surrounded same grayed blue looks even grayer
ever two different colors come into by green appears more yellow, but if or more neutralized against a bright
direct contact, their similarities seem to

Developing Aesthetic Color Relationships 201

blue background. The most striking 7.25 Mark Rothko, Number 10, 1950. Oil on canvas,
effect occurs when complementary hues 7 ft. 63⁄8 in. 3 4 ft. 91⁄8 in. (2.30 3 1.45 m). Using
are juxtaposed: blue is brightest when apparently simple masses of color on a large scale,
seen next to orange, and green is bright- the artist is able to evoke emotional sensations in the
est when seen next to red. When a observer. Rothko was one of the American artists who
warm color is seen in simultaneous worked in the pure abstract idiom. © 1998 Kate Rothko
contrast with a cool color, the warm
hue appears warmer and the cool color Prizel & Christopher Rothko/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
cooler. A color always tends to bring out
its complement in a neighboring color. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. Gift of Philip Johnson.
If a green rug is placed against a white
wall, the eye may make the white take Digital image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art
on a very light red or warm cast. A touch
of green in the white may be necessary Resource, NY.
to counteract this. When a neutral gray
made of two complementary colors is Although we seem to desire the physically mixed together. The colors
placed next to a strong intense color, it three primaries visually, our optic produced are less saturated or intense
tends to take on a hue that is opposite function may get overstimulated under and seem easier to experience physi-
the intense color. When a person wears certain conditions. Large amounts of cally. This would explain why tertiary
a certain color of clothing, the comple- clashing full-intensity complements can colors—neutralized sometimes nearly
mentary color in that person’s complex- make us uneasy (see fig. T.77). Museum to the loss of hue—are thought of as
ion is emphasized. guards at an Op Art show were said being more relaxing. Hues such as
to have asked for reassignment, com- blues and greens seem to be easier on
Parts of this phenomenon may plaining of visual problems ranging the eye and mind when lightened with
be explained by the theory that the from headaches to blurred focus. white; white adds more wavelengths
eye (and mind) seeks a state of bal- to the reflected light (the colors) and
ance with the three light primaries. Balanced stimulation of the color thus stimulates additional combina-
More than a psychological factor, this receptors is much easier to expe- tions of receptors. Hues that have
seems to be a physiological function rience when the three primaries are
of the eyes’ receptors and their ability
to receive the three light primaries—
some combination of all three is in-
volved in most mixed colors. As our
eyes flash unceasingly about our field
of vision, all the light primaries are
experienced, and the corresponding
receptors are repeatedly activated.
The mind seems to function with less
stress when all three receptor systems
are involved concurrently (although
not necessarily in equal proportions).
If one or more primaries are continu-
ally missing, the eye tries to replace
the missing color or colors because of
receptor fatigue. For example, if we
stare at a spot of intense red for several
seconds and then shift our eyes to a
white area, we see an afterimage of
the same spot in green, red’s comple-
ment. The phenomenon can be noted
with any pair of complementary colors
(fig. 7.26).

202 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.26 Jasper Johns, Flags, 1965. Oil on canvas with raised canvas, 6 3 4 ft. (1.83 3 1.22 m). been muted, neutralized, or light-
With this painting, Johns wanted the viewer to experience an afterimage. This occurs when the ened in value will appear to recede
retina’s receptors are overstimulated and are unable to accept additional signals. They then project compared to their most saturated or
the wavelengths of the complementary colors. Stare at the white dot on the upper flag for forty intense states. Intense blue walls will
seconds. Then shift your focus to the dark dot on the lower flag, and you will see an afterimage in make a room appear smaller than a
red, white, and blue. © Jasper Johns/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY. very light tint of the same blue.

Try some experiments to see the
principles of simultaneous contrast in
practice. See if the same color placed in
the center of two related colors can be
made to appear as two different hues,
however subtle or different. Further,
try making two subtly different colors
appear to be the same by changing their
surrounding colors. Notice the difficulty
in finding edges when adjoining shapes
or areas are closely related in value level
or intensity. There may be a “pulsating”
effect that occurs when the eye has the
greatest struggle for edge definition—
when complements are placed together.
Black lines will give greater clarity to the
image but may also tend to flatten the
areas. Greater contrast in value or inten-
sity levels will also help with the visual
problem of edge resolution or image
separation.

All these changes in appearance
make us realize that no one color can be
experienced in isolation, but each must
be considered in relation to any other
colors present. For this reason, many
artists find it easier to develop a color
composition globally rather than try to
finish one area completely before going
on to another.

Color and Emotion

Color may also be used according to
its ability to create mood, symbolize
ideas, and express emotions. Color,
as found in art, can express a mood or
feeling in its own right, even though it
may not be descriptive of any specific
object. Reds are often thought of as
being cheerful and exciting, whereas
blues can impart dignity, sadness, or
serenity. Also, different values and in-
tensities in a color can affect emotional
impact. A wide value range (strongly

Developing Aesthetic Color Relationships 203

contrasting light or dark hues) gives vi- 7.27 Claude Monet, Waterloo Bridge, Grey Weather, 1900. Oil on canvas, 65.4 3 92.4 cm.
tality and directness to a color scheme; The Impressionist Monet painted almost 100 views of the Waterloo Bridge during three trips to
closely related values and low intensi- London. Painting the view from his room in the Savoy Hotel, he studied the characteristics of light
ties create feelings of subtlety, calmness, at different times of the day and in differing weather conditions. As a result, the hues, values, and
and repose (fig. 7.27). intensities are markedly affected. Gift of Mrs. Mortimer B. Harris, 1984.1173, The Art Institute of Chicago. Photography

Colors can evoke emotions that © The Art Institute of Chicago.
are personal and reinforced by every-
day experiences. For example, some 7.28 Mosaic of Justinian I, 548
yellows look acidic and bitter, almost A.D. This sixth-century mosaic
forcing a pucker, as would a sour portrays Emperor Justinian the
lemon. Other colors carry with them Great clad in a purple robe, which
cultural associations. Our speech is emphasizes his wealth and royal
full of phrases that associate abstract status. The original color of the
qualities like virtue, loyalty, and evil robe was Tyrian Purple, a rare hue
with color: “true blue,” “dirty yel- made from tiny sea snails. © Christel
low coward,” “red with rage,” “see-
ing red,” “virgin white,” “green with Gerstenberg/Corbis.
envy,” and “gray gloom.” In some
cases, these feelings seem to be univer-
sal because they are based on shared
experiences. Every culture understands
the danger of fire (reds) and the great
vastness, mystery, and consistency of
the heavens and the seas (blues). Blues
can imply reliability, fidelity, loyalty,
and honesty, while reds suggest dan-
ger, bravery, sin, passion, or violent
death. However, not all color has the
same meaning in every culture. On
pre-Columbian artifacts, priest-kings
are shown in self-bloodletting ritu-
als, and victims are sacrificed to the
sun, with red symbolizing the renewal
and rebirth of the sun. For other cul-
tures, green rather than red is the
sign of regeneration, hope, and life.
Numerous color associations can be
traced back historically. For example,
purple has signified royalty since the
ancient Greek and Roman civilizations,
because only the royalty could afford
the expense of extracting a purple dye
from 10,000 tiny shellfish—which is
what was required to produce a gram
of color (fig. 7.28). However, even
when dye became more affordable,
the tradition (and the significance)
remained. In China, ancient potters
created very unusual glazes for their
wares. Among the glazes was a very
deep copper red that was so beautiful

204 C HAPTER 7 Color

that the very best ware in every kiln- are rarely painted in dark or bright 7.29 Shepard Fairey, Obama
load was immediately carried away to warm colors, which would make them Poster, 2008. Fairey created this
the emperor himself. feel even smaller. Instead, the space is poster in the style called “social
made to appear larger by light cool col- realism,” which often uses color
Psychological Application ors. In 2008, Shepard Fairey made use of for psychological purposes. The
of Color a triadic color scheme to create an iconic image, colored in red, white,
poster of then candidate Barack Obama and blue, provided a patriotic
Research has shown that light, bright (fig. 7.29). Psychologically, his choice symbol for Obama supporters.
colors make us feel joyful and uplifted; of colors communicates patriotic senti-
warm colors are generally stimulat- ments and conveys bold intent. © Shepard Fairey.
ing; cool colors are calming; and cool,
dark, or somber colors are generally An artist’s emotional state—affected their feelings about their subjects rather
depressing. Medical facilities, trauma by an angry exchange, a love letter, a than being purely descriptive. John
centers, and state correctional facili- near miss in traffic—may subconsciously Marin’s color is essentially suggestive,
ties are often painted in light blues or influence a choice of color. The power of with little concern for naturalistic form
“institutional greens” because of these color to symbolize ideas becomes a tool. or solidity (see fig. 8.44). Frequently
colors’ calming effect. Winter skiing It enriches the metaphor and makes the delicate and light in tone, his colors are
lodges are adorned in warm yellows, work stronger in content and meaning. in keeping with the medium in which
knotty pine, oranges, and browns to Many artists have evolved a personal he worked (watercolor). The color in
welcome those coming in from freezing color style that comes primarily from the paintings of Vincent van Gogh is
temperatures. Stories abound of the use often vivid, hot, intense, and applied in
of motivating color in sports programs. snakelike ribbons of pigment. His uses
One visiting team refused to use the of texture and color express the intensely
assigned locker room, furious because personal style of his work (see figs. 1.15
the powder-puff pink walls implied and 1.19). In the work of Mark Rothko,
they were sissies. In another incident, color becomes a conduit for a spiritual
the home team’s locker room was or transcendent viewing experience
painted bright red to keep the players (see fig. 7.25). Using various techniques,
keyed up and on edge during halftime, Rothko achieved a luminosity, an “inner
while light blue surroundings in the light,” to his works that made the colors
visitors’ locker room encouraged the
opponents to let down and relax. It has
been shown in some work situations
that bright, intense colors encourage
worker productivity, whereas neutral-
ized or lighter hues slow down the
workforce.

We are continually exposed to the
application of color’s emotive power. In
a supermarket, the meat section is spar-
kling white to assure us of its cleanliness
and purity. To encourage us to purchase
the products, the best steaks are gar-
nished with parsley or green plastic trim
to make them appear redder and more
irresistible. Color is extremely important
in branding efforts: bright yellow and
orange cereal boxes use contrasting let-
tering (often complementary) to scream
for our attention. Extremely small spaces

Developing Aesthetic Color Relationships 205

7.30 Wolf Kahn, Web of Trees, 2003. Oil on canvas, 64 3 78 in. 7.31 Frida Kahlo, Still Life with Parrot, 1951. Oil on masonite,
(162.6 3 198.1 cm). Wolf Kahn is one contemporary painter who uses his 91⁄2 3 101⁄4 in. (24.1 3 26 cm). This still life is painted in local
subject—landscape—to express a personal joy found in color. The vibrant, color—color that simulates the hues of the objects in nature. Art
even risky use of color structure is a hallmark of his later work, making it
instantly recognizable. Art © Wolf Kahn/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY. Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, University of Texas at Austin.
Reproduction authorized by National Institute of Fine Art and Literature of México and
Banco de México. © 2011 Banco de México Diego Rivera & Frida Kahlo Museums
Trust. Av. Cinco de Mayo No. 2, Col. Centro, Del. Cuauhtémoc 06059, México,
D.F./Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.

swirl and glow softly on the canvas. An overexposure of sunlight on an alien object being represented. In painting,
emotional approach to color appealed planet. In the film 300 (2006), the major- color used to indicate the natural ap-
particularly to the Expressionist painters, ity of colors are neutralized, but a select pearance of an object is known as local
who used it to create entirely subjective few—like the scarlet robes or yellow (objective) color (fig. 7.31; see also
treatments having nothing to do with embers—are made more intense for fig. 6.1). Yet a much different (if not
objective reality (see fig. T.56). Contem- dramatic effect. We can see from these more) expressive quality is achieved
porary artists like Wolf Kahn continue to numerous examples that the emotional when the artist depicts objects in col-
interpret their environment in terms of effects of color are unavoidable. Color ors other than their local color. When
personal color selection (fig. 7.30). impacts our senses directly as a psy- an entirely subjective color treat-
chological and physiological function ment is substituted for local color, the
Filmmakers, too, recognize the of sight itself. colors used and their relationships
power of color and use it to change the are invented by the artists for pur-
feel and impact of their work; movies THE ROLE OF COLOR poses other than mere representation
are dramatically affected by using spe- IN COMPOSITION (fig. 7.32; see also figs. 7.30 and 7.41).
cific color schemes or altering the color This style of treatment may even deny
tonality of the scenes. For example, When painting was seen as a purely color as an objective reality; that is, we
in the film O Brother, Where Art Thou? illustrative art, the description of ap- may have blue cows, green faces, or
(released in 2000), the colors were digi- pearances was considered color’s purple trees. When colors are subjec-
tally altered—some more neutralized most important function. Thus, for a tively applied, as in much contempo-
than others—so that sepia tones trans- long period in the history of Western rary art, an understanding of their use
mit the feeling of the Dust Bowl era. In art, color was seen as arising from the becomes critical to an understanding
Pitch Black (2000), many scenes consist of their meaning.
only of shades of blue to indicate the

206 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.32 Gilles Marrey, 1997, 1998. Oil on canvas, 55 3 56 in. (140 3 142 cm). The subjective colors in this
painting may not be as obviously invented as a “blue horse,” but they effectively set up the mood and mystery
within this painting. Courtesy of artist.

Regardless of whether color is used 1. To give spatial quality to the picto- of backward and forward
objectively or subjectively, it serves rial field. movement in pictorial space.
several purposes in artistic composi- a. Color can supplement, or 2. To create mood and symbolize ideas.
tion. These purposes are not separate even substitute for, value 3. To serve as a vehicle for expressing
and distinct but instead are interre- differences to give plastic personal emotions and feelings.
lated. As we have discussed through- quality. 4. To attract and direct attention as a
out this chapter, color can be used in b. Color can create interest means of giving organization to a
the following ways: through the counterbalance composition.

The Role of Color in Composition 207

5. To accomplish aesthetic appeal
by a system of well-ordered color
relationships.

6. To identify objects by describing the
superficial facts of their appearance.

Color Balance 7.33 Georgia O’Keeffe, Canna Red and Orange, 1922. Oil on canvas, 10 3 16 in. (50.8 3
40.6 cm). Inspired by light, this Precisionist artist stripped away most features of reality to create
Whether an artist chooses to work with her colorful, semiabstract images. Georgia O’Keeffe Museum, Santa Fe/Art Resource, NY. © 2011 The Georgia
color combinations that are extremely
bold (even offensive) or chooses col- O’Keeffe Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
ors that are subtler and more psycho-
logically soothing, all effective color color scheme is the most harmonious, However, any attempt to base the
combinations have at their root the con- followed by analogous colors, tetrads, aesthetic appeal of color patterns purely
sideration of similarity and contrast. triads, split-complements, and finally, on fixed theoretical color harmonies
The unity of the composition relies on complementary colors, which offer the will probably not be very successful.
harmonious relationships between the most variety and are least harmonious Effective color combinations depend as
various colors, but these relationships (see fig. 7.16). much on how we distribute our colors
must also be made alive and interesting
through variety. This basic problem is
the same one encountered in all aspects
of form organization: finding an ap-
propriate sense of equilibrium between
similarity and contrast.

Color combinations are brought into
a harmonious relationship when they
have properties in common, includ-
ing hue, intensity, and value; the more
they share, the more harmonious the
relationships become. However, any
attempt to harmonize the interaction
of colors must be balanced by the need
to keep the relationships interesting—
at times, even exciting. This is accom-
plished through variety in hue, value,
or intensity and the resulting con-
trasts those variations create. Therefore,
successful interaction of color is a mat-
ter of balancing the need for harmony
with the natural desire for variety. Of
course, the color relationships used in
a composition must be determined pri-
marily by the concept being explored.

Color schemes that contain hues in
close proximity on the color wheel (and
therefore, closely related in wavelength
frequency) tend to create harmonious
compositions, while colors that are far-
ther apart have stronger contrasts and
create a color scheme with more vari-
ety. As a general rule, a monochromatic

208 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.34 Ellen Phelan, Peonies, Roses and Books, 2004. Watercolor
and gouache on paper, 27.5 3 20.8 in. (72.4 3 52.8 cm). In this
composition, muted and dark colors hint at the developing floral
shapes. These amorphous forms could have been brought into
harmony by mixing dark neutrals with all of the colors involved.
However, the artist accomplishes the same thing by applying dark
color washes over the forms, which effectively lowers their value
and neutralizes their intensity. This creates an unusual and exciting
low-key composition of suggested shape and color. © 2011 Ellen

Phelan/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.

as on the relationships among the hues the amount or proportion of color used, contribute to an increase in frequency
themselves. The amounts or proportions and in general, compositions in which of that hue and to the general harmonic
of the colors used, as well as their loca- one color or one kind of color predom- tonality for the image.
tion in the composition, affect the over- inates are more easily harmonized
all impact of the color choices. than color arrangements with equal Even when many varied colors are
amounts of different colors. A simple used in a composition, a single hue can
Color and Harmony way to create harmony is to repeat a be a harmonizing factor if a little of it
color in differing values and intensi- is physically mixed with every color
Let us look first at how to harmonize ties while controlling its placement used in the composition (see fig. 7.15).
a composition through its color rela- in different parts of the composition This tends to lower the intensity of
tionships. The harmonious quality of (fig. 7.33). These areas will collectively all the colors involved and give them
a color pattern frequently depends on a hint of the shared hue. A similar

The Role of Color in Composition 209

7.35 Romare Bearden, Empress of the Blues, 1974. Paper collage, 36 3 48 in. Bearden has created figures that are
very active in their complexity of shape and visual detail and made them readable by contrasting them against a very
uncomplicated and decorative background of slightly neutralized color. Photo © Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington,

DC/Art Resource, NY © Romare Bearden Foundation/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.

effect can be created by glazing over the range of hue. In these situations, that adds to the hazy and amorphous
a varicolored pattern with a single diverse colors may be harmonized by nature of the image. Sharing a high
transparent color, which becomes the bringing them all to a similar value or low key or sharing a similar loss
harmonizing hue. level or making their intensity levels of brilliance can make even unusual
correspond (see figs. 5.4 and 7.30). As combinations have some degree of har-
Unified patterns may also be cre- we can see in figure 7.34, Ellen Phelan mony relative to the amount of change
ated by adjusting color temperature— applies this concept by adding a dark involved. Even complementary colors,
so that all the colors of a composition neutral to all the colors involved, which which of course vie for our attention
are made to share a hint of warmth lowers their intensity and value. Not through simultaneous contrast, can be
or coolness. However, there are often only does this tie all the areas together, made more unified if one of them is
times when it is desirable to encourage but it creates a low-key composition softened or neutralized.
color relatedness without sacrificing

210 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.36 Georges Rouault, Christ Mocked by
Soldiers, 1932. Oil on canvas, 361⁄4 3 281⁄2
in. (92.1 3 72.4 cm). In this Expressionist
contrast of clashing complements, the pattern
is stabilized by heavy neutralizing lines of
black, reminiscent of medieval stained glass.

© 2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP,

Paris. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. Given

anonymously. Digital image © The Museum of Modern Art/

Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY.

When color predominance is not Another commonly used method Rouault often found a black line effec-
enough to pull an organization to- of relating colors of extreme contrasts tive in separating highly contrast-
gether, the image can be made more is to separate all or part of the col- ing colors (fig. 7.36). Stained-glass
harmonious by changing the character ors by a neutral line or area. Abso- windows are another great example
of the surrounding areas. In such cases, lute black or white lines are the most of this technique: the neutral black
an image that is hard to visually under- effective neutrals for this purpose leading between the brilliant colors
stand or distinguish may become more because they are so positive in char- unifies the entire window. A similar
readable, in addition to becoming more acter (have a strong presence) them- unifying effect can be brought about
unified. In figure 7.35, Romare Bearden selves. They not only tie together the by using a large area of neutral light
makes a whole series of diverse images contrasting hues but also enhance gray or other neutralized color as a
easier to recognize by using a very their color character because of background to clashing contrasts of
simple and flat background. value contrast (see fig. 7.15). Georges color (fig. 7.37).

The Role of Color in Composition 211

7.37 Joan Mitchell, Untitled, 1992. Oil on
canvas, 1101⁄4 3 783⁄4 in. (280 3 200 cm).
Characterized by aggressive brushwork, Joan
Mitchell’s painting has a variety of highly
contrasting colors and values: large areas of
dark are balanced by even larger areas of light
value; blues are countered by smaller oranges,
green by pink, and yellowish white by touches
of violet. © Estate of Joan Mitchell.

Color and Variety ety and greater interest into the color (fig. 7.38; see also fig. 4.14). Low-key or
organization (e.g., a scheme of red and high-key compositions benefit greatly
In any color scheme, the basic problem red-violet could be changed to red and from such contrasting accents, which
is to create unified color relationships violet). In addition, colors related by add interest to what might otherwise
without destroying the general strength lowered intensity or value levels could be a monotonous composition (see figs.
and intensity of expression found in benefit from stronger contrasts of either 4.20 and 4.29).
their contrasts. There is often the danger or both. Selecting the widest array of
that the composition may become too hue, value, and intensity will imbue the With the right amount of con-
harmonious during the attempt to unify relationships with even greater variety trasting color, an area can have more
color—resulting in a level of visual mo- and interest. focus (fig. 7.39; see also fig. 7.23). A
notony. In those situations, more va- small, dark spot of color, through its
riety can be introduced back into the Where the basic unity of a color lower value, can draw more attention
work through greater contrasts in hue, pattern has already been established, than a larger lighter area surrounding
value, or intensity. Sometimes this is a strong contrasts of color hue, value, it. Likewise, a spot of intense color,
matter of reversing or softening some of or intensity can be used as accents, though small, can often balance a large
the techniques that made the colors har- providing variety but maintaining the area of gray or other neutralized color
monize. In other words, if colors were basic unity of the color theme. Small (see fig. 7.40). In addition, a small
related (in close proximity on the color amounts of complementary color or amount of warm color usually domi-
wheel), then creating a wider separation neutrals of contrasting value can add nates a larger amount of cool color,
of interval would introduce more vari- subtle variety to the color pattern even though both may be of the same

212 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.38 Jackson Pollock, Full Fathom Five, 1947. Oil on canvas
with nails, tacks, buttons, key, coins, cigarettes, matches, etc.
507⁄8 3 301⁄8 in. Having established a color pattern of black,
white, and green, Pollock uses small accents of contrasting
color to provide interest and a feeling of spontaneity. Gift of

Peggy Guggenheim, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. Digital Image

© The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY.

Art © 2011 The Pollock-Krasner Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS),

New York.

intensity (see figs. 7.22 and 7.24). If all Finally, we should remember that We must realize that there can be bru-
the areas in a composition were made artists frequently produce color com- tal color combinations as well as refined
equally important, however, it would binations that defy these guiding prin- ones. The more extreme or turbulent
be difficult to find a spot on which ciples but are still satisfying to the eye. combinations are appropriate if they
to fix our attention; this would prob- Artists use color as they do the other accomplish the artist’s intention to excite
ably create a rather chaotic viewing elements of art structure—to give highly rather than calm. Some of the German
experience. personalized meaning to their work. Expressionist painters have proven that

The Role of Color in Composition 213

7.39 Norman Sunshine, Equilibrium, 2007. Oil on canvas,
72 3 48 in. (182.8 3 121.9 cm). This work is appropriately
titled. Try covering any portion of the composition, and you
will discover that it feels incomplete. Related in analogous
tones (from red to violet to blue), the smaller contrasting
areas of neutralized yellows and changes in value and hue
keep the image interesting. © Norman Sunshine. Courtesy of

Morrison Gallery.

7.40 Niklaus Troxler, Poster for Otello, 1991.
In this poster, the single splash of red balances the
work and focuses the viewer’s attention. The shocking,
blood-red color, set against a stark white background, and
surrounded by deep black, creates an image pregnant with
meaning. Courtesy of Niklaus Troxler.

214 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.41 Emil Nolde, The Last Supper, 1909. Oil on canvas, 337⁄8 3 421⁄8 in. (86 3 107 cm). The Expressionists
usually employed bold, clashing hues to emphasize their emotional identification with a subject. Intense feeling is
created by the use of complementary and near-complementary hues. © Nolde Stiftung Seebüll, Courtesy of the Statens Museum

for Kunst, Copenhagen.

these clashing color schemes can have THE EVOLUTION OF systems of color organization have
definite aesthetic value when used pur- THE COLOR WHEEL developed along the way.
posefully (fig. 7.41). There are no exact
rules for arriving at pleasing effects In this book, the circular arrangement The Origins
in color relationships—only the guid- of the twelve-step color wheel is based of Color Systems
ing principles that we have discussed. on a subtractive system of colors that
With this foundation, every artist must uses red, yellow, and blue as primaries. Sir Isaac Newton investigated the
build his or her own language of color This triadic primary system has evolved physical nature of color around 1660.
and use it for the artist’s own expressive over many centuries. With the growth Having separated color into the spec-
purposes. of ideas and technology, additional trum—red on top and violet on the

The Evolution of the Color Wheel 215

bottom—he was the first to conceive did much to explore the relation- the initial point of the triangle. The sys-
of it as a color wheel. Ingeniously, he ship between color and expression. tem was never fully adopted for indus-
twisted what was a straight-line spec- Their research also clarified the his- trial application.
trum, joined the ends, and inserted torical development of the triadic color
purple, a color leaning to red-violet and system. The Munsell Color System
not found in the spectrum. This red-
violet he saw as a transition between The Discovery Around 1936, the American artist Albert
violet and red. Newton’s wheel con- of Light Primaries Munsell formulated a system to show
tained seven colors, which he related to the relationships between different color
the seven known planets and the seven The discovery of red, green, and blue tints and shades based on hue, value, and
notes of the diatonic scale in music (the light primaries (see fig. 7.2) occurred intensity. This system was an attempt to
standard major scale without chro- around 1790, paralleling early develop- give names to the many varieties of hues
matic half steps)—red corresponding ments with pigment. These concepts of that result from mixing different colors
to note C, orange to D, yellow to E, light were explored by scientists Her- with each other or with the neutrals.
green to F, blue to G, indigo to A, and mann von Helmholtz of Germany and American industry adopted the Munsell
violet to B. James Clerk Maxwell of Great Britain. system in 1943 as its material standard
Some additive-light primary systems for naming different colors. The system
The Discovery have also been represented as circles, was also adopted by the United States
of Pigment Primaries but they should not be confused with Bureau of Standards in Washington, DC.
systems designed for subtractive color.
Around 1731, J. C. Le Blon recognized In the Munsell system, the five basic
that red, yellow, and blue were primary The Ostwald hues on the color wheel are red, yel-
colors and had the ability to create or- Color System low, green, blue, and purple (violet).
ange, green, and violet. To this day, his The mixture of any two adjacent colors
discovery remains the basis of pigment Around 1916, a distinguished German on this color wheel is called an inter-
color theory. chemist and physicist, Wilhelm Ost- mediate color. For example, the mixture
wald, developed a color system based of red and yellow is the intermediate
The First Triadic on psychological harmony and order. color yellow-red. The other intermedi-
Color Wheel Created from pigment hues available ate hues are green-yellow, blue-green,
at the time, it used red, yellow, sea purple-blue, and red-purple.
The first wheel in full color and based on green, and blue, with secondaries of or-
the three-primary system (for pigments) ange, purple, turquoise, and leaf green. To clarify color relationships, Mun-
was published around 1766. It appeared The colors were placed in a circle and sell devised a three-dimensional sys-
in a book titled The Natural System of expanded by mixing neighboring col- tem (in the form of a tree) that classifies
Colours by Moses Harris, an English en- ors into a twenty-four-hue system— the different shades according to the
graver. In the first decade of the nine- capable of even further expansion. qualities of hue, value, and intensity (or
teenth century, Johann Wolfgang von Complements were placed opposite chroma). The many different-color tones
Goethe began placing the colors, with each other—blue opposite yellow, for are adhered to transparent plastic vanes
their triangular arrangements, around a example. The system laid out strict rules that extend from a central trunk like tree
circle. In addition, Philipp Otto Runge for standardizing colors to use in indus- branches. The column nearest the cen-
created the first color solid (a three- trial applications. A three-dimensional ter trunk shows a scale of neutral tones
dimensional color organization) by ex- model placed each color on the apex of that begin with black at the bottom and
ploring tints, tones, and shades of color. a triangle and black and white on the rise through grays to white at the top.
other two points. The color harmonies The color tone at the outer limit of each
In the United States, many educa- were based on mathematical relation- branch represents the most intense hue
tors promoted the red, yellow, and ships that doubled the color change at possible at each level of value (fig. 7.42).
blue primary color wheel. Most noted each step from white to black, provid-
among them was Louis Prang, who ing an even progression in the steps. The most important part of the
published The Theory of Color in 1876. This system concentrated on value Munsell color system is the color nota-
Recently, scholars like Johanness changes, while intensity was limited to tion, which describes a color in terms
Itten, Faber Birren, and Joseph Albers of a letter and numeral formula. The
hue is indicated by the notation found
on the inner circle of the color wheel,
shown in figure 7.43. The value of the

216 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.42 Munsell color tree, 1972. Clear plastic chart 101⁄2 3 12 in. (26.7 3 30.5 cm), base size colors is indicated by the numbers on
12 in. (30.5 cm) diameter, center pole size 125⁄8 in. (32.1 cm) high, chip size 3⁄4 3 13⁄8 in. (1.9 3 the central trunk. The intensity, or
3.5 cm). The Munsell system in three dimensions. The greatest intensity of each hue is found in chroma, is shown by the numbers on
the color vane farthest from the center trunk. The value of each vane changes as it moves up and the vanes that radiate from the trunk.
down the tree. The center trunk changes only from light to dark. The colors change in hue as they These relationships between value and
move around the tree. Courtesy of X-Rite, Incorporated and GretagMacbeth AG/LLC USA. intensity are expressed by fractions,
with the number on top representing
the value and the number on the bot-
tom indicating the intensity (chroma).
For example, 5Y 8/12 is the notation for
a bright yellow.

It is interesting to compare the
Munsell color wheel with the triadic
color wheel used in this book (see
figs. 7.7 and 7.43). Munsell places blue
opposite yellow-red and red opposite
blue-green, whereas this text places
blue opposite orange and red opposite
green.

The Process Color System
(Four-Color Printing
Process)

We have already discussed how we
experience color by reflected light. A
colored object reflects only the wave-
lengths of that color while absorbing
all others (see the section “Subtractive
Color”). By taking the reflected wave-
lengths and passing them through
specific camera filters, photographers
and printers have learned how to
isolate and photograph individual
wavelengths.

When light passes through a sheet of
clear glass, all the color wavelengths pass
through. However, when a red-colored
glass is used, only the wave lengths of
red are allowed to pass; all other wave-
lengths are absorbed and essentially
blocked. The red filter absorbs the wave-
lengths of red’s complement, which is
cyan (see fig. 7.2).

7.43 Munsell color wheel. This diagram shows the relationships of the
hues on the wheel in terms of a specific type of notation (as explained in the
text). Courtesy of X-Rite, Incorporated and GretagMacbeth AG/LLC USA.

The Evolution of the Color Wheel 217

Thus a red glass camera filter will 7.44 The primary colors of the process-printing system include yellow, cyan, and magenta. Where
block all colors, except for the shades they are mixed, they produce red, blue (a color named by industry and scientists that is actually
of red, which are recorded on the nega- closer to violet), and green. When all three are combined, they produce “black.” Notice that the
tive as gray to black shapes. The wave- process-printing primaries are the additive secondary colors and that the process-printing secondary
lengths blocked by the filter (which we colors are the additive primary colors.
know is equal to red’s complement,
cyan) are also recorded on the negative, produces green. Overlaying all three ink—black—on white paper. With
but as transparent areas. primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) this technique, the gray areas of
creates something close to black, but an image were translated into net-
When a photosensitive printing a true black is created by printing a works of tiny black-and-white dots
plate is exposed through the negative fourth plate in black to add definition of differing sizes and spacing for
film, these transparent areas allow (fig. 7.45D–F). different values. It then became
exposure of the plate, revealing the var- much easier for the printing in-
ious values of cyan. Where the negative With this four-color printing pro- dustry to commercially reproduce
is opaque black (from recording the red cess, the printing industry has achieved the range of gray values found in a
wavelengths), the unexposed printing great advances in color reproduction. photograph.
plate remains white. In this manner, a Of course, several techniques came 3. After it was discovered that an
red filter produces a printing plate for together to make this process possible: image could be photographed
its complement—cyan. through colored filters, halftoning
1. Monochrome photography pro- was incorporated to create a print-
Similarly, when a green filter is vided images in black, white, and ing plate with the proper range of
used, a printing plate for the value a full value range of unbroken value for each of the primaries—
levels of magenta is created. A “blue” grays. magenta, yellow, and cyan. The
filter—actually on the violet side— layering and juxtaposition of these
produces a plate for printing the value 2. Halftoning was invented, which tiny dots optically creates the
ranges of yellow. allowed all the shades of gray to
be printed with only one shade of
Using these techniques, printers
and photographers have created a
special color organization in which
magenta, yellow, and cyan serve as
the primary colors (fig. 7.44). Notice
that these primaries are the second-
ary colors in the additive (light) sys-
tem (illustrated in figure 7.2), and
they aren’t the primary colors of red,
yellow, and blue familiar to the stu-
dio artist (illustrated in fig. 7.5). In the
process color system for printing, red
is a mixed color!

When the printing plates for
magenta, yellow, and cyan are printed
together, all possible colors and value
ranges can be created (fig. 7.45). Where
the magenta and yellow overlap, red
is created as a secondary color; where
the magenta is decreased and the yel-
low increased, the color swings more
toward orange; and so on, depending
on the adjustment of the two colors.
Similarly, the other secondary colors
are created by overlaying the remain-
ing primaries: cyan plus magenta
produces blue, and cyan plus yellow

218 C HAPTER 7 Color

thousands of colors and values pos-
sible. Our eyes blend the dots to-
gether to see a complete image with
smooth transitions and continuous
color (see fig. 7.45 E and F).

Quite clearly, artists who work with
dyes, color printing for photography,
transparent inks, the printing indus-
try, and digital photo software all need
to become very familiar with the pro-
cess color system and its primaries of A B C
magenta, yellow, and cyan.

Color Photography D

Color photographers also use ma- EF
genta, cyan, and yellow. Instead of 7.45 These illustrations show the yellow (A), magenta (B), cyan (C), and black (D) printing plates
directly using pigment, they develop used in the four-color printing process. When layered together, they produce the full-color image
color using dyes and gelatin emulsions. (E), a detail of Modigliani’s Gypsy Woman with Baby. An enlargement (F) shows the dots printed
Colored film contains three layers of from each plate and the colors created where the yellow, magenta, cyan, and black inks overlap.
emulsion that respond to the blue, red,
and green light primaries. When the SuperStock, Inc.
exposed film is developed, a multilay-
ered negative results. Light-sensitive
silver halide compounds are converted
to metallic compounds by the devel-
oper. In the process, they oxidize and
combine with “coupler” compounds to
produce dyes. Each layer forms one of
the three dyes that are the primaries for
process printing—yellow, magenta, and
cyan. A yellow image is formed on the
blue-sensitive layer; a magenta image
forms on the green-sensitive layer;
and a cyan image is created on the red-
sensitive layer. Next, the silver is
bleached out of each layer, leaving
only the appropriate-colored dye on
the correct layer. Color negatives, posi-
tive color transparencies (slides), and
color printers all involve this same
basic process (fig. 7.46).

Color Computer Printing

Electronic imagery—drawn using soft-
ware, imported by scanning, or created
by digital camera—requires a computer
to produce a paper image. Most print-
ers use a CYMK ink system, which is an

The Evolution of the Color Wheel 219

acronym for cyan, yellow, magenta (the Exposing negative film Layers of emulsion
process-printing primaries in ink form),
and black. K is used to denote black to Red Negative dyes
avoid confusing black with blue (B com- Green
monly stands for blue). When creating
an image on a computer monitor, it is Blue
important that the colors on the monitor
match those on the final printed image. A
It may take some trial and error to cali-
brate both the monitor and printer to Developing negative film
achieve the desired result. An almost Cyan
infinite number of colors can be created Magenta
by printing cyan, yellow, and magenta Yellow
either alone or in various combinations.
A black color may either be a product B
of combining all the primaries with 7.46 (A) When color negative film is exposed, the blue-, green-, and red-sensitive layers
black ink or the black ink alone. White of emulsion (color spots) record latent images (gray dots) that can be developed into black-
is a result of the color of the paper stock and-white negatives. Colors that are mixtures of the primaries are recorded on several layers. Blacks
being used. Cyan and magenta produce do not expose any of the emulsion, while white light is recorded in all layers. Each color thus leaves
a blue color (close to violet); yellow and a corresponding negative black-and-white impression. (B) When exposed color negative film is
cyan produce green; and magenta and developed, a black-and-white negative image is produced in each emulsion layer (black dots). During
yellow produce red. this development, a colored dye is combined with each black-and-white negative image. The dyes
are cyan, magenta, and yellow. Once the silver is bleached out, the three layers (colored dots) show
Printers now have the capacity to the subject in superimposed negative-dye images. Photograph by Bob Coyle/© McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
print colored detail so fine that it is dif-
ficult to see even with magnification. through changes in the percentage of starting point for embellishment, creat-
This is determined by the size of the dot red, green, and blue used). Experiment- ing a kind of digital mixed media. They
pattern. Most color printers are capable ing with these digital tools can be very often start by sealing the surface with
of more than 300 dots per inch; some addicting, as global changes are seen Krylon sprays or other acrylic sealers,
are able to spray small droplets by the instantly. followed by applications of paint, cray-
millions onto the paper. They can even ons, melted wax, and collaged images.
project bursts of droplets from multiple As artists begin to explore how they Many also distress the surface by goug-
nozzles that combine before striking may employ computer-printing tech- ing, grinding, embossing, or burn-
the paper as a single dot. Such print- nology, many are experimenting with ing it with a torch. Whatever the final
ers are capable of generating images printing on alternative media. Images application, the combination of digital
with over a million color possibilities have been printed on canvas, wearable image and computer printing gives an
per dot. Considering the closeness of silks, specialty films and plastics, and artist new tools with which to inno-
the dots of color, the variety of colors even archival and exotic papers like vate, creating new modes of expression
printed, and their concentration in an kinwashi and Japanese mulberry. Other (see fig. 1.39).
area, color printers can produce virtu- artists are using the printed image as a
ally any color and/or value the artist
desires.

There are now many software pro-
grams that allow an artist to digitally
alter an image—greatly changing the
image’s mood and appearance. Artists
may explore adjustments to brightness
and/or contrast, color balance (which
separates shadow, midtones, and high-
lights by changing the levels of cyan,
magenta, and yellow), and color mix-
ing (which adjusts overall tonality

220 C HAPTER 7 Color

7.47 Michael Braden, Nurse Log, 1998. THREE-DIMENSIONAL
Persian travertine, Swedish verde, and APPLICATIONS OF
Colorado yule marble, 7 ft. 6 in. 3 4 ft. 3 COLOR
2 ft. 4 in. (228.6 3 121.9 3 71.1 cm). This
sculpture is enriched by the artist’s choice of Color is also an inherent feature of
materials in contrasting colors and variegated sculpture materials. Sometimes it is
graining. Lumina Gallery, New Mexico. pleasantly diverse, as in the variegated
veining of wood or stone; in Nurse Log
7.48 Marisol, Women and Dog, 1964. (fig. 7.47), Michael Braden takes full
Wood, plaster, synthetic polymer, taxidermed advantage of such natural color—often
dog head and miscellaneous items, 721⁄4 3 altering it subtly by playing highly pol-
73 3 3015⁄16 in. (183.5 3 185.4 3 78.6 cm). ished (bright local color) against un-
This example of Pop Art reveals the willingness polished or even roughened sections
of some contemporary artists to use bright (dulled local color). However, the in-
color to heighten the three-dimensional trinsic color of some sculptural material
characteristics of form at the same time can be bland, as in the flat chalkiness of
that it enriches surfaces. The form has its plaster. These materials can be painted
roots in earlier twentieth-century styles with color to enrich and bring out the
(Cubism, Constructivism), while the use of form of the work. Painted surfaces can
combine-assemblage tends to fuse the media also add expression and provide ad-
of sculpture and painting into one. Art © Marisol ditional two-dimensional detail to the
three-dimensional form as abstract or
Escobar/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY. simulated texture (fig. 7.48; see also
fig. 4.34).

Many times, the application of color
is an attempt to capture the richness
and form-flattering quality of the patina
found on bronzes oxidized by exposure
to the atmosphere (see fig. 3.30). Art-
ists often speed up the aging process
and control color development with the
application of chemical washes. This
surface patina can help relate all sur-
faces and textures while establishing
harmony within a piece. More recently,
the term patina has come to refer to any
surface-color development and is not
limited in application to bronze sculp-
ture. An expanded palette of color is
available to three-dimensional works
through the use of clay slips, acrylic and
oil paints, enamels, salt fuming, stains,
dyes, and electroplating, which enable
the artist to simulate the color and tex-
ture of one material in another (fig. 7.49;
see also figs. 1.40 and 6.24). As a result,
three-dimensional artists can use all the
properties of color to create countless
color schemes, manipulate space, and
express emotional content (fig. 7.50).

Three-Dimensional Applications of Color 221

7.49 Deborah Butterfield, Not Yet Titled (#2891.1), 2005.
Unique cast bronze with patinated surface, 37 3 48 3 13
in. This piece appears to be made of wood, but it is actually
bronze that has been chemically colored (patinated) to resemble
weathered wood. The three-dimensional artist has access to an
unlimited range of color, which may be used to create this kind
of trompe l’oeil effect or present textures and patterns that are
completely invented. Courtesy of the artist.

7.50 Gabriel Dawe, Plexus no. 3, 2010. Gütermann thread,
wood, and nails, 12 3 6 3 16 ft. Site-specific installation at
Guerillaarts. Working with ordinary colored sewing thread, Dawe
creates a sensual and ethereal viewing experience. Inspired by the
vibrancy of his native Mexican culture, the artist uses bold and
intense hues, showcasing the full color spectrum.

© Gabriel Dawe, Dallas, TX.

Obviously, color cannot be con-
sidered in isolation. The elements of
value and color are so interwoven in
sculpture that artists often use the two
terms interchangeably. Thus, an artist
may refer to value contrasts in terms of
color, actually thinking of both simul-
taneously. This approach subordinates
color to the structure of the piece. On
the other hand, in certain historical
periods (for example, early Greek art)
the application of bright color was
commonplace. Some revival of this
technique is evident in contemporary
works. In every case, the basic criterion
for the use of color is whether it helps
to express the artist’s intentions.

222 C HAPTER 7 Color

Space Linear Perspective CHAPTER EIGHT
Major Types of Linear Perspective
THE VOCABULARY OF SPACE One-Point Perspective
Two-Point Perspective
INTRODUCTION TO SPACE Three-Point Perspective
Perspective Concepts Applied
SPATIAL PERCEPTION The Disadvantages of Linear Perspective

MAJOR TYPES OF SPACE Other Projection Systems
Decorative Space Intuitive Space
Plastic Space
Shallow Space THE SPATIAL PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS
Deep and Infinite Space Line and Space
Shape and Space
SPATIAL INDICATORS Value and Space
Sharp and Diminishing Detail Texture and Space
Size Color and Space
Position
Overlapping STRUCTURED AMBIGUITY
Transparency
Interpenetration THREE-DIMENSIONAL APPLICATIONS OF SPACE
Fractional Representation
Converging Parallels

Gus Heinze, Espresso Cafe, 2003. Acrylic on gessoed panel, 32 3 351⁄2 in. 223

Courtesy of the artist and Bernarducci.Meisel.Gallery, NY.

THE VSOCPAABUCLAERY OF

Space — The interval, or measurable distance, between points or images; can be actual or illusionary.

atmospheric perspective dimensionally; starting with the nearest vertical space development, known as “high relief.” Relief
The illusion of deep space produced in graphic edge, the horizontal edges of the object are sculpture is meant to be viewed frontally, not in
works by lightening values, softening details and drawn at a 30-degree angle, and all verticals the round.
textures, reducing value contrasts, and neu- are projected perpendicularly from a horizontal
tralizing colors in objects as they recede (see base. reverse perspective
perspective.) A graphic system for depicting three-
linear perspective dimensional images, commonly seen in tra-
decorative (space) A system used to depict three-dimensional ditional East Asian art, in which the “parallel”
Ornamenting or enriching but, more importantly images on a two-dimensional surface; it develops lines of objects or their parts seem to converge
in art, stressing the two-dimensional nature of the optical phenomenon of diminishing size by toward the viewer, rather than away into the
an artwork or any of its elements. Decorative treating edges as converging parallel lines that distance. (See perspective.)
art (space) emphasizes the essential flatness of a extend to a vanishing point or points on the
surface. horizon (eye level) and recede from the viewer. shallow space
(See also perspective.) The illusion of limited depth. With shallow
four-dimensional space space, the imagery appears to move only a slight
An imaginative treatment of forms that gives a oblique projection distance back from the picture plane.
sense of intervals of time or motion. A technical drawing system in which a
three-dimensional object is presented two- space
fractional representation dimensionally; the front and back sides of the The interval, or measurable distance, between
A pictorial device (used notably by the Egyp- object are parallel to the horizontal base, and points or images; can be actual or illusionary.
tians) in which several spatial aspects of the the other planes are drawn as parallels coming
same subject are combined in the same image. off the front plane at a 45-degree angle. structured ambiguity
A condition in which the positive figure and the
infinite space orthographic drawing negative background seem to reverse roles, fluc-
A concept in which the picture frame acts as Graphic representation of two-dimensional tuating back and forth between the two functions
a window through which objects can be seen views of an object, showing a plan, vertical eleva- to create an ambiguous sense of space. Struc-
receding endlessly. tions, and/or a section. tured ambiguity is often employed as a transition
between contrasting values or colors and is a
installations perspective valuable tool for creating optical illusions, denying
Interior or exterior settings of media created by Any graphic system—including atmospheric space, and blending an image into its background.
artists to heighten the viewers’ awareness of the perspective and linear perspective—used in
environmental space. creating the illusion of three-dimensional images three-dimensional
and/or spatial relationships in which the objects Possesses the dimensions of (or illusions of)
interpenetration or their parts appear to diminish as they recede height, width, and depth. In the graphic arts, the
The positioning of planes, objects, or shapes so into the distance. feeling of depth is an illusion, while in the plastic
that they appear to pass through each other, arts, the work has actual depth.
which locks them together within a specific area plastic (space)
of space. 1. The use of the elements to create the illusion transparency
of the third dimension on a two-dimensional A visual quality in which a distant image or
intuitive space surface. 2. Three-dimensional art forms, such as element can be seen through a nearer one.
The illusion of space that the artist creates by architecture, sculpture, and ceramics.
instinctively manipulating certain space-producing two-dimensional
devices, including overlapping, transparency, relief sculpture Possesses the dimensions of height and width,
interpenetration, inclined planes, disproportion- An artwork, graphic in concept but sculptural especially when considering the flat surface, or
ate scale, fractional representation, and the in application, that utilizes relatively shallow picture plane.
inherent spatial properties of the art elements. depth to establish images. The space develop-
ment may range from very limited projection, void
isometric projection known as “low relief,” to more exaggerated 1. An area lacking positive substance and consist-
A technical drawing system in which a three- ing of negative space. 2. A spatial area within an
dimensional object is presented two- object that penetrates and passes through it.

224 C HAPTER 8 Space

INTRODUCTION importance of space lies in its function. MAJOR TYPES
TO SPACE A basic understanding of its implica- OF SPACE
tions and use is essential.
Today, the mention of space makes us Two types of space can be suggested by
think of spaceships, space stations, the Our discussion of space in this the artist: decorative space and plastic
solar system, and the infinite cosmos chapter will not be limited to the space.
beyond. Artists, too, have been inter- graphic arts—drawing, painting, print-
ested in exploring deep space, but one making, and so forth—because the Decorative Space
that can be found right here on earth. basic concepts can also be applied to
As we will learn in this chapter, art- many other mediums, such as video, Decorative space involves height and
ists use a variety of techniques that can computer-generated images, sculpture, width but very little depth. It results
give the illusion of infinite space. On the and installations. In pictorial art, space from a very flat surface treatment of
other hand, artists may choose to limit is an illusion and will be presented as images or elements, which appear con-
the degree of space we see. Space can a “product” of the elements. However, fined to the flatness of the picture plane
be shrunk almost to the level of the pic- in the three-dimensional arts—such without any concern for a deep spatial
ture plane, but not quite, because any as sculpture, ceramics, jewelry, archi- environment. As these images are de-
element in an image creates some sense tecture, and much installation work— veloped, they seem to remain flat, en-
of space. All of this is, of course, pure space actually exists and will be treated riching and embellishing the picture
illusion in two-dimensional art, but it is as an element. plane without creating the illusion of
a very real aspect of three-dimensional depth. In fact, a truly decorative space
art, in which depth is a fundamental SPATIAL PERCEPTION is difficult to achieve; any art element,
consideration. One way or another, when used in conjunction with others,
space concerns all artists, and they must Our conceptions of space are condi- will seem to advance and recede. How-
find ways of dealing with it in a consis- tioned by our experience of the world. ever, when those areas or objects remain
tent manner. Vision is perceived through the eyes but basically flat and limited to the picture
experienced by the mind. Visual expe- plane, the space is said to be decorative
The understanding and use of space rience involves this whole process of (fig. 8.1).
has greatly evolved over the years. nerve and brain response. As our eyes
The earliest images, from the caves of perceive the world around us, we con- Plastic Space
southern Europe, reveal a minimal tinually shift our focus of attention. In
concern for the illusion of space, with the process, we use two different types The term plastic refers to that which
many images superimposed randomly of vision: stereoscopic and kinesthetic. has been modeled or made to have the
over each other. In the ancient Near Having two eyes set slightly apart from illusion of three dimensions. In this
East, however, a flat and hierarchical each other, we receive two slightly dif- context, plastic space pertains to the
order became important and significant ferent views of our visual field at the environment in which objects appear.
events or individuals were emphasized same time. The term stereoscopic refers Artists locate objects in plastic space
through size variations. Over the cen- to our ability to mentally combine these according to their needs and feelings
turies, the desire to present images in a two slightly different views into one for each situation. An infinite range of
more realistic spatial context led to dis- image. This process enables us to expe- space is available to the artist and may
coveries such as mechanical perspec- rience vision three-dimensionally and be categorized into the following gen-
tive, photography, and the use of film to judge distances. With kinesthetic vi- eral areas based on the depth of the
to capture moving objects; images were sion, we experience space through the space employed.
usually created with a singular point movements of our eyes and bodies. We
of view and were presented in a two- explore an object’s surface(s) with our Shallow Space
dimensional format. Today, however, eyes in order to recognize it; our eyes
contemporary artists and designers can travel as we attempt to organize its sep- Shallow space occurs when the artist
use computers and other digital media arate parts into a whole. Objects close to wants to create some depth but, at the
to create things unthinkable even thirty us require more ocular movement than same time, limit the viewer’s penetra-
years ago. Artists now design environ- those farther away, and this kinesthetic tion into the pictorial space. Interior
ments that allow the viewer to interact eye activity adds to the spatial percep- views, still-life images, and various
with the image—to move about in the tion of our visual experience. nonobjective works are often pre-
setting in real time. For an artist, the sented in varying degrees of limited

Major Types of Space 225

8.2 Shallow space. As a variation
on the concept of shallow space,
artists occasionally define the
planes that make up the outer
limits of a hollow boxlike space
behind the picture plane. The
diagram shows this concept,
although in actual practice, a return
to the picture plane would be
made through objects occupying
the space defined. The back plane
acts as a curtain that prevents
penetration into deep space.

8.1 James Little, Sneak-Attack, 2003. Oil, wax, canvas, 78 3
102 in. (198.1 3 259.1 cm). Although the colors and other
line qualities may seem to advance or recede in this painting,
the images appear relatively flat on the picture’s surface as a
decorative treatment rather than create an illusion of specific
spatial depths. Courtesy of James Little and June Kelly Gallery NY.

8.3 Jacob Lawrence, Cabinet Makers, 1946. Gouache with pencil under-
drawing on paper, 213⁄4 3 30 in. (55.2 3 76.2 cm). The use of shapes
with solid colors and values, generally lacking in traditional shading, creates an
overall feeling of flatness. In addition, a stagelike effect arises from the shallow
space. © Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Gift

of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1966. Photograph by Lee Stalsworth. Art © 2011 The Estate of Gwendolyn

Lawrence/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.

or shallow formats. Shallow space is shallow space in their art. Early Renais- Deep and Infinite Space
comparable to the views of a stage. sance paintings were often based on
The space is limited by the place- the shallow sculptures that were pop- An artwork that emphasizes deep
ment of the sides and back wall. For ular then. Many modern artists also space starts with the picture plane
consistency, any compositional ob- elected to use shallow space because it and creates a spatial perception (feel-
jects or figures that might appear in was more suited to their aesthetic pur- ing) that extends beyond and into
such stagelike confines are usually poses than deep space. For these artists, that surface. The viewer’s eye seems
narrowed in depth or flattened (fig. the use of shallow space allowed more to move into the far distances of the
8.2). In the painting Cabinet Makers, by control of the placement of decorative picture field, as if looking through an
Jacob Lawrence, the figures have been shapes as purely compositional ele- open window over a landscape that
flattened and placed in a confined ments. Gauguin, Matisse, Modigliani, rolls on and on into infinity. This infi-
room (fig. 8.3). and Beckmann were typical advo- nite quality is produced by certain re-
cates of the concepts of limited space lationships of art form: size, position,
Asian, Egyptian, and European (see figs. 4.1 and 7.24). overlapping images, sharp and dimin-
medieval painters used comparatively ishing details, converging parallels,

226 C HAPTER 8 Space

and perspective are traditional meth- 8.4 Albert Bierstadt, King Lake, California, early 1870s. Oil on canvas, 273⁄4 3
ods of indicating deep spatial penetra- 381⁄2 in. (70.5 3 97.8 cm). Nineteenth-century American landscape painting, which
tion (see fig. 6.17). aimed at the maximum illusion of visual reality, emphasized the concept of infinite
space. The foreground areas move forward because of their greater textural contrasts
Concepts of infinite space, allied and clarity, while the diminishing sizes of objects and hazy effects of atmospheric
with atmospheric perspective, domi- perspective give the viewer a sense of seeing far into the distance. Columbus Museum of
nated Western art from the beginning
of the Renaissance (about 1350) to the Art, Ohio: Bequest of Rutherford H. Platt, 1929.003.
middle of the nineteenth century. Dur-
ing this period, generations of artists Because the subjective element are not able to see near and distant
such as Botticelli, Ruisdael, Rembrandt, plays so large a part in creating space, planes with equal clarity at the same
and Bierstadt, to name only a few, we can readily see that emphasis on time. A glance out the window con-
developed and perfected the deep- formula here, as elsewhere, can inhibit firms that close objects appear sharp
space illusion that seems to accord with the creative spirit. Art, as a product of and clear in detail, whereas those far
visual reality (fig. 8.4). human creativity, is uniquely depen- away seem blurred and lack definition.
dent on individual perceptions and Artists have long used this phenom-
Although there have been periods interpretations. Like the other elements enon in creating the illusion of space—
in the history of art when one spatial of art, space is used according to the presenting sharply defined images
treatment or another seemed domi- artist’s subjective experience. It can be in the foreground but decreasing the
nant, works of contemporary artists employed spontaneously or with pre- clarity as the pictorial space recedes.
range from decorative space to pro- meditation. It can be created using strict In recent times, artists have used this
foundly infinite space without show- formulas and methods or from a strictly method in abstract works, indicating
ing a prejudice toward any particular intuitive approach. Therefore, the meth- that the illusion of space need not be
approach. Any space concept can be ods of creating space discussed in this limited to realistic scenarios. Sharp
valid as long as its elements are con- chapter are merely approaches that lines, clearly defined shapes and values,
sistent in relation to the spatial field have been frequently used and guaran- complex textures, and intense colors
chosen. tee certain spatial effects. are associated with foreground, or near,
positions. Hazy lines, indistinct shapes,
SPATIAL INDICATORS Sharp and Diminishing grayed values, simple textures, and
Detail neutralized colors are identified with
Artistic methods of representing space background, or distant, locations. These
are so interdependent that attempts to Because we do not have the eyes of characteristics are often included in
isolate and examine all of them here eagles, and because we view things the definition of atmospheric perspective
would be impractical and inconclusive. through earth’s hazy atmosphere, we (see figs. 8.4 and 8.6).
In addition, such attempts might leave
the reader with the feeling that art is
based on a formula. Instead, we will
confine this discussion to basic spatial
concepts.

Our comprehension of space, which
comes to us through objective expe-
riences, is enlarged, interpreted, and
given meaning by the use of our intui-
tive faculties. Spatial order develops
when the artist senses the right balance
and the best placement, then selects
vital forces to create completeness and
unity. Ultimately, this process is not
a purely intellectual one but rather a
matter of instinct or subconscious
response (see figs. 4.13A and B, 5.17,
8.37, and 8.38).

Spatial Indicators 227

8.5 Winslow Homer, Returning Fishing Boats,
1883. Watercolor and white gouache over
graphite on off-white wove paper, 40.9 3
63.3 cm (161⁄8 3 2415⁄16 in.). The horizon line in
this painting separates the space into a ground
plane below and a sky plane above. The smaller
size and higher position of the distant boats help
achieve the spatial effect. Harvard Art Museums/Fogg

Museum, Anonymous Gift, 1939.233. Photo by Katya Kallsen

© President and Fellows of Harvard College.

Size is judged in relation to that horizon Overlapping is a powerful indicator of
line. The bottom of the picture plane space, because it takes precedence over
We usually interpret largeness of size is seen as the closest visual point, and other spatial indicators. For instance, a
as nearness. Conversely, a smaller size the eye’s rise up to the horizon line in- ball placed in front of a larger ball ap-
suggests distance. If two sailboats are dicates the receding of space (see fig. pears closer than the larger ball, despite
several hundred feet apart, the nearer 8.5). Evidence suggests that this man- its smaller size (fig. 8.8). Color, value,
boat appears larger than the other. Or- ner of seeing is instinctive (resulting and textural choices can then exagger-
dinarily, we would interpret this dif- from continued exposure to the real ate or minimize the spatial effect of the
ference in size not as one large and one world), for its influence persists even overlapped shapes. If the colors, values,
small boat (although this could play a when viewing greatly abstracted and or textures are of minimal contrast, the
part in our perception) but as vessels nonobjective work (fig. 8.7; see also overlapped areas tend to unite and cre-
of approximately the same size placed figs. 2.17 and 3.7). The alternative, of ate a shallow or ambiguous (equivo-
at varying distances from the viewer course, is to see the picture plane as cal) space (see fig. 2.18C). The Futurists
(fig. 8.5). Therefore, if we are consid- entirely devoid of spatial illusion and often presented shallow or ambiguous
ering depth, the size of an object or to register the distances between vi- space by overlapping multiple images
human figure corresponds to its dis- sual elements as simply what is actu- of the same object in different positions
tance from us, regardless of all other ally measurable across the flat surface. (see fig. 9.9).
factors (fig. 8.6; see also fig. T.45). This It is difficult to perceive a picture in
concept of space has not always been this way even when we discipline our- Transparency
prevalent. In some styles of art, large- selves to do so, because it requires us
ness indicates importance, power, and to divorce ourselves entirely from all The overlapped portion of an object
strength rather than spatial location the intuitions about space we form is usually obscured from our view. If,
(see figs. 2.50 and 8.12). through our experience. however, that portion is visible through
the overlapping plane or object, the ef-
Position Overlapping fect of transparency is created. Trans-
parency, which tends to produce a
Artists and observers customarily as- Another way of suggesting space is by close spatial relationship, is clearly evi-
sume that the horizon line, which overlapping objects. If one object cov- dent in the triangles in Leonardo Nier-
provides a point of reference, is at ers part of the visible surface of another, man’s painting Broken Star (fig. 8.9). It is
eye level. Thus, the position of objects the first object is assumed to be nearer. also found in the works of the Cubists

228 C HAPTER 8 Space

8.6 Jacques Callot, The Great Fair at Imprunita,
1620. Etching, 1615⁄16 3 26 in. In Callot’s print,
note how the figures gradually get smaller and
more blurry as they recede into the background
areas. This, combined with the artist’s use of linear
perspective with the buildings, gives the viewer a
strong sense of depth. The Metropolitan Museum of Art,

Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1917 (17.3.2645). The Metropolitan

Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY.

8.7 Placement of squares. A line across 8.8 Larger objects usually advance more
the picture plane reminds us of the horizon than smaller ones, but as an indicator of space,
that divides ground plane from sky plane. overlapping causes the object being covered to
Consequently, the lower shape seems close and recede regardless of size.
the intermediate shape more distant, while the
upper square is in a rather ambiguous position as
it touches nothing and seems to float in the sky.

Spatial Indicators 229

and other artists who are interested in
exploring shallow space (see figs. 4.2
and T.51).

Interpenetration 8.10 Interpenetrating planes. The passage
of one plane or volume through another
Interpenetration occurs when planes automatically gives depth to a picture.
or objects appear to pass through each
other, emerging on the other side. This
generally provides a very clear state-
ment of the spatial positioning of the
planes and objects involved, and it can
create the illusion of either shallow or
deep space (figs. 8.10 and 8.11; also see
fig. 2.21).

Fractional Representation 8.9 Leonardo Nierman, Broken Star, 1991. Mixed media on masonite, 32 3
24 in. The precise, hard-edged geometric shapes in this work are a legacy of Cubism.
Fractional representation is a device in Notice that the implied triangular shapes overlap, remain transparent, and create a shallow
which several spatial aspects of a sub- space that contrasts with the deeper space behind. Courtesy of the artist.
ject are combined in the same image.
It can best be understood by studying
the treatment of the human body by
Egyptian mural artists. Here we can
find, within one figure, the profile of
the head with the frontal eye visible,
the torso seen front-on, and a side view
of the hips and legs—a combination of
the most representative aspects of the
different parts of the body (figs. 8.12
and 8.13). Fractional representation
was revived in the nineteenth century
by Cézanne, who used its principles in
his still-life paintings (see the section
“Multiple Viewpoints” in Chapter 9). It
was also employed by many twentieth-
century artists, most conspicuously
Picasso. The effect is flattening in Egyp-
tian work but plastic in the paintings by
Cézanne because it is used to move us
“around” the subjects (see fig. 9.5).

Converging Parallels 8.11 Gus Heinze, Espresso Cafe, 2003. Acrylic on gessoed panel, 32 3 351⁄2 in. Object
and reflection merge to create the illusion of interpenetrating planes and a sense of depth
The space indicated by converging that goes beyond the building’s structural beams and wall of glass. Courtesy of the artist and
parallels can be illustrated using a rect-
angular plane such as a sheet of paper Bernarducci.Meisel.Gallery, NY.
or a tabletop. By actual measurement,
a rectangle possesses one set of short
parallel edges and one set of long par-
allel edges (fig. 8.14). If the plane is

230 C HAPTER 8 Space

8.12 Nebamun hunting birds, from the tomb of Nebamun, Thebes, Egypt, c. 1400 b.c.e., size 8.13 This drawing illustrates the Egyptian
unknown. This work illustrates the Egyptian concept of pictorial plasticity: various representative views technique of fractional representation of the
of Nebamun are combined into one image (fractional representation) and are kept compatible with the human figure. The head is in profile but
flatness of the picture plane. The arbitrary positioning of the figures and their disproportionate scale add the eye full-face. The upper body is frontal,
to this effect. Fragment of a fresco secco. Courtesy of the British Museum, London. gradually turning until the lower body, from the
hips down, is seen from the side. This drawing
C combines views of parts of the body in their
most characteristic or easily seen positions. In
order to see all these views, one would have
to move around the body.

A BA B

D
D

8.14 Converging parallels can make a shape appear to
recede into the pictorial field.

Spatial Indicators 231

8.15 Anselm Kiefer, Osiris und Isis/Bruch
und Einung, 1985–87. Mixed media, 150 3
2201⁄2 in. (381 3 560 cm). Kiefer uses
perspective to help him intensify the viewer’s
confrontation with scale in his enormous canvas.

San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. Purchased through a

gift of Jean Stein by exchange, the Mrs. Paul L. Wattis Fund,

and the Doris and Donald Fisher Fund. © Anselm Kiefer.

Courtesy of Gagosian Gallery.

arranged so that one of the long edges of three-dimensional images as they re- Masaccio (1401–1428; see fig. 8.16A).
(A) is viewed head-on, its correspond- cede into the distance. Based on optical Employing their knowledge of geom-
ing parallel edge (B) will appear to be perception, it incorporates the artist’s etry (an important subject in classical
much shorter. Because these edges ap- (and viewer’s) judgments about con- education), Renaissance artists con-
pear to be of different lengths, the pair cepts of scale, proportion, placement, ceived a method of depicting objects,
of parallel edges (C and D) that connect and so on by using spatial indicators both animate and inanimate, in a space
them must seem to converge as they such as size, position, and converging more realistic than any other that had
move back into space. Either set of lines parallels. Perspective underwent sig- appeared in Western art since the
(A-B or C-D), even in the absence of the nificant development in Renaissance Romans.
other set, would indicate space convinc- Italy, during a revival of interest in
ingly. This principle of converging par- ancient Greco-Roman literature, phi- When artists use perspective in their
allels is found in many works of art that losophy, and art. The Renaissance spirit works, the picture plane becomes a win-
do not necessarily abide by the rules of swept Europe during the fourteenth dow through which a three-dimensional
perspective. The principle is closely re- and fifteenth centuries and brought this view is seen (fig. 8.17A). As seen in fig-
lated to perspective, but the degree of spatial system to a point of high refine- ure 8.17B, imaginary sightlines, called
convergence is a matter of subjective or ment. Linear perspective focuses atten- guidelines, are extended along the edges
intuitive choice by the artist. It need not tion on one view—a selected portion of of the room’s architectural planes to
be governed by fixed vanishing points nature as seen from one position at a a point behind the angel’s head. This
and other systematic rules governing particular moment in time. The use of point is on the viewer’s eye level and
the rate of convergence (fig. 8.15). a horizon line, guidelines, and vanish- is called the vanishing point (infinity).
ing points gives this view mathematical By convention, the eye level is synony-
Linear Perspective exactitude (fig. 8.16A and B). mous with the horizon line (where the
sky and ground meet), which is often
Linear perspective is a system for accu- It is generally believed that per- clearly seen in landscapes (see figs.
rately representing sizes and distances spective was developed by the Flo- 8.4 and 8.5). While the horizon line
of known objects in a unified visual rentine architect Filippo Brunelleschi reveals the height of the observer’s/
space. This helps develop the illusion (1377–1446) and was quickly adap- painter’s eyes, it also demarcates upper
ted to painting by his contemporary, and lower divisions called ground plane

232 C HAPTER 8 Space

EYE LEVEL

AB

8.16 Masaccio, Trinity with the Virgin, St. John and Donors, 1427. Fresco at Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, 21 ft.
10 in. 3 10 ft. 5 in. (6.65 3 3.18 m). According to some art history experts, Masaccio’s fresco is the first painting created
in correct geometric perspective. The single vanishing point lies at the foot of the cross, as indicated by the overlay (B).

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY.

(floor) and sky plane (ceiling). A verti- way the artist views the subject or scene. canvas (see fig. 8.19 on page 236). This
cal axis that passes through the vanish- Perspective is based on the theoretical type of device helped the artist draw
ing point establishes the location of the assumptions that the artist maintains a more accurate foreshortening and
artist or viewer. This is known as the fixed position and views the subject with achieve the naturalistic view he wanted
viewer’s location point. Changing this one eye. The Renaissance painter’s ap- to re-create on the canvas. (This device is
point will drastically alter the view of proach was to imagine rays of light ema- also similar in concept to the “camera ob-
the room (fig. 8.18A and B). nating from one fixed point (the artist’s scura,” which actually projects the image
eye) to every point on the object being through a small hole onto a dark wall.)
Major Types of Linear drawn. These rays passed through a grid
Perspective or glass screen that was placed between In reality, most viewers casually
the artist and the object, and the points move their eyes and heads as their focus
There are three major types of linear where the lines passed through the grid travels from object to object within the
perspective: one-point, two-point, and were then transferred to the artist’s image. While these movements increase
three-point. Each system is related to the the viewers’ ability to understand the

Spatial Indicators 233

8.17 Sandro Botticelli, Annunciation,
c. 1490. Tempera and gold on panel, 71⁄2 3
123⁄8 in. (19.1 3 31.4 cm) (painted surface).
In the tradition of much art of the Renaissance
period, perspective in the form of receding
planes creates space and directs our attention to
the vanishing point (B). Robert Lehman Collection, 1975

(1975.I.74). Photograph by Malcolm Varon. The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, New York, NY. Image copyright © The

Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY.

A Right viewing field
Left viewing field
SKY PLANE GUIDELINES
(ceiling) Horizon line

EYE LEVEL Vanishing point (VP)
Horizon line

GROUND PLANE (floor)
B Viewer’s location point

subject, such changes of viewpoint vio- plane of the subject is made to ap- edges converge to vanishing
late, to some extent, the concepts of lin- pear flat, or parallel, to the picture points on either side (two-point
ear perspective. plane (one-point perspective). perspective).
2. By moving so that an edge— 3. By assuming a position above
Assuming a minimum of movement, instead of the whole flat plane—is or below the subject; the sides as
the artist can view his or her subjects in closest and centrally located; all well as the top and bottom edges
one of three ways: planes will then appear to recede, will converge to distant points
1. By taking a position directly in because the top and bottom (three-point perspective).

front of the image; the whole front

234 C HAPTER 8 Space

Vanishing point (VP) EYE LEVEL 8.18 These illustrations show how the
interior might have changed if Botticelli had
moved his location point left or right and up
or down (see fig. 8.17A). Figure A indicates
what Botticelli would have seen by moving to
the right and standing directly in front of the
Madonna. Figure B depicts the view he would
have had by moving to the left, past the angel,
and moving up a ladder one or two steps.
Notice how the architectural elements change
with each view, obscuring important parts of
the image.

Viewer’s location
A point

EYE LEVEL Vanishing point (VP)

B Viewer’s location point

In each of these examples, the sub- One-Point Perspective Using one-point perspective, the artist
ject is stationary but the artist changes first establishes the horizon line, which
position. But the same concepts could One-point perspective is used when represents the eye level (fig. 8.20).
be applied to still-life material that is the artist views a flat surface or fac- The horizon line is placed low on the
altered or repositioned while the art- ing plane directly, or front-on. This page if the artist is close to the ground,
ist’s location point remains stationary. flat plane will be drawn parallel to high on the page if the artist is on a
the picture plane and the horizon line.

Spatial Indicators 235

8.19 Albrecht Dürer, Draftsman Drawing a Nude, c. 1525. Woodcut, size unknown. This woodcut illustrates an early
approach to recording the effects of perspective and foreshortening from a fixed view. In “Underweysung der Messing (Instruction

in Proportion)” (Nurenberg, 1527) (appeared only 3rd ED., 1538). Foto Marburg/Art Resource, NY.

8.20 With one-point perspective, the whole front Actual viewed edges
or back plane of the subject is made to appear flat Hidden edges
or parallel to the picture plane. Guidelines

HORIZON VP

ladder, or centered if the artist is stand- position directly in front of the viewer position of the solid’s side planes. The
ing. Next, the artist chooses a vanish- and at eye level. length of the side planes is established
ing point (VP), usually centered on by drawing horizontal or vertical lines
the horizon line. To make the compo- After the vanishing point on the that are parallel to the front edges. The
sition less static, the vanishing point horizon line is established, the artist solid’s sides will appear to diminish in
can be placed slightly to the right or begins with the frontal plane of the geo- size as they recede in depth toward the
left of center, so that the picture is not metric solid—that portion closest to the horizon.
divided too symmetrically. In either viewer. Guidelines drawn from the four
case, the vanishing point represents a corners of the frontal plane to the vanis- In one-point perspective, all lines
hing point will establish the theoretical that are not horizontal or vertical will

236 C HAPTER 8 Space

8.21 Antonio Canaletto, Campo di Rialto, c. 1756. Oil on canvas, 119 3 186 cm. The appearance of planes and
volumes in space determined by the systematic procedures of linear perspective is well illustrated in this painting by an
eighteenth-century Venetian artist. It is in one-point perspective and shows the day-to-day business of Venice’s center.

Bildarchiv Preussicher Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY.

return to the same vanishing point. The in two-point perspective. However, viewing position. Next, two vanishing
horizontal and vertical lines, which artists often employ such distortions points are located along the horizon
define the original flat plane or any for their compositional and/or con- line, at the extreme left (LVP) and right
planes behind and parallel to it, are at ceptual advantages. (RVP) ends. In reality, the vanishing
right angles to each other; they remain points are out at the very edges of our
constant and geometrically stable (mea- Subjects with a flat frontal view, like field of vision, but for the convenience
surable). The horizontal and vertical the end of a room, hallways, long views of drawing, they are commonly located
lines are also either parallel or perpen- of the interior and exterior of buildings, just beyond the outer edges of the pic-
dicular to the ground plane and estab- streets, and lines of trees, all lend them- ture plane. Then, the artist draws the
lish the object’s spatial location. selves well to one-point perspective closest portion of the box—the verti-
pictures, as seen in Canaletto’s Campo cal edge—as a vertical line. From the
Notice that the three geometric di Rialto (fig. 8.21). top and bottom corners of this line,
solids in figure 8.20 are located fairly guidelines are extended back to both
close to the vanishing point. In reality, Two-Point Perspective vanishing points; these will be used
when viewing such solids, one sees to establish the side, top, and/or bot-
the sides as foreshortened. The far- Two-point perspective is most often tom planes of the geometric solid. The
ther from the vanishing point the sol- employed when the artist views a lead- other vertical edges of the box are then
ids are, the more distorted their side ing edge instead of a flat plane. The geo- defined by drawing vertical lines from
planes should seem to appear. Solids metric solid will appear to be at an angle one guideline to the next.
that are placed to the extreme far left to the lines of sight at some depth into
or right in one-point perspective com- the picture plane (figs. 8.22 and 8.23). With two-point perspective, all lines
positions become so distorted that except those that are vertical will return
they would be more accurately drawn As in one-point perspective, the art- to the vanishing points, and any plane
ist begins by establishing the horizon
line relative to the height of the artist’s

Spatial Indicators 237

LVP HORIZON
RVP

Hidden edges
Guidelines
Actual viewed edges

8.22 With two-point perspective, one vertical edge is closest, and all
top and bottom edges recede and converge at the left or right vanishing
point.

SKY PLANE

GUIDELINES

LVP EYE LEVEL RVP

GROUND PLANE

8.23 This example of two-point perspective illustrates planes and solids at multiple depths. Notice how the edges
on the objects further in the distance differ from those closer to the viewer—the angles of the receding lines
become more horizontal. In this illustration, the vanishing points are located outside the edges of the pictorial plane.
The horizon line, which is at eye level, represents infinity and divides the picture plane into areas that stand for the
ground and sky. Object edges are shown as heavy lines, while guidelines are lighter lines.

238 C HAPTER 8 Space

8.24 Edward Hopper, Apartment Houses, 1923. Oil on canvas, 251⁄2 3 311⁄2 in. (64.8 3 80 cm). This unusual interior
with layers of space revealed through windows is painted in two-point perspective. The perspective is used to direct the
viewer back and forth into the picture plane. Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia. John Lambert Fund. Acc. No. 1925.5.

will appear to diminish as it recedes. horizon line on the picture plane is Two-point perspective is most often
The vertical lines indicate the height meant to represent our entire visual employed to depict objects or architec-
of the volumes, remain parallel, and field, the vanishing points are located ture set at an angle to the line of sight.
are perpendicular to the ground plane. just beyond the outer edges of the pic- These angular positions may occur at any
Only the verticals may be accurately ture plane. For compositional reasons, depth in the picture plane, as can be seen
measured, and they never converge. however, an artist might choose to in the painting by Hopper (see fig. 8.24)
work with only a portion of the com- and also in Callot’s etching (see fig. 8.6).
If the artist chooses to exagger- plete field of view—maybe for a close-
ate or distort the image beyond what up image; in this case, the vanishing Three-Point Perspective
is naturally observed, the location of points would need to be located much
the vanishing points may be changed farther beyond the edge of the picture Three-point perspective is used when
as suited. Fixing them closer together plane (fig. 8.24). In any case, the loca- an artist views an object from an exag-
will often exaggerate the receding tion of the vanishing points depends gerated position—such as lying on the
quality of the shapes. Placing the van- on the perception and instinct of the ground and looking up at a tree or look-
ishing points farther apart will reverse artist. ing down from a skyscraper into the
this distortion. If the length of the center of the city. These perspectives are

Spatial Indicators 239