SHAPE AND 4.22 Charles Burchfield, Orion in December, 1959. Watercolor and pencil on paper;
EXPRESSIVE CONTENT sheet: 397⁄8 3 327⁄8 in. Burchfield believed that an artist must paint not what he sees in
nature but what is there. To do this, he invented his own symbols, drawing from the sights
While a shape’s physical characteris- and sounds around him to represent the force and beauty of nature. In this wonderful
tics may be easily defined, its expres- scene, the primeval forest soars—perhaps as a Gothic cathedral—stars symbolize ecstasy,
sive character is rather difficult to and Orion, the hunter in Greek mythology, hovers, merging heaven and earth. Along the
pinpoint, because viewers react to the bottom, crackling ice-covered shrubs twist and move as if in a frigid breeze and repeat the
configuration of shape on many differ- patterns of the starlit sky. Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC/Art Resource, NY.
ent emotional levels. In some cases, our
responses to shapes are commonplace; dreams. These artists lived in a time Other artists, like Matisse and Braque,
in others, our reactions are complex of increasing awareness of the micro- worked with abstracted organic forms
and individual because of our own per- scopic world, the growth of Freudian in a less symbolic manner (see figs. 4.1
sonality and experiences. The familiar psychology, and the revival of interest and 4.18).
Rorschach (inkblot) test, which was de- in pure abstraction (in which shapes
signed to aid psychologists in evaluat- function symbolically), and biomor- In contrast, the precise, machinelike
ing emotional stability, perfectly dem- phic shapes became a key component quality of geometric shapes appealed
onstrates our emotional sensitivity to in their works. Such shapes worked to artists working with Cubism, who
shapes. The test indicates that shapes well in Surrealism (see fig. T.66) and used them in their analytical dissec-
provoke emotional responses on dif- may be seen in the paintings by Burch- tion and reformulation of the natural
ferent levels. Thus, the artist might use field (fig. 4.22) and Miró (see fig. 4.4). world (see fig. 4.33A and B). Follow-
specific abstract or representational ing the Cubists, the Futurists were
shapes to provoke a desired emotional
response. By using the knowledge that
some shapes are inevitably associated
with certain feelings and situations, the
artist can set the stage for a pictorial or
sculptural drama. The full meaning of
any shape, however, can be revealed
only through the relationships devel-
oped throughout an entire composition.
Whether viewing inkblots or art-
work, our reaction to shape is often quite
primal and subconscious. Some shapes
convey relatively standard meanings.
Squares, for instance, commonly express
perfection, stability, solidity, symmetry,
self-reliance, and monotony. Similarly,
circles may suggest self-possession, inde-
pendence, and/or confinement; ovals
may suggest fruitfulness and creation;
stars could suggest reaching out.
The psychological association of
abstract shapes may be especially
appealing to certain artists. Particu-
larly in the twentieth century, numer-
ous movements were based on the
use of specific abstract configurations.
The Surrealists of the early 1900s, for
example, were interested in the mystic
origins of being and in the exploration
of subconscious revelations, such as in
140 C HAPTER 4 Shape
influenced by the stylization of machin- 4.23 Charles Sheeler, Rolling Power, 1939. Oil on canvas, 15 3 30 in. (38.1 3 72.6 cm). While
ery and created pristine, clear-cut commenting on the abstract quality of his images, Sheeler remarked, “I had come to feel that a picture
shapes and shape relationships that could have incorporated in it the structural design implied in abstraction and be presented in a wholly
expressed the power and speed of the realistic manner.” Courtesy of Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, MA. Purchased, Drayton Hillyer Fund, 1940.
mechanized world (see fig. T.59). Later,
the Minimalists and the Conceptualists
of the 1970s and 80s also used simple
geometric shapes to further reduce
images to their basic elements of mean-
ing (see figs. 2.71, 2.72, and 4.31).
While the configuration of a shape
greatly affects our interpretation of it,
additional characteristics of the shape
can also affect its psychological impact.
Color, value, texture, spatial depth, and
the application of particular media can
affect whatever feelings that arise in
such works of art. Depending on how
they are treated by the artist, shapes
may feel static, stable, active, or lively,
or seem to contract or expand. For
example, the work of Charles Sheeler
(fig. 4.23), Dorothea Rockburne (fig.
4.24), and Joseph Albers (fig. 4.25) all
use similar geometric shapes, but dif-
ferences in color, value, and their appli-
cation change the shapes’ meanings
4.24 Dorothea Rockburne, Mozart and
Mozart Upside Down and Backward, 1985–87.
Oil on gessoed linen, hung on blue wall, 89
3 115 3 4 in. (226.06 3 292.1 3 10.16
cm). In this painting, Dorothea Rockburne
is representative of the Neo-Abstractionist
painters, who leaned toward the geometric
abstraction of the 1950s. Though based on a
seemingly simple scheme, on closer examination,
this piece reveals a labyrinth of interlocking
rectilinear shapes. Courtesy of André Emmerich Gallery, a
Division of Sotheby’s, on behalf of the artist. © 2011 Dorothea
Rockburne/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY.
Shape and Expressive Content 141
4.25 Josef Albers, White Line Square IX, from the series
Homage to the Square, 1966. Colored lithograph, 21 3 21
in. (53.3 3 53.3 cm). The meaning of the squares in this
picture lies not in their resemblance to a real object but in
their relationship to one another. © 1966 Josef Albers and Gemini
G.E.L., Los Angeles, CA. © 2011 the Josef and Anni Albers Foundation/
Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
4.26 Helen Frankenthaler, Madame Butterfly, 2000. Woodcut print, triptych, 41¼ 3 79 in. (104.8 3 200.7 cm).
Many shapes are not meant to represent or even symbolize. Here, for example, the shape extremities, the softly changing
values of the larger shapes, and the brown wood-grained ground act against the horizontal violet and white components
and the outer frame shape. The artist provokes a momentary feeling of excitement within an otherwise quiet mood.
Photograph by Steven Sloman. © 2011 Helen Frankenthaler/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
142 C HAPTER 4 Shape
4.27 Fernand Léger, Three Women (Le Grand Déjeuner), 1921. Oil on canvas, 6 ft. ¼ in. 3 8 ft. 3 in. (183.5 3 251.5
cm). The Cubist painter Léger commonly used varied combinations of geometric shapes in very complex patterns. Here,
because of his sensitive design, he not only overcomes a dominant, hard-edged feel but also imbues the painting with an
air of femininity. © 2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADGP, Paris. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. Mrs. Simon Guggenheim
Fund. Digital image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY.
and create a different sense of space. In terms soft edge and hard edge are used to viewers who value representational
figures 4.23 and 4.24, shapes imply spa- indicate the degree of clarity or sharp- artwork because they can easily inter-
tial depth through the use of blended ness used to define the image (figs. 4.26 pret the subject matter often fail to see
colors and values. However, in figure and 4.27). the intellectual metaphor and visual
4.25, the sense of space is achieved in effects of the shape relationships; they
a different manner; although Albers’s Our reactions to abstraction and/or don’t appreciate how form itself may be
shapes appear flat, that flatness is con- representation also affect how we inter- the subject matter.
tradicted by the contrast of color and pret any work of art. Many people can
value, which make various squares accept Sheeler’s artwork, even when Conception and imagination have
advance or recede, and a tunneling the abstraction is more pronounced, always been part of artistic expres-
effect is made by placing the squares because the subject is still recognizable sion. It is usually a matter of degree as
closer to the bottom edge of the picture (see figs 1.13 and 4.23). However, other to how much artists use their imagi-
frame. In other examples, the quality people react adversely to simple, non- nation and how much they use their
of the shape’s edge is important; the objective shapes like those in Albers’s perceptual vision in the selection and
paintings (see fig. 4.25). Unfortunately, creation of their shapes (figs. 4.28 and
Shape and Expressive Content 143
4.28 Francisco Goya, The Bullfight,
c. 1824. Oil on canvas, 24¾ 3 36½ in.
(63 3 93 cm). Although it is a straightforward
exercise to recognize the picador in this
painting, this should only be a starting point
for understanding the blood and tragedy that
Goya found in the bullring. © Francis G. Mayer/
Corbis.
4.29 Conrad Marca-Relli, The Picador, 1956.
Oil and fabric collage on canvas, 3 ft. 11¼ in. 3
4 ft. 5 in. (1.20 3 1.35 m). Artists differ in their
responses to subject matter. It is often a matter of
degree as to how much artists use their imagina-
tions and how much their visual perceptions vary.
Such differences are apparent if one contrasts
the use of the picador here and in figure 4.28.
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, DC. Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1966.
Photograph by Lee Stalsworth.
144 C HAPTER 4 Shape
4.30 Lee Bontecou, Untitled, 1966. Welded
steel, canvas, epoxy, leather, wire, and light,
781⁄2 3 119 3 31 in. (199.4 3 302.3 3 78.7
cm). Lee Bontecou is known for her personal
sculptural relief images—the art of assemblage
that brings sculpture and painting together.
Weblike arrangements of canvas strips that have
been attached to metal frames create related
shape families that unify the work, create visual
movement, and suggest a combination of natural
metaphors from landscape to wildlife to space.
The introduction of circular forms could imply
variously holes, thresholds, voids, or even bird-
like eyes. The power and mystery of her chosen
shapes seem to fuse natural forms with the
abstract, becoming unsettling or even surreal for
many viewers. Photo: Courtesy of Museum of Contempo-
rary Art, Chicago. Gift of Robert B. Mayer Family Collection,
1991.85. Art © Lee Bontecou/FreedmanArt, New York.
4.31 Rufino Tamayo, Dos Personajes Atacados por Perros, 1983. (Edition of 75) Mixografia 4.29). Artists, therefore, go beyond lit-
on handmade paper, 60 3 90 in. (152.4 3 228.6 cm). Tamayo has created an air of fantasy by eral copying and use shapes in a highly
semiabstracting the people and dogs, creating an image of distance and ritualized terror. personal way (figs. 4.30 and 4.31). You
only have to glance around the class-
Courtesy of Mixografía®, Los Angeles, printers of fine art prints since 1968. room to see the diverse ways in which
people work on a given exercise.
From these examples, it is clear that
each shape (or combination of shapes)
can display a particular personality
according to its physical characteris-
tics and our responses to it. The artist’s
challenge is to use the infinite possi-
bilities in presenting shapes to make
believable the illusion inherent in all
art. In other words, an artwork is never
the real thing, and the shapes produc-
ing the image are never real animals,
buildings, or people; they are the art-
ist’s personal take on those subjects.
Capable artists, whatever the degree
of fantasy they employ, are able to
convince us that the fantasy is as sig-
nificant and meaningful as the reality.
Any successful work of art, regard-
less of medium, leads the sensitive
observer into the persuasive world of
the imagination.
Shape and Expressive Content 145
THREE-DIMENSIONAL Like many shapes in the graphic arts, 4.32 Mel Kendrick, White Wall, 1984.
APPLICATIONS 3-D shapes are generally measurable Basswood, Japan paint, 16 3 5 3 61⁄2 in.
OF SHAPE areas that are limited by (and/or con- (40.6 3 12.7 3 16.5 cm). The shape of this
trasted with) other shapes, values, tex- three-dimensional piece has edges that have
In the plastic arts, shape has greater tures, and colors. Those contrasts greatly been clearly defined. Courtesy of the artist.
significance and usage than the other help define shape edges (fig. 4.32). (Such
elements, as the artist working in three contrasts are often heightened by or even
dimensions instinctively begins with dependent on the effects of light and
shape. Due to the added physical di- shadow—to be discussed in Chapter 5.)
mension of the media, the definition When boundaries are clearly defined,
of shape takes on expanded meaning the shapes are more easily understood,
in the plastic arts. It is the totality of whereas ill-defined edges often lead
the mass or volume existing between to confusing or monotonous viewing.
its contours, including any projections Shape edges guide the eye through,
and depressions. It may also include around, and over the 3-D surface, creat-
interior planes—relatively flat areas ing a desire to experience the entire work.
on the three-dimensional form (see fig. However, the visible shape depends on
3.30). In trying to describe 3-D shapes, the viewer’s position. A slight change in
we can speak of the overall form a piece viewpoint results in a change in the per-
of sculpture occupies in space, the flat ceived shape and its contour.
or curved shape that moves in space, or
the negative shape that is partially or A major contour is the outer
totally enclosed (see fig. 1.40). limit (or silhouette) of the total 3-D
work as seen from one position (fig.
4.33A and B). Secondary contours are
Major 4.33 Jacques Lipchitz, Man with Mandolin, 1917. Lime-
contour stone, 293⁄4 in. (75.6 cm) high. Exploring Lipchitz’s work in
Secondary the round from every position reveals the changing con-
contours tours and makes the three-dimensional work exciting. (B) In
an isolated view of the image, the major contour surrounds
AB the silhouette or the total visible area of the work. Second-
146 C HAPTER 4 Shape ary contours occur on internal edges. (A) Photograph Gift of
Collection Société Anonyme. (1941.547) Art Resource, NY. © The Estate of
Jacques Lipchitz. Courtesy Marlborough Gallery, New York.
4.35 Alexander Archipenko, Woman Doing Her Hair,
c. 1958. Bronze casting from plaster based on original terra-
cotta of 1916, 215⁄8 in. (55 cm) high. This is a significant example
of sculptural form where the shape creates negative space, or
a void. Archipenko was one of the pioneers of this concept.
Courtesy of the Kunst Museum, Düsseldorf, Germany. Photograph by Walter Klein.
© 2011 Estate of Alexander Archipenko/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY.
4.34 Anish Kapoor, Cloud Gate, Chicago Millenium Park, 2004–2006. Stainless
steel plates over fortified steel frame, 66 3 42 3 33 ft., weight 110 tons. The
major contour of Cloud Gate is its outermost edge. Due to the work’s rounded and
smooth form, secondary contours are nonexistent. © IndexStock/SuperStock, Inc.
perceived edges of shapes or planes “joining” distant shapes through their them. Alexander Archipenko and
that move across and/or between the related contours (see fig. 3.30). When Henry Moore, prominent twentieth-
major contours. Some 3-D works are other shapes are located close enough century sculptural innovators, pio-
constructed so that the secondary con- to these focal points, the eye bounces neered the use of void shapes (figs.
tours are negligible (fig. 4.34). Contours back and forth, trying to make them 4.35 and 4.36). Voids provided new
can be “aimed” so that they imply a join together or become part of a group spatial extensions for these artists and
linkage with the edges of other shapes relationship. others who followed. The use of voids
elsewhere in the composition. This revealed interior surfaces, opened
is particularly true of atectonic work A shape might also be a negative direct routes to the back sides of a
or pieces containing several items in space or void—a three-dimensional sculpture, and reduced excessive
a group setting. In this manner, eye open area that seems to penetrate weight (fig. 4.37). Void shapes should
movement may be encouraged sub- through or be contained by solid mate- be considered integral parts of the total
consciously in a certain direction by rial. These open shapes can surround form. In linear sculpture, enclosed void
solid masses and also extend between
Three-Dimensional Applications of Shape 147
4.36 Henry Moore, Reclining Figure, 1939. Carved elm wood, 37 3 79 3 30 in. (94 3 201 3
76 cm). Moore’s work is a synthesis of influences from primitive sculpture, Surrealism, and a lifelong
study of the forms of nature. Founders Society Purchase with funds from the Dexter M. Ferry, Jr., Trustee Corporation.
Detroit Institute of Arts. Reproduced by permission of the Henry Moore Foundation.
4.37 Carlo Sequin, Totem 3, 2004. Bronze,
5 3 3 3 13 in. tall. Our eyes are drawn around
this work not only by the revolving edges of the
shape but also by the voids, which serve to draw
our attention through the piece and reveal the
interior surface. Courtesy of Carlo H. Sequin, University
of California, Berkeley.
shapes become so important that they it. Because the degree of dominance is Sculptors, architects, or product
often dominate the width, thickness, established by the degree of contrast, the designers, whose work involves actual
and weight of the materials that define amount of change within a shape family space, may have an advantage over the
them (see fig. 3.31). helps to establish the amount of impor- graphic artist when it comes to spatial
tance given to each shape. Less variety design. However, when sculptors (plas-
Like their two-dimensional coun- makes them more easily harmonized. tic artists) do their initial planning using
terparts, three-dimensional shapes also With kinetic forms (mobiles), the length graphic means, they must be aware that
play a large role in establishing domi- of time an observer concentrates on the the 2-D picture plane is limited in how
nance (emphasis) within sections of a work may also be increased through the it can predict their three-dimensional
work. The relative dominance of a shape physical motion of various portions of intentions. Some artists and design-
may be altered by contrasts in size, color, the sculpture—the constantly chang- ers (and most architects) now use 3-D
value, visual detail, or textural emphasis ing relationship of shapes may hold the modeling software to plan their work,
(see figs. 2.63 and 4.30). A shape may viewer’s attention longer than immobile enabling them to rotate the design and
become dominant by making it differ- works of art. see it from multiple perspectives.
ent from other shapes that surround
148 C HAPTER 4 Shape
Value CHAPTER FIVE
THE VOCABULARY OF VALUE
INTRODUCTION TO VALUE RELATIONSHIPS
VALUE AND ART MEDIA
PLASTIC VALUE
Chiaroscuro
Tenebrism
DECORATIVE VALUE
VALUE PATTERN AND COMPOSITION
THREE-DIMENSIONAL APPLICATIONS OF VALUE
Peter Milton, Points of Departure III: Twentieth Century Limited, 1998. Etching and engraving, 241⁄2 3 381⁄2 in.
© Peter Milton. Courtesy of Davidson Galleries.
149
THE VVOCAABLUULAERY OF
Value — 1. The relative degree of lightness or darkness. 2. The characteristic of color determined
by the degree of lightness or darkness or the quantity of light reflected by the color.
achromatic value highlight shadow
Relating to differences of lightness and dark- The portion of an object that, from the The darker value on the surface of an object
ness, without regard for hue and intensity. observer’s position, receives the greatest that suggests that a portion of it is turned away
amount of direct light. from or obscured by the source of light.
cast shadow
The dark area that occurs on a surface as a local value shallow space
result of something being placed between that The relative lightness or darkness of a surface, The illusion of limited depth. With shallow
surface and a light source. seen in the objective world, that is independent space, the imagery moves only a slight distance
of any effect created by the degree of light back from the picture plane.
chiaroscuro falling on it.
1. The distribution of lights and darks in a pic- silhouette
ture, usually in an attempt to develop the illu- low-key value The area between or bounded by the con-
sion of mass, volume, or space. 2. A technique A value that has a level of middle gray or tours, or edges, of an object as defined by a
of representation that blends light and shadow darker. contrast of value; the total shape.
gradually to create the illusion of three-
dimensional objects in space or atmosphere. open-value composition tenebrism
A composition in which values are not limited A technique of painting that exaggerates or
chromatic value by the edges of shapes and therefore flow emphasizes the effects of chiaroscuro. Larger
The value (relative degree of lightness or dark- across shape boundaries into adjoining areas. amounts of dark value are placed close to
ness) demonstrated by a given color. The value pattern created is unrelated to the smaller areas of highly contrasting lights—
location of the subject(s). which change suddenly—in order to concen-
closed-value composition trate attention on important features.
A composition in which values are contained plastic (value)
within the edges or boundaries of shapes. Value used to create the illusion of volume and value
The value pattern reveals the subject(s) and space. 1. The relative degree of lightness or darkness.
is dependent upon the positioning of the 2. The characteristic of color determined by the
subject(s). sfumato degree of lightness or darkness or the quantity
A technique devised by Leonardo da Vinci of of light reflected by the color.
decorative (value) softly blending areas from light to dark, creat-
Ornamenting or enriching but, more importantly ing subtle transitions. Images often have vague value pattern
in art, stressing the two-dimensional nature of outlines and a hazy or smoky appearance. The arrangement or organization of values that
an artwork or any of its elements. Decorative Sfumato is derived from the Latin fumo, mean- control compositional movement and create a
value stresses the essential flatness of a surface. ing “smoke.” Leonardo described sfumato as unifying effect throughout a work of art.
“without lines or borders, in the manner of
high-key value smoke beyond the focus plane.”
A value that has a level of middle gray or lighter.
INTRODUCTION The greater the contrast, the easier the its value. Contrasts in value allow us
TO VALUE image can be seen—although an ex- to see lines and shapes, sense depth
RELATIONSHIPS treme contrast of light and dark is not and dimensionality, and perceive sur-
always necessary for an object to be face textures. Our eyes are also guided
From the rising of the sun to the soft understandable. through a composition by the patterns
glow of the moon, we see images as of those value contrasts, which encour-
light against dark or dark against light. In the visual arts, an area’s relative age us to focus on particular locations
lightness or darkness is referred to as
150 C HAPTER 5 Value
in the work. Careful value choices even HIGH KEY LOW KEY
affect our psychological or emotional
reactions. Value has both compositional 5.1 This scale shows a value gradation from light to dark against middle gray. To use the scale,
function and great expressive capabil- make a colored photocopy, and remove the black and white circles in each gray stripe using a
ity. An understanding of value is fun- paper punch. To find the achromatic value for any color, slide the photocopy back and forth
damental to the study of art because it over the color, comparing the value of the gray stripes to the color seen through the punched
applies to all the elements. holes. Search until you find the stripe where the value of the gray and the color appear to be the
closest—neither being darker or lighter. That will be the correct achromatic value for that color.
This chapter is primarily concerned The location of the stripe relative to middle gray will also indicate if the color’s value is high key or
with achromatic values, which con- low key. Note: it is often easier to compare value and color while squinting.
sist of white, black, and the limitless
degrees of gray without color. The ach- 5.2 Barbara Morgan, Cadenza (Light Drawing), 1940. Gelatin silver print, 177⁄8 3 15 in.
romatic value scale in figure 5.1 illus- (45.5 3 38.2 cm). This work features an intense contrast between light and dark values. The
trates the change from white to black extreme whiteness of the swirling line glows and dances against the deep black background. Digital
in evenly gradated steps. Although
there could be an infinite number of Image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY.
steps between any two values, the
chart shows a few, with the same num-
ber of steps from middle gray to white
and from middle gray to black.
Many beginning artists do not real-
ize that when they are working with
color, they are working with value as
well. The comparative lightness or
darkness of a color is its chromatic
value. A standard yellow, for exam-
ple, is of far greater lightness than a
standard violet, although both col-
ors may be modified to the point that
they become virtually equal in value.
(Chapter 7, “Color,” covers this in
more detail.) The relative values of var-
ious colors are often easier to compare
after they have been translated into
their corresponding achromatic values.
The value scale in figure 5.1 can be a
useful tool for finding the appropriate
level of gray for any color.
An artist can create an image with
contrasting values, similar values, or
any combination along the value scale.
Sometimes, a designer will use the
extreme contrast of black and white for
dramatic effect (fig. 5.2). Other times, to
harmonize a piece, an artist can choose
to work with values that are closely
related. The artist selects values within
a limited range rather than use the full
value spectrum. A work that uses pre-
dominantly dark values, ranging from
middle gray to black, may be said to
have low-key values (fig. 5.3). When a
Introduction to Value Relationships 151
5.3 Käthe Kollwitz, Whetting the Scythe (K1.90x/xiib), original 1905.
Edition published by Otto Felsing in 1921. Plate 3 of the Peasants’ War
series. Etching, 113⁄4 3 113⁄4 in. (298 3 298 mm). Käthe Kollwitz brilliantly
used low-key values—middle gray to black—to create a dramatically
menacing mood in her composition, which is quite appropriate for the
subject matter: peasants preparing for revolt. Notice how the lightest of
those values is reserved for small areas of highlight, while the majority
of the work consists of darker tones. Photograph © Whitworth Art Gallery, The
University of Manchester, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library International. Art © 2011 Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn.
5.4 Robert Bauer, Centinela III, 2004.
Graphite on gessoed paper, 15 3 181⁄4 in.
In this image the artist has developed what
appears at first glance to be quite a full and
broad array of value. But a closer examination
reveals that the range of value is limited to
the lightest values on the achromatic scale—
from white to middle gray. Known as high-key
composition, it holds the viewer’s attention by
the skillful organization of areas of related value
and juxtaposing extremes of the limited value
range employed. © Robert Bauer. Courtesy of Forum
Gallery, New York.
work contains mostly light values, rang- accents, but those contrasting accents ance of dark (low-key) areas creates an
ing from white to middle gray, it is said should not destroy the dominant feel- atmosphere of gloom, mystery, drama,
to have high-key values (fig. 5.4). With ing of lightness or darkness. The “key” or menace, whereas a composition that
both approaches, a limited amount of the selected can be used to establish a gen- is basically light (high-key) will pro-
opposite values may be introduced for eral mood for the work—a preponder- duce quite the opposite effect.
152 C HAPTER 5 Value
5.5 Martha Alf, Pears Series 11 #7, 1978. 4B
pencil on bond paper, 11 3 14 in. At a casual
glance, these values appear blended by rubbing
drawing materials, but close examination
reveals that Martha Alf created this image using
delicately drawn lines so fine that they are not
recognized as individual lines. Rather, the marks
combine to produce areas of strong highlights
and shadows that define the pears and their
surroundings. This results in crisp and sparkling
surfaces. Newspace Gallery, Los Angeles. Photograph by
George Hoffman.
5.6 Peter Milton, Points of Departure III:
Twentieth Century Limited, 1998. Etching and
engraving, 241⁄2 3 381⁄2 in. This very large
and complex intaglio print uses a full range
of achromatic values to capture the essence
of another era. As seen here, etching and
engraving techniques can create a wide range
of line qualities, as well as sharp value contrasts
and more subtle gradations of light to dark. ©
Peter Milton. Courtesy of Davidson Galleries.
VALUE value, using the tools, materials, and Value can also be created by placing
AND ART MEDIA techniques of that medium to explore lines of the same or different qualities
its effects. (wet or dry, pencil or chalk, direct or
Although any medium can show rich blended) alongside or across each other
darks, sparkling whites, and the com- For the draftsman, the range of value to produce generalized areas of value.
plete range of grays, some media lend in a drawn line could be the result of the These marks may be so delicate that
themselves more naturally than oth- chosen surface or the pressure exerted they are barely noticeable (fig. 5.5) or so
ers to the development of a full range on it. In a pencil line, for example, the aggressive that they reveal the energy
of value. Artists working in drawing, degree of value could be determined driving the artist. In addition to hatch-
printmaking, or photography, for ex- by the hardness of the graphite, the ing and cross-hatching, a wide range
ample, have long experimented with force with which it is used, or the sur- of grays and gradual changes in value
face quality of the paper (see fig. 3.8D).
Value and Art Media 153
5.7 Imogen Cunningham, Magnolia
Blossom, 1925. Gelatin silver, size unknown.
Photography accurately records highlights and
shadows in a full range of achromatic values.
In this work, notice how Imogen Cunningham
has zoomed in on the blossom. By taking
the subject out of context, the photograph
becomes more than just an opportunity to
document a floral form—we can experience
the beauty of Cunningham’s composition,
which accentuates the rhythmic design of the
flowing petals and the delicate play of light on
the soft translucent forms. © 1925, 2011 Imogen
Cunningham Trust. www.ImogenCunningham.com.
can also be created using small dots of and the width of the lines cut deter- Screen printing, also known as silk-
black and diluted black inks. mine the amount of optical gray until screen or serigraphy, became popular
the area becomes a solid white (see because of the speed of printing. It can
Intaglio prints, or etchings, are also fig. 3.18). Even subtler shading effects produce both black-and-white and
able to generate strong contrasts of can be created by printing gray tones color images, but the latter is more
light and dark, and the many shades from multiple blocks that are cut with common with the medium. In screen
of gray in between (fig. 5.6). Intaglio slightly different images, with the printing, ink is forced through a screen
printing involves a metal plate that the final block printed in black ink. Early onto the printing paper by pressure
artist has cut into or etched using acid. relief prints were achromatic; how- applied to a squeegee. The prepara-
Ink is rubbed into the crevices of the ever, experimentation soon began with tion of the screen determines the ink
plate, which is then wiped so that only colored blocks, and the use of color in pattern—various areas of the screen
those crevices contain the ink. Under printmaking remains popular today can be made to block passage of the
the pressure of a press, the ink is forced (see fig. 4.26). ink. After printing the lightest value,
out of the plate onto the printing paper. additional areas of the screen can be
Value is determined by the depth and In lithography, a full range of ach- blocked out in order to print subse-
texture of the crevices, as well as their romatic value is drawn by oil crayon quent layers of darker values, or mul-
closeness to each other (see 3.15). on limestone (or metal plates). After tiple screens may be used.
being chemically treated and washed
Woodcuts, or relief prints, are printed in water, the stone allows the appli- Photography is an excellent medium
from blocks of material cut with cation of ink in only the drawn areas. to capture the effects of light playing on
gouges or knives. Printing a single When the inked stone is covered with the surface of an object. A camera natu-
block produces an image with high paper and passed through a press with rally records highlights and shadows
contrasts (like black and white). Here, a scraper bar, the pressure of the press in a full range of values (fig. 5.7) and,
the middle ranges of value are optical forces the ink to transfer to the paper although the use of color photography
effects due to cutting lines (printed as (see figs. 1.14 and 3.29). is widespread, many contemporary
white areas) on the block; the number
154 C HAPTER 5 Value
5.8 Russell F. McKnight, Light and Dark, 1984. Photograph, size unknown. 5.9 Russell F. McKnight, Shadows, 1984. Photograph, size
A solid object receives more light on one side than the other because of its unknown. Light can cast overlapping shadows that tend to break
proximity to a light source. As the light is blocked out, shadows occur. Curved up and hide the true character of object forms. When the shapes
surfaces exhibit a gradual change of value, whereas angular surfaces show sharp of shadows are not factored into a composition, results are often
changes: (A) highlight, (B) light, (C) shadow edge, (D) shadow core, (E) cast disorganized, as in this experiment. Courtesy of the artist.
shadow, and (F) reflected light. Courtesy of the artist.
photographers prefer to work with altogether as the strong lighting creates the character of the surfaces where the
black-and-white film. Black-and-white its own shadows. In the highlighted shadow falls. Although cast shadows
photography can powerfully express an areas, the value appears lighter than offer clues to the circumstances of a
idea, creating a very specific mood in a normal; in the shadowed areas, darker given situation, they only occasionally
work. When colored objects are photo- than normal (fig. 5.8). give a true indication of the nature of
graphed on black-and-white film, they the forms involved (fig. 5.9).
are automatically converted into cor- Light and shadow patterns vary ac-
responding shades of gray, and artists cording to the shape of the object and The location of the light source is
can often use such photos to study the how the object is lit. A spherical surface always an important consideration;
range of values used in colorful works will demonstrate an even gradation it aids in describing the dimensional-
of art, instead of translating the colors from light to dark, while a surface with ity of an object and its spatial setting,
by hand with an achromatic value scale intersecting planes will show a sudden and the intense lights and darks cre-
(see fig. 5.1). contrast in value. Each basic form has ated by spotlights and the resulting
its own highlight and shadow pattern. shadows also contribute to a work’s
PLASTIC VALUE Thus, as seen in figure 5.8, an evenly psychological and emotional impact.
flowing gradation of value evokes a Side lighting emphasizes an object’s
Artists have long been concerned with sense of a gently curved surface, while mass and helps develop the contours
the problem of using value to reproduce an abrupt change of value generally in- of its form (fig. 5.10A). A light placed
the effect of light playing on their sub- dicates a sharp or angular surface. These directly in front of the object (or mul-
ject matter. An object’s surface, without lights and darks that create the appear- tiple lights evenly spaced on either
artificial or additional lighting, has a ance of depth are referred to as plastic side) will seem to flatten the object by
naturally occurring value known as its value (see fig. 5.5). centering the highlight, restricting the
local value. However, as the object is ex- shadow area, and limiting the range
posed to specific lighting (for example, Cast shadows are the dark areas of value that can define the object (fig.
more light on one side than another), that occur on an object or a surface 5.10B). By moving the light to a location
additional values can be seen. The local when another shape is placed between beside or slightly behind the object,
value may be altered or obliterated it and the light source. The nature of such qualities as the translucency of
the shadow created depends on the size delicate flower petals or the juiciness
and location of the light source, the size of fruit will be enhanced (see figs. 5.7
and shape of the interposed object, and
Plastic Value 155
AB
5.10 (A) & (B), Russell F. McKnight, Effect of Light on Objects, 1984. (C), Photograph; Film still
from The Night of the Hunger, 1955. Directed by Charles Laughton. (A) Light from one source
emphasizes the three-dimensional qualities of an object and gives an indication of depth. The cast
shadows also give definite clues to the descriptive and plastic qualities of the various objects. (B)
The group of objects is under illumination from several light sources. This form of lighting tends
to flatten object surfaces and produces a decorative effect. (C) The dramatic lighting techniques
used in film noir created an atmosphere of heightened suspense and tension. (A) and (B) Courtesy of
the artist; (C) Photofest.
and 6.1). Lighting placed directly greater compositional interest. Artists C
behind an opaque object, on the other aren’t bound to an exact duplication of
hand, can make the image dark, dis- cause-and-effect in light and shadow, distinct the objects become, the farther
torted, and mysterious, with interesting because a series of shapes with shad- away they appear.
foreground shadows and a halo around ows on the same side may become a
the outer edge of the subject. Hiding monotonous image. The shapes of high- Chiaroscuro developed mainly in
the light source behind an object in the lights and shadows are often altered or painting, beginning with Giotto (1266–
foreground is a clever way of estab- even reversed to produce the desired 1337), who began to use darks and
lishing such drama (see fig. 5.16). An degrees of unity and contrast with adja- lights to give some three-dimensional-
artist can even produce an emotional cent areas in the composition. By tak- ity (modeling) to shapes developed by
response in the viewer by raising or ing liberties with lights and shadows, linear contours (fig. 5.11). Later, the
lowering the light source, which will artists can create their own visual lan- early Florentine masters Masaccio, Fra
affect the location and strength of the guage (see fig. 5.15). Angelico, and Fra Filippo Lippi used
darks and the intensity and size of any the blended transitions to express fur-
halos or highlights. Chiaroscuro ther structure and volume in space
(see fig. 8.16A). Leonardo da Vinci
Not to be overlooked, of course, is As early painters explored ways of mak- employed even bolder contrasts in
the strength of the light source itself. ing their images more believable, they lights in darks, but always with a soft
Extreme drama often requires the great- eventually developed the technique of transition between values. His method
est contrasts possible. Indeed, the whole gradually blending contrasting lights
genre of film noir is based on extreme and darks in a picture to develop the
value contrasts and strong lighting. The illusion of mass or volume. This tech-
effect heightens the psychological ten- nique is known as chiaroscuro. The term
sion of the story (fig. 5.10C). also describes the way in which artists
handle atmospheric effects to create the
Although lights and shadows exist illusion that objects are surrounded on
in nature, artists often manipulate all sides by space; the grayer and less
them to enhance the three-dimensional
effect of an image and/or provide
156 C HAPTER 5 Value
5.11 Giotto, The Kiss of Judas, Scrovegni Chapel, Padua, 1304–6. 5.12 Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, 1503–6. Oil
Fresco, 7 ft. 7 in. 3 6 ft. 71⁄2 in. (2.31 3 2.02 m). Although line and on panel, 301⁄2 3 21 in. (76.2 3 52.5 cm). While
shape predominate in Giotto’s works, some early attempts at modeling exploring chiaroscuro, Leonardo extended the value
with chiaroscuro value can be seen. Church of the Twelfth Century/SuperStock. range set by previous artists; he also developed a
technique known as sfumato, which featured soft
blending and subtle transitions from light to dark.
5.13 Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), The Entombment of
Christ, 1559. Oil on canvas, 4 ft. 6 in. 3 5 ft. 87⁄8
in. (1.37 3 1.75 m). The Venetian master Titian
subordinated line (contrasting edges with value) and
enveloped his figures in a total atmosphere that
approaches tenebrism. Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain.
Photo: SCALA/Art Resource, NY.
Plastic Value 157
5.14 Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi),
David Victorious over Goliath, 1599–1600.
Oil on canvas, 44 3 36 in. (110 3 91 cm).
Caravaggio was essentially the leader in
establishing the dark manner of painting in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Several of
the earlier northern-Italian painters, however,
such as Correggio, Titian, and Tintoretto, show
a strong tendency toward compositions using
darker values. The Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain/The
Bridgeman Art Library.
of subtle blending (called sfumato) cre- Tenebrism seem to change more suddenly. This
ated vague outlines and gave a smoky quick and extreme transition concen-
appearance to the image while still Extreme or exaggerated chiaroscuro trates attention on important features in
allowing for a broader value range is called tenebrism. By increasing the the work.
(fig. 5.12). Thereafter, the great Vene- percentage of dark values and the level
tian painters, such as Titian, com- of contrasts in their work, artists exag- The first tenebrists were an interna-
pletely subordinated line and created gerate or emphasize the effects of chiar- tional group of painters who, early in
an enveloping atmosphere of domi- oscuro. Large amounts of dark value the seventeenth century, were inspired
nant tonality by using certain ranges are placed close to small areas of highly by the work of Michelangelo Merisi da
of value more than others (fig. 5.13). contrasting lights; the values blend but Caravaggio (fig. 5.14). Caravaggio based
his approach on the work of earlier
158 C HAPTER 5 Value
5.15 Georges de La Tour, The Payment
of Taxes, c. 1618–20. Oil on canvas, size
unknown. In a complex composition, La Tour
has used strong candlelight and its highlights
and shadows to produce the atmosphere of
a quiet drama. Multiple figures provide the
opportunity for combining natural and invented
shadows, which reinforce the structural
movement. Lviv State Picture Gallery, Ukraine/The
Bridgeman Art Library.
5.16 Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, The
Denial of St. Peter, 1660. Oil, 154 3 169 cm.
Rembrandt often used invented and hidden light
sources that deviated from standard conditions to
enhance the mood or emotional expression. The
spotlight effect predates the invention of dramatic
stage lighting. Collection Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.
Plastic Value 159
5.17 Jack Beal, Still Life with Tools, 1979. Pastel on black wove paper, 75.9 3 101.7 cm (sheet). northern-Italian painters and instituted
Beal transforms ordinary tools into mysterious objects with his tenebristic use of pastel. The objects this so-called dark manner of painting
in the wheelbarrow seem to glow, elevated from their prosaic origins. Jalane and Richard Davison Collection, in Western Europe. The tenebrists and
their followers were fascinated by the
1990.511.2. The Art Institute of Chicago. Photography © The Art Institute of Chicago. peculiarities of lighting, particularly
the way that lighting affected mood
5.18 Signed: Khem Karan, Prince Riding an Elephant, Mughal, period of Akbar, c. 1600. Opaque or emotional expression. They devi-
watercolor and gold on paper, 121⁄4 3 181⁄2 in. (31.2 3 47 cm). Historically, South Asian artists have ated from standard light conditions
usually disregarded the use of light (illumination) in favor of decorative-value compositions. The Metropolitan by placing the implied light sources in
unexpected locations, thereby creating
Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1925. (25.6B.4) Photograph © 1988 The Metropolitan Museum of Art /Art Resource, NY. unusual visual and spatial effects (fig.
5.15). Rembrandt continued to adapt
and perfect the techniques of this effect,
which he learned from migratory artists
from Germany and southern Holland
(fig. 5.16). The strong contrasts lent
themselves well to highly dramatic—
even theatrical—work, and value
became a defining characteristic in
Baroque painting. The extreme dark-
ness of tenebrism eventually fell out of
style but, recently, artists like Jack Beal
have revived interest in the style for its
expressive properties (fig. 5.17).
DECORATIVE VALUE
Art styles that stress decorative or
shallow space usually ignore conven-
tional light sources or neglect repre-
sentation of light altogether. If lighting
effects appear, they are incorporated
based on their contribution to the total
form of the work, not to highlight a
specific object. The lack of lighting—
either natural or “staged”—is charac-
teristic of the artwork of primitive and
prehistoric tribes and traditional East
Asians and from certain periods of
Western art, notably the Middle Ages.
In addition, the work of many con-
temporary artists is completely free
of illusionistic lighting; instead, such
artists concentrate on pictorial inven-
tion, imagination, and formal con-
siderations. Emotional impact is not
necessarily sacrificed (as witnessed in
medieval art), but the emotion speaks
primarily through the form and is con-
sequently less obvious.
160 C HAPTER 5 Value
5.19 Édouard Manet, The Dead Toreador, probably 1864. Oil on canvas, 297⁄8 3 603⁄8 in.
(75.9 3 153.4 cm). Manet, a nineteenth-century naturalist, was one of the first artists to break
with traditional chiaroscuro, making use, instead, of flat areas of value. These flat areas meet
abruptly, unlike the blended edges used by artists before Manet. This was one of the great technical
developments of nineteenth-century art. Widener Collection. © 1998 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art,
Washington DC.
The trend away from illumina- value and helped revive interest in the 5.20 Armin Hofmann, Stadt Theater Basel,
tion values (lights and darks from a shallow-space concept. 63/64, 1963. Offset lithograph, 501⁄4 3 351⁄2
single light source) gained strength in in. (127.6 3 90.1 cm). The contrast between
the nineteenth century, partly because The use of carefully controlled shal- light and dark is the dominant element in this
of growing interest in Middle Eastern low space can be seen in the works poster, creating a sense of drama. Gift of the
and East Asian art forms (fig. 5.18). The of the early Cubists and their follow-
interest in nondramatic lighting was ers (see fig. T.51). Those painters gave artist. Digital image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed
also given a scientific, Western inter- order to space by arranging flat planes
pretation when the naturalist Édouard that abstracted the subject matter. Ini- by SCALA/Art Resource, NY.
Manet observed that multiple light tially, the planes were shaded individu-
sources tend to flatten object surfaces ally and semi-naturalistically, although
and neutralize the plastic qualities of giving no indication of any one light
objects, thereby minimizing gradations source. Later, each plane took on a char-
of value (see fig. 5.10B). As a result, he acteristic value and, in combination
laid his colors on canvas in flat areas, with others, produced a carefully con-
beginning with bright, light colors and ceived shallow space. Eventually, this
generally neglecting shadow (fig. 5.19). shallow spatial effect was developed by
Some critics have claimed this to be the focusing on the advancing and receding
great technical advance of the nine- characteristics of value (see fig. 4.2). The
teenth century, because it paved the explorations of these early-twentieth-
way for nonrepresentational uses of century artists led to increased atten-
tion on the intrinsic significance of each
Decorative Value 161
5.21 Nicolas Poussin, study for Rape of the Sabines, c. 1633. Pen and ink with wash, 61⁄2 3 5.22 Barry Schactman, Study after Poussin,
87⁄8 in. (16.4 3 22.5 cm). Preparatory, or “thumbnail,” sketches give the artist the opportunity to 1959. Brush and ink with wash, 10 3 77⁄8 in.
explore movement, ground systems, value structure, and compositional variations. In Poussin’s sketch, (25.4 3 20 cm). Loose, rapid sketches can
it seems likely that the artist was striving for rhythmical movement within the horizontal thrust of the also be used to explore value patterns, color
composition. Devonshire Collection, Chatsworth. Reproduced by permission of the Duke of Devonshire and the Chatsworth structure, and movement. Yale University Art Gallery,
Settlement Trustees. Photograph: Photographic Survey Courtauld Institute of Art. New Haven, CT. Transfer from Yale Art School.
and every element. Value was no lon- organized areas of light and dark cre- across the bottom of the composition
ger forced to serve primarily as a tool ate a value pattern, which becomes the while intermingling smaller receding
to create depth and space, although it compositional skeleton that supports toned shapes in the middle areas.
continued to be used in this way. Art- the image. The value pattern provides
ists began to think of value as a vital the underlying movement, tension, and Although thumbnails are beneficial
and lively part of a work, one that was foundation on which the subject is built. in compositional planning, they may
worthy of being the primary focus itself When properly integrated into the final be difficult to relate to the final work
(fig. 5.20). Indeed, there are many ways work, the value pattern reinforces the because of their scale. Small drawings
that value contributes to a work—it cre- subject. It should neither distract from may look exciting because of the way the
ates relative dominance, indicates deep the image nor separate itself as an over- areas of value are drawn—with rapid,
or two-dimensional space, establishes powering entity or isolated component. sketchy strokes full of textural detail. But
mood, and produces spatial unity. when enlarged many times, these small
Before starting the final image, strokes may become flat shapes that no
VALUE PATTERN many artists explore possible variations longer have the same visual appeal. The
AND COMPOSITION for a composition’s value pattern by artist must then adjust and refine these
making small studies known as thumb- enlarged value areas to recapture the
Although most viewers recognize the nail sketches. These small-scale prelimi- original intention.
importance of subject in an artwork, nary value studies allow artists to see
they often overlook the importance of how variations in value can change Artists who embrace the use of value
the areas of value that are strategically the subject and its overall impression. pattern can benefit from its subcon-
woven through the composition. These In figures 5.21 and 5.22, for example, scious movement and direction. This
Nicolas Poussin and Barry Schactman is true regardless of whether the final
develop large rhythmical dark shapes work is in black and white or color.
Unfortunately, pure, intoxicating color
162 C HAPTER 5 Value
AB
5.23 Gerrit Greve, Monet’s Water #3, 1996. Oil on canvas, 24 3 36 in. A common weakness when using color
is a lack of awareness of the pattern created by the colors’ values. Black-and-white photographs of artwork can
reveal this problem very clearly. When figure A is translated into achromatic values (B), it becomes apparent that the
range of lights and darks is quite limited. In this case, the artist probably intended for a limited value range, but this
phenomenon may surprise a beginning artist who thinks only in terms of color. Even a composition of closely related
hues benefits from the careful consideration of its value pattern. © Gerrit Greve/Corbis.
often “blinds” people from seeing how
chromatic values relate to the overall
organization. Black-and-white photo-
graphs of colorful work help reveal any
related weaknesses (fig. 5.23A and B).
While integrating value struc-
ture into an image, an artist should be
aware of two approaches for develop-
ing the value pattern: closed-value and
open-value compositions. In closed-
value compositions, values are con-
tained within the edges or boundaries
of shapes. This sets those shapes apart
from surrounding areas and often
serves to clearly identify them. The pat-
tern created by these values is depen-
dent on the positioning of the subject(s)
(fig. 5.24). In open-value compositions,
5.24 Andrew Stevovich, Internet Café, 2006.
Oil on linen, 28 3 32 in. In this painting, a
closed-value composition, the color values lie
between prescribed and precise limits, primarily
object edges and contours. Courtesy of Andrew
Steovich and Adelson Galleries.
Value Pattern and Composition 163
5.25 DeLoss McGraw, Mother and Child “Bleak and Lonely Heights” in August Moving Sunlight, 2002. Gouache on
paper, 20 3 30 in. This is an example of what is basically an open-value composition. A light-valued yellow moves
across the upper half, occasionally interrupted by a rocking horse, black rectangle, and ladder. A dark red shape
moves across the lower third through the baby, the woman’s dress and legs, the wagon, and the background. A
linear accent or subtle change of color defines the subject in those areas. A few closed areas—like the wheels and
ladders—are strategically placed for contrast. Courtesy of ACA Galleries, New York.
values cross over shape boundaries integrate the shapes and unify the com- shapes are enhanced by dramatically
into adjoining areas, and a line or sub- position (fig. 5.25; see also fig. 4.2). contrasting values (see figs. 5.5 and
tle change in texture or color is often 5.14). Thus, value can run the gamut
necessary to make the shapes visible. With both open-value and closed- from decoration to vivid expression. It
The pattern made by these values is value compositions, the emotive possi- is a multipurpose tool for establishing
not in any way dependent on the loca- bilities of value schemes are easy to see. contrasts, controlling eye movement,
tion of the subject(s); this independent The artist may employ closely related creating the illusion of space, and con-
patterning of lights and darks helps values to generate hazy, foglike effects veying a vast range of emotion.
(see figs. 5.4 and 8.4). Sharply defined
164 C HAPTER 5 Value
THREE-DIMENSIONAL pattern of lights and darks changes as 5.26 Julie Warren Martin, Marchesa, 1988.
APPLICATIONS the position of the viewer, the work, or Italian Botticino marble, 28 3 12 3 10 in.
OF VALUE its source of illumination changes. If a (71.1 3 30.5 3 25.4 cm). A piece of sculpture
work has a great deal of shape variation “paints” itself with values. The greater the
Although artists working with three- and/or penetration, the shadow pat- projections and the sharper the edges, the
dimensional forms do not have to create terns are more likely to define the work, greater and more abrupt the contrasts. From the
the illusion of mass through the ren- regardless of the position of the light
dering of light and dark surfaces, they source. For most 3-D work, the light Collection of Kirby and Priscilla Smith. Courtesy of the artist.
are certainly aware of the relationship source is relatively constant, and the
between lighting and dimensionality. highlights and shadows change only as describing a work’s dimensionality and
As the artist physically manipulates the viewer moves positions. However, spatial setting; enhance the effective-
three-dimensional shapes, contrast- kinetic sculpture (such as mobiles) cre- ness of the design pattern; and con-
ing lights and shadows are produced ates continuous changes in the relation- tribute to the psychological, emotional,
on the forms. The presence of light oc- ship of light and shadow because the and dramatic expression of the artist.
curs when a surface area is exposed by light source, in effect, changes as the
a source of light. Conversely, dark or object itself moves (see fig. 2.70). Many
shadowy areas occur when a surface sculptors are interested in creating these
faces away (or is hidden) from a light kinds of relationships.
source. Each basic form reacts differ-
ently to the light. As we see in figure Value changes can also be achieved
5.26, gently curved surfaces reveal by painting a 3-D work. It is much easier
an evenly flowing value gradation, to see shadow patterns that are cast on
whereas an abrupt change of value an object painted with light values than
occurs on a sharp edge. Any angular on a piece that has been painted with
change of two juxtaposed surfaces, dark values (see fig. 1.40). The lighter
however slight, results in contrasts of values work best on pieces that depend
value. The sharper the angular change, on secondary contours; darker values
the greater the contrast (see figs. 3.30, are most successful in emphasizing the
4.33, 4.35, and 5.8). major contour, or silhouette (see figs.
4.33A and B and 4.37). Strong contrasts
When any part of a 3-D work between image and background also cre-
blocks the passage of light, shadows ate the silhouettes that define thin linear
result. (This includes an area that has 3-D structures (see figs. 3.31 and 3.32).
been heavily textured, although shad-
ows cast by the textures themselves For the three-dimensional artist, a
will make the area appear darker when good light source and the value range
compared to smoother passages.) The created by it are important composi-
tional tools. Light and shadows aid in
Three-Dimensional Applications of Value 165
CCHHAAPPTTEERR SSEI VX E N Texture TEXTURE AND PATTERN
TEXTURE AND COMPOSITION
THE VOCABULARY OF TEXTURE TEXTURE AND SPACE
INTRODUCTION TO TEXTURE TEXTURE AND EXPRESSIVE CONTENT
THE NATURE OF TEXTURE THREE-DIMENSIONAL APPLICATIONS OF TEXTURE
TYPES OF TEXTURE
Actual Texture
Simulated Texture
Abstract Texture
Invented Texture
Henrique Oliveira, Tapumes, 2009. Wood, 4.7 3 13.4 3 2 m.
Installation at Rice Gallery, Houston. Courtesy of the artist and Galeria Millan, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Photograph by Nash Baker.
166
THETVEOXCATBUULARREY OF
Texture — The surface character of a material that can be experienced through touch or the illusion
of touch. Texture is produced by natural forces or through an artist’s manipulation of the art elements.
abstract texture attached to the picture-plane surface, often in pattern
A texture derived from the appearance of an combination with painted or drawn passages. 1. Any artistic design (sometimes serving as a
actual surface but rearranged and/or simpli- model for imitation). 2. A series of repeated
fied by the artist to satisfy the demands of the genre paintings elements and/or designs that are usually varied
artwork. Paintings with subject matters that concern and produce interconnections and obvious
everyday life, domestic scenes, family relation- directional movements.
actual texture ships, and the like.
A surface that can be experienced through the simulated texture
sense of touch (as opposed to a surface visu- invented texture A convincing copy or translation of an object’s
ally simulated by the artist). A created texture whose only source is the texture in any medium. (See trompe l’oeil.)
artist’s imagination. It generally produces a
assemblage decorative pattern and should not be confused tactile
A technique that involves grouping actual items with abstract texture. A quality that refers to the sense of touch.
(three-dimensional objects) in a display. The
items may be found or specially created, and paint quality texture
they are often displayed “in situ”—that is, in The intrinsic character of a painting material— The surface character of a material that can be
a natural position or in the middle of a room thickness, glossiness, and so forth—which experienced through touch or the illusion of
rather than on a wall. can enrich a surface through its own textural touch. Texture is produced by natural forces
interest. or through an artist’s manipulation of the art
atmospheric perspective elements.
The illusion of depth produced in graphic papier collé
works by lightening values, softening details and A visual and tactile technique in which scraps trompe l’oeil
textures, reducing value contrasts, and neutral- of paper having various textures are pasted Literally, “deceives the eye”; the copying of
izing colors in objects as they recede. to the picture surface to enrich or embellish nature with such exactitude as to be mistaken
those areas. The printing of text or images on for the real thing. (See simulated texture.)
collage those scraps can provide further visual richness
A technique of picturemaking in which real or decorative pattern.
materials possessing actual textures are
INTRODUCTION textures—some that are inviting, others THE NATURE
TO TEXTURE that are repelling. In fact, everything has OF TEXTURE
a texture, from the rough surface of tree
Texture is a universal experience that bark to the soft fluffiness of a carpet, from Texture may be unique among the
often occurs on a subconscious level. the hard glossiness of a window pane to art elements because it immediately
Whether running your toes through the jagged edge of broken glass. Look engages two sensory processes. It is
grass or putting on a sweater, you feel for art that is around you and see what more intimately and dramatically
the unique tactile quality of those materi- textures it displays. Is the texture obvi- known through the sense of touch, but
als, even if you are not consciously aware ous? Does it make you want to touch the we can also see texture and, thus, predict
of it. For example, when you hold this work? Although pieces of art have defi- its feel. In viewing a picture or a piece
book, you feel the slippery smoothness nite textures when touched, they also can of sculpture, we may recognize objects
of the pages, the sharp corners, and the give the appearance of textures in solely through the artist’s use of characteris-
ridged effect of the stacked pages. Look a visual way. Indeed, our world is full of tic shapes, colors, and value patterns—
around, and you will see many other a variety of textural experiences. but we may also react to the artist’s
The Nature of Texture 167
6.1 Dennis Wojtkiewicz, Kiwi Series #1, 2005. Oil on canvas, 36 3 66 in. (91.4 3 167.6 cm).
This painting is an excellent example of our sight being able to activate other senses. Here, the
presentation of the translucent fruit and fuzzy skin is so convincing that we have a visual and a
tactile reaction—and for some, a sensation of taste. Courtesy J. Cacciola Gallery, New York, NY.
6.2 A cross section of four materials shows (from left to right): a hard, smooth, glossy surface; a rippled metallic
surface; rough cinderblock; and weathered wood. The textures of these objects can be clearly seen due to the
highlights and shadows formed by the light shining on each surface, suggesting how the actual objects would feel
if they were stroked. The far left, being flat, produces no shadows but shows reflections. The middle left texture
produces both shadow and reflection. In the cinderblock, shadows are cast among the small stones, and in the wood,
alongside the weathered undulations.
rendering of the surface character of understanding of the nature of tex- also how we see it. Rough surfaces in-
those objects. In such a case, we have both ture is vital. The feel of an object’s sur- tercept light rays, producing an often
visual and tactile experiences (fig. 6.1). face—its physical texture—depends irregular pattern of lights and darks;
on the degree to which the surface is glossy surfaces reflect the light more
Whether an artwork is 2-D or 3-D, broken up in its treatment: the more evenly, giving a smoother appearance
our response to the textural quali- broken, the rougher the texture. This (fig. 6.2). As we see these patterns of
ties of the work is an important part not only determines how we feel it but different values, our memory of touching
of the viewing experience, and an
168 C HAPTER 6 Texture
surfaces with similar characteristics
triggers a tactile response or sensory re-
action. Thus, we can predict an object’s
feel without ever touching its surface.
TYPES OF TEXTURE
The artist can use four basic types of
texture: actual, simulated, abstract, and
invented.
Actual Texture 6.3 Seo-Bo Park, Ecriture No. 940110, 1994. Mixed media with Korean paper, 26 3 18 in. (65.3
3 46 cm). The massing of paint is clearly evident, particularly in the central portion. Some shapes
Actual texture is the “real thing”—a seem to have been effected by a comblike instrument. Courtesy of Jean Art Gallery, Seoul, Korea.
surface that can be experienced through
the sense of touch. It is not an illusion The textural enrichment can be em- in heavy ribbons directly from the tube
created by drawing or painting. Histori- ployed in the creation of specific sub- of paint, with the furrows of paint rein-
cally, actual texture has been a natural ject matter, but many times it is used forcing the subject matter in the picture
part of three-dimensional art; wood, to simply enliven an area with inter- (see fig. 1.19). The creation of actual
glass, and fibers, for example, have in- esting visual detail. In Seo-Bo Park’s texture in both cases is enhanced by
herent textures that are incorporated Ecriture No. 940110, the paint is ap- the paint quality, which is the intrin-
into the work (although those textures plied in projecting mounds and ridges sic character of the painting materials.
may be manipulated). For many works that begin to create their own patterns The artist controls the paint’s thick-
of art, the design depends heavily on (fig. 6.3). Other artists, like Van Gogh ness, glossiness, and textural rich-
the actual texture of the medium, es- in his Starry Night, apply the pigment ness through the addition of various
pecially in the textile arts as well as
in ceramics, jewelry, and so forth (see
figs. 1.53, 1.54, and 1.56). Architects, for
example, often rely on the feel of the
materials for inspiration and direction
and then balance the varying textures
through careful composition (see figs.
1.51 and 1.52).
Painters, too, can utilize the ac-
tual texture of their materials, and
quite often their work seems to cross
the boundary from two- into three-
dimensionality. As artists begin to
paint or draw on canvas, they change
the textural quality of that surface. In
some cases, as with charcoal or graph-
ite, the change is subtle—little is done
to the “feel” of the surface. In other
cases, like impasto painting, the thick-
ness and texture of the applied paint
can be quite heavy and modeled. This
buildup of material alters the way the
surface “feels” to the touch, and often,
the paint is textured enough to cre-
ate its own highlights and shadows.
Types of Texture 169
6.4 Robert Mazur, Nightwave, 2007. Acrylic
on canvas, 18 3 30 in. (45.7 3 76.2 cm).
In this painting, invented textures are used
to suggest the subject matter. Wet-on-wet
resists symbolize sky and water, while heavily
aggregated paint textures applied by fingers,
brush, and modified palette knife represent
crashing waves. Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Edward
Plocek. Courtesy of the artist.
6.5 Pablo Picasso, Still Life with Chair Caning,
1912. Oil on pasted oilcloth, rope, oval, 105⁄8
3 133⁄7 in. (27 3 34.9 cm). With this work,
Picasso pioneered the development of the
papier collé and collage forms—art created by
fastening actual materials with textural interest
to a flat working surface. These art forms may
be used to simulate real textures but are usually
created for decorative purposes. Musée Picasso, Paris,
France. © 2011 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York. Bridgeman-Giraudon/Art Resource, NY.
varnishes, binders, and aggregates in the use of tickets, portions of newspapers, The problem created by mixing ob-
the form of sand or marble dust (fig. 6.4). menus, and the like (see fig. 4.2). Papier jects and painting is: what is real—the
collé soon led to collage, an art form in objects, the artistic elements, or both?
In the early twentieth century, the which actual objects—rope, chair caning, Do the painted objects have the same
concept of actual texture was expanded and other articles of greater substance reality as the genuine objects? What-
to include the addition of various tex- than paper—were used. Sometimes ever the answers, the early explora-
tural materials along with the application these objects were used in combination tions of the Cubists (the style of Picasso
of paint. In 1908, Picasso pasted a piece with printed pictures of textures, to juxta- and Braque, about 1907–1912) stimu-
of paper to a drawing. This is the first pose the experience of actual texture with lated other artists to explore new atti-
known example of papier collé, a prac- simulated texture (fig. 6.5). tudes toward art and made them more
tice that was later expanded to include
170 C HAPTER 6 Texture
6.6 llse Bing, My World, 1985. Mixed media, conscious of surface (fig. 6.6). Today, use of simulated texture. Interior de-
14 3 17 3 3¾ in. (35.6 3 43.2 3 9.5 cm). many artists use actual textures created signers employ this technique when
The inspiration behind the use of burlap in this from combining paint with a wide painting faux (fake) surface treatments
artwork stems ultimately from the first collages range of materials other than aggre- imitating stone or veined marble. Simu-
of Picasso and Braque—then a revolutionary, gate, ranging from nails to paintbrushes lated textures are often associated with
but now a fairly commonplace, technique. © llse (fig. 6.7; see also fig. 9.13). trompe l’oeil paintings, which attempt
Bing, courtesy of Edwynn Houk Gallery, New York. to “fool the eye” with photographic
Simulated Texture detail convincing enough that it might
be mistaken for the real thing (fig. 6.9;
Every surface has characteristic light see also fig. 6.1). Simulation is a copy-
and dark features as well as reflections. ing technique, a skill that can be quite
When these are skillfully reproduced in impressive in its own right. However,
an artist’s medium, the imitations may a viewer must see past the richness of
be mistaken for the surfaces of real ob- detail to experience everything else the
jects. The surface character that looks composition has to offer.
“real” but in fact is not is said to be a
simulated texture (fig. 6.8). Abstract Texture
Simulated textures are useful for Instead of trying to reproduce or ex-
making things identifiable; moreover, actly imitate the textures of their sub-
we experience a rich tactile enjoy- jects, many artists prefer to abstract
ment when viewing them. The Dutch them. Abstract textures usually dis-
and Flemish artists produced amaz- play some hint of the original texture,
ing naturalistic effects in still-life and but they have been modified to suit the
genre paintings. Their work shows artist’s particular needs. The result is
their dedication to and passion for the
6.7 Gary Lawe, I Remember Being Free, 1998. Lucite,
acrylic, encaustic, and nails, 24 3 30 in. (61 3 76 cm). The
admixture of nails with the varied paint media creates an
actual textured surface that is rich in its inherent visual and
tactile qualities. Courtesy of the artist Gary Lawe and the Don O’Melveny
Gallery, West Hollywood.
Types of Texture 171
6.8 Andrew Newell Wyeth, Spring Beauty,
1943. Drybrush watercolor on paper, 20 3
30 in. (50.8 3 76.2 cm). Skillful manipulation
of the medium can effectively simulate actual
textures. Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, NE. The F. M. Hall Collection
1944.H-247. © Andrew Wyeth.
6.9 Gary Schumer, Split Table Still Life, 1992. Oil on
canvas, 64 3 76 in. (162.6 3 193 cm). In this painting,
the artist is concerned with the simulation of textures
ranging from plywood and plexiglass to cloth, ceramic,
and metal. As with all trompe l’oeil painting, the wealth
of detail can obscure other compositional offerings—
such as the compelling value pattern and the Cubist-like
twisting and layering of spatial planes. Courtesy of the artist,
Private Collection.
172 C HAPTER 6 Texture
6.10 Roy Lichtenstein, Cubist often a simplified version of the origi-
Still Life with Playing Cards, 1974. nal, emphasizing the pattern or design
Oil and magna on canvas, 96 3 (fig. 6.10). Abstract textures normally
60 in. (243.8 3 152.4 cm). The appear in works where the degree of
wood grain in this work is not abstraction is consistent throughout. In
abstracted beyond recognition; it is these works, the textures function in a
clearly derived from wood, though decorative way; there is no attempt to
simplified and stylized. © Estate of Roy “fool the eye,” but they enrich the work
in the same way that simulated textures
Lichtenstein. do. Besides helping the artist to simplify
his or her material, abstract textures can
be used to accent some areas or dimin-
ish others (i.e., to achieve relative domi-
nance) and to control eye movement.
Thus, they can be a potent composi-
tional tool.
Invented Texture
Invented textures are textures without
precedent; they do not simulate, nor are
they abstracted from reality. They are
purely the creation of the artist’s imagi-
nation and usually appear in abstracted
and nonobjective works (fig. 6.11).
6.11 Brian Fridge, Vault Sequence No.
10, 2000. Black-and-white silent video,
four minutes, DVD, edition 2 of 5. Vault
Sequence is a seven-minute video of the
inside of the artist’s refrigerator freezer.
Through the medium of video, the artist
creates invented texture. The time-based
aspect of this medium creates images
that would otherwise not be seen. The
video camera’s eye reveals mini-universes.
Courtesy of Brian Fridge, the Modern Art Museum of
Fort Worth, and Dunn & Brown Contemporary.
Types of Texture 173
It is sometimes difficult to dis- 6.12A Tiles in the Alhambra, Granada, Spain, c. 1350. This close-up image of a wall in the
tinguish abstracted from invented Alhambra illustrates a highly intricate and mathematical pattern. Like most patterns, it is made up of
textures, because a skilled artist (seek- repeated motifs and serves a mainly decorative purpose. © Image Source/Alamy.
ing something a little more unique
than simulation or abstraction) can
invent a texture and make it appear to
have a precedent where none exists.
In such a case, it is difficult to know
how to classify the texture; although
the texture is created, not re-created,
it still seems to be derived from some
source. Invented textures, in some set-
tings, may also suggest textures fa-
miliar to the observer, although such
references to the objective world are
not intended by the artist.
Usually, invented textures are used
in the same ways as abstract textures—
decorative enrichment, relative domi-
nance or emphasis, and movement.
Artists often use invented textures to
evoke an experience or a place outside
of ordinary reality (see fig. 6.11). Some-
times, invented textures are used to sur-
prise or shock the viewer (see figs. 6.18
and T.66).
TEXTURE 6.12B In this detailed photograph of fiber art, one can see repeated motifs that create pattern,
AND PATTERN but in this case, the pattern of lights and darks is the product of three-dimensional textures that
create highlights and shadows. Even as a flat photo, the knotted fibers clearly appear textural in
Because both texture and pattern are addition to containing pattern.
developed through lights and darks,
the difference between the two can be
confusing. As defined in Chapter 2, pat-
tern is a decorative design, normally
thought of in two-dimensional (or flat)
terms. It generally involves repetition—
sometimes rather random, sometimes
more controlled—and often serves as
ornament (fig. 6.12A). Pattern is not
concerned with surface texture but with
appearance.
Texture, on the other hand, is nor-
mally associated with the impression
of three-dimensionality of a surface.
Lights and darks indicate the various
reflections and shadows created by
peaks and valleys of the object in re-
lation to the light source (fig. 6.12B).
174 C HAPTER 6 Texture
A 6.14 Ancestral Figure from House Post, Maori, When viewing a work of art, the
New Zealand, c. 118–29. Wood, basic difference between texture and
B 43 in. (109.22 cm) high. The Maori shallow- pattern rests on whether the surface
relief figure from New Zealand, representing stimulates a tactile response or simply
C a tribal ancestor, is decorated with curving contains an organization that engages
6.13 Three different combinations of or spiral bands. They are enhanced by the the eye.
pattern and texture. (A) The circle motif dyed application of abstracted textual pattern based
onto this portion of a silk tie creates a pattern on the tattooing that embellished the tribal Imagine a silk tie with a dyed pat-
but no illusion of texture on the surface. The members’ bodies. The carving functioned as tern of circles (fig. 6.13A). There is no
pattern comes from the variations in value one of the wall posts in their meeting house. textural change or any illusion of it on
and color of the dye against the background the surface of the silk, and the repeating
of the silk tie. (The pattern is independent of © Boltin Picture Library/Bridgeman Art Library International. pattern serves as ornamentation. How-
texture.) (B) A circle motif embossed on paper ever, when the same design of circles
creates both pattern and textural change on is embossed on paper or woven into a
the surface. The pattern comes from the rug (fig. 6.13B and C), changes in value
organization of the circles, the embossing, due to shadows and highlights create
and the highlights and shadows of the raised changes in texture. These textural vari-
surface areas. (The three-dimensional surface ations, along with the lights and darks
helps create the pattern.) (C) The tufts of seen on the surface, help create the pat-
fiber woven into a rug produce a pattern of tern. An interest in pattern arising out
circles and create a rather pronounced change of texture can be found in every culture.
in surface texture. The pattern comes from In the Maori Ancestral Figure from House
the organization of value and color change in Post, the spiral bands of pattern are also
conjunction with the highlights and shadows made visible because of a change in the
seen around and within the tufted areas. texture on the surface of the sculpture
(Texture creates the larger pattern, while smaller (fig. 6.14).
patterns may be seen within the textural shapes.)
Textural density can be affected by
viewing distance, and it may be nec-
essary to view an artwork from differ-
ent distances to fully understand and
appreciate it. From a significant dis-
tance, the observer will see a general
textural field—a generalized area or
shape appearing as subtle changes in
color or value. Up closer, the patterned
relationships become more noticeable.
When extremely close, the texture be-
comes the focal point, obscuring the
larger pattern. An analogy might be
drawn to a field of corn. Distant areas
of the field appear as a blanket of
color. Mid-range areas show the over-
all pattern of the rows. Close up, the
texture of the plants is visible, as are
new patterns such as the veining of the
leaves or the kernels of corn (fig. 6.15).
Changing viewing distance can reveal
different textural qualities. When art-
ists take advantage of this aspect, their
work will be pregnant with many lay-
ers of meaning.
Texture and Pattern 175
6.15 The individual cornstalks, with their leaves and tassels, can be clearly seen in this low-altitude
view of a field. In the foreground, the corn, taken as a whole, appears as a huge three-dimensional
texture. In the distant view over the top of the field, the corn forms patterned rows.
6.16 Pablo Picasso, Dog and Cock, 1929. Oil on canvas, 607⁄8 3 301⁄8 in. (154.6 3 76.5 cm). Abstract
texture can be a compositional tool that is important for capturing and directing attention. Clearly the
abstracted white fur of the dog attracts us and creates movement. Gift of Stephen Carlton Clark, B.A. © Yale
University Art Gallery/Art Resource, NY. © 2011 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
TEXTURE of emphasis given to the various areas The control of textures, subject to
AND COMPOSITION of that surface. The movement of the other elements, helps create the di-
our eyes is directed from one attrac- rectional thrusts that move through the
Aside from the ability to stimulate our tive area to another, passing over, or work. The abstract textures in Picasso’s
sense of touch, texture—through its through, the “rests” (or deemphasized Dog and Cock, for example, draw our
variations of light and dark—can often areas). If an area is visually dead, or eyes to the more significant parts of the
be exciting and add emphasis and not attractive enough, a texture can painting (fig. 6.16).
emotion to a composition. In concert be added or emphasized to make it
with the other art elements and subject come to life. On the other hand, tex- TEXTURE AND SPACE
to the principles of organization, the tural areas may compete with other
use of texture can influence a compo- parts of the artwork; if a textural area Texture can also help define space.
sition, creating harmony, variety, and is too strong in its hold on the viewer, When textures appear blurred and lack
interest. other areas (possibly more important strong contrasts, they make objects seem
ones) may not get the attention they distant, but if they are sharp and have
Our attention is constantly moving deserve, and the texture should then strong contrasts, the objects appear to
about the surface of an artwork, led be softened.
by (among other things) the degree
176 C HAPTER 6 Texture
6.17 Thomas Hill, Yosemite Valley (from
below Sentinel Dome as Seen from Artist’s Point),
1876. Oil on canvas, 72 3 120 in. (182.88
3 304.8 cm). The foreground areas move
forward because of their greater textural
contrasts and clarity, while other areas are
thrust into space by grayness and only the faint
suggestion of details. The Oakland Museum Kahn
Collection 68.133.1. Photograph by M. Lee Fatherree.
6.18 Pavel Tchelitchew, Hide-and-Seek
[cache-cache], 1940–42. Oil on canvas,
6 ft. 6½ in. 3 7 ft. 3 in. (1.99 3
2.15 m). A personal textural style is greatly
responsible for much of the emotional quality
of this painting. Here, along with the invented
textures and biomorphic shape patterns, we
find the suggestion of an organic presence that
evokes a feeling of biological mystery.
© SuperStock, Inc.
move forward. This reflects how the TEXTURE AND experiences, objects, or persons from
character of texture differs with great EXPRESSIVE CONTENT our experience. When we say a person
distance and is one of the principles of is “slippery as a snake” or “a rough-
atmospheric perspective, a commonly Textures tend to have symbolic or neck,” tactile sensations are being
used technique in representational associative meanings, and they can linked to personality traits. In this way,
painting (fig. 6.17; see also fig. 8.4). A less provoke psychological or emotional textures can be used as supplementary
traditional artist might even use textures responses that may be pleasant or un- psychological devices that enhance and
in surprising or contradictory ways, pleasant. In doing this, the textures are alter the expressive content of the art-
playing with our sense of perspective. usually associated with environments, work on a subconscious level (fig. 6.18).
Texture and Expressive Content 177
6.19 Vik Muniz, The Raft of the Medusa,
1999. Pictures of chocolate, two chromogenic
color prints, overall 80 3 125 in. (203.2 3
317.5 cm), panel (each) 80 3 62½ in. (203.2
3 158.8 cm). In The Raft of the Medusa, Muniz
photographed a painting from 1819 by the
French Romantic painter Théodore Géricault.
The original painting was based on an event
of Géricault’s time. Muniz then drew over his
initial photograph with chocolate syrup and
photographed it again for the final image.
The medium used to create the texture of
the photograph obscures Géricault’s original
imagery. The resultant image and the visceral
quality of the medium cause the viewer to
question and analyze the layers of meaning
presented by Muniz. Whitney Museum of American
Art, New York; Purchase, with funds from Anne and Joel
Ehrenkranz 2000.144a-b. © Vik Muniz/Licensed by VAGA,
New York, NY.
The artist can also use textures to stim- of clay, wood, metal, and other natural the textures inherent in the materials
ulate our curiosity, shock us, or make and artificial materials (see fig. 1.40). being used. Actual textures, which are
us reevaluate our perceptions. Vik From this we can see that texture is in- experienced in the plastic arts through
Muniz does this with the use of choco- volved in all art forms, as it is in many touch as opposed to a visual illusion,
late syrup as a drawing medium in life experiences—however unconscious are a fundamental concern for 3-D art-
figure 6.19. of it we may be. ists. Their work is created with material
that has its own innate tactile quality.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL When working with three- In figure 6.20, Henrique Oliveira uses
APPLICATIONS dimensional materials, textures enrich a weathered wood to create a flowing,
OF TEXTURE surface, complement the medium, and cave-like, almost alien texture. Other
enhance expression and content. Tex- artists, like Patrick Dougherty, take
Most of the discussion in this chap- tured surfaces range from the rough feel their cues from nature and weave
ter has dealt with the graphic arts and of rusted metal or tree bark to the con- sticks, branches, and twigs into mam-
the types of texture that graphic art- trasting smoothness of glass or polished moth environmental sculptures (fig.
ists create, but textural possibilities are marble. Certain surfaces are inherent to 6.21). The use of actual texture also
perhaps more pronounced in 3-D art. certain media, and traditionally, these plays a role in the fairly recent de-
The architect balances the smoothness intrinsic textures are respected. The velopment called assemblage, which
of steel and glass with the roughness artist usually employs certain textures blurs the boundaries between two-
of stone, concrete, and brick (see fig. to characterize the distinctive qualities dimensional and three-dimensional
1.52). The ceramist works with glazes, of the subject. The sleek suppleness of work. Growing out of the earlier
aggregates in the clay, and various in- a fish, for example, seems to call for a experiments with collage, assem-
cised and impressed textures (see fig. polished surface, whereas a violent or blage combines 2-D and 3-D objects
1.55). Jewelers, using different tech- catastrophic event might call for the use of various sorts—some found, oth-
niques, consider texture when making of rough and jagged textures. However, ers specially made. Although assem-
pins, necklaces, or bracelets (see fig. artists sometimes surprise us with a dif- blage may seem similar to collage,
1.53). Sculptors manipulate the textures ferent kind of treatment. the distinction is that assemblage
brings together items that are larger
All the types of texture available to and bulkier. Furthermore, works of
the graphic artists are also available to
plastic artists and are developed from
178 C HAPTER 6 Texture
6.20 Henrique Oliveira, Tapumes, 2009.
Wood, 4.7 3 13.4 3 2 m. Using wood found
on the streets of Brazil, Oliveira constructs this
massive work using architectural, painting, and
sculpting techniques. The resulting work is a
fantasy of texture. Installation at Rice Gallery, Houston.
Courtesy of the artist and Galeria Millan, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Photograph by Nash Baker.
6.21 Patrick Dougherty, Putting Two and
Two Together, 2004. Maple and willow
saplings, 23 ft. 3 42 ft. 3 34 ft. Known for
making sculptural statements from unusual
materials, Dougherty laces 2,500 maple and
willow saplings together to create a twisting,
slanting, rising image. Juxtaposing dead wood
against a living shrub, he playfully suggests
four teepeelike shapes, which contrast with
the green arborvitae they surround. Site-specific
sculpture, Leigh Yawkey Woodson Art Museum, Wausau,
Wisconsin. Photo © Richard Wunsch.
Three-Dimensional Applications of Texture 179
6.22 Robert Rauschenberg, Canyon, 1959.
Combine painting: oil, pencil, paper, fabric,
metal, cardboard box, printed reproductions,
photograph, wood, and objects on canvas,
with a bald eagle, cord, and pillow, 81¾ 3
70 in. (207.65 3 177.8 cm). The technique
of assemblage clearly blurs the traditional
boundaries between two-dimensional
and three-dimensional work. Using actual,
abstracted, and invented texture, the artist
combines painting and collage with three-
dimensional bulky items and brings them
off the wall into the viewer’s space. © Robert
Rauschenberg/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
assemblage are presented differently; sculptors will often re-create the tex- the surfaces of clay, wood, metal, and
they are often displayed on the floor, tures that are inherent in the subjects. By other natural and artificial materials
standing in their own space. But even cutting into the surface of their chosen can appear so naturalistic that they lit-
when assemblages hang, their objects material, they can closely simulate the erally fool the eye—three-dimensional
project significantly off the wall. Each exterior qualities of hair, cloth, skin, and trompe l’oeil (fig. 6.24; see also figs. 1.40
of the assembled objects, of course, other textures (fig. 6.23). Sometimes the and 7.50).
possesses actual texture in its own treatment of materials can even trick the
right (fig. 6.22; see also fig. T.73). senses into experiencing another me- Abstracted texture and invented
dium. Through careful manipulation of texture are also available to the plastic
Although we might think of simu- the surface and with the proper finish, artist. Both types of texture can enrich a
lated texture as only a graphic device, specific area, change the value of an area
180 C HAPTER 6 Texture
6.23 Rombout Verhulst, Bust of Maria van Reygersberg,
Leiden, 1663. Terra-cotta, 45 cm high. In this work, Rombout
Verhulst has united the sober realism of the period to the skillful
rendering of details such as hair and clothing. The sensitivity of
his modeling of flesh brings out the expressive and malleable
qualities of the clay. Courtesy of Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
6.24 Marilyn Levine, Anne’s Jacket, 1999. Ceramic, 36
3 20½ 3 7¼ in. For this masterful work of trompe l’oeil,
Levine has used clay to simulate the texture of a leather
jacket, right down to the scratches and wear marks of
well-loved leather. Courtesy of Frank Lloyd Gallery, Collection of the
Museum of Arts and Design.
(because of the way light and shadow
play on the texture’s surface), and alter
the flow and tempo of a viewer’s eye
travel (see fig. 6.14).
Certainly, careful observation and
skill are required to capture a realis-
tic texture while still controlling its
pattern (for compositional integrity).
However, incorporating a more sub-
jective or even unnatural texture into
a composition involves just as much
ingenuity. Regardless of whether a
work involves 2-D or 3-D media, or
some combination thereof, texture is
an inherent part of every surface, and
its impact on the organization and ex-
pression of the piece is as important as
any other element.
Three-Dimensional Applications of Texture 181
Color
CCHHAAPPTTE ERR S SE EVVE ENN THE VOCABULARY OF COLOR Simultaneous Contrast
Color and Emotion
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COLOR Psychological Application of Color
LIGHT: THE SOURCE OF COLOR THE ROLE OF COLOR IN COMPOSITION
Additive Color Color Balance
Subtractive Color Color and Harmony
Color and Variety
ARTISTS’ PIGMENTS AND THE TRIADIC COLOR SYSTEM
Neutrals THE EVOLUTION OF THE COLOR WHEEL
The Origins of Color Systems
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COLOR The Discovery of Pigment Primaries
Hue The First Triadic Color Wheel
Value The Discovery of Light Primaries
Intensity The Ostwald Color System
The Munsell Color System
DEVELOPING AESTHETIC COLOR RELATIONSHIPS The Process Color System (Four-Color Printing Process)
Complements and Split-Complements Color Photography
Triads Color Computer Printing
Tetrads
Analogous and Monochromatic Colors THREE-DIMENSIONAL APPLICATIONS OF COLOR
Warm and Cool Colors
Plastic Colors
182 Paul Cézanne, Apples and Biscuits, c. 1879–1882. Oil on canvas, 46 x 55 cm.
Musée de l’Orangerie, Paris, France/Lauros-Giraudon, Paris/SuperStock, Inc.
THE VCOCOALBUOLARRY OF
Color — The visual response to different wavelengths of sunlight identified as red, green, blue,
and so on; having the physical properties of hue, intensity, and value.
academic color triad monochromatic
Art that conforms to established traditions and Three colors, equally spaced on the color wheel, Having only one hue; may include the com-
approved conventions as practiced in formal art forming an equilateral triangle. The twelve-step plete range of value (of one hue) from white
schools. Academic art stresses standards, set color wheel is made up of a primary triad, a sec- to black.
procedures, and rules. ondary triad, and two intermediate triads.
neutralized (color), neutralization
achromatic complementary colors (of color)
Relating to color perceived only in terms of neu- Two colors directly opposite each other on the Color that has been grayed or reduced in
tral grays from light to dark; without hue. color wheel. A primary color is complementary intensity by being mixed with any of the neutrals
to a secondary color, which is a mixture of the or with a complementary color (so that the
additive color two remaining primaries. mixture contains all three primaries, in equal
Color created by superimposing light rays. Add- or unequal amounts).
ing together (or superimposing) the three pri- high-key color
mary colors of light—red, blue, and green—will Any color that has a value level of middle gray neutrals
produce white. The secondaries are cyan, yel- or lighter. 1. The inclusion of all color wavelengths will
low, and magenta. produce white, and the absence of any wave-
hue lengths will be perceived as black. With neutrals,
analogous colors The generic name of a color (red, blue, green, no single color is noticed—only a sense of light
Colors that are closely related in hue. They are etc.); also designates a color’s position in the and dark or the range from white through gray
usually adjacent to each other on the color wheel. spectrum or on the color wheel. Hue is deter- to black. 2. A color altered by the addition of
mined by the specific wavelength of the color in its complement so that the original sensation of
chroma a ray of light. hue is lost or grayed.
1. The purity of a hue, or its freedom from
white, black, or gray (and wavelengths of other intensity patina
color). 2. The intensity of a hue. 3. Computer The saturation, strength, or purity of a hue. A 1. A natural film, usually greenish, that results
programs often refer to chroma as saturation. vivid color is of high intensity; a dull color is of from the oxidation of bronze or other metallic
low intensity. material. 2. Colored pigments and/or chemicals
chromatic applied to a sculptural surface.
Pertaining to the presence of color. intermediate color
A color produced by a mixture of a primary pigment
chromatic value color and a secondary color. A color substance that gives its color prop-
The relative degree of lightness or darkness erty to another material by being mixed with
demonstrated by a given color. intermediate triad it or covering it. Pigments, usually insoluble,
A group of three intermediate colors that are are added to liquid vehicles to produce paint
color equally spaced on the color wheel and form an and ink. They are different from dyes, which
The visual response to different wavelengths of equilateral triangle; two groups of intermedi- are dissolved in liquids and give their color-
sunlight identified as red, green, blue, and so on; ate triads are found on the color wheel: red- ing effects by staining or being absorbed by a
having the physical properties of hue, intensity, orange/yellow-green/blue-violet and red-violet/ material.
and value. blue-green/yellow-orange.
primary color
color tetrad local (objective) color A preliminary hue that cannot be broken
Four colors, equally spaced on the color wheel, The color as seen in the objective world (green down or reduced into component colors.
containing a primary and its complement and a grass, blue sky, red barn, etc.). Primary colors are the basic hues of any color
complementary pair of intermediates. This has system that in theory may be used to mix all
also come to mean any organization of color on low-key color other colors.
the wheel forming a rectangle that could include Any color that has a value level of middle gray
a double split-complement. or darker.
The Vocabulary of Color 183
primary triad split-complement(s) tint (of color)
The three primary colors on the color wheel A color and the two colors on either side of its A color produced by mixing white with a hue,
(red, yellow, and blue), which are equally complement. which raises the value level and increases the
spaced and form an equilateral triangle. quantity of light reflected.
subjective color
secondary color 1. That which is derived from the mind, tonality, tone (color)
A color produced by a mixture of two primary instead of physical reality, and reflects a 1. A generic term for the quality of a color,
colors. personal bias, emotion, or interpretation. often indicating a slight modification in hue,
2. A subjective color tends to be inventive value, or intensity—for example, yellow with
secondary triad or creative. a greenish tone. 2. The dominating hue, value,
The three secondary colors on the color or intensity; for example, artwork containing
wheel (orange, green, and violet), which are subtractive color mostly red and red-orange will have an overall
equally spaced and form an equilateral triangle. The sensation of color that is produced when tonality of red (the dominant hue), and areas
wavelengths of light are reflected back to the of color might have a dark tonality (indicating
shade (of color) viewer after all other wavelengths have been the dominant value) or a muted tonality (indi-
A color produced by mixing black with a hue, subtracted and/or absorbed. cating the dominant intensity level).
which lowers the value level and decreases the
quantity of light reflected. tertiary color value (color)
Color resulting from the mixture of all three 1. The relative degree of lightness or darkness.
simultaneous contrast primaries, two secondary colors, or comple- 2. The characteristic of color determined by
When two different colors come into direct mentary intermediates. Tertiary colors are its lightness or darkness or the quantity of light
contact, the contrast intensifies the difference characterized by the neutralization of intensity reflected by the color.
between them. and hue. A great variety of tertiary colors,
created by mixing differing amounts of the value pattern
spectrum parent colors, are found on the inner rings The arrangement or organization of values that
The band of individual colors that results when of the color wheel, which lead to complete control compositional movement and create a
a beam of white light is broken into its compo- neutralization. unifying effect throughout a work of art.
nent wavelengths, identifiable as hues.
THE CHARACTERISTICS art, we do not have to rationalize our LIGHT: THE SOURCE
OF COLOR feelings about its color; instead, we OF COLOR
have an immediate emotional reaction
Color, the most universally appreciated to it. Pleasing rhythms and harmonies Color begins with and is derived from
element, appeals to children and adults of color satisfy our aesthetic desires. light, either natural or artificial. Where
instantly. Infants reach out for brightly We like certain combinations of color there is little light, there is little color;
colored objects, and older children and reject others. In representational where the light is strong, color is likely
watch in fascination as yellow mixed art, color identifies objects and creates to be intense. When the light is weak,
with blue magically becomes green. the illusion of space. In nonrepresen- such as at dusk or dawn, it is difficult
People generally find color exciting and tational art, the use of color conveys to distinguish one color from another.
attractive. They may question art for a concept, idea, or emotional experi- Under strong sunlight, as in tropical cli-
many other reasons but rarely object to ence. The study of color is based on mates, colors seem to take on additional
the use of color, provided that it is har- scientific theory—principles that can intensity.
monious in character. In fact, a work of be observed and easily systematized.
art can frequently be appreciated for its In this chapter, we will examine these Every ray of light coming from the
color style alone. basic characteristics of color relation- sun is composed of waves that vibrate
ships to see how they help give form at different speeds. The sensation of
Color is one of the most expressive and meaning to the subject of an art- color is aroused in the mind by the
elements because it affects our emo- ist’s work. way our sense of vision responds to
tions directly. When we view a work of the different wavelengths. This can be
184 C HAPTER 7 Color
7.1 As a beam of light passes through a glass prism, 7.2 The projected additive primary colors—
the rays of light are bent, or refracted, at different angles red, blue (a color named by industry and
according to their wavelengths. The rays of red have scientists that is actually closer to violet), and
the longest wavelengths and are bent the least; those green—create the secondary colors of cyan,
of violet have the shortest wavelengths and have the yellow, and magenta when two are overlapped.
greatest refraction. In this rainbow array of hues, called When all three primaries are combined, white
the spectrum, we see bands of red, orange, yellow, green, light is produced. © Eastman Kodak Company.
blue, blue-violet (or indigo), and violet. © David Parker/Photo
Researchers, Inc.
demonstrated by observing the way a Additive Color are combined, they form the additive
beam of white light passes through a secondaries—magenta, yellow, and cyan.
glass prism and then reflects off a sheet The colors of the spectrum are pure, As seen in figure 7.2, magenta is pro-
of white paper. The rays of light bend, and they represent the greatest inten- duced where red and blue light over-
or refract, as they pass through the sity (brightness) possible. If we could lap; yellow is produced where red and
glass at different angles (according to reverse the process mentioned in the green light overlap; and cyan is pro-
their wavelengths) and then reflect off previous paragraph and recombine all duced where green and blue light over-
the white paper as different colors. We these spectrum colors, we would again lap. In the center of that figure, white
see these colors as individual stripes have white light. When artists or physi- light is created where the red, blue, and
in a narrow band called the spectrum. cists work with rays of colored light, green light rays overlap (magenta, yel-
The colors easily distinguishable in this they are using additive color, and by low, and cyan thereby also overlap)—
band are red, orange, yellow, green, mixing only a select few of the spectrum demonstrating again that white light
blue, blue-violet, and violet (scientists colors, they may produce various other may be created by the presence of all
use the term indigo for the color artists colors of light. Red, blue, and green color wavelengths.
call blue-violet). These colors also blend are known as the additive primaries.
gradually; thus, we can discern sev- These three colors of light are so basic Televisions and computers both
eral intermediate colors between them that they themselves cannot be created use this additive-color mixing pro-
(fig. 7.1). from other mixtures, but when they cess. Most modern TVs and color
monitors consist of small pixel groups
Light: The Source of Color 185
7.3 Color adjustments in computer
design, rocket design. Filmmakers have
always sought to push technological
boundaries. Today, designers on films
can use numerous software programs to
create objects and people digitally, testing
out various looks and coloring before
finalization. © Anders Kjellberg/dogday-design.se.
Courtesy of MAXON (maxon.NET).
that emit red, blue, and green light. at 30 frames per second—although as Other artists, such as James Turrell,
Arranged in nearly imperceptible many as 120 frames may be needed specifically explore the properties and
horizontal and vertical lines, these in high-end video rendering to make characteristics of additive color in their
units can illuminate each color singly the image seem more realistic for com- works (fig. 7.4). These artists explore
or in various combinations to produce puter games and special effects. Nor- the nature of light, often encountering
the sensation of every color possible. mally, our brains can process only strange effects. Combinations of col-
At viewing distance, the eye merges about 75 frames per second; the extra ors, for example, can heighten or even
the glowing pixels to perceive one information is coalesced to make each change the perception of a color. In
complete image (a viewer sees thirty image more complete. Turrell’s work, the color of the sky is
images per second). Numerous tech- influenced by the structure’s continu-
nologies (including the cathode ray Computers are now regularly emp- ously changing ambient lighting. Using
tube, liquid crystal display, plasma loyed as an important tool in additive- both space and the principles of addi-
display, and digital light projection) color mixing. Not only can software tive color, Turrell explores the psycho-
offer innovative methods for transmit- programs allow the artist to create logical and spiritual phenomena that
ting images, but all use additive color color images, many with the illusion of occur when we perceive light.
in their methodology. Some quickly three-dimensional space and scale, but
flash the colored lights to make an they also assist the artist in developing Increasingly, an artist needs to be
image; some use a steady stream of ideas. Computer-generated models let familiar with the additive-color system.
constantly changing lights. In general, the user move about in the image, try- In addition to computer art, it is used
the more frames displayed per second, ing multiple spacing and color relation- in theater, video production, computer
the smoother the movement appears ships. Today, artists and designers for animation, video games, digital bill-
onscreen. The image may seem jumpy films and video games find these pro- boards, slide and multimedia presenta-
at 18 frames per second but smooth grams to be indispensable in their work tions, laser light shows, and landscape
(fig. 7.3). and interior lighting. In each case, art-
186 C HAPTER 7 Color
AB
7.4 James Turrell, The House of Light, Niigata, Japan. Designed with Future Scape Architects. Interior view of traditional tatami room with
Turrell-designed retractable roof. In this Skyspace, Turrell combines principles of architecture, sculpture, lighting, and color to create a meditative
atmosphere. The work is meant to be experienced slowly, quietly, and over time. A square hole in the ceiling frames the ever-changing sky above.
In addition, the interior space is equipped with ambient lighting that further alters the tint of the sky’s color. © View Pictures Ltd/SuperStock, Inc.
ists and technicians work with light ample, appears green to the eye because wavelengths except those of the color
and create color by mixing the light the leaf reflects only the green waves in perceived. When color is experienced
primaries—red, blue, and green. the ray of light; the other wavelengths through reflected light, we are deal-
are absorbed, or subtracted, by the pig- ing with subtractive color rather than
Subtractive Color ments in the leaf. An artist’s pigments actual light rays and additive color.
have this same property and when ap- When an area appears white, all the
Because all the colors are present in a plied to the surface of an object, carry light wavelengths of color are reflected
beam of sunlight (white light), you may the same characteristics. The artist may back to the viewer—none is subtracted
be wondering how certain objects can also modify the surface pigmentation (or absorbed) by the area. However,
appear to be one color or another. Any of an object through the use of dyes, when a color pigment covers the sur-
colored object has certain physical prop- stains, and chemical treatments, such face, only the wavelengths of that color
erties, called pigmentation or color qual- as those applied to sculpture. are reflected back to the viewer—all
ity, that enable it to absorb some color others are subtracted (or absorbed) by
waves and reflect others. The wave- Regardless of how the surface pig- the pigment. As a result, the sensation
lengths that are reflected back to our mentation is applied or altered, the of that specific color is experienced.
eyes allow us to perceive that object as sensation of color is created when
a particular color. A green leaf, for ex- the object’s surface reflects certain If all the pigment colors were to be
wavelengths; the surface absorbs all blended together, they would (in theory)
Light: The Source of Color 187
cancel each other out, and the mixture concerned with the artist’s typical pal- In traditional processes (using pig-
would absorb all wavelengths. In theory, ette of pigments and the color made ments and subtractive color), three colors
the mixture would appear black—no visible by subtraction (reflected light). cannot be created through mixing: red,
color reflected. However, in actual prac- yellow, and blue. These are known as
tice on the palette, the combination of all ARTISTS’ PIGMENTS the primary colors (fig. 7.5). When two
pigment colors results not in black but AND THE TRIADIC or more of these primaries are mixed, in
in dark gray, which hints at some color COLOR SYSTEM equal or unequal amounts, they can pro-
presence but feels “muddy.” This occurs duce all of the possible colors.
because adulterants and imperfections As previously mentioned, the spectrum
in the pigments, inks, and dyes make it contains red, orange, yellow, green, Mixing any two primaries in more
impossible for the surface to absorb all blue, blue-violet, and violet, with hun- or less equal proportions produces a
wavelengths. As a result, the area may dreds of subtle color variations. This secondary color: red and yellow result
reflect a mixture of various colors and/ range of color is available in pigments in orange; yellow and blue create green;
or a certain amount of white. as well. Beginning artists are likely to and blue and red produce violet (see
use only a few simple, pure colors. They fig. 7.5).
The theory of subtractive color, may not realize that simple colors can
then, helps explain how we perceive be varied or that mixing them can create Intermediate colors are mixtures
most colored objects and images; the an even wider range of color. of a primary color with a neighboring
colors we see are reflected wavelengths, secondary color. Combining yellow and
as all others have been absorbed. The green, for example, will create the inter-
following sections, therefore, will be mediate color yellow-green (fig. 7.6).
Because a change in the proportion of
Yellow
Yellow-orange Yellow-green
Orange Green
Red-orange Blue-green
Red Blue
Red-violet Blue-violet
Violet 7.6 Intermediate colors. Intermediate colors are created by
7.5 Primary and secondary colors. A primary triad is shown by mixing a primary with a neighboring secondary color (see fig. 7.5).
solid lines. When the yellow, red, and blue of the primary triad are As illustrated here, intermediate colors form two intermediate triads.
properly mixed together, the resulting color is a neutralized gray. A When the colors of an intermediate triad are mixed together in
secondary triad is connected by dotted lines. When secondary colors appropriate proportions, the resulting color is usually a neutralized
are also properly mixed together, the resulting color is gray. gray. Unbalanced mixtures produce tertiary colors, which are found in
the center rings of figure 7.7.
188 C HAPTER 7 Color
primary or secondary color used will 7.7 The outermost ring of the color wheel includes the primary, secondary, and
change the resultant color, many sub- intermediate colors at their greatest intensity (brightness); only twelve steps are shown
tle variations are possible; the yellow- here, although the number of possible hues is actually infinite. The inner rings contain
green can be made to lean more toward the tertiary colors, which result from the mixture of one primary with its complement.
yellow or more toward green. As each color progresses from the outermost ring toward the center of the wheel
(and toward its complement), it loses intensity and becomes more neutralized (grayed).
If we study the theoretical progres- Complete neutralization occurs in the center circle. Only two steps are shown between
sion of mixed color from yellow to the outermost ring and complete neutralization, but the number of possible steps is
yellow-green to green and so on, we actually infinite.
discover a natural order that can be
presented as a color wheel (fig. 7.7). system—is the combination of the other of the primary triad (blue) will be
Our ability to differentiate subtle varia- two colors in its triad. For example, the orange’s complement.
tion allows us to see a new color at each complement of red (a primary color) is
position. Note that the primaries, sec- green—an equal-parts mixture of the When a color is mixed with its
ondaries, and intermediates are found remaining points in the primary triad complement, it becomes neutralized
on the outermost ring, where the hues (in this case, yellow and blue). Thus, (grayed), and a tertiary color is pro-
are at spectrum intensity. we see that a color and its complement duced. Tertiary colors are also created
are made up of the three triadic colors. by mixing any two secondary colors
Although the number of possible Another example: The complement of or by combining non-analogous inter-
colors is actually infinite, we generally yellow is violet—a mixture of blue and mediate colors. In practical terms, this
recognize the wheel (or its outermost red. The complement of any secondary involves the intermixing of all three
ring) as having twelve colors, which color may be found by knowing what primaries in varying proportions and
can be divided and organized into primaries created that secondary; for creates the browns, olives, maroons,
color triads. This system of organiza- example, orange is created from red and so on found on the inner rings of
tion is known as the triadic color system. and yellow, so the remaining member the color wheel (see fig. 7.7). Between
The three primary colors are spaced the initial color in the outermost ring
equally apart on the wheel, with yel-
low usually on the top because it is
lightest in value. These colors form an
equilateral triangle called a primary
triad (see fig. 7.5). The three secondary
colors are placed between the prima-
ries from which they are mixed; evenly
spaced, they create a secondary triad
composed of orange, green, and violet
(see fig. 7.5). Intermediate colors placed
between each primary and second-
ary color create equally spaced units
known as intermediate triads (see fig.
7.6). The placement of all the colors
results in the twelve-step color wheel.
As we move around the color
wheel, there is a change in the wave-
lengths of the light rays that produce
the colors. The closer together colors
appear on the color wheel, the closer
their relationships are; the farther
apart, the more contrasting in character
they are. The colors directly opposite
each other afford the greatest contrast
and are known as complementary
colors (see fig. 7.17). The complement
of any color—based on the triadic
Ar tists’ Pigments and the Triadic Color System 189
The words you are searching are inside this book. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking here.
Home
Explore
Art Fundamentals Theory and Practice, 12th Edition by Otto G. Ocvirk, Robert Stinson, Philip R. Wigg, Robert O. Bone, David L. Cayton
View in Fullscreen
Art Fundamentals Theory and Practice, 12th Edition by Otto G. Ocvirk, Robert Stinson, Philip R. Wigg, Robert O. Bone, David L. Cayton
Discover the best professional documents and content resources in AnyFlip Document Base.
Search