The Development of Sugarcane Biocomposite for Household Product Design Application

2.1.5 The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Towards of Manufacturing Process

The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) framework for household product design
application it had an opportunity in the manufacturing process and researcher study by
Cordella & Hidalgo (2016), they understand a general manually LCA can be
screening by adding all variable test on experiment towards for conclusion
manufacturing process.

Luglietti, Rosa, Terzi, & Taisch (2016), stated: “the variable in DfS it gives
chance for product application as high value evaluated on LCA experiment process
and moreover, it gave a direction for researcher test in a natural composite”
(Luglietti et al., 2016).

The example study by J. Kurilova-Palisaitiene et al,. (2015), they use this
framework as to produce a material in the manufacturing processes such as
manufacturing product application, automotive parts and machine component parts for
product design. The process had been drawn by them toward the designs which
increase the product performance in the mass manufacturing process.

These believe the LCA framework can be evaluated based experimental in
Slow Design flow chart. Additionally, the researcher needs to study on the potential of
BP biocomposite material from yellow cane can be developing through manufacturing
household craft product design application and enable maximise the potential of the
manufacturing process.

The requirement for the Slow Design experiment in LCA framework study by
C.-H. Ko & Chung (2014) are identifying the potential waste material component,
technique or concept of the manufacturing process, experiment and test in detailing
through the potential of the material, see figure 2.1.5.1. It consists of the identity of
waste, applies lean production, elaborates preliminary design process, elaborates basic
design process, elaborates detailed design process and validates feasibility.

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Figure 2.1.5.1: A Slow Design Flowchart for Biocomposite Material, (C.-H. Ko & Chung,
2014)

Next, Suter, Steubing, & Hellweg (2016) had studied on the potential of waste
biocomposite material by using Material Flow Analysis (MFA) and along with this
LCA framework, the researcher can arrange their time, through managing their
schedule for DfS and DfE. She had stated, “MFA is similar to material flow process
via the detailed LCA framework process and it helps the designer in planning their
projects with minimal time used” (Suter et al., 2016).

A researcher from González-García, Iribarren, Susmozas, Dufour, & Murphy
(2012), the manufacturing process for BP waste biocomposite household product craft
application research allow the use of existing manufacturing process before working
with experiment and it is the starting point for the development of manufacturing
process for mass production.

These are based on LCA framework potentially used by researchers planning
their process for mass production BP biocomposite craft household product
application from yellow cane and it allows the process to become more systematic
while experimenting on samples.

In Slow Design experiment study by Fakhredin, Bakker, Geraedts, & Huisman
(2013), researcher variety of chemical binder in manufacturing BP biocomposite craft
household product design application from waste component “saccharum
officinarum” (yellow cane). Tan, Ching, Poh, Abdullah, & Gan, (2015), researchers
that are using LCA framework, enable to use a chemical solution such as “Polyvinyl
Alcohol” (PVA) as a bonding agent in enhancing BP biocomposite strength household
product design application.

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Few examples reviewed on PVA study by Rosane Aparecida Gomes
Battistelle, Barbara Stolte Bezerra, Ivaldo De Domenico Valarelli (2015), they made
flat platform BP biocomposite board and applied PVA using glue mixer machine.

Belini, Ugo Leandro, Ugo Leandro Bellini, Ângela do Valle and Poliana Dias
de Moraes (2015), BP biocomposite, gives researcher chance to learn on operating
several machines such as planar mixer machine, hand lay-up technic and hot press or
cool press. Through these manufacturing process and machine control, it can improve
the quality of the manufacturing process through the Slow Design experiment LCA
framework.

Slow Design Experiment or Design for Experiment (DoE) study by H, Nayak,
S, P, & Vernekar (2015), claims “ a natural biocomposite via analysing material
properties is to study the maximum capacity pressing load via product test, thus it
gives good quality for product user”(H et al., 2015).

Suggested by Rahimi et al., (2016), in the experiment via slow design
experiment, several tests can be added in flowchart experiment for natural
biocomposite and other example experiments are water absorption test (WA), and flex
test (FT).

The two scholars believe these experiments for BP biocomposite for craft
household product design application are suitable to use via analysing the strength of
product tested and it gives a favourable result for this material.

Through these properties and experimental study on Slow Design by Piccinno
et al., (2016), the raw material collection such as BP biocomposite is important for the
researcher to analyse, evaluate and record, based on the test. According to his paper,
“a biocomposite material can be evaluated through properties strength with a specific
experiment to analyse the durability of product application and these require some
calculation formula” (Piccinno et al., 2016).

The researcher can potentially record the quality of BP biocomposite through
Slow Design experiment and enhance LCA framework for mass production for
household product design application, see figure 2.1.5.2.

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Figure 2.1.5.2: A DoE Framework of Biocomposite Wood Processing Manufacturing
Experiment Task, (Chompu-inwai et al., 2015)

The conclusions through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are in sync with the
Slow Design experiment and it is part of the manufacturing process household product
design application. Furthermore, after research are done in D&B, DfS and DfE the
next step is LCA framework that requires the researcher to experiment and test on
properties BP biocomposite as potential material, see figure 2.1.5.3.

Figure 2.1.5.3: Example of Ceramic Based on Mould Production using Low technology
Manufacturing, (Writer, 2015)

2.1.6 The End of Life Cycle (EoF) for Mass Manufacturing Product Design
Production towards Gaining Economy Impact

Zhu, Romain, & Williams (2016), had used environmental source towards
biocomposite low technology mass production for production and had used LCA
framework towards of End of Life (EoF) framework. This framework also is agreed
by Bhamu & Singh Sangwan, 2014 and they have studied on Lean Manufacturing
Process (LMP) as highly demanding towards increased economic impact.

EoF framework by Dangelico & Pujari (2010) uses it for low technology
development to improve the manufacturing of natural biocomposite material process
by combining LCA, DfE, and DfS towards Cradle to Cradle craft household product
design application from Bagasse and Pith (BP) biocomposite.

The other research claimed, “as a design practitioner, the D&B, DfS, DfE,
LCA, and EoF are the direction of Cradle to Cradle via slow design experiment and it
can be enhanced for lean manufacturing process” (Bhamu & Singh Sangwan, 2014).
Researches from Mohr, Somers, Swartz, & Vanthournout (2012), “to achieve via EoF

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for mass manufacturing production, researcher are allowed to end this project by
promoting and selling this mass production to maximise the economic impact” (Mohr
et al., 2012).

Kohtala (2015), believe in the development of mass production from natural
biocomposite example and she had agreed on developing hot air technology example
Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP). These scholars believe mass manufacturing
process such as BP biocomposite sugarcane can be used in mass production for
product and automotive component. Thus, this can improve the economic impact on
the development of low technology, for example, HAMP.

Next, the other review by Harbert, 2016, a low technology development via
LCA, DfS, and DfE in Cradle to Cradle had potential in EoF as the end of production
for gaining business economic impact. Based on in his review, mass manufacturing
had the potential to elevate economic impact via development technology and this can
cut cost in the manufacturing process.

The other research by Lewandowski (2016), manufacturing from the disposal
of raw material BP biocomposite for mass manufacturing household product design
application, had a best practice for the designer and thus, can improve profitability
through customer demand, see figure 2.1.6.1.

Figure 2.1.6.1: The Productivity Value Chain Supply Toward of Sustainable for Mass
Manufacturing Sector, (Jang, Park, Roh, & Han, 2015)

These scholars believe D&B is a development for the manufacturing process
can enhance economic, social and environmental impact through the EoF framework.
Furthermore, it stated, “the production can improve economic impact via Cradle to
Cradle for the customer to purchase, and furthermore it can increase local market
value in EoF, low technology development via DfS” (Korody, 2016).

Thus, a manufacturing example on manufacturing from BP biocomposite had
potential in designing a craft household product design application and this can
increase customer interest to purchase it.

These manufacturing waste materials had the potential to be used in increasing
profitability and marketability. Some example research by Johansson & Thelander

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(2009); Lähtinen, Alina Samaniego Vivanco, & Toppinen (2014), had studied on
branding for product’s low development technology and thus had the potential for a
stakeholder to buy the low development technology.

Finally, a conceptual framework for mass manufacturing BP biocomposite,
have the potential for Cradle to Cradle and low technology development such as
HAMP via D&B, DfS, DfE, LCA, have potential to gain economic profitability and
marketability.

2.1.7 The Overall Working for Design Mass Manufacturing Process

Mass manufacturing is a work progression on the framework and is a
combination of research methodology and design manufacturing process. This
research study by van Turnhout et al., (2014), understood designer having a
manufacturing development process background are equipped with three disciplinary
examples that are, Object of study “Ontological”, knowledge of production
“Epistemological”, and value of knowledge “Axiological”.

Review by Molina-Azorin (2012), describes a conceptual framework that
contributes to the experimental project via Lean Manufacturing Process (LMP) in Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA), are called as Mixed Methodology approach, see figure
2.1.7.1. According to her “researcher who seeks a different approach such as
experimenting design and test, they can fit a mixed methodology as a conceptual
framework by reading several variable articles” (Molina-Azorin, 2012).

Figure 2.1.7.1: A Conceptual Framework for Experimental Design Mass Manufacturing
Process, (van Turnhout et al., 2014)

The Slow Design experiment is based on collecting evidence in the
manufacturing process such as Design and Build (D&B), DfS Design for Sustainable
(DfS), Design for Environment (DfE), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and End of Life
(EoF) to improve this research methodology. Moreover, Chou (2014), this research

28

methodology can be integrated with the mass manufacturing process and several
experimental tasks as a decision tool to claim the quality craft household product
design application using low technology manufacturing process.

To account this research methodology study by van Gemert-Pijnen et al.,
(2011), using mass manufacturing process several engineering experiments have to be
done by researcher and manufacturer to study on how far the potential of waste
“saccharum officinarum” (yellow cane) waste raw material can be cooped together
with low technology.

The other research by Azorín & Cameron (2010), said “research framework is
a development with design low technology and crossing with analysis of experiment
by providing solid data collection as a proof potential material” (Azorín & Cameron,
2010).

With these, the researcher allows the production of several samples, or dummy
as output result to provide a solid database on experiment and task from
manufacturing process example by using HAMP. Moreover, based on Ted J. Kesik,
Ph.D., & P.Eng., (2016), the development of technique by providing several samples
for the test in applied science gives a good performance on variables towards
hypothesis in manufacturing household product design application.

The experimental design research based on the previous review by Roy (2000),
“the strategies may involve manufacturing process to provide a new development or
improvement on an existing pattern by providing better service and it is essential for
them to attempt manufacturing” (R. Roy, 2000). Meanwhile, other research claims,
“By upgrading in manufacturing process via development in processing, the designer
can extend further up with a simple design or prototype to task the material and low
technology or technique” (Starkey, Toh, & Miller, 2016; Yilmaz, Daly, Seifert, &
Gonzalez, 2016).

Both of these statement, reported by Rantanen & Khinast (2015), “some of
analytical instrument and tools provided in laboratory scale can help designers to
interpolate the data collection based on flow chart task by performing an experiment
and give it an overview, evidence by supporting their project” (Rantanen & Khinast,
2015).

Based on these three scholars, they had used their designs for mass
manufacturing process based on data collection and a proof finding based on
experiment task. Thus this believes they also had improved development based on

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existing low technology, technique or another sort of application by providing a good
solid data collection and boost up the innovation throughout development in craft
design household product application material processing.

Sangshetti, Deshpande, Zaheer, Shinde, & Arote (2017), had used LCA with a
combination of D&B, DfS, and DfE, as the attribution for the mass manufacturing
process. Next, Stelzer, Wanner, & Schäpke (2015), also supported with the profiling
experiment in the laboratory to acquire evidence of material manufacturing for
product craft household product design application via Slow Design experiment.

They suggest, “the development in the experiment can stop certain degree in
the area of the product manufacturing process as attributed by gathering results or
samples and it is a challenge of collecting in slow design experiment via LCA
evidence according to the task conceptual framework” (Murat Aydin, 2015). Abbey,
(2015), also agree with this experiment as the collected data needs validation through
test or experiment.

Additionally, researchers who attend these two situations such as Verification
and Validation (VV) can produce one or more outcomes via testing on BP
biocomposite craft household product design application. These scholars believe
researchers who attended experiment and test in product manufacturing related to the
design process, by performing a lab scale test via product testing and laboratory
experiment, see figure 2.1.7.2.

Figure 2.1.7.2: The Input Of Conceptual Research Framework via Output and Task In Lab
Scale Experiment, cited Penfield et al., 2014, (Murat Aydin, 2015)

Aydin (2015), studied on LCA framework for a material manufacturing
process for household product design application. According to him, “the additional
mass product manufacturing process through the development process is enhancing in
production and some material had a limitation due to insufficient properties” (Murat
Aydin, 2015). This mass manufacturing process from waste material in product
application studied Japanese research by Watabe (2008).

Through his book, Lean Manufacturing Process (LMP) in Japan he had
detailed on how the work progress works out from material and product is developed

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in large scale factory as the end of EoF for production, that lead up with consumer or
customer. Through this manufacturing process, the practitioner can follow up with this
manufacturing process through development on HAMP such as creating a BP
biocomposite household product design application.

As the end of this subtopic, a conceptual framework for a designer can be
detailed up in the flow chart of the manufacturing process for producing Bagasse and
Pith (BP) biocomposite craft household product design application and takes up with
the experiment to test the material properties strength before they end with the user.
Therefore the combination of D&B, DfS, DfE, LCA, and EoF are equipment for
designers to detail the manufacturing process flow chart and experiment by collecting
solid data.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS DESIGN WITH SIMILARITY BETWEEN
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AND APPLIED SCIENCE METHOD
TOWARDS OF PRODUCT DESIGN USING NATURAL
BIOCOMPOSITE

This overview is based on a previous literature review on example potential
use in product design application towards manufacturing process on BP biocomposite
and other natural fibres. Some of the potential users, in BP biocomposite through
design process have used in car design, in biomedical and bioengineering as purposed
to help in a sector towards of commercialisation.

Next, the researcher has cited several papers on the technique specialization
for product design application and towards of use these both fibres are still lacking
because it focused on the flat board mass production. Besides this designing in
production on flat board, besides, other potential users on BP biocomposite have used
is small production design. Towards designing as a potential product design
application, some example had used on BP fibre as a product daily life such as
disposal cup and food packaging.

Beyond on this review, the technique towards of manufacturing process on BP
biocomposite researcher have read and found general technique use is industries. They
use high technology examples hot press and injection moulding as their batch mark
toward mass production. Through this overview, a researcher has referred some of the

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good example reviews on a similar technique used via in flow chart process on
designing and fabricates BP biocomposite.

Through on the fabrication technique, each on the flow of previous research
towards designing and fabricates as the potential of the product design application.
The researcher has cited on a methodology based on technical and Slow Design
experiment. This is why each flow work is Slow Design experiment such as the
weight of gram used formula, moisture content, designing HAMP, fabricate on BP
biocomposite and record the entire test through applied science.

As a final of this basic method on Slow Design experiment through on
previous researcher papers and to end of this workflow as a method of the
manufacturing process. The researcher has cited some example of other previous
reviewers that claim through the testing and result in applied science. Thus, the
designer can work on cited in previous researcher paper based on the result to claimed
it as potential as a potential product design application.

2.2.1 The Previous Product Design Application use Natural Biocomposite as a
Design Process

Previous designers by Bharath & Basavarajappa, (2016); Gurunathan,
Mohanty, & Nayak, (2015) have studied on the product design application use natural
biocomposite as a design process and it used as manufacturing transport design
application. Besides, they review on previous example natural biocomposite are
pineapple fibre, jute fibre, ramie fibre and sisal fibre.

Some of the other researchers in their paper written by Cheung, Ho, Lau,
Cardona, & Hui, (2009); Ramakrishna, Mayer, Wintermantel, & Leong, (2001) have
review on design process based on using waste wood and waste sawdust as the main
material in designing for automotive interior, bioengineering and biomedical
application.

Besides, they used these BP natural fibres and turned it into car soundproof
door panel, bone fracture, and bones joint and this is because this natural waste
materials help to reduce shock or noise outside from the outside. Babu, (2018) had a
similar review on manufacturing on transport design application and through on his

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review, the studies on the potential of natural fibre for cars component see figure
2.2.1.1.

Figure 2.2.1.1: Examples of Bagasse and Pith (BP) Biocomposite Use for Car Interior, (Babu,
2018)

Next, another researcher agrees by Partanen, (2017) also study product design
application by designing toys using injection moulding and it used waste plastic
natural fibre into the product. Furthermore, he used the existing mould in inject it to
forming a toys component.

Towards of this manufacturing process, he suggested “a waste material that
has been disposed of capable use as the material manufacturing process and it
enables to reduce on using bins”, (Partanen, 2017). However, some of the researchers
are not agreed from Perry et al., (2012), that these research groups have studied the
conceptual framework from the material manufacturing process and design process.
According to them, “practitioner able to used waste material from a green plant or
even it comes from the “mono-polymer” and besides, the design process has a
material process”, (Perry et al., 2012).

S Siti Suhaily, Khalil, Nadirah, & Jawaid, (2013), they had understood cited
from Vogtländer, van der Lugt, & Brezet, (2010), these researchers agree that the
manufacturing process and design process had the different thinking but, both of these
thinking need to study on material manufacturing process.

Other researchers besides from these group by Luz, Caldeira-Pires, & Ferrão,
(2010), understood that waste natural fibre such as BP biocomposite able to
manufacturing particle board. After all, when it looked the previous study from
Chockalingam, (2014), he had experimented on this natural BP biocomposite and the
potential are body panels, headliner panel, boot lining, rear storage shelf or panel,
door panels and spare tyre cover for transport design application.

Another writer from de Barros Filho, Mendes, Novack, Aprelini, & Botaro,
(2011); Mendes, Mendes, Oliveira, & Freire, (2014) believes, this natural fibre such as

33

BP it is practice based on manufacturing example particle board, chipboard, soft board
or pin board as the best example for mass manufacturing process.

In term of use in product design application for household, a product still lacks
and yet, it is BP has other potential users in enhancing properties strength.
Additionally, review from these researchers by Dinwoodie, (2000); Drummond &
Drummond, (1996) “Bagasse and Pith (BP) capable used in manufacturing for
particle board by mixing with the other component for example kenaf, jute, ramie,
sisal, paddy, bamboo or placing wire mesh in improving these fibers strength”,
(Dinwoodie, 2000).

From the statement above, in product design application using natural
biocomposite as the main material for design process on potential used, researchers by
Ehrenfeld, (2000); Gilbert, Boulter, & Elmer, (2000) both of these researchers are
arguing in the scope of the material manufacturing process. Moreover, he has stated,
“using natural biocomposite that comes from the natural source such as BP
biocomposite able developed it and absorbed it into a design process”, (Gilbert et al.,
2000).

Valkenburg & Dorst, (1998), this previous reviewer from their paper said “a
natural source from green plant or fibre that had been crushed or disposed can
entertain it to a design process and besides, it may become more detail cause of it is
related to science and design” (Valkenburg & Dorst, 1998).

Additionally, some of the potential product design based on Bagasse and Pith
(BP) as application review in Journal Progress in Polymer Science writes from
Satyanarayana, Arizaga, & Wypych, (2009) examples, disposal cups, biodegradable
disposal bags, pen with cover pens, mini shaver for men or women tools kit and
biodegradable food packaging, see figure 2.2.1.2.

Figure 2.2.1.2: Example of Bagasse and Pith Biocomposite Product, a) Disposal Cups, b)
Biodegradable Disposal Bags, c) Pen With Cover Pens, d) Mini Shaver for Men or Women

Tools Kit and e) Biodegradable Food Packaging, (Satyanarayana, Arizaga, & Wypych,
2009b)

In hence, this natural fibre such as BP biocomposite can enter it into a scope of
design process towards of scientific in combining between science and design.

34

Therefore, upon these reviews understand this waste natural biocomposite had
potentially used in transport design application or product design application and
meanwhile, in product design are still lack to form it into a design process based using
the existing technology.

Secondly, (Wu, 2003) this researchers, they have an experiment on
manufacturing and designing BP biocomposite, examples laminated wood floor and
medium density board. Additionally, by referring to this researchers Cross, (2001); R.
Muthuraj, (2015) to their basic based on the industrial design drawing or design
process towards of manufacturing process using waste natural fibre as the main
material for production.

Beside this practitioner or designer by Cross, (2001); Johnson, (2014) agree, as
a practitioner can play a part as a material researcher or experiment between design
and material process. Unfortunate, based on this research review Fairbairn et al.,
(2010) it needs to be tasked on using similar experiment on applied science and as a
result based on the capability material, the designer can do design.

Some example from this researcher from Mehmood et al., (2010), understand
that the waste material such as BP fibre, barley, maize, rye, oat, saw dust fibre,
bamboo, jute, ramie, sisal and palm oil are dominant use in a product design
application. The example used for these materials is office paper, corrugated board,
cardboard and cartons. These attribute products are very popular used in product
design application and besides, Bagasse and Pith (BP), it also focuses on the
particleboard, soft board and pin board.

Another capability of this waste material study by Ferdous & Hossain, (2017);
S. B. Roy, Shit, Gupta, & Shukla, (2014) have improved designing using
biocomposite on transport design application and construction application.
Furthermore, they had classified into product construction based on BP examples
window frame, panels, decking, railing system, and fencing.

Unfortunately, based on these researchers from Majeed et al., (2013) has not
agreed, and the potential of BP can be developed into a household product design
application. Through their research, they used another composite as example sugar
palm, and as for bagasse on their review; it has potential use in manufacturing or
designing example hanging fibres flowerpots and coaster.

Another potential, used of BP biocomposite have experiment and
manufacturing by Rashid, Leman, Jawaid, Ishak, & Al-Oqla, (2017). Based on this

35

research experiment they have design and manufacturing a brake pad for transport
design application. Besides, on this manufacturing process, they classified this design
is a product design application and it is because it came from a small and compact
design, see figure 2.2.1.3.

Figure 2.2.1.3: Example of BP biocomposite use to design Break Pad for Car, (Rashid et al.,
2017)

Through reviewers, on this manufacturing process and design process for BP
biocomposite, it is still lack used in a product design application. Furthermore, the
used of BP biocomposite are very widely used towards in transport application and in
product design application are still lacking.

This is because, most branded cars examples Toyota, Audi, and Mercedes
Bens are demanding using BP as sound absorption in car manufacturing industries. It
is true, in identifying based on the term of using this natural fibre, as product
application is lack of focus on household product design application or component
parts in toys application.

2.2.2 The Similarity between Design Process and Material Manufacturing
Process

In the design process based on this reviewer by Dorst & Cross, (2001); Hauser,
(1980) have understood on regarding on workflow as a designer. Example, it started
with idea generation, idea development, mock-up ideation, mock-up development,
prototype, and final model.

Besides this design process, V. Kumar, (2013, p. 3-7) through his title book
101 Design Methods A Structured Approach for Driving Design Innovation in Your
Organization. Some of his research methods are applying on the four-core principle of
successful Innovation and it is studied on applying tools for development on the
manufacturing process for practitioner or manufacturer.

Another book from Value-Based Innovation Management: Innovating by What
We Care About, has also explained in innovation in process, products, services,

36

business models, and values-based network by L. Florian & H. B. Freund (2017, p.
87-159). Additionally, based on their understanding, “in turning into a manufacturing
process, is to identify the material source that enables to reduced cost or increasing
reactivity with respond toward of design process”, (L. Florian & H. B. Freund, 2017).

In their research approaches, have cited Frank, (2005) it is search on the basic
attribute for designer and manufacturer. Furthermore, he claims researcher need to
select one focusing, examples orientation on growth or quality in developed on the
manufacturing process, as strategies toward on value-added product design
application.

In general, industrial design able to combine design process, technical line and
manufacturing process, besides, it is important for them such as a group of designer
induct with development project as a new skill.

In another perspective on the applied science research, have a different view
by Funtowicz & Ravetz & Jerome R., (1993); M. T. Blanche, M. J. T. Blanche, Kevin
Durrheim & Desmond Painter, (2007, p. 1-112). Furthermore, they are a focus on
experiment and test as the result that concludes toward of logic answer with reason.

Besides, these researchers have studied basic skills in applied science towards
in manufacturing process and preparation for the material prototype. Moreover, M. T.
Blanche & M. J. T. Blanche, (2007a, p. 391-538), in applied science practice
examples, a collection of journal or books, identifying bonding, raw material, block
size, experiment, testing and example potential product application as an indicator of
the manufacturing process.

But, based on the experimental side it supported by this researcher Chinn &
Brewer, (1993; Kothari, (2004, p. 1-9) applied science is towards of practice-based.
Moreover, it needs to have to select either it is in manual technique or machine used to
receive a single block of material using such as Hot Air Moulding template (HAMP).

Unfortunately, these researchers do not agree from Cummings & Kiesler,
(2005); Hara, Solomon, Kim, & Sonnenwald, (2003), this is because it is important for
both of this collaboration can merge together alongside between industrial design and
material science.

As it merges together, review from Bozeman & Corley, (2004); Melin, (2000)
agrees both attributes can be a merger between science and social science as a practice
based on the manufacturing process. These researchers claim, “Designer can

37

collaborate with science and technology researcher as to receive the exact the
potential result of the material used for design process”, (Bozeman & Corley, 2004).

From above these four researchers, understand, practitioner or manufacturer
whoever plays the role of multidisciplinary study and they can develop from waste
material into a design based. This is true from this researcher statement “in the design
process it has a material study and manufacturing process as part of development
study through industrial design alongside with applied science”, (Hara et al., 2003).
Finally, as the development of manufacturing process towards using BP, as main
waste material and it enables for this material into a design process.

Next reviewers from J. Bogens, (2009) from Stanford University collaborate
with by Metaphysic Research Lab and a similar paper from the previous researcher by
Rocha, (2017, p. 927-939), through this researcher in Journal of Trends Psycho. Both
of them have used skinner and Feyerabend theory as the best example of an
observation test based on an experiment in applied science.

Both of these theories can merge between observation and experiment into
one, and it is done research from Peffers, Tuunanen, Rothenberger, & Chatterjee,
(2007), have studied on Slow Design as the experiment towards of development of
manufacturing process.

According to these researchers, “Slow Design experiment or what it called it
as design science research methodology have six indicators that meet the requirement
based on the hypothesis”, (Peffers et al., 2007). Some example has used the same
experiment as through in scientific based that meet the requirement for Slow Design
study by Academy, (2015), see table 2.2.2.1.

Table 2.2.2.1:
A Table of Guideline for Slow Design through Scientific Method

Slow Design Through Scientific Method
1) Make Observation
2) Ask Question
3) Form a Hypothesis or Testable Explanation
4) Make Prediction Based on Hypothesis
5) Test the Prediction
6) Literate use the Results to Make New Hypotheses or Prediction
Note: A flow of slow design through the scientific method from the scientific method how the scientific method is
used to test a hypothesis, (K. Academy, 2015, p. 1-6)

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Next, a from Journal of Organizational Studies by Denyer, Tranfield, & van
Aken, (2008, p. 393-413) and presented at Proceedings of the 2012 ACM annual
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI '12, by Gaver, (2012).
Both of these researchers have a similar study on perspective towards design process
and manufacturing process, additionally, both of them have a review on the
multidisciplinary study, and it is a combination of science as part of the manufacturing
process. These six attributes, research from Peffers et al., (2007) written down through
his paper, examples problem identification and motivation, the definition of
objectives, design and development, demonstration, evaluation and communication.

Through this book of Studies on Science and the Innovation Process
researchers Kline & Rosenberg, (2009, p. 173-203), according this search “in
development of manufacturing process based on using existing technology, and it is
part of development for technical line to meet it their potential market value ”, Kline
& Rosenberg, (2009).

it also supported the other review from previous researchers Pahl & Beitz,
(1996) the method for the technical process towards in designing such as HAMP and
it needs to have six attributes which it leads in a development manufacturing process,
see table 2.2.2.2. It consists of such as Define the goals by formulating the overall
goal, Clarify the boundary condition by defining the initial and marginal constraints,
dispel prejudice to ensure the widest ranging possible search the solution, search for
variants, that finds a number of possible solution, evaluate based on the goals and
requirements and make decision.

Table 2.2.2.2:
Basic Guideline for Working in Technical Line

General Working Methodology for Innovation Technical Line
1) Define the goals by formulating the overall goal, the individual sub goals and their

importance. This ensures the motivation to solve the task and supported insight
problem
2) Clarify the boundary condition by defining the initial and marginal constraints
3) Dispel prejudice to ensure the most wide-ranging possible search the solution and to
avoid logical error
4) Search for variants, that finds a number of possible solution or combination of solution
from which the best can be selected
5) Evaluate based on the goals and requirements
6) Make a decision. This is facilitated by an objective evaluation. Without a decision,
there can be no progress
Note: General Working Methodology for Innovation Technical Line Based in Book of, A Engineering Design: A
Systematic Approach, (Pahl & Beitz, 1996, p. 54-60).

39

Top of these statement describing by these researchers, it is supported from
Levy, Schindel, & Kruth, (2003) that the art is science and state of the art it is part of
the area in the multidisciplinary study. Through on this researcher from Baines et al.,
(2007) had designed a flow chart process for multidisciplinary study as the other Slow
Design experiment. Additionally, as a preliminary study through manufacturing
process consists of the conceptual framework, methodologies, tools, or experiment,
potential and final with a report as to record evidence.

Through these elements, of this scope have similarly used in work of industrial
design and material manufacturing process from previous researchers Vandermerwe
& Rada, (1988). Besides, these researchers Manzini & Vezzoli, (2003) agree on a
multidisciplinary study on product design application and material manufacturing
process as part of the curriculum design material experiment.

Finally, it enables for this manufacturing process and design in industrial
design by referring to the conceptual framework through Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA). This allowed for the methodology and technical approaches capable of pattern
into a good for the development of product design application.

2.2.3 Basic Method and Experiment in the Manufacturing Process on Natural
Biocomposite as a Design Process

The basic experiment through applied science on the material manufacturing
process and material testing for natural biocomposite have done research by Douglas
C. Montgomery, (1994); Krauth, (2000). The other review from Ageorges, Ye, &
Hou, (2001); K.G. Satyanarayana, B.C. Pai, K.Sukumaran & S.G.K.Pillai (1990), they
claimed hand lay-up technic, cool press, hot press and injection moulding is the
method on processing for natural biocomposite.

Besides, this previous researcher agrees Cooper, (1982) had stated “method is
one of the technique is related with using tools either in laboratory equipment or the
manual technique is a process, but both these method able to apply as a fabrication
for biocomposite”, (Cooper, 1982).

In perspective of the method in manufacturing process study by Geels, (2002);
Yıldızhan, Çalık, Özcanlı, & Serin, (2018), and this review have arrangement
components that related on the fabrication of natural biocomposite. It is started with

40

the collection of raw material either dry or wet, treatment, drying, blended or crushed,
packaging, fabricates, and biocomposite block.

These search supported from previous Ageorges et al., (2001), agree this
arrangement it is a basic method for preparation from fresh waste material to receive a
natural biocomposite such as Bagasse and Pith (BP) from sugarcane.

Some example researchers Nurul Fazita et al., (2016) have arranged basic
preparation of manufacturing Bagasse biocomposite board that allowed this fresh
material by turning into a biocomposite, and it used the technique such as blend in
turned into a particle size. Next, these researchers by Chockalingam, (2014) and he
have an arrangement of some good example for manufacturing natural biocomposite
from Bagasse biocomposite, see figure 2.2.3.1.

Figure 2.2.3.1: Example for Manufacturing Natural Biocomposite from Bagasse
Biocomposite, (Chockalingam, 2014)

The other example reviewer from Resources Conservation and Recycling
(Resour Conservancy) by Habib Al Razi, (2016) and she have to classify each of these
process based on the method applied is a Slow Design and it is towards of
manufacturing process for the practitioner.

Back then researcher a reviewer by Jiang, (2015), “researcher or
manufacturer by designing a flow chart process or methodology as fabricate example
as BP biocomposite able to add the other or use the existing technique use such as
hand lay-up technic”, (Jiang, 2015a). Besides, this researcher from Wilson &
Rigakos, (2016), agree with her opinion this is because the development of
manufacturing process and through each of Slow Design experiment it can arrange on
the flow chart process.

This researcher agrees, Committee for the Decadal Survey on Biological &
Physical Sciences in Space et al., (2011). These organisation claimed “Slow Design
experiment or each stage of the method used in the experiment on the flow chart of the
process are related can conduct with the machine or in a manual way”, (Committee

41

for the Decadal Survey on Biological & Physical Sciences in Space et al., 2011). This
understands most commonly through manufacturing process it needs, to start with raw
material and it in either “mono-polymer”, “copolymer”, solid, compound, or waste
material.

These raw material collection supported based on this researcher, in Journal of
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, on previous writers by Bergman & Fisher,
(1950), need to do such as a fibres class material such BP and other natural fibre
material need to treated with a chemical such as using natural class “Sodium
Chloride”(NaCl) or “Sodium Hydroxide” (NaOH). But, some of this natural material,
the researcher does not need a treated based with the chemical or compound example
using washed or soaking method”, (Bergman & Fisher, 1950).

True based on this researchers by Nurul Fazita et al., (2016); Punyamurthy,
Dhanalakshmi, Chikkol, & Bennehalli, (2012), some of these natural fibre examples
coconut fibre, banana, paddy, grass, ramie, flax (bast fibre), flax, jute, nettle, cotton or
abaca need to treated with a chemical solution.

Fortunately, different from Bagasse and Pith (BP) require to treated can be
treated with the natural class level of NaCl pH 7 reviewer from Moghaddam et al.,
(2014), due to prevent from burning while in drying experiment. Some of the example
flow chart process have arranged on using pre-treatment and washed as Slow Design
experiment on fresh Bagasse for Biomass Energy, Lan, Liu, & Sun, (2011), see figure
2.2.3.2.

Figure 2.2.3.2: Example Flow Chart Process on using Pre-Treatment and Washed in Slow
Design Experiment for Fresh Bagasse, (Lan et al., 2011)

Based upon these experiment flow chart process reviewers from Binod et al.,
(2012); Eaves, (1981); Varhegyi, Antal, Szekely, & Szabo, (1989). Furthermore, this
basic method, researchers can start with flow work of Slow Design experiment such as
collection raw material, treatment, air drying, sun-dried, and oven dried, blending and
final with packaging in receiving natural fibre such as BP biocomposite.

42

These reviewers have argued on each step of flow chart process review in
Forestry & Natural Resources: Furniture Manufacturing, writers from Enkelman,
(n.d.)“ some of the processes need to have a calculation and record such as moisture
content, drying percentage, weight of adhesive, the size of mould surface and
thickness”, (Enkelman, n.d.).

From this reviewer J. Zhang, Zhang, Mara, Lou, & Nicola, (2014) they agreed
with his statement, this is because of a basic formula such as using before and after
weight gram 0 − 1/ 1 × 100, for space ℎ × ℎ = 2 or ℎ ×
ℎ × ℎ = 3, and weight adhesive use 0/ 1 × 100%, it is a
commonly used in applied science. Besides, through these formula can use as a
method preparation for developed of manufacturing for BP biocomposite and
furthermore, it is a basic requirement formula used before testing on properties
strength.

Through this flow chart processor Slow Design experiment, the researcher can
use Hot Air Moulding template (HAMP) as the fabrication equipment and mix with a
general binder such as “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) as to design product design
application. Further, some of the basic formulas need to be used for manufacturing or
in fabricating BP biocomposite as stated above.

Finally, through these methods in fabricating this natural fibre, it is important
for designer or manufacturer to induct with the material manufacturing process and
this is because it is an important part of in design process curriculum.

Next, another basic experiment as to received solid testing through Slow
Design flow chart experiment in term of applied science and industrial design done
review by Montalvo Navarrete, Hidalgo-Salazar, Escobar Nunez, & Rojas Arciniegas,
(2018). It is stated, “in receiving the result on testing a single natural biocomposite
board, the researcher needs to fabricate this fibres biocomposite into a flat block of
using such as a simple mould that is resistance from highest heat”, (Montalvo
Navarrete et al., 2018).

This statement above agree by the previous researcher such as Guilong,
Guoqun, Huiping, & Yanjin, (2010); Wadsworth, (1998), these researchers they have
studied on low technology manufacturing process and furthermore, it have own
potential used for fabricating BP biocomposite.

The process can be started with such as using mild steel plate that has a
thickness of 3 millimetres (mm) and through on this design process it needs to use

43

heavy type machine to cut it review by Merklein, Löffler, Gröbel, & Henneberg,
(2018). A Foot Metal Plate Cutter Machine (FMPC) according to this researcher from
Walczyk & Hardt, (1998), on his paper in Journal Manufacturing Science and
Engineering. “the advantage of using FMPC it capable to cut a single 2mm or 3 mm
mild steel plate and this is because a razor sharp knife it can shear it smoothly without
any of sharp edges”, (Walczyk & Hardt, 1998).

Upon through this review from Klocke, (2013) they agree the FMPC is the
best tools to shear a single layer of the mild steel plate and through this Slow Design
experiment as the added arrangement method or diagram process. The example of
arrangement method or flowchart process have done research by Swift & Booker,
(2003) and furthermore, he uses an FMPC to cut a piece of mild steel plate in using
forming process, sees figure 2.2.3.3.

Figure 2.2.3. 3: Technique on Applying Forming Mild Steel Plate (MSP), (Swift & Booker,
2003)

However it is not agreed, De Albuquerque, Tavares, & Durão, (2010) and they
claim some other several tools need to be used to apply on designing such as HAMP.
The other study from Albuquerque, Tavares, & P., (2008); Durão et al., (2010), both
of them agree on a basic drill type machine such as a Floor Gear Drill Machine
(FGDM) and it can help to pattern holes on each side of low technology mould such
as Hot Air Moulding template (HAMP).

A grease solution can be used to help to reduce frictional between drill bits and
mild steel plate while it handling using FGDM review from Kelly & Cotterell, (2002).
Besides, the size of drill bids needs to be considered in inserting helix bolt and nut or
piercing flat head screw such as to tightening equipment for HAMP mould.

It supported by Smith, Foliente, Nguyen, & Syme, (2005) the size of drill bids
such as 6 mm,9 mm or 12 mm. Furthermore, the researcher can select these size are
normally used in making a-holes between the plate and moreover, capable used for
designing holes using such as mild steel plate. Finally through this method on
manufacturing and designing a mould such as HAMP can use as a fabricating for BP
biocomposite.

44

Next, a method on manufacturing BP biocomposite has done research by
Fowler, Hughes, & Elias, (2006) and they claim low techniques by applying using
manmade capable to be done on handling without machining such as hand lay-up
technic. The other reviewers from Oksman, (2001) have applied on mixing using hand
made as to mix between artic flax and Resin Transfer Model (RTM), the value of
weight used is important on the development of manufacturing process.

Some example researchers from Jiang, Walczyk, McIntyre, & Chan, (2016);
Muda, Mustapha, Mohd Aris, & Sultan, (2014), these researchers have studied on
fabricating method on using the low technique for applying laminated, layering and
folding method. Through this reviewer he “A technique on applying such as using
manual way capable to use as manufacturing and fabrication for natural fibre
biocomposite”, (Jiang et al., 2016; Muda et al., 2014).

On the other hand, written by Cauvain, (2015); Omeire, Umeji, & Obasi,
(2014); S.-J. Park & Seo, (2011), claim manual techniques such as folding, wrapping,
layering, rolling, kneading and stacking have similarly used as in fabricating a dough
or cakes mixing. This agrees from Mir et al., (2014) manmade or natural based
biocomposite that as input from natural resources or in processing capacity to use
fabricate biocomposite board.

This reviewer from the previous researcher by Collado-Fernández, (2003)
arguing each of ingredient or material either in solid, liquid, “mono-polymer” or
“copolymer” each of this ingredient need to weight by using digital lab scale
balancing placing into a single bowl.

It is supported from Abang Zaid, Chin, & Yusof, (2010) based on Journal
Applied Science and they claimed, the concept of the manufacturing process is similar
as fabricate food processing through weight with measurable or liked a book of the
recipe. It started with raw material biocomposite, mixing, kneading, moulding, cool
press, and baking, storing, packing and the final product.

Through this researchers believed, a material manufacturing process such as
fabricate BP biocomposite and it to have some of the measurement using the weight of
use of fabricating BP biocomposite. Furthermore, the other value can consider using
such as time use, temperature, weight use on BP biocomposite and weight adhesive
use are the important part as to fabricating BP biocomposite.

45

Thus on this fabricating BP biocomposite, the researcher needs to review on
the previous potential based on the previous result as to end of the project and the
drawing towards of the industrial can evaluate towards based on previous readers.

As to the end of this manufacturing process review from Alex Driver &
Carlos Peralta, (2011) have a review on a basic method via combing industrial design
and applied science. They suggested, “researchers, need to test the samples block by
cutting into each sample in getting the result through experiment and moreover, based
on testing can looked previous potential or similar result other researchers”(Alex
Driver * & Carlos Peralta, 2011).

The statement above is supported from this previous researcher (Kuo, Huang,
& Zhang, 2001; Pohekar & Ramachandran, 2004), they have reviews on reading other
articles is the best way on their experiment. Furthermore, these example researchers
cited Wang. J, Reviejo, A.J., & Agnes, L., (1993) these groups of researchers, have
received the similar or nearby based on examples testing result using this graphite and
analogue glucose biocomposite toward of electroanalysis for biosensing.

Through on reading or cited on previous researchers experiments such as water
absorption (WA), flexure test (FT), and thickness swelling (TS) are the basic
experiment through applied science in receiving test result based on this writer Das et
al., (2000). Furthermore, R. Byron Pipes et al., (2004) these researchers have drawn a
flowchart design process that collaborates with applied science to determining the
potential of the product design application, see figure 2.2.3.4.

Figure 2.2.3.4: A Guideline Direction For Industrial Design And Applied Science Toward of
Experiment In Potential Design In Product Design, (R. Byron Pipes et al., 2004)
Through on these tests such as WA, TS, and FT based on this previous

researcher by Vijay Kumari Thakur, Thakur, Raghavan, & Kessler, (2014), they
suggested designer, researcher or manufacturer can be cited on the previous researcher

46

that have similar potential through their experiment. Besides, other researchers such as
(Zarrinbakhsh, Defersha, Mohanty, & Misra, 2014) and H. Roy et al., (2018), these
previous researchers and they suggested practitioners need to end on by designing a
simple design based on the result via claiming it the potential of product design.

As the final process is the job for researchers to solve withdrawing and
technical line drawing as to end of life (EoF) on this manufacturing process. Finally,
this concludes on material and manufacturing design process, for the potential of
product design application towards a method of potential design approaches trough
Slow Design experiment.

2.3 THE OVERVIEW OF PREPARATION, EXPERIMENT AND
MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR BAGASSE AND PITH (BP)
BIOCOMPOSITE

In-depth, through the manufacturing process for product application
framework overview of this part researcher will review on several journals in
manufacturing process BP biocomposite from yellow cane and experiment through
applied science. By using this manufacturing process framework for product
application through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), research will involve some
experiments such as conditioning, boiling, soaking, sun-dried, air dry, oven dried, and
blender machine.

Next, this research review is based on two chemical used for experiment and
manufacturing process such as “Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) and “Sodium Chloride”
(NaCl). Meanwhile, some mathematical calculation is used to determine the potential
of BP biocomposites such as the amount of adhesive used the amount of chemical for
treatment use, Water Absorption (WA) and Flexure Test (FT).

Finally, in developing manufacturing process researcher have reviewed on
laboratory preparation tools, equipment, and machine which is important in the
manufacturing process for BP biocomposite board. Furthermore, the developments of
the manufacturing process are based on technologies such as hand lay-up Technic and
manufacturing process on HAMP, while the technique using hot air is the
development in this manufacturing process.

47

2.3.1 The Basic Skill in Manufacturing Process using Natural Biocomposite

A biocomposite experiment and testing for producing product material
application had studied by Imenda (2014), stated: “the conceptual framework is the
overview for the researcher to plan their works before creating the process flowchart
in manufacturing and experiment test” (Imenda, 2014). Example, Dahy (2017) natural
biocomposite such as straw and other non-fibre used for mass production for the flat
board before product application, see figure 2.3.1.1.

Figure 2.3.1.1: The Example of Natural Biocomposite Flowchart for Mass Manufacturing Flat
Board, (Dahy, 2017)

Meanwhile, researchers Park & Kim, 2016; Rodriguez et al., (2016) argue with
this framework where practitioner need to think what sort of application, technique
and low technology that will be used in the manufacturing process in D&B, DfS, and
DfE. Sassu, Giresini, Bonannini, & Puppio (2016), they made a simple flat block
sample pattern to test cork granule and hemp material properties and this allows
designers to further progress with the manufacturing process.

This belief the D&B, DfS, and DfE research by scholar’s, designers and
manufacturers need to collaborate with the design process using mould production
such as HAMP and allow them to understand how the process work via experiment.
Thus, they can proceed with samples via Slow Design experiment in LCA, through
manufacturing BP biocomposite product application and meanwhile, it can detail up in
flowchart such as the type of experiment to analyse the potential of material
properties.

Next, Félix, Lucio-Villegas, Romero, & Guerrero (2016), stated: “
practitioners or designers need to create or use the available mould to test the
potential of natural biocomposite and this can allow the designer to pick up evidence
through samples” (Félix et al., 2016).

48

Example study by Kuppers & Walczyk (2014), had combined D&B, DfS, and
DfE into a sample design of natural biocomposite kayak paddle manufacturing and
they had used the available technology such as hydraulic press technology.

The production of the mould via D&B, DfS, and DfE, studied by Abayomi,
Temitope, Olawale, & Oyelayo (2015), have drawn flow chart process as a guideline
for manufacturing process such as BP biocomposite.

Besides, it is up for them to produce any numbers depending on availability of
material. F. Fang, Zhang, & Zhang (2016), agree with producing samples to test in a
lab experiment and thus, this can produce more evidence and variable throughout
material properties strength.

These scholars believe researcher and manufacturer need to be well prepared
for producing a mould design construction via D&B, DfS, and DfE to make it easier
while producing samples. Thus, the task of manufacturing via material properties for
BP biocomposite can become easier by following the flow chart process and through
several proving tests such as Water Absorption (WA), and Flexural Test (FT).

Aguilera, (2011); Christina Coelho, N.Garrido, J. Martins, & L.Carvalho
(2011), studied using a Circular Saw in a lab experiment. According to them,“ the
precision of cutting by using circular saw it much better in cutting single
particleboard and the rotational speed, depth of cut and depending on the type of
blade use can strengthen up the cutting samples”(Christina Coelho et al., 2011).

Rawling (2003) previously studied sampling size for natural biocomposite in
producing particleboard and the size is not less than 1” or equal to 25mm+/-.
According to his understanding “the elastically or flexural and the other test are
inessential in the study of material properties strength, moreover, the dimensional
cutting section for each sample is not accurate starting with 25mm length × Width”
(Rawling, 2003).

J. G. Haygreen (2003), according to his understanding in manufacturing a
sample such as BP biocomposite, “researchers need to cut down each sample
between 1” to 3”+/- per single flat board for 30cm ×30cm+/-, and depend on the
situation of how the test will work” (J. G. Haygreen, 2003). These scholars believe by
planning such a flow chart process, cutting sample, can recognize a potential machine
use, and help designers by increasing more evidence during the experiment, see figure
2.3.1.2.

49

Figure 2.3.1.2: The Example of Mixing Natural Biocomposite Cork Granule and Hemps in
Manufacturing A Flat Board: a) Fresh Block Placing Under Mould and b) A Samples of
Cutting Blocks That Had Curing, (Sassu et al., 2016)
As for the conclusion, researchers develop existing technique on the

manufacturing process by using HAMP as a mould for experiment and test for
manufacturing product application by using BP biocomposite. Through, D&B, DfS,
and DfE allow the researcher to activate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as a
development method for Cradle to Cradle in manufacturing product application.

2.3.2 The Sugarcane use as Biocomposite Material

Ghani, Abdullah, Matori, Alias, & da Silva, (2010), studied on a waste green
component by manufacturing particleboard and they claimed these waste material
components have 2 million tonnes per year disposed of in Malaysia. Moreover,
through their research on the waste components, it is capably used as a value-added
product and some of the examples in manufacturing soft board and Medium Density
Fibreboard (MDF).

IA. Jereme, Siwar, & Alam (2014), believe through this collection of waste BP
component in Malaysia it is capable to achieve 18 000 tonnes per day especially in
Selangor and additionally, it may be capable to achieve 30 000 tonnes per day in the
year 2020. Although this study is true, this collection of the green waste component
can be useful to the local manufacturer and other industries as it is capable of use as a
mass manufacturing process, especially for biocomposite board.

Researchers on sugarcane by Barbu, Reh, & Çavdar (2017), highlighted that
this green plant board are able to be designed as a new structure and technologies
toward mass production such as used in product design for the component,
automotive, and product design.

Example reader from Stefânia Lima Oliveiraa, Rafael Farinacci Mendesb, &
Lourival Marin Mendesc (2016) from their previous research have manufactured a BP

50

biocomposites board. Moreover, they understand particleboards from sugarcane that
are able to use for manufacturing such as household product design application in
Cradle to Cradle.

Zhang et al., (2015), had used sugarcane supported with grass component in
manufacturing biocomposite with a different adhesive. He believes, the through mass
manufacturing process he suggested the use as potential particleboard, see figure
2.3.2.1.

Figure 2.3.2.1: The Example of BP Biocomposite Board using “saccharum officinarum”,
(Barbu et al., 2017)

Next, example by Vorgelegt Von & Aus Kairo (2015), have done research on
the potential of manufacturing Rice Husk for building the component in the
architecture. Besides they believe, BP biocomposite has the potential for use as a
flexible material wall panel or wall soft panel board.

Meanwhile, Yashas Gowda et al., (2018), agree through development
manufacturing process material such as BP biocomposite have high flexibility and
limitation towards adhesive used such as PVA. It is suited for making production
components such as a vase, decoration plate or flexible lightweight component.

Balaji, Karthikeyan, & Sundar Raj (2015), studied on the potential of
sugarcane, they experimented manufacturing process on Bagasse biocomposite
particleboard through applied science and they, believe these natural properties put on
mechanical test have the highest flexibility. Moreover, they claim it has the potential
to be used for low strength component for automotive and structural application.

Another research on natural biocomposite study by Beger et al., (2015); Y.
Zhang et al., (2013), a biocomposite had delivered production using “cellulose”
example architecture, product, product, packaging, extraction oil, pharmaceutical
product, and food production.

Saba, Jawaid, Alothman, Paridah, & Hassan (2015), some of the calculation
need to measure adhesive mix used PVA to manufacture product component for BP
biocomposite product application based on result experiment small-scale lab test. One
of research believes, “the adhesive used for natural biocomposite product, for

51

example, palm oil, rice husk, jute, pineapple, flax, bagasse fibre and banana trunk
fibre also had different potential use with different glue ratios”, (Wei & McDonald,
2016).

Based on previous study by Benfratello et al., 2013, used hand lay-up technic
in manufacturing with different ratio of Hemps biocomposite component, see figure
2.3.2.2 They suggest, “through manufacturing BP biocomposite by using hand lay-up
technic it is suitably used for material structure product application”, (Benfratello et
al., 2013).

Figure 2.3.2.2: Example Technique in Manufacturing Process Hemps Biocomposite using
Hand Lay Up Technic, (Benfratello et al., 2013)

Meanwhile, Plastrading (2016) use natural biocomposite as an example in
manufacturing Flex, Bamboo, or Hemps bowl production as a low component used for
kitchen utensil item or interior decoration component.

Example technique applied by Kumar, Negi, Bhardwaj, & Choudhary (2013),
use BP component for manufacturing biomedical application and furthermore, they
use different technologies, for example, Computer Numerical Control (CNC) towards
manufacturing process. Example study by (Najmuddin Bin Ismail & Aziz, 2018), have
designed for Quran real by using material made from plastic and through this
development manufacture them using natural fibre biocomposite.

Previous research by S.M. Sapuan, M.Y. Hassan (2003), had manufactured
real from natural biocomposite component based on the polymeric adhesive.
Moreover, they believe using PVA as the main binder it is capably used in
manufacturing low pressure. Furthermore, with high flexibility strength such as using
BP biocomposite and they suggested an experiment example by holding a book that is
capable to use as a test.

Bagasse tableware design by Shinichiro Ogata in an article by (Okusa &
Ogusu 2014), has literate on Japan culture on a small production. Through the writers,
this designer creates two versions of WASARA based product design such as a plate,
bowl, fork, and spoon from this Bagasse waste material, see figure 2.3.2.3.

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Figure 2.3.2.3: Wasara Tableware form Bagasse Biocomposite, (Okusa & Ogusu, 2014)
Through these reviews, BP biocomposite has the potential for use as

development in the manufacturing process in various applications for craft household
product design application such as a vase, plate, paper, or decoration pot by using
development of manufacturing process such as HAMP.

As a conclusion based on this literature study believes, BP biocomposite has
high flexibility while using PVA as the development of manufacturing product
application. Finally, through development manufacturing process such as Hot Air
Moulding Template (HAMP) researcher can use PVA as the development in
manufacturing such as craft household product design application in LCA via Slow
Design Experiment.

2.3.3 The Properties of Natural Bagasse and Pith (BP) Component from
“saccharum officinarum” (yellow cane)

Previous researchers by Australian Government Department of Health and
Ageing Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2011); Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al.,
(2011), have studied on properties of a yellow cane, examining these two
components such as Bagasse and Pith (BP). Another potential, it has used in car
biodiesel and manufacturing biocomposite board using such as stem, seed, and leaf.

Through his study writer Al, (2011), “saccharum officinarum” (yellow cane),
come from “Poaceae” group of “Andropogoneae” in subfamily group “panicoideae”
through subgroup “saccharine” and from genus “saccharum”. However, his analyse
the other potential of this bio-product content high in “sucrose” capable of produces
such as rum and table sugar.

Almeida Silva & Maitto (2012) studied the biology of yellow cane and claim,
within 4 months from May to September this plant had the potential to mature.
Additionally, each internode stalk of this plant had eight to nine leaves and
photosynthesis is accumulating at 34 Degree Celsius (ᴼ C) and produces a high level

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of “sucrose”. Later, the premature yellow cane plant eventually contains 15% to 20%
of “sucrose” and furthermore, in 60 days to 90 days farmers are ready to cut.

Dairy & Board (2012), the stem of yellow cane have five meters tall and
include the peak of sugarcane height; however, due to a large number of sugarcane
leaves, farmers burn them when it became dry.

Kok Leng Chuah & Ying Hui Ong (2015), believe this waste high in these
three components such as 42% “cellulose”, 25% “hemicellulose”, and 20% “lignin”
are in abundant especially in Malaysia because of mass raw edible sugar production.
Through these researchers previous literature, these waste material able to produce
“bioethanol” as an exchange for petroleum and it has been widely used in countries
like Brazil. On another hand they believe, native Asian countries had slightly different
sugarcane examples and it usually five to six meters in height.

Another problem with this plant studied by Arbex et al., (2000), believes the
“lignin” content inside yellow cane may able combust when placed inside a high-
temperature oven. Moreover, they claimed it may be burning because of both these BP
component caused by “lignin” combining with another compound available inside
this green plant such as “sucrose”, “lactose” and “fructose”.

Wang, Nayak, Koch, & Ming (2013), agree on the internode of this plant
containing “sucrose”, “lactose,” and “fructose”. It is supported through
Mohammadinejad, Karimi, Iravani, & Varma (2016), studied this green plant
containing sugar and start from “transverse section”, “cellular wall structure”
cellulose fibril”, “individual microfibril”, “cellulose microstructure”, and “cellulose
molecule”.

A review from Engineering, (n.d.), the strength on each section in internode of
this plant covered by “Meta Xylem Cell” (E), “Meta Xylem” (M) and “Proto Xylem”
are contained inside of sugarcane that generated “lignin”, see figure 2.2.3.1.

Figure 2.3.3.1: Zoom Into a “Xylem” Show ‘M’ as a “Meta Xylem” and “Epithelial Cell” ‘E’
and “Proto Xylem” Retake Covers to Control All over the “Vascular Bundle” System to
Produce “lignin”, Engineering, (n.d.)
Mohammadinejad et al., (2016), review, all these components protected by

“Vascular Bundle” and “Cell Wall”, and furthermore, they claimed these structures

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have another potential for example in drug content, gene research, food industry, and
tissue engineering. Besides, the structure of yellow cane, have their own potential use
in other chemical industry and food industries.

These researchers from Mohammadinejad et al., (2016) and Vadacca, (2014)
the plant’s “lignin” protected by “Cell Wall” will burn when processed for natural
biocomposite, see table 2.2.3.2.

Table 2.3.3.2:

The Properties of Bagasse and Pith Sugarcane

Sugarcane “saccharum officinarum”

Component Percentage (%)

“Cellulose” 44% *55%

“Hemicellulose” 20%-25%
“Lignin” 18%-24%

“Ash” 1%-4%
“Waxes” <1%

Note: A properties of “saccharum officinarum” green plant publish from Digiitalarchfab, (Vadacca, 2014, p. 13).

Through these scholar’s study on BP biocomposite component from yellow
cane and based on the data shown by Vadacca, (2014), the “lignin” content available
is up to 18%-24%. Moreover, he claims, normally by experiment through drying and
soaking is capable to reduce “lignin,” “cellulose,” and “hemicellulose” in the
manufacturing process for product application.

Outreach (2017), have studied on the potential of chemical compound content
inside yellow cane in figure 2.3.3.3 and additionally it possesses two type of co-
product example “sucrose chemical” and “molasses derived product” as a potential
source for the chemical industry. On the other hand, the fibre in this plant is capable to
produce pulp paper, particleboard, fibrous board, corrugated boards and furfural.

Figure 2.3.3.3: The Detail Structure of Natural Tree Sugarcane “saccharum officinarum”,
(Mohammadinejad et al., 2016)

Next, Bj. Croft, N. T. & R. M. (2011), a study on the quality of yellow cane
based “Xylem” and this experiment had taken part as the priority before researchers

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are ready in manufacturing juice, raw sugar production, chemical solution or
compound.

The treatment process in Slow Design experiment reviewed by Silva, Grelier,
Pichavant, Frollini, & Castellan (2013); Werkneh, Abay, & Senbeta (2015), the
research on using “Sodium Chloride” (NaCl) on sugarcane as main compound by
adding clean water (H2O) and mixed with these two chemicals. Moreover, they claim,
“the reaction of “Sodium Chloride” and clean water can produce “Aquos Reagent”
which help to loose down “Cell Wall” in yellow cane and with these two mixings are
capable to decompose slowly to break down the “lignin”, (da Silva et al., 2013;
Werkneh et al., 2015).

Concluding this literature, sugarcane has a high value of 15% to 20%,
“sucrose”, 42% “cellulose”, 25% “hemicellulose” and 24% “lignin”. Furthermore,
this green plant contains three components “Vascular Bundle,” “Meta Xylem Cell”
and “Proto Xylem”. Through these reviews by researchers, NaCl in the compound has
the potential for use in loosening the “lignin” in yellow cane and on the other hand
the “lignin” is capable to bind with PVA when turning into natural biocomposite for a
production application.

2.3.4 The Slow Design Experiment on Treatment Process using Boiling and
“Sodium Chloride” (NaCl) as to Loose “lignin” Contain Inside of Yellow
Cane

Researchers C. G. da Silva, Grelier, Pichavant, Frollini, & Castellan (2013),
cited by Agyropoulos (1994), Granata and Agyropoulos (1995), have analysed
properties of “Sodium Chloride” (NaCl) to remove “lignin” content. They have used
1.6kg NaCl Potential Hydrogen (pH) 7 over one litre of water to penetrate “lignin”.

Another example, research by Lee, (2005), have analysed potential strength of
NaCl to penetrate “lignin” content inside of Bagasse and Pith (BP). Moreover, he
claims NaCl is 15% stronger than “Sodium Hypochlorite” (NaClO) in removing
“lignin” content inside a yellow cane in a natural way. Moreover research by Gall et
al., (2015), besides using NaOH, NaCl allows reduction to “Cell Wall” for the green
plant in this treatment process. Additionally, this treatment helps to loosen “cellulose”
and “lignin” content inside a green component.

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These scholars believe in studies based on soaking with NaCl and boiling
method is the best way on loosening the “lignin” content inside “saccharum
officinarum” (yellow cane), through these two methods it is capable to loosen “Cell
Wall” with another component such as “cellulose”, and “hemicellulose”.

P. H. F. Pereira et al., (2011), they suggested NaCl have potential to be widely
used as a compound component for bleaching natural BP bio component replacing
“chlorine” and the colour may change into purple for Pith and for Bagasse component
turned cloudy. Furthermore, the surface of “Cell Wall” is easy to open and this is
because the NaCl have “Aqueous Regent” compound that enables loosing down the
strength of fibrils “Vascular Bundle”, “Xylem”, “Meta Xylem” and “Proto “Xylem”,
see figure 2.3.4.1.

Figure 2.3.4.1: The Detailing of Green Components for Sugarcane “saccharum officinarum”,
(Pereira et al., 2011)

Ana Ferrera, Alberto Vegab (2011); Dong et al., (2014), found that 108ᴼ C+/-
is able to penetrate such coir and pulp green biocomposite. Moreover according to him
“during this pre-treatment using the boiling method to loosen “lignin” content such
as coir biocomposite it enables reaction through aqueous chemical reagent to wash
away “lignin” by producing aromatic smells vaporising through the air, resulting in
“lignin” starting to loose down”, (Dong et al., 2014).

Kochova, Schollbach, & Brouwers (2015), have used other natural
biocomposites such as coconut fibre, rice fibre, and spruce subject to treatment using
the boiling method. Moreover, he has treated these components at 210 ᴼ C with
different time used. They believe treatment process using boiling method technique is
able to loosen “lignin” content and this technique is able to reduce other molecule
structures such as “sinaphyl alcohol”, “tocopherol alcohol” and “coumaryl alcohol”
by using temperatures between 108ᴼ C to 210ᴼ C.

Therefore, the “lignin” created by “phenolic” compound has to be treated
using 40% of pH 7 NaCl with a proper amount used and 108ᴼ C to 210ᴼ C boiling
method for 4 to 8 hours. Furthermore, it prevents the yellow cane from burning inside
the oven-drying machine.

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The conclusion through these studies by scholars, NaCl is 15% better than
NaClO in loosening “lignin” content in yellow cane and moreover, the NaCl pH 7 is
safe to be used for small industries or low technology development in Slow Design
experiment in manufacturing for material such as BP biocomposite. Furthermore, this
waste material component is able to be boiled and strained in the traditional way in
manufacturing for product application, especially for the rural area or craft industries.

2.3.5 The Slow Design Experiment on Sun Dried and Air Dried via Decreasing
Moisture Content of yellow cane

Patrick, 2016), sun and air-dry are both capable of decreasing moisture content
for natural fibre such as Bagasse and Pith (BP) components. Moreover, he has treated
these two components in separate containers by using distilled water and after one
week, dried these fibres under the sun 4 to 6 hours before putting at room temperature
to let it dry for a week, ready to process into biocomposite.

Kartha, Leach, & Rajan, (2005), studied on sun drying to generate loose down
moisture content (MC) for a natural green plant such as husk, paddy, and bagasse.
Moreover, it gave good efficiency for this method by mixing with air and sun energy
to evaporate moisture through the air. Other researchers by Kumaradasa,
Bhattacharya, Salam, & Amur, (1999), used Slow Design experiment with the other
method by placing wet biocomposite component such as coconut fibres in a
combustion chamber and have it dried in 3 hours+/- before it is ready to be used.

Abbas Hameed Almajmaie, Marcus Hardie & Tina Acuna (2016); Eiliv
Steinnes (2016), these research experimented on the air dry at 40ᴼ C in 8 to 24 hour.
Furthermore, for drying natural plant component and they have placed in wide surface
area field in what they called it open-air drying process with directs sun heat.

Another example research by Anh (1996), experimented drying pulp paper
manufacturing process and she had analysed the potential of bagasse drying process
flow work process started with screening, bleaching and drying. Sudhakar & Vijay,
(2018), designed parallel flow and sequence flow chart process for bagasse natural
composite drying experiment and improving wet treatment process to dry process
flowchart process. They claim in the drying experiment for natural BP Biocomposite,

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the researcher is able to dry at 8 to 24 hours loose MC percentage using the open-air
dry method.

Chayutt Mingqaanchayut (2017) experiment drying kaffir lime using vacuum
drying, solar drying, hot air drying and tray drying. In this experiment, he claims 45 ᴼ
C is good for natural fibre component to pull away moisture that is trapped inside
natural fibre such as yellow cane and the colour of sample during this experiment
turned yellowish. Additionally, he suggests if the temperatures are higher the drying
time taken will be shorter and if the temperature lowers then longer time will be
longer for drying or curing process.

Another research study used the various technologies for drying experiment
that are wood slats, oven drying, food dryer, bunch air dryer, and microwave. These
examples tools and machine, used in decreasing moisture content such as for food,
natural bio waste component or natural biocomposite and leaves. They believe, by
using wood slate or other similar tools such as canvas are similarly capable of drying
such wet BP bio component in a traditional way, see figure 2.3.5.1.

Figure 2.3.5.1: Example of Tools and Equipment for Traditional Drying Experiment: a) Slat
Tray, b) Sun Drying Tray and c) Manual Drying Chamber, (3rd ed. Hertzberg et al., 1982)

As a conclusion through these studies by scholars, air and sun dry experiment
loosen down moisture content of BP biocomponent and moreover, the temperature of
sun drying throughout this research ranges between 28 ᴼ C to 30 ᴼ C. This technique
also helps to decrease the weight of moisture content that had been boiled or soaked as
it went through treatment experiment.

Additionally it safe to be used as traditional or as development process to dry
process and furthermore, the time taken for this experiment can be within 24-hour +/-.
Thus, it allows the researcher to record the weight data of dried sample such as BP bio
component during the drying experiment.

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2.3.6 The Slow Design Experiment on Oven Dried for Decreasing Moisture
Content and Blending Process Dry Bagasse and Pith from Yellow Cane

Oven dry and blending process for natural fibre reviewed by Balaji,
Karthikeyan, Swaminathan, & Sundar Raj, (2018); Varma & Mondal (2016), used
these two methods for drying and blending natural fibre sugarcane into particle size,
see figure 2.3.6.1.

Figure 2.3.6.1: Dry Bagasse and Pith Component from “saccharum officinarum”: a) Dry
Bagasse Not Yet Crushing, and b) Pith Blending, (A. K. Varma & Mondal, 2016)
Moreover, A. K. Varma & Mondal, (2016) understand, “oven drying machine

is capable to decrease moisture content of fresh BP bio component after drying under
the sun and further air dried, and using a small motor blender, process for crushing
Bagasse and Pith can help these two components to blend”(A. K. Varma & Mondal,
2016). Another research by Tegegne & Argu (2014) agree with these experiments, and
they used 10 kg of fresh BP component for air drying and oven drying at about 40 ᴼ C.

Previously, research on using “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) they had stated, “the
PVA “Polyvinyl Alcohol” used allow sugarcane mixture to bind to the natural
biocomposite” (Koerner & Koerner, 2011). Through this Slow Design experiment
review from Reddy, Kim, & Park, (2016), and they have studied on using oven drying
method. Additionally, they suggest BP biocomposite sample is dried to target
moisture content 7%+/- and moreover, it can be plotted into a graph or bar chart using
percentage result of Slow Design experiment.

Continuation to this phase, “designers are allowed to conclude their answer
from the result of Slow Design experiment with a number of samples via experiment
and this can give potential reasoning to material strength”, (Reddy et al., 2016). The
result of sample experiment by Baharuddin et al., (2016), plotted in a graph, see figure
2.3.6.2 and tests such as MC percentage to analyse water content in Cassava
biocomposite are 7.60 % +/- to 7.18%+/.

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Figure 2.3.6.2: Example of Sample Result of Moisture Drying Cassava Fibers and Content
Percentage (Mc %) for Cassava Natural Biocomposite: a) Cassava Drying Sample, and b) MC

Graph Drying Sample, (Baharuddin et al., 2016)

Research by Hellevang (2013); Rajagopal, Sivakumar, & Manivel (2014) have

determined the reduction in dry% had used determination drying reduction rate (DDR)

in percentage, in his mathematical formula see Determination Drying percentage,

equation (1).

DDR% = dM × 100 (1)

dT

Cardoso, Scagliusi, Lima, & Bueno (2013), used analytical digital balancing as
tools to examine the weight of the dry BP bio component before and after the drying
experiment using the oven drying machine. For each sample, they did Slow Design
experiment in different weight and they produce six samples of dry BP component by
using moisture content formula for calculating previous and after weight in
percentage.

Example research by Akanzeriyomah (2015) have used natural biocomposite
from fresh coconut and blended with a different machine which is a single screw
extruder to separate the internal from the core of fresh coconut. He suggests that soft
natural fibre such as BP bio component, banana fibre, jute, and sisal might require
smaller blending machine, furthermore, these fibres are sensitive with indoor or
outdoor air.

M. L. Hassan, Kassem, & El-Sakhawy (2015), experimented on BP bio
component the target are 7.5%+/- to 8% and through this drying method, this natural
fibre had potential to dry at a higher temperature between 45 ᴼ C to 100 ᴼ C using
oven drying machine. Moreover, these researchers claim that this BP fibre is capable
to reduce 25% in moisture content from its original weight.

Through these scholars believes fresh wet BP biocomposite can be dried using
oven drying machine and blended using a small motor machine like food blending

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machine to blend these two components. The target moisture for BP biocomposite is
7%+/- for both components and the drying experiment took about one month to lose
out moisture content especially for bagasse component that traps a lot of water after
treatment experiment in Slow Design experiment in LCA.

Next, some of the study by Phinichka & Kaenthong, (2018); Pitarelo, Fonseca,
Chiarello, Gírio, & Ramos (2016) stored dry BP biocomposite using a plastic bag and
sealing it tight to keep out moisture. Storing at room temperature 30 ᴼ C for a lengthy
period before using in manufacturing process stages or other use for example plant
fertility.

Carvalho, Queiroz, & Colodette (2016), they agree through this method and
carry out treatment experiment by loosing down “lignin”. Then, after this process,
they transfer the BP component sample into storage at room temperature in sealed
airtight plastic bags or plastic box before crushing.

Hosseinihashemi & Badritala (2017); Mohamed Sutan et al., (2018), in their
research, stored BP biocomposite into a plastic bag, after crushing and blending
process. Then, they store this natural fibre for 24 hours at room temperature and
examined the particle size of these two natural fibres by using Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM).

In conclusions, these reviews on blending method can be applied through this
research and oven drying machine are capable to help lose moisture content in BP
yellow cane. Furthermore, these natural fibres can be stored in a plastic bag, plastic
box container or sealed plastic bags as prevention from air moisture inside of this
natural fibre that has been blend by using food blending processor.

2.3.7 A “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) as Adhesive use for Product Application

Azizi, Ahmad, Ibrahim, Hussein, & Namvar, (2014); Francesco Paolo La
Mantia, Manuela Ceraulo, Gaia Giacchi (2017), had used a large amount of adhesive
“Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) in producing a flat surface board for natural biocomposite
material example BP material from “saccharum officinarum” (yellow cane).

The properties of this adhesive studied by Leja & Lewandowicz (2010), on
emulsifying, tensile strength, and flexibility on this adhesive when used in
manufacturing natural fibre biocomposite. Moreover, the PVA is oil resistant and
widely used in fabricating cloth, papermaking, coating, plastic film packing, and

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farming. They suggest application in a small production of low technology
manufacturing biocomposite board using hand lay-up technic.

Larking, Crawford, Christie, & Lonergan (1999); Mihaela et al., (2011), based
on the study on PVA solution adhesive found it is water soluble and biodegradable.
These are because PVA is classified as nontoxic content and is used for biomedical
application and tissue engineering for the human body, medicine cachets, yarn,
controlled drug release and surgery. Kay (2000), she also agrees with PVA material
used for food packaging, cosmetic product, eye drops, oral drugs, and detergent
packets.

She believes, PVA is the development mixer in the manufacturing process for
natural fibre and it has the potential to be commercialised for low technology
application. From these scholars, it is understood that “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) has
a potential for use in small industries using low technology manufacturing process and
combined with a traditional skill such as hand lay-up technic suitably used for
manufacturing BP biocomposite household product design application.

This PVA solution studied by Guimarães, Botaro, Novack, Teixeira, & Tonoli,
(2015); Su & Fang (2014), chemical reaction between both components such as BP
biocomposite and PVA improves the cross-linking structure when heated in high
temperature and they suggest 150 ᴼ C to 180 ᴼ C as suitable use for heating up natural
biocomposite. This is because the treatment experiment such as NaCl helps the “Cell
Wall” of BP open up by loosing down “lignin” content and this enables the mixer
adhesive to enter BP biocomposite to link properties together, see figure 2.3.7.1.

Figure 2.3.7.1: Example “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) Manual Mixing Process Low
Technology Production for “Slime” as Anti-Stress Ball, (Romanowski, 2018)
The researcher by Ghillányová Katarínaa, Michálková Monikab, Galusek

Dušanb (2009); Jatiningrum, Mirna, & Arisiani (2015), on time is taken for
manufacturing natural biocomposite with Fly Ash as the main material and found they
are cured for 2 hours+/- by using electrical Kiln or oven drying machine. Another
research by R. S. Varma (2017) agree with these scholars, he has used electrical Kiln

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and oven drying machine to cure this natural fibre for 2 to 3 hours+/- at 180 ᴼ C, see
figure 2.3.7.2.

Figure 2.3.7.2: Example of Low Technology for Sustainable Development Manufacturing
Process using Hand Lay Up Technic, (Chowdhury et al., 2015)

M., L. J. G. S Roesch & Gainesville (1994), had to add 30% of adhesive is also
depending on particle sizes such as dry BP biocomposite natural fibre between
Bagasse and Pith. They believe, the larger sized particle natural fibre biocomposite the
more water absorption (WA) could be absorbed, and furthermore, they suggest by
blending these two components using food blender processor might be able to reduce
the amount of WA.

In adding dry Bagasse and Pith (BP), natural biocomposite turn into
“homogeneous” dough for use in the manual hand mixing process and this technique
is studied by Anil Netravali, (2012); Effrey Glen Sheehan et al., (2010). They use 270
g to 300 g of single natural fibre such as BP biocomposite for manufacturing
particleboard and meanwhile, these researchers have added another 15g to 25g +/- of
this natural fibre of Bagasse to become “homogenous” when processed through Slow
Design experiment.

M. Elkington, Bloom, Ward, Chatzimichali, & Potter (2015) researchers
believe, by greasing flat metal plate surface is part of prevention from sticking when
in curing process using hot air in Ceramic Kiln Chamber or Industrial Oven Drying
Machine.

Next, this natural fibre such as BP biocomposite dough, researchers Adamsson
& Bergfjord (2014), suggests after mixing BP biocomposite dough with PVA solution
it is clamped together using F-clamp with wax paper applied in hand lay-up technic.
Moreover, this technique is good for removing excessive water for 1 hour in the low
technology manufacturing process as part of a production application.

Slayden & Wolber (2010), on low technology manufacturing process
development, suggests that by mixing 30% of original weight in PVA adhesive, the
researcher can place each layer of BP biocomposite dough and use 50mm ×50mm or

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12.5mm × 10mm wire mesh as reinforcement for manufacturing lightweight
production application.

In conclusion, these reviews believe by using 30% of PVA adhesive solution it
is possible to turn BP biocomposite into “homogenous” by adding another 15 to 25
gram of Bagasse component. In another word, the technique used for hand lay-up
process is part of low technology used for small scale industries in craft industries and
but it is towards on manufacturing for mass production by using waste components
such Bagasse and Pith component from the yellow cane.

2.3.8 The Mathematical Formulas Use for Fabrication of Product Application

Saba, Jawaid, Alothman, Paridah, & Hassan (2015) used a calculation to
measure adhesive mixing used, example PVA via manufacturing product application
for BP “saccharum officinarum” (yellow cane) biocomposite household product
design application. Other research by Neher, Bhuiyan, Kabir, & Qadir (2014), believe
a formula to change into percentage (%), see Moisture Content equation (2), Weight
NaCl Percentage equation (3) and Weight PVA Percentage equation (4) such as PVA,
NaCl and MC need to be weighed.

= − 0 × 100% (2)
(3)
0

ℎ = ℎ × 100%

ℎ

ℎ = ℎ × 100% (4)

ℎ

Three scholars Nam, Wu, Okubo, & Fujii (2014); Sridach (2011); Toh Wen
Yee et al., (2011) in improving adhesion of PVA believes in mixing these solution
10% +/- from its original weight and the heating temperature ranging from 180ᴼ C +/-
to 240ᴼ C +/-. Furthermore, it had applied two natural biocomposites, for example,
Sago, and Bamboo fibre material in manufacturing particleboard and made by two
scholars Suhaily, Khalil, Nadirah, & Jawaid (2013); Yee, Choy, Aizan, & Abdul
(2010).

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Besides of the density formula toward calculating the amount of overall weight
of natural biocomposite block have done used from Jennarocca (2016) have used
formula calculating for mass, density and volume, see Density equation (5).

= (5)



Meanwhile, other research had used the formula for space via manufacturing a
single natural biocomposite panel by Lawrence (2016), and this company had
calculated an area of space, see Weight equation (6) and Average Thickness equation
(7).

Gauge Weight Method

( ℎ × ℎ × ℎ ) × = ℎ (6)

ℎ = ℎ /( ℎ × ℎ × ) (7)

A study by P.Mathematics (2013) calculation helps designer to calculate the
amount of adhesive used and the area formula needed to convert to cubic (3) or square
(2) example 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 3 into millimetre per cubic for area
in Converting Millimetre (cm) equation (8) and Converting Centimetre equation (9).
Some of the best example research from David Rogers, Christopher Briscoe, Ph.D., &
Jean Gobin (2016), had used a mathematical formula for area in an the Cartesian
Plane equation (10), with two-dimensional Cartesian planes and he had used this
formula by looking the area of 2D space.

a) Converting Area Units (8)
1 × 1 = 10 2

g2 = G (10)
S

A few example research by KC, Pervaiz, Faruk, Tjong, & Sain (2015), said “a
green composite such as bagasse component can fit inside mould with large amount of
PVA or “Polylactic Acid” (PLA) mixed and placed onto a flat surface and pressing it
via hot press” (KC et al., 2015). But this researcher has argued from Lau, Ho, Au-
Yeung, & Cheung (2010); Nan, DeVallance, Xie, & Wang (2016); Tan et al., (2015)

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these scholars had used 40%+/- of PVA by mixing using manual hand mixer, see
figure 2.3.8.1 studied by Junior et al., (2014).

Figure 2.3.8.1: Example Process of Handling Hand Manually Mixing Method for Natural
Cashew Biocomposite Material using “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) Solution, (Junior et al.,

2014)

Researcher Lomelí Ramírez et al., (2011) used a formula of water absorption

percentage (WA%) and moisture content percentage (MC%). see Water Absorption

equation (11) and Moisture Content equation (12) for example in manufacturing

Cassava and Coir biocomposite. Furthermore, the function of this formula is to

analyse the weight of water content inside natural biocomposite material.

a) Water Absorption (WA) Formula and Moisture Content Formula (11)
(%) = [( 1− )] × 100 (12)

0

(%) = [( 1− )] × 100

0

2.3.9 The Development Technique of Low Technology for Manufacturing
Process using Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) as Low Cost for Small
Scale Mould Product Application

Grunenfelder et al., (2014), believe in the development of the manufacturing
process such as HAMP are developing manual mould and its low-cost production for
small producers. Unfortunately, he suggests the Time/Hour (T/Hr) use for the
manufacturing process as a low-cost development technique and it is important for the
researcher to know basic skills regarding Hot Air technique. Finally, the curing
process and technology for the development of mould such HAMP as part of
technique on the manufacturing process through mass production.

Jareteg et al., (2016) used stacking method with 50 mm × 50 mm and 12.5 mm
× 10 mm wire mesh and layered with other natural fibre such BP biocomposite using

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low-cost technology development such as using hand lay-up technic, see figure
2.3.9.1. Furthermore, they have cured for 2 hours to 3 hours+/- under 200ᴼ C +/- and
these researchers recommended using PVA solution as the adhesive for the
manufacturing process of household product design application.

Figure 2.3.9.1: A Structure of Arrangement Natural Biocomposite for Mass Production
(Jareteg et al., 2016)

Development of low technology manufacturing process studied by Y. S. Song,
Youn, & Gutowski (2009), and they are used on existing technology such as hot
pressing technology in the manufacturing process for BP biocomposite board.

According to them, “a researcher can use previously existing technology and
develop on processing technique as a replacement for the hot press in manufacturing
product application. Moreover, they can use the existing technique or technology as a
reference for the manufacturing process”, (Y. S. Song et al., 2009). Furthermore, they
believe that through the development of the manufacturing process and using existing
technology such as Hot Air for product application, it is important for the researcher
to produce a technical drawing.

Ceramic Drying Kiln (DK) and Industrial Oven Dry Machine study by
Venkatesh & Venkateswarlu (2013), on using both machines with other natural fibre,
for example, Cotton Stalk ceramic production. Moreover, it had used different curing
technique such as using Hot Air, which set at 180ᴼ C to 200ᴼ C +/- and from this
existing low technology, manufacturing process researcher can use it as development
on manufacturing BP biocomposite as a craft production.

Researchers from Koulton (2010); United Nations (2013), believe in the
development of existing technology that is readily available and it can improve the
material manufacturing process such as BP biocomposite. Meanwhile, they suggested,
the researcher can use the existing technique such as hand lay-up technic and it is a
manual low-cost product development manufacturing process.

After all, Ratti (2001); Shanmugam (2015); Tiwari (2016), agrees with the
development of Hot Air technology as the development for mass production and
besides it improves quality in developing the manufacturing process. Furthermore,

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they understand by using a 3 mm Mild Steel Plate (MSP) has potential use for
manufacturing Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP).

Through this manufacturing process researcher believe it is suitable to use is
for low-cost household product design application such as food container, anti-hot pot
table dish, soft board, and pinboard In general, this development of manufacturing
technique reviewed by Jokar & O’Halloran (2013), and they have drawn a simple
technical drawing of the manufacturing process using Hot Air through their paper.

They believe through this low-cost manufacturing process, researchers are able
to use for manufacturing household product design application production. Through
their research claimed the Hot Air that produces Ceramic Kiln Chamber had potential
use in curing BP biocomposite, see figure 2.3.9.2. Additionally, this manual low-cost
manufacturing process is capable of use in small industries as a starting point for
developing the manufacturing process.

Figure 2.3.9.2: The Development of Hot Air Technology using Stainless Steel Template: a)
Top View Stainless Steel and b) Compression Technique, (Jokar & O’Halloran, 2013)
Through this development in the manufacturing process for fabricating BP

biocomposite reviews, these researchers believe by using hand lay-up technique, wire
mesh, and Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) it is now able to focus on low
technology manufacturing process. Besides, it is capable of use as the development
manufacturing process for small industries to commercially use by low-income group
producing art and craft.

Next, example research by Song, Murphy, Narayan, & Davies (2009)
involving plastic biocomposite technology in manufacturing plastic bag packaging.
They believe this low-cost technology and technique using hand lay-up technic is the
key requirement for manufacturing BP biocomposite for production test using
American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) D1037.

According to them, “Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) is capable to use for small mass
production industries that are focused on craft household product application and
furthermore, the potential strength of this adhesive depends on the result”, (J. H. Song
et al., 2009).

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Mustapa, Sabdin, Rahim, Wahab, & Yusof (2014), they suggest BP
biocomposite be used for further development in the manufacturing process for
household product example lampshade, hot pot table dish, drink glass coaster, paper,
or food packaging.

These scholars believe the LCA framework for development in the
manufacturing process using Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) is capable of small
industries to use especially in household production. Moreover, some of the
experiment needs to be conducted in the Slow Design experiment to analyse the
potential of PVA and the raw material BP biocomposite.

Next, Garland & Khan (2014), uses heat technology to develop natural
biocomposite manufacturing process for low-cost product application. They claim, “a
researcher can obtain the idea from existing Design and Build (D&B) technology,
Design for Sustainable (DfS) and Design for Environment (DfE)”, development by
using minimal software or technical line software, (Garland & Khan, 2014).

Karana, Barati, Rognoli, & Van Der Laan, (2015), agrees to this
manufacturing process development, it requires researchers to interface with technical,
chemical and mechanical as the preliminary test in Slow Design experiment. In
another word, they agree to a researcher conducting a manufacturing development
process such as using HAMP as it requires them to produce technical drawing before
the manufacturing process using BP biocomposite.

After this process is done, the material needs to be tested depending on the
applicability of the potential BP biocomposite in cited previous researcher and to
analyses the type of household product and as the result of this experiment.

Tyl, Lizarralde, & Allais (2015) study this development manufacturing process
using natural waste raw material, especially for local small scale industry and gain
their skills in the manufacturing process using HAMP as the platform for traditional
product service based on technical software or hand sketches as the tool for
developing their manufacturing process.

These reviewers believe in using manufacturing process via low-cost
technology and technique such as hand lay-up technic. Both manufacturing processes
are capable of production and help low-income groups especially villagers’ practising
the traditional way in mass production for household product design application, see
figure 2.3.9.3.

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Figure 2.3.9.3: Example Low-Cost Technology Development Manufacturing Process using
Hand Lay Up Technic Mass Manufacturing Process: a) Placing Mould, b) Rolling using
Roller and c) Closing the Lid With Bolt and Nut, (Rao, Sri, & Ramanarayanan, 2016)
Havemose (2016), of D&B technology development, the researcher can

produce multiple tests in Slow Design experiments such as Flexure Test (FT) and
water absorption (WA). Through these experiments, researcher use machines like
flexure machine that are enabled to test the sample using HAMP as a technique for
this development in the manufacturing process.

Mills & Tatara (2016) based on their understanding, “Polyvinyl Alcohol”
(PVA), is water-based adhesive suitable for use in low technique development for the
mass manufacturing process and they believe this adhesive suitable use is for HAMP
for indoor application. Moreover, these researchers recommend using Bolt and Nut
capable to clamp both faces.

Satyanarayana, Arizaga, & Wypych (2009), according to them “ a researcher
that is based on the development manufacturing process, it is important for
researchers to use existing technology and meanwhile, 3D CAD software is used as a
reference for producing HAMP”, (Satyanarayana et al., 2009). Moreover, some study
agrees with this technique by Choppara. Yasudas (2014) and they understand that
developing HAMP depend on the shape of the mould and are not pressured to use it.

Dimla, Camilotto, & Miani (2005), through their understanding of this
technique, find it suitable for use in small scale industries. Besides it opens up the
opportunity for the local manufacturer to develop this technique and they using Hot
Air moulding press technology in improving Slow Design experiment, see figure
2.3.9.4.

Figure 2.3.9.4: Example of 3D CAD Assembly for Manufacturing Moulding Template, (Mills
& Tatara, 2016)

Therefore, through this development manufacturing process using HAMP as a
mould for manufacturing Bagasse and Pith (BP) biocomposite, it is suitable to use

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existing technology such as Ceramic Kiln Chamber or Industrial Oven Dried Machine
to mass-produce cosmetic packaging, soft board, pin board, and dining table mats.

The development of D&B technology manufacturing process by Y. S. Song,
Youn, & Gutowski (2009) had stated, “a moulding template such as HAMP,
researchers need to seal tightly by using welding gas and this can prevent natural
biocomposite spilling out”, (Y. S. Song et al., 2009).

Through this statement above, both researchers agree by Venkatesh &
Venkateswarlu (2013) they use a waste component such as Cotton waste in ceramic
manufacturing. Moreover, they understand by mixing natural fibre with PVA as
adhesive makes it capable to melt down the solution within 180 ᴼ C to 250 ᴼ C +/-.

Through this Slow Design experiment through manufacturing, such as BP
biocomposite board and it is suggested that the researcher seal the sides with high-
temperature gas welding to prevent leaking.

Huang (2016) believe researcher and manufacturer, which used the technical
drawing it is part of the prototype in the manufacturing process and furthermore, it
involves technique on how to manufacture BP biocomposite board. Thus, the Hot Air
technology is a similar technique that is applied to the heat press and unfortunately,
the difference of this technique does not involve pressure. But it depends on
temperature and time use that is suitable for use as craft artwork tangible product via
LCA, sees figure 2.3.9.5.

Figure 2.3.9.5: A Development Concept of Air Kiln Drying Process for Ceramic Production,
(Venkatesh & Venkateswarlu, 2013)

Finally, natural biocomposite for development process study by Seletos &
Salmon (2017) and they have stated that manufacturer needs to use calculation as a
formula to analyse the potential sample BP biocomposite in Slow Design experiment.
Besides according to them, “sample block of household product application by using
natural biocomposite need to test for water absorption and flexure to analyse the
potential of natural fibre using basic calculation formula”, (Seletos & Salmon, 2017).

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