The Development of Sugarcane Biocomposite for Household Product Design Application

each weight. Through these entire samples result for Pith “saccharum officinarum” is
discussed in this sub-topic through this study and as follow on the table below.

Table 4.6.2.1:
A Table of Distribution Frequencies (Dν) “saccharum officinarum” Pith

Overall distribution frequencies (Dν) Movement of Pith Every 3 days

All Sugarcane (yellow cane) Pith W/g W/g W/g 2 W/g 3 W/g 4 W/g 5
“saccharum officinarum” 01

“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample A 2.9 g 2.7 g 2.6 g 2.6 g 2.7 g 2.6 g

“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample B 7.2 6.7 g 6.5 g 6.3 g 6.1 g 6.1 g
“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample C 4.0 g 3.3 g 3.1 g 3.6 g 3.6 g 3.6 g

“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample D 2.0 g 1.7 g 1.8 g 1.8 g 1.9 g 1.8 g
“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample E 6.5 g 6.1 g 6.1 g 5.7 g 5.8 g 5.0 g
“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample F 7.2 g 6.0 g 5.9 g 5.3 g 4.8 g 4.6 g

“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample G 6.5 g 5.7 g 5.8 g 5.4 g 5.0 g 5.0 g
“saccharum officinarum” Pith Sample H 8.6 g 7.1 g 7.5 g 7.2 g 7.0 g 6.8g

Total Overall Distribution Frequencies (Dν) Bagasse Through Oven Dried

1.8 g – 1.9 g 5 5.0 g – 5.9 g 10
7 6.1 g – 6.8 g
2.6 g – 2.9 g 5 7.0 g – 7.5 g 11 • Total Overall Sample Tests = 8 Similar
3.1 g – 3.6 g sample of Pith “saccharum
4.0 g – 4.8 g 3 8.6 g
6 officinarum”

1 • Mode = 11 The Lowest Wet % Lost out
of 22 Trials

• Final Target Overall MC% for
“saccharum officinarum” Pith = 6.5 %

In this “saccharum officinarum” Pith sample A, the weight as it started at W/g
0 is 2.9 and store at Oven Dried Machine using 100 ᴼ C as the constant temperature.
After three days, it found on the second weighing found it decrease 2.7 g, and after six

days left it decreased once more at 2.6 g. at W/g 2 to W/g 3, both of these results show
it decreases about 1 g.

But, in W/g 4 it increased by adding 1 g, as equal to 2.7 g and as final
weighting taking this Pith decreased at 2.6 g same as the six days before at W/g 2 and

Wg 3. As the end of this sample result, three samples which are W/g 2, W/g 3 and
W/g are constant variables from the other three samples.

Next, “saccharum officinarum” Pith sample B, has dropped from its original
weight from the first day it took and as it received the results, W/g 1, W/g 2, W/g 3,

and W/g 4 it decreased every three days as much 2 g. While a similar sample from the
same labelling from sample B, W/g 4 and W/g 5 it maintains do not move, even it

123

gives it constantly. Towards of these, W/g 0 from this sample, it decreased very well
as it through 18 days.

For “saccharum officinarum” Pith sample C giving constant value 3.6 g at
W/g 3, W/g 4 and W/g 5 after 9 days left. But before this W/g 1 and W/g 2 these two
weighing has started to dropped 3.3 g to 3.1 slowly from its original weight was 4.0 g
at W/g 0. These are because as it referring to Rezende et al., (2011), at certain
condition this Pith fibre is a constant value at heat dried and through day by day, or
even in a month, in a constant temperature it still remains of the constant value of
weight gram.

Another similar sample from the same green plant “saccharum officinarum”
Pith sample D, the researcher starting with 2.0 g and moreover, after W/g 2, W/g 3
and W/g 5 it maintains 1.8 g. however, for W/g 1, it decreases to 1.7 g from its
original weight and meanwhile for the W/g 4 increased 1 g from the 1.8 g. this is
because of its contacts to the environment of the room temperature.

In “saccharum officinarum” Pith sample E it decreased from its original
weight taking from 6. 5 g to 5.7 g, as it labelled W/g 0 to Wg 3 and however it
increased back by adding 1 gram as final it dropped by forcedly to 5.0 g. This is
because based on previous study from Lois-Correa, Flores-Vela, Ortega-Grimaldo, &
Berman-Delgado, (2010), the air heat force, force the Pith dries even more due to the
surface of the pith of sugarcane “saccharum officinarum” is to thin so immediately it
has chances for this sample to dry much better.

Secondly, different from the same green plant (yellow cane) “saccharum
officinarum” Pith sample F, G and H, it decreases simultaneously from the original
weigh such as 7.2 g, 6.5 g and 8.6 g. However, after through every three days for
sample F dropped 6.0 g to 4.6 g, a sample from the similar green plant dropped 5.7 g
to 5.0 g and finally for the sample G dropped 7.1 g to 6.8 g. Through this believed
these three samples are positive decrease and slowly drop from its original weight.

The researcher, have calculated by using Dν as to calculate the highest amount
of frequency, as it counts the highest amount was 6.1 g – 6.8 g represented to highest
dries of weight loss and moreover it the dries. After using this equation (2) MC% is
much highest than the other similar samples of this green plant and conclusion as it
calculated the final MC archive 6.5% after 22 trials test toward this entire samples.

= − 0 × 100% (2)

0

124

4.7 THE OVERVIEW IN ANALYSING PARTICLE SIZE OF BP
BIOCOMPOSITE USING SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(SEM) AFTER CRUSHED

Researchers have used Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) in analysing
Bagasse and Pith biocomposite particle size after both of these components was
crushed using food-blending processer. Both of these sample size, the researcher
taking the length of these fibres and was found the length of Bagasse and Pith (BP) are
different went it is scanned under 300 micrometre (µm).

As it analysed the size particle for Bagasse, the researcher pick up randomly
and place on top of the surface of SEM. Then found the size of this three length of
Bagasse of “saccharum officinarum” was the length and plus, rather than Pith from
“saccharum officinarum” was a little bit short after it scans. Both fibres come from
the same green plant of “saccharum officinarum” (yellow cane) and toward in this
search is to analyse the length of these both BP fibres.

4.7.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) for Bagasse and Pith Fibres from
“saccharum officinarum”

The researcher had analysed the Bagasse and Pith (BP) biocomposite after it
had crushed by using food blending processer and the process was efficient to crush
this fibre after it dried for over one month using Oven Dried Machine. After this fibre
dried and packing by turning into biocomposites, these fibres are ready to scan by
using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and the function of this machine was to
analyse the length of this fibre.

The zooming to scan these both fibres was 300 µm and found it much clearer
to see upon through this SEM machine. The length for these BP fibres was different
referring to the digital ruler scale as to analyse these fibres. Moreover, the surface of
Bagasse fibre was really too close to each other and for the Pith it much clear,
separated from each other.

This is because both these fibres, the researcher those not sift or mesh as to
maintain itself after it blending using a food processor and as the end of this
experiment, the researcher has taken the photo and recorded in this study; see figure
4.7.1.1 (Bagasse) and figure 4.7.1.2 (Pith).

125

c) 424µm
b) 303µm

a) 139µm

Figure 4.7.1.1: A Photo of Bagasse Component 300 µm zooming from “saccharum
officinarum” (Yellow Cane) Particle Length is 139 µm to 424 µm: a) Pith Biocomposite 139

µm, b) Pith Biocomposite 303µm, and c) Pith Biocomposite 424µm

Figure 4.7.1.2: A Photo of Pith Component 300µm zooming from “saccharum officinarum”
(Yellow Cane) particle Length is 154 µm to 324 µm using Scanning Electron Microscope

Machine (SEM), a) Pith Component Particle Length Size 154 µm, b) Pith Biocomposite 233
µm, c), Pith Biocomposite Component, 324 µm

As for the final of this result and the discussion experiment analyse the particle
size of BP component that was similarly done by researchers such as Azeh, Olatunji,
& Mamza, (2012); Darvishi & Bakhshi, (2016), who had analysed these natural
biocomposite particle such as eggshell and bagasse particle component suitable for
zoom in under SEM machine which particle sizes are within 100 µm to 250 µm.

4.8 THE OVERVIEW OF WEIGHT RESULT EXPERIMENT 30CM×30CM
SQUARE SHAPE CUTTING WIRE MESH USING GRINDER
ROTARY DISC POWER TOOL MACHINE (GPTM) AND DIAGONAL
PLIER

The overview of this part is to analyse the weight of size of wire mesh by
using a manual balancing scale and based on this balancing weight it is different the
way it uses at the industry because it uses a pendulum as to control this tool. Based on
this, experiment these two sizes come 50 mm × 50 mm and 25mm × 12.7 mm, besides
these two wire mesh it is available at a local hardware shop.

126

Some of the power tool and manual tool are required using in this experiment
such as using a Grinder Rotary Disc Power Tool Machine (GPTM) and Diagonal Plier
to cut this wire mesh. Besides after these tools are used, it needed to flatter with a
heavy flat object such as plywood as a load toward these wire meshes. It also
prevented for this wire mesh to curl back or change the shape, however, it is part of
enhancement strength for BP biocomposite.

In this final discussion, the weight of these two wire meshes between 50 mm ×
50 mm and 25mm × 12.7 mm has different weight after weighing via manual
balancing, scale, as it cut by 30 cm, × 30 cm in a square shape

4.8.1 The Weight Result Experiment 30 cm × 30 cm Square Shape

This experiment used both 30 cm × 30cm wire mesh at different diameter sizes
such as 50 mm × 50 mm and 25 mm × 12.7 mm after being cutting using Grinder
Rotary Disc Power Tool Machine (GPTM) and Diagonal Plier, as shown in table
4.8.1.1. Besides, it has flattening by using heavy flat plywood and clamp it with four
sets of F-clamp as tools to grip these two wire mesh.

Table 4.8.1.1:
Weight Result Experiment 30 cm × 30 cm Wire Mesh Results

Wire Mesh Weight Results

Wire Mesh 50 mm× 50 mm Wire Mesh 25 mm × 12.7 mm

Weighing using Manual Balancing Scale

Wire Mesh size= 30 cm × 30 cm Wire Mesh size= 30 cm × 30 cm

4.16 g 55.2 g

In addition, the good on using this technique to prevent these wire meshes curl

it back or change its form or shape. Thus, this makes the wire mesh easy to controlling

and made it easier to fabricate the BP biocomposite board. The results indicate that 50

mm × 50 mm diameter wire mesh is lighter than the wire with 25 mm × 12.7mm

diameter size.

127

4.9 THE OVERVIEW OF HAND LAY-UP TECHNIQUE IN
MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR FABRICATE BP
BIOCOMPOSITE BOARD

The manufacturing process on fabricating Bagasse and Pith (BP) biocomposite
board, the researcher use raw fibres from the same green plant “saccharum
officinarum” (yellow cane). Besides the form of this sample, it is a flat surface
rectangular form that needed to mix with “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) and the use of
this adhesive was 30% out of its original weight.

The researcher started the material preparation for this manufacturing of BP
biocomposite board namely, Bagasse biocomposite, Pith biocomposite, and PVA
adhesive. Some of the important items are including Hot Air Moulding template
(HAMP) mould, mixing bowl, roller pin and wire meshes.

Due to a high of 50 % water content this PVA adhesive, so as to make the
properties to water contain loose and some of Slow Design experiment is needed such
as using cool press is allow these fibre mixer loose water excess. However, some of
this experiment via fabricates BP biocomposite board such as layering, installing (wire
mesh), flattening and compressing is also needed to be done before it enters into Hot
Air machine.

The researcher had used hand lay-up technique in manufacturing BP
biocomposite Board and the sample size surface is 20 cm (W) × 30 cm (L) × 1.2cm
(H) which it had covered with Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) mould. Next, the
main adhesive in this manufacturing process, the researcher had used “Polyvinyl
Alcohol” (PVA) with supported with wire mesh and curing process with two different
chambers such as Ceramic Kiln Chamber and Industrial Oven Dried Machine.

As for the final, the researcher found that through this manufacturing process
by using these two different machines such as Oven Dried Machine and Ceramic Kiln
Chamber, it has a different result as through this discussion.

4.9.1 Formula Fabricate Bagasse and Pith Biocomposite Board

The area of mould drawn using Autodesk AutoCAD 2007 technical drawing
software was used in manufacturing Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) that was
used in the manufacturing of BP biocomposite Board 30 cm × 20 cm. The 3mm MSP

128

material was used in producing this mould and is available in Industrial Design
Workshop, UiTM.

The thickness of this template is 12 mm that is equal to 1.2 cm standard
thickness for a single board manufacturing process, refer to figure 4.9.1.1. The eight
sets of 5 cm × 30 cm × 0.3 cm bracket was stacked in four pieces with each of 3mm
thickness MSP and researcher had prepared two sets of 5 cm × 30 cm brackets.

Figure 4.9.1.1: A Technical Drawing Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) Mould 30 cm ×
20 cm for Per Sample Unit

Therefore, to fill each four section of Mild Steel Plate (MSP) brackets with
Bagasse and Pith (BP) biocomposite, the researcher needs to calculate the area of
mould in centimetre squared (cm2) by using this mathematical formula Converting
Millimetre (cm) equation (8).

1 × 1 = 10 2 (8)

Besides, the researcher has used Cartesian plane equation (10) as the
development mathematical formula and through these both formulas; the researcher
has combined it into Area of Hot Air Moulding template (HAMP) as in shown below
equation (11) formula into. Through this primary for this study, the researchers have
used this formula as the main for the development of the manufacturing process in the
Slow Design experiment.

g2 = G (10)
S

a) A Mathematical Development Formula for Fabricate BP Biocomposite

= ℎ × ℎ = / 2 (11)

ℎ

Next, based on this first technical drawing of the HAMP mould APPENDIX
MA, see p. 251 as the equipment for fabricating BP biocomposite board and the
researcher have used this Area of Hot Air Moulding template (HAMP) equation (11).

129

To use this development formula, the researcher needs to measure the length and
width of space used for fabricating BP biocomposite board see figure 4.9.1.2, by
converting it into centimetre (cm2) and the weighing each of both Bagasse and Pith
(BP) “saccharum officinarum”.

= ℎ × ℎ = / 2 (11)

ℎ

Figure 4.9.1.2: The Area for Fabricate Bagasse and Pith Biocomposite Dough for Per-Sample
Board

Each layer of these four bracket sets, the researcher was able to fill each of
four sections brackets with 60 g/cm2 of Bagasse and 60 g/cm2 Pith biocomposite
yellow cane from its original weight of 240 g. This process was similarly used by
other researchers such as Fiorelli et al., (2012); Ghaffar & Fan (2014), who had used
this formula using adhesive glue.

The original weight of PVA adhesive solution is 4kg and researcher need to
amount of determining glue used towards the surface of HAMP mould using reference
equation 2. The mould came in 30 cm (L) × 20 cm (W) × 1.2 (H) and using this
formula only 30% of glue is used Weight PVA Percentage used, equation (4) in the
mixing process and moreover, BP biocomposite is able to turn into homogenous clay
after it is mixed with PVA solution. During the mixing process, researchers need to
add another 15% of PVA solution.

ℎ = ℎ × 100% (4)

ℎ

Meanwhile, this process prevents the drying process using bare hand and this
process is called pre-kneading and second half kneading. If BP biocomposite Dough
became too wet, it needs to add another 110 g of blended Bagasse component and this

130

is to strengthen the binder allowing it to properly mix so that it becomes lighter after it
added the PVA.

In this process, the researcher needs to apply cool press technique for 30
minutes and maintain the flattener of BP biocomposite Dough using 30 cm × 20 cm
MSP and the researcher only removed it after 30 minutes later. Next, tighten the Bolt
[3.8 cm (L) × 0.6 cm (H) × 0.9 cm (D)] × 20(T)] and Nut [0.6 cm (H) × 1.5 cm (D)]
using adjustable spanner and press the MSP using four sets of F-clamp.

Another set of the process was done without layering within MSP 30 cm × 20
cm× 0.3 cm, but through the curing process inside Industrial Oven Drying Machine.
Meanwhile, for Ceramic Kiln Chambers researchers need to place one layer of 30 cm
× 20 cm × 0.3 cm MSP.

Finally, set up the temperature around 180ᴼ C to 220ᴼ C with curing time
between 2 hours to 4 hours. Furthermore, researchers need to transfer this HAMP
mould for curing in Industrial Oven Drying Machine or Ceramic Kiln and cured
output will produce BP biocomposite board. Similarly, through these process,
Kwiatkowska-Wrobel & Magdelena, (2017), had used other green plant
biocomposites such as Banana Red, Nendran, Rasthaly, Morris and Poovan that had
been cured at different temperatures namely 130ᴼ C, 160ᴼ C, 180ᴼ C and 240ᴼ C.

4.9.2 Result Fabricate Bagasse and Pith (BP) Biocomposite Board

Burst effect and rise effect can be observed after the curing process of 3 to 4
hours using Industrial Oven Drying Machine at 180 ᴼ C. Any existence of air pores
during curing process at 180ᴼ C after 3 hours and 30 minutes can cause this type of
defect.

The other experiment went through the curing process in 2 hours and 30
minutes and resulted in half cook situation during curing process using Ceramic Kiln
Chamber. Finally, the BP biocomposite that is an experiment using the same chamber
had turned the board into dark graphite and did not get burst effect after it was cured
for 4 hours at 180ᴼ C, as shown in figure 4.9.2.1.

131

Figure 4.9.2.1: Finding Through First Experiment Attempt via Manufacturing BP
Biocomposite Board using Ceramic Kiln Chamber and Industrial Oven Dried Machine: a) Air
Pores Effect after 3 hours and 30 minutes and 180 ᴼ C, b) Rises Effect after 4h+/- and 220 ᴼ C,
c) A Burst Effect Through Industrial Oven Dried Machine after 2 hours and 30 minutes, d) A
Manufacturing BP Biocomposite Board Over Burn after 4h+/- and 180ᴼ C, and e) Half Cured

Effect 2h 30 minutes and 180ᴼ C

4.10 THE OVERVIEW OF OPTIMIZATION IN MANUFACTURING
PROCESS FOR BAGASSE AND PITH BIOCOMPOSITE

The overviews of this topic, the researcher have improved the mould design as
the tools for fabricating BP biocomposite board and previously the manufacturing was
not successes enough. However, the researcher has improved this HAMP mould as the
development mould was installed with the frame as to cover each edge of the mould to
prevent the burst effect. The development of HAMP manufacturing had been
optimised and these processes were carried out at Industrial Design Workshop using
arc welding technique.

As for the final result, this mould was succeeded with installing the frame
towards HAMP mould and moreover, this towards this development, the researcher
found that it was safe to be used for curing process without any spilling.

4.10.1 The Optimization Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP)

Through this development mould for HAMP researcher has used arc welding
as to improved the HAMP mould as to prevent from leaking while curing the BP
biocomposite. The main reason for this optimization of the mould was, the researcher
had welded frames and placing left and right. The researcher had welded the mould
using arc welding to reduce any leakage and improvise HAMP mould by adding a
frame 2 5 cm × 30 cm × 0.3 cm on the left and right sides, see APPENDIX MB p.
251.

132

Thus, it was able to reduce the leakage amount, bursting effect and rise effect
on BP biocomposite board sample during the curing process, refer to figure 4.10.1.1.
This was also suggested by Shivakumara, Babu, & Pravee (2013) since they had
studied leakage on 3 mm and 4 mm metal plate pipe, in addition to this experiment
using arc welding method to seal the leakage from only three samples marked as
seepage.

Figure 4.10.1.1: A Development of Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) via using Arc
Welding Technique via Reducing Leakage, Bursting Effect, and Rise Effect: a) A-Frame had

Weld using Arc Weld and b) A development of HAMP Mould

4.11 THE OVERVIEW OF OPTIMIZATION BAGASSE AND PITH (BP)
BIOCOMPOSITE DOUGH PROCESS

The researcher had optimized the dough using wax paper, undergone curing
process and blower drying. Moreover, this BP biocomposite dough optimization
involves throwing technique and wrapping with plastic cover. Through this
optimization, the researcher used the same amount of 30 % of “Polyvinyl Alcohol”
(PVA) as the adhesive mixture for these two fibres of sugarcane “saccharum
officinarum” (yellow cane).

Besides, the through this this discussion, researcher included with additional
method as to improvise BP dough biocomposite, such as throwing, greasing, wax
papering and tearing before it cure under the same temperature 180ᴼ C. As a result of
this discussion, the researcher found the BP biocomposite board was success curing at
the same temperature with the different time use. As followed throughout all this
curing process, with three samples BP biocomposite board from Industrial Oven Dried
Machine and another, three samples from Ceramic Kiln Chamber, the researcher
discussed more detailed in this subchapter.

133

4.11.1 The Optimization BP Biocomposite Dough

The researcher had applied a throwing technique onto the dough for 10
minutes+/- in an attempt to remove any trapped moisture inside until it became lighter
and softer. Moreover, the researcher had wrapped the dough using plastic wrapping
and place at the chiller prevent from this mixture dough turn into mould or fungus.
The mixture of dough contains overall was 240 g and each of the weight of this fibre
was 120 g for Bagasse and 120 g for Pith (BP) fibres with 30 % of PVA.

This is in parallel with the same method described by other researchers namely
F. et al, (2010); Hoque, Hossain, & Akter (2009); Preciado (2015), based on research
done using the throwing method is applied to the natural dough biocomposite and the
idea was supported by Clayton, (2006), who agreed with this method since he himself
had applied the same method for 8 minutes to 10 minutes +/- in order to remove
moisture inside baked Dough as shown in figure 4.11.1.1.

Figure 4.11.1. 1: A Throwing Method Applying for BP Biocomposite Dough for 10
minutes+/-

Next, the researcher also has added a layer of wax paper and layered with
grease spray type in preventing from the BP dough stick upon on top Hot Air
Moulding Template (HAMP) per shown in figure 4.11.1.2. In addition, it gained
strength from fibre inside the paper as it bio-adsorbed moisture. Similar research by
Beringer (2014), using wax paper in the fabrication of natural biocomposite Dough, it
is able to filter the moisture because of the fibre which is a component that bio
adsorbed.

Figure 4.11.1.2: Method for Spraying with Wax Paper and Placing Paper Wax via on top of
Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP): a) spray the HAMP Mould using Grease, b) Place Wax
Paper on top of HAMP mould, c) Close and Arrange Wax Paper onto Surface, d) Spray Again
on top Wax Paper Surface, e) Flatting Wax Paper Surface with Hand Push Gently and f) used

Cutter Blade by Slicing the Paper Wax Excessive

134

After this process has done, the researcher places the dough and layered with a
single 30 cm × 30 cm of wire mesh 50 mm × 50 mm. Upon this layering, each of
thickness dough layered was 6 mm and over the centre, the researcher has placed this
wire mesh and layered again with BP dough using hand lay up technique. Closed
HAMP mould with closet and clamped with four sets of F-clamp by tightening it. The
reason why this process is added as cool press because the water content in the PVA
was much larger, due to this optimization it helps to loosen the water content of PVA
properties.

After 1-hour cool press process success, researcher opens up again the HAMP
closet and started to peeled wax paper with a finger of bared hand as shown in figure
4.11.1.3. It important to remove both sides wax paper, this is because the researcher
has layered this wax paper on the bottom and top surfaces of the BP biocomposite
block. As this process is done researcher had tightening bolt and nut by using an
adjustable spanner and with HAMP closet before it ready to be a cure.

Figure 4.11.1.3: Method of Removing Water Excessive, Peeling Wax Paper and Drying for 1
Hour+/- Frontside and Backside: a) Cool Press for 1 Hour, b) Peeling Wax Paper Backside
and Frontside, and c) Air drying for 1 Hour+/-
The researcher had improved curing process by using Ceramic Kiln Chamber

at 180ᴼ C for 3 hours and 30 minutes +/-. Additionally, BP biocomposite board was
dried using an electrically powered air blower to enhance PVA adhesive and able to
improve the properties of binder strength. There are similar researches by Halim
(2008); Sepp (2015), had cured homogeneous biocomposite inside Ceramic Kiln
Chamber and they believe it was able to improve binder properties since the adhesive
had melted through the curing process.

Additionally, researchers had added another technique that is applying grease
on top of wax paper and curing at 180ᴼ C for 3 hours and 30 minutes inside the
ceramic kiln. Finally, blower technique using air blower machine enabled the board to
enhance its strength properties, see figure 4.11.1.4.

135

Figure 4.11.1.4: Curing Process via using Ceramic Kiln Chamber in 180 ᴼ C for 2hours+/- to
4 hours+/- and Blower Process for 30 minutes for Front side and Backside: a) A Hot Air

Moulding Template (HAMP) mould Enter in Ceramic Kiln Chamber, b) Curing Process for 2
hours to 4 Hour+/- and c) Blowing via BP Biocomposite for 30 minutes Backside and Front

side
From this mixing process experiment for Bagasse and Pith (BP) biocomposite
Dough, it was found that waste will have fungus after 4 hours to 8 hours because of
the moisture from the air that trapped inside this mixing. Additionally, this mix wasted
around 240 g to 277 g +/- as only 1.44 kg was used to manufacture 30 cm × 20 cm BP
biocomposite board.
Because of this problem researcher had wrapped the dough using stretchable
plastic to prevent the fungus from growing and additionally, this plastic wrap can be
stored in a chiller machine for 24 hours+/- while the dough is in wrapping plastic as
shown in figure 4.11.1.5. As for the final experiment, after it was heated using a hot
air blow gun, the researcher had cooled press it using three heavy objects such as
claystone to press the dough to prevent it from bending effect for the top surface of BP
biocomposite.

Figure 4.11.1.5: A 30 cm × 20 cm BP Biocomposite Board via Curing in Ceramic Kiln
Chamber in 3 hours and 30 minutes via 180 ᴼ C and Waste of BP Biocomposite Dough from

“saccharum officinarum” had wrapped via using Stretching Plastic

After this process is done, the researcher had added, stone ballast as to
maintain the form of BP biocomposite board and this is because to prevent this BP
board bend by itself after it curing process, see figure 4.11.1.6. Thus, based on this
result, the researcher had carried out the manufacturing process of Bagasse and Pith
(BP) biocomposite board. Furthermore, the conditioning time for this successful
sample at room temperature 30ᴼ C was recorded before it was ready to be cut.

136

Figure 4.11.1.6: Cool Press for Three Days for 72 Hours Room Temperature 30 ᴼ C
As the conclusion for this curing process for both machines such as using

Industrial Oven Dried Machine and Ceramic Kiln Chamber, the researcher had listed
down each of three samples BP board in a separated table. This table included with
sample BP biocomposite board, temperature, the before and after development HAMP
mould, thickness, numbers of wire mesh, reheat and drying process, time and status of
these samples, see table 4.11.1.7 and table 4.11.1.8.

137

Table 4.11.1.7:
Table of Result BP Biocomposite Board through the Curing Process in Industria

Industrial Oven Dried Ma

Sample BP Temperature HAMP Thickness Wire Mesh Reheat
Biocomposite Board Mould
/ mm Layer

Brackets only 9 mm 2 layer 25 None
mm × 12.7

mm

BP biocomposite A

180ᴼ C Brackets only 12 mm 3 layer 25 Reheat Ov
mm × 12.7 110ᴼ C in

mm minutes

BP biocomposite B

Brackets only 12 mm 3 layer 25 Reheat Ov
mm × 12.7 110ᴼ C in

mm minutes

BP biocomposite C

13

al Oven Drying Machine at the Faculty of Art & Design

achine Experiment Result

t Drying Time Status Reference Pages
Process

4 Hours Bursting effect during in curing APPENDIX 247
process, this is because 4 sets KA
of F-Clamp had given pressure
to the sample

Good condition, unfortunately,

3 An it sticks on HAMP mould
ven surface and cracks on the
hour APPENDIX
30 backside. Moreover, it had air 247
s None and 30 pores this cause measurement KB

minutes mixture amount adhesive is not

well done

ven 2 hour Turn into dark brown, but
30 and 30
never put the weight. As a APPENDIX 248

result, it sticks on HAMP KC
s minutes mould surface

38

Table 4.11.1.8:
Table of Result BP biocomposite Board through the Curing Process in Ceramic

Ceramic Kiln Chambe

Sample BP Temperature HAMP Thickness / Wire Mesh Reheat
Biocomposite Board Mould mm Layer

Brackets 12 mm None None
and Frame

180ᴼ C Brackets 12 mm 50 mm × 50 None
and Frame mm

Brackets 9 mm 2 Units of Reheat Oven
only 25 mm × 100ᴼ C in 1
12.7 mm
Hour

13

c Kiln Chamber Faculty of Art & Design

er Experiment Result

Drying Time Status Reference Pages
Process

Drying 2 hour Turning into dark APPENDIX 249
Process for 1 and 30 graphite and easy to LA
minutes remove
hour

Drying 3 hour Good condition, none APPENDIX 249
Process for 1 and 30 stick and easy to remove, LB
minutes unfortunately, the small
hour bending effect

None 4 Hours Half finish drying process APPENDIX 250
it starts to “fungi” but LC

none stick

39

4.11.2 The Overall Detailing Result and Discussion Cause Curing Process for BP
Biocomposite

I Based on curing BP Biocomposite in Industrial Oven Dried Machine

In this curing time experiment, the researcher has used 30% of “Polyvinyl

Alcohol” (PVA) as the an-adhesive mixture for BP biocomposite and in
addition, the researcher has used 180ᴼ C as a consistent temperature for identifying the
effectiveness of this machine. The thickness for BP biocomposite A is 9 mm different,
from these two BP biocomposite B and BP biocomposite C is 12 mm.

However, as soon as it is completed, the researcher has identified based on
different time-consuming effect toward these biocomposites and with this that some
BP biocomposites cannot cure very well. With this study, the researcher has discussed
both machines and as a result, the researcher has found that only one successful BP
biocomposite block that capable to be tested.

Based on the figure 4.11.2.1 below, shows three samples of the same material
and it was made from sugarcane Bagasse and Pith (BP) “saccharum officinarum”. All
three of these samples have different time use to cure to become a BP biocomposite
flat block. These three samples are curing using the same hot-air oven drying
machine, furthermore, for the time curing BP biocomposite A is 2 hours 30 minutes,
while BP biocomposite B is 3 hours 30 minutes and for BP biocomposite C is 4 hours.

Figure 4.11.2.1: BP Biocomposite Curing using in Industrial Oven Dried Machine: A) BP
Biocomposite Curing for 2 Hours 30 Minute, B) BP Biocomposite Curing For 3 Hours 30

Minute and C) BP Biocomposite 4 Hours

As results, BP biocomposite A faced a problem when the BP fabrication
mixture had received high pressure from four sets of F-clamp and therefore, it gave
bursting status toward of these F-clamps that are strong fitted on HAMP surface.
Unfortunately, this mixture content is too wet and not very effective when curing for 2
hours 30 minutes. Therefore, this is because based on research from Geethamma,
Kalaprasad, Groeninckx, & Thomas, (2005) they found that excessive adhesive
content makes the biocomposite material not dry properly and besides that, there

140

another reason that the mix does not coincide.
Next, the discussion on BP biocomposite B, this sample had slightly different

from the previous problem and where this sample is attached to the HAMP mould
surface. In addition, this BP biocomposite also has to receive an air-pores effect, when
it set constant temperature for 180ᴼ C and curing for 3 hours 30 minutes. Through this
experiment result, Rovnaník & Al, (2010) the main cause of this air pore problem is
due to the high-temperature rise factor and this cause the adhesive cannot be cure
properly, making the air-pores become larger, as well as resulting, the surface of this
natural biocomposite capable to break.

A result for BP biocomposite C, after it had been a cure for 4 hours and the
researcher found out, this sample is turned to dark brown compared to BP
biocomposite A and BP biocomposite B are turned into pale brown colour. This is
because the researcher had placed three sets of wire mesh with a size of 12 mm × 12.7
mm and furthermore, during curing process this BP biocomposite C expanding
dramatically due to wire mesh material is good conductor toward heat.

As result and discussion of these three samples of BP biocomposite A, BP
biocomposite B and BP biocomposite C, the use of this hot-air oven dried is
unsuitable as curing for bagasse and pith (BP) biocomposite block.

II Based on curing BP Biocomposite in Industrial Ceramic Kiln Chamber

In this experiment, the researcher has used hot-air ceramic kiln chamber as
a place for BP biocomposite curing test and based on figure 4.11.2.2, the results
show after curing process and moreover, these three samples have different results
toward of using this machine.

Figure 4.11.2.2: BP Biocomposite Curing using Ceramic Kiln Chamber: A) BP
Biocomposite Curing for 2 Hours 30 Minutes, B) BP Biocomposite Curing for 3 Hours 30

Minute And C) BP Biocomposite 4 Hours
The researcher used the same medium of 30% “polyvinyl alcohol” (PVA) and
mixing with 120 gram (g) of bagasse and 120 g of pith from same sugarcane “S.

141

officinarum”. Furthermore, the experiments done labelled as BP biocomposite A, BP
biocomposite B and BP biocomposite C, but, the time curing use is same as in hot-air
oven dried such as 2 hours 30 minutes, 3 hours 30 minutes and 4 hours.

The thickness for BP biocomposite A and BP biocomposite B is 12 mm,
meanwhile for BP biocomposite C is 9 mm, unfortunately, BP biocomposite A and BP
biocomposite C, the result gave differences when it curing for 2 hours 30 minutes and
4 hours. Thus, toward this results in these three samples of BP biocomposite A, B and
C are discussed in this paper.

The result for BP biocomposite A, it is a cure for 2 hours 30 minutes and as the
result after using this hot-air ceramic kiln chamber and the researcher found that the
problem was this natural biocomposite turned into dark graphite. At the same time this
biocomposite it capable to be removed after this curing experiment and however, this
is because the researcher had grease surface of Hot Air Moulding template (HAMP)
before it enters in this hot-air ceramic kiln chamber.

Next, for BP biocomposite B, this natural fibre biocomposite cure for 3 hours
30 minutes and however, through this time-consuming use for this curing process, the
resulted are positive. This is because, the researcher had done using cool press toward
BP biocomposite B for decreasing the water content inside of PVA properties and as
the resulted, it is easy to remove from the mould. Besides, the surface of BP
biocomposite B properties was compact when it cures under the temperature of 180ᴼ
C and rather than, the BP biocomposite A was still wet, even it curing for 2 hours 30
minutes.

The BP biocomposite C this block has a cure for 4 hours, unfortunately, this
biocomposite had a problem due the time-consuming are too long and even, the
researcher used cool pressed as to lose water content this biocomposite. The different
between BP biocomposite A and BP biocomposite C through this curing process, the
researcher found, it the time-consuming for these two biocomposites, the researcher
has added 1 hour 30 minutes.

Thus, these believed BP biocomposite B is the right result and furthermore, the
right time use for curing BP biocomposite is 3 hour 30 minutes by using Ceramic Kiln
Chamber

4.12 THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES STRENGTH TEST FOR BAGASSE
AND PITH (BP) BIOCOMPOSITE BOARD

142

The material properties for this experiment, the researcher have used American
Standard Test Material (ASTM) D 1037 that suitable use to testing BP biocomposites
such as flexural, water absorption and thickness swelling (TS). According to this
standard, the size of each this sample for testing biocomposite is different and
additionally, the use such as an Instron machine is important as to analyse the strength
of BP biocomposite. In addition, based on this test, the researcher has provided three
samples of BP biocomposites of size 21.4 cm × 3.5 × 1.2 cm and has been cut using a
circular machine that is available at Faculty of Applied Science.

For the next test, these three more samples of BP biocomposite were cut with
the size of 50 mm × 50 mm × 1.2 mm using the same machine and the main purposed
was to test the capacity of absorption water for 24 hours. Next, after the completion of
the absorption test, with these three same samples of BP biocomposite, researchers
can record the TS using digital veneer calliper. With these results obtained,
researchers are able to identify the true strength of BP biocomposite that is discussing
in this search.

4.12.1 The Discussion Water Absorption Experiment on Bagasse and Pith (BP)
Biocomposite

In this guideline of ASTM D 1037, the standard size sample testing for a
single block of particle board such as BP biocomposite is 50 mm × 50 mm × 1.2 mm.
The duration time to soak this sample is 24 hour simultaneously, in addition, these
samples it is labelling BP biocomposite A, BP biocomposite B, and BP biocomposite
C, the researcher has to place a single sandcrete block as to increase the mobility force
toward this sample, as shown figure 4.12.1.1.

Figure 4.12.1.1: A Water Absorption Test Set-Up Experiment BP as Labelled Biocomposite
A, BP biocomposite B and Biocomposite C

As the results received, toward of this experiment, the “Polyvinyl Alcohol”
(PVA) properties that mix with Bagasse and Pith (BP) is much higher, through these

143

experiment based on the result, the researcher expressing towards this discussion by

referring to table 4.12.1.2.

Table 4.12.1.2:
Table Result of Water Absorption for BP Biocomposite

50 mm × 50 mm sample of W0 W1 % Total Average of WA
BP biocomposite %

BP biocomposite A 32.6 g 79.2 g 142.9% 148.43%
BP biocomposite B 38.1 g 91.2 g 139.3%

BP biocomposite C 40.8 g 107.1 g 162.5

The first result for BP biocomposite A, the initial weight was 32.6 g and after

soaked, for overnight, it increased to 79.2 g, as the total average water absorption for

this first sample is 142.9 %. However, by monitoring this sample found that the water

content is secondary higher than the other two sample BP biocomposite B and BP

biocomposite C. Furthermore, the surface for this sample is expanded more rather that

these two samples.

Before this a similar research from V. Tserki, P. Matzinos, (2006), the main

reason is that natural biocomposite is concentrated to water causing this sample to

change its original shape, and moreover, it is less sticky due to the constant exposure

to natural moisture or concentrates on room temperature.

Next, sample BP biocomposite B, the original weight after it was cut is 38.8 g

and this sample has also soak for 24 hours, it raised 91.2 g. Based on this sample, the

researcher found that this sample is placed at the centre between the left and right of

BP biocomposite A and BP biocomposite C.

Based on a previous study Cengel, (2006), this is due to the gravitational

attraction at the centre of the concrete rock gravity centre focusing on the pressure in

the centre, which cause this concentrate pressure pressed more towards of this sample.

Additionally, after it was analysed, it increased by 91.2 g and the overall average

water absorption for this sample was 139.3 %.

As for the resulting sample BP biocomposite C, the first weight as the

researcher record was 40.8 g and after it soaked for one day, it has increased to 107.1

g, which is the highest value for this soaking result. However, the average for this

sample was 162.5 % the highest value beside of sample BP biocomposite A and BP

biocomposite B.

Referring to this article from Bakri, Liyana, Norazian, Kamarudin, & Ruzaidi,

(2013) cited to Rigoberto Burgueño, Mario J. Quagliat, Amar Mohanty, (2005) the

144

structure of Bagasse and Pith (BP) S. officinarum properties have very sensitive
towards water and besides, it depends on the amount of material mixture such as
adhesive use, due on this a large amount of raw material a un–control amount capable
to absorb more during water absorption test.

Finally, through this experiment toward on testing BP biocomposite A, BP
biocomposite B and BP biocomposite C, the total average of water had been absorbed
was 148.43 % and based on this average range of water absorption, understand that
this BP material surface was super absorption toward the water.

4.12.2 The Discussion Thickness Swelling (TS) Experiment on Bagasse and Pith
Biocomposite

For the preparation for thickness swelling (TS) test on these three samples of
BP biocomposites, the researcher has used digital veneer calliper as to measure the
thickness before and after the BP biocomposite as it immersed for 24 hours. The total
sample in these experiments has three identical samples of 50 mm × 50 mm × 12 mm,
which has been immersed in a single container containing tap water and together with
a single of the sandcrete block as ballast.

This ballast has stayed on top of these three samples of BP biocomposite, as it
immersed after 24 hours and removed from the container containing water, the
researcher has re-measure four each side of these three samples using veneer calliper
as shown in figure 4.12.2.1. Then the researcher has found the TS is different from the
previous it’s taking and thus, the researcher explains the results towards this
discussion.

Figure 4.12.2.1: The Apparatus Set-Up using Veneer Calliper for Per- Sample of 50 mm × 50
mm × 12 mm

In order to facilitate the reading of the table 4.12.2.2 as shown, the study has
been tabulated with the readings of BP biocomposite sample A, BP biocomposite
sample B and BP biocomposite sample C, all the dimensions sizes are 50 mm × 50

145

mm × 12 mm. To read all these samples, for example [TS/A as it is written (A) sample
of BP biocomposite] and followed by [thickness swelling at each corner of this sample
is A, B, C, and D]. When this reading is combined, it is read TS/AA, TS/AB, TS/AC
and TS/AD in other two samples such as BP biocomposite sample B and BP
biocomposite sample C comes with same of size and labelling.

146

Table 4.12.2.2:
Table of Thickness Swelling Test for Three Similar Properties of Bagas

Thicknes

50 mm × 50 mm similar of TS % A TS % B
properties samples of BP

biocomposite

TS0 TS1 TS % TS0 TS1 T

BP biocomposite A 12.61 14.27 13.16 12.19 15.00 2
BP biocomposite B mm mm % mm mm
BP biocomposite c
12.24 14.92 20.74 12.05 15.87 3
mm mm % mm mm

13.07 15.94 21.95 12.46 14.75 1
mm mm % mm mm

sse and Pith Biocomposite with 50 mm × 50 mm

ss Swelling Test (TS)

TS % C TS % D Total Total
Overall TS Average of

% TS%

TS % TS0 TS1 TS % TS0 TS1 TS %

23.05 12.48 15.15 21.39 13.40 15.19 13.35 17.13 % 19.59 %
% mm mm % mm mm % 25.59 %
15.28 %
31.70 12.84 16.43 27.95 12.42 15.15 21.98
% mm mm % mm mm %

18.37 12.88 14.87 15.52 14.0 14.74 5.28
% mm mm % mm mm %

147

The sample BP biocomposite A after it had soaked for over one night, the
weight of each four edges had increased and through by using veneer calliper as a tool
for measuring, the researcher found that each of four has different thickness. The first
edges are TS/AA the original thickness had increased from 12.61 mm to 14.27 mm
and for sample BP biocomposite TS/AD from the same sample but the different edge,
this thickness was 13.40 mm and increased to 15.19 mm after it soaked for one day.

However, the TS/AB and TS/AC increased slightly from its original thickness
was 12.19 mm and 12.48 mm. Moreover, after it has soaked with tap water the
thickness nearly 15.00 mm to 15.15 mm, through this result of these four samples
from the same properties of BP TS/AB, TS/AC and TS/AD was controlled range after
it soaked for one day and the range was 15.00 mm, 15.15 mm and 15.19 mm.

The researcher identified that in every corner of the samples, TS/AA and
TS/AD did not have significant differences, in which both sides of the results were the
TS percentage was between 13.16 % and 13.35 %. However, it given the contrast to
TS/AC and TS/AB as it measured using the same tool, it is slightly increased from
21.39 % to 23.05%.

With these results, these four sides of TS percentage, after this entire corner
has measured and as it calculated the total percentage of these TS are categorized as a
constant variable. Furthermore, these entire corners as it labelled TS/AA, TS/AB,
TS/AC and TS/AD the total overall TS was only 17.73% compared to BP
biocomposite B which is the highest of the total overall TS percentage is 25.5%.

Next, the sample for BP biocomposite B, as the researcher taking the thickness
after 24 hours TS/BA was increased to 14.92 mm from the original thickness and
before this was 12.24 mm. For the TS/BD, this thickness swelling (TS) were
accelerated to 15.15 mm and initial measurement thickness taking before it soaked
into tap water, were different up to 2.73 mm.

Another two thickness with similar sample BP biocomposite B as it labelling
TS/BB and TS/BC as the first thickness taking were 12.05 mm and 12.84 mm. But,
after it soaked for 24 hours with similar properties 30 % of PVA was greater than the
first it takes as it measured 15.87 mm for TS/BB and TS/BC is 12.43. This is because,
this sample BP biocomposite B expanded better than sample BP biocomposite A and
sample of BP biocomposite C, Zou, Jin, & Xin, (2008) explained that the PVA
adhesive containing “hydroxide”(OH) as initiate in excel of water absorption much

148

higher and it capable to disturbed “saccharum officinarum” properties, thus it
encourages of problematic with expanded factor.

As the above statement, the researcher understand, that PVA was the
capability to absorb more water and in addition, it also forces the “saccharum
officinarum” especially Bagasse properties to absorbed more toward tap water. So the
thickness for this single sample of BP biocomposite B for TS/BA and TS/BD, the
thickness swelling was nearly increased 20.74% and 21.98%, however, with the
sample BP biocomposite B with different edges the thickness was TS/BB are 31.70 %
and TS/BC is 27.95 %.

The researcher had calculated the total overall for this sample, as it the amount
of TS percentage is way higher as it received 25.59 % and this sample is the highest
absorbed with the water tap after 24 hours.

For the final similar sample properties yellow cane, as it labelled BP
biocomposite sample C and the first TS percentage for TS/CC, TS/CB and TS/CA was
slowly increased as it started 15.52 %, 18.37 % and 21.95 %. The discussion for
TS/CA, the initial thickness taking was 13.07 mm and however, it excels to 15.94
mm. similar to the other two thickness for this sample BP biocomposite C, TS/CB the
first measure was 12.46 mm, as it is enlarged to 14.75 mm another thickness TS/CC
boost up from its original thickness as it measured 12.88 mm rise to 14.87 mm.

These three thicknesses TS took for BP biocomposite sample C, researcher
understood, that the after measurement recorded for this single BP biocomposite with
similar size 50 mm × 50 mm and was slowly expand after it taking the measurement.
Unfortunately, for TS/CD was way very different from the other these three
thicknesses and after the researcher taking the measurement and calculation, the TS
percentage for this sample was 5.89 %.

This is because TS/CD, the original measurement was 14.0 mm and as it
soaked for 24 hours it initiated to 14.74 mm, about 0.74 mm it had expanded.
Throughout this outline from Ochepo, (2013), the Pith sugarcane yellow cane is agent
prevented from water tap to enter toward this BP properties and besides this is also
cause of the Pith had largest amount properties, immediately it has large amount
shrinkage. Throughout this, the total overall TS percentage for BP biocomposite
sample C was 15.28 % and besides, it is a small amount to received TS percentage.

Finally, as the total average of TS percentage these three sample 50 mm × 50
mm of BP biocomposite A, BP biocomposite B and BP biocomposite C, are 19.53 %.

149

Based on this citation from Ismail & Zaaba, (2011), the properties of Bagasse and
PVA was the main point for this TS sample having greater absorb after 24 hours and
furthermore, the PVA was contained mixing with water. Immediately it has greater
chances for these properties of BP biocomposite A, BP biocomposite B and BP
biocomposite C to absorb more.

As the advantage for this fibre biocomposite, researcher understands that these
BP fibres based on previous reviews such as Ismail & Zaaba, (2011); Zou et al.,
(2008), understood this BP biocomposite capable to be used for interior used.

4.12.3 The Discussion Flexure Test (FT) Experiment on Bagasse and Pith
Biocomposite Result

The starting point figure 4.12.3.1, for this testing via referring to ASTM
International, (1999), the thickness of samples is needed at least 1.2 cm with length at
least not less than 10 cm and width not less 2 cm. However, by following through this
particle board standard guideline, the length sample is depending on the length of span
support is needed 21 cm or if the length sample is not achieved the standard, then used
the other biocomposite number not less than 9mm or at least 12 cm, or 18 cm.

Figure 4.12.3.1: Flexure Test Graph for Three Sample of BP biocomposite
The distance load from the sample must at least 6 mm / 6 second (s),
immediately it allows this load to pressing the BP biocomposite sample, and
furthermore, these samples, the researcher have labelled BP biocomposite A, BP
biocomposite B and BP biocomposite C. To calculate the length of this sample by
adding all the length, width and the thickness sample by divided by three as to set-up
length of span support, moreover all these samples labelling the size that uses for this
test is 21.4 cm × 3.5 × 1.2 cm.
The distance load from the sample must at least 6 mm / 6 second (s),
immediately it allow this load to pressing the BP biocomposite sample, and

150

furthermore, these samples, the researcher have labelled BP biocomposite A, BP
biocomposite B and BP biocomposite C as shown in table 4.12.3.2. To calculate the
length of this sample by adding all the length, width and the thickness sample by
divided by three as to set-up length of span support, moreover all these samples
labelling the size that uses for this test is 21.4 cm × 3.5 × 1.2 cm.

Table 4.12.3.2:
Three samples of Flexure Test Result for BP Biocomposite

A similar sample Extension at Final Thickness Final Width Modulus
Break (Standard (mm) (mm) (Automatic)
of BP
mm) (MPa)
biocomposite
“saccharum 131.76674
officinarum”
90.24761
(yellow cane)
56.10374
BP biocomposite -50.01924 12.13000 36.93000 92.70603
”saccharum 131.76674
Maximum Flexure
officinarum“ A” Load (N)

BP biocomposite -47.07102 11.67000 32.02000 67.02802
”saccharum
43.07697
officinarum“ B
23.71319
BP biocomposite -46.31779 11.81000 33.97000
”saccharum 33.70280
-36.08136 11.85500 34.22250 67.02802
officinarum“ C -0.91741 12.13000 36.93000

Mean

Maximum

A similar sample of Extension at Yield Flexure load at MOR
(Zero Slope) (mm) yield (Zero Slope)
BP biocomposite
“saccharum (N)
officinarum”

(yellow cane)

BP biocomposite -27.33935 66.39242 3.07906
”saccharum
-28.67110 43.07697 2.48933
officinarum“ A
-18.24794 23.71319 1.26123
BP biocomposite
”saccharum -24.75279 44.39419 2.27654
.18.24794 66.39242 3.07906
officinarum“ B

BP biocomposite
”saccharum

officinarum“ C

Mean

Maximum

151

The BP biocomposite A the maximum load flexural was 67.02 N, in addition,
the total extension break was -50.02 mm, a module of rupture (MOR) was achieved
3.08 MP and the modulus of elastic (MOE) was much higher by achieving 131.7.
Unfortunately, the reason this sample having highest ME this is because of the flexure
load Newton has more impact and meanwhile, the extension of the slope at the end of
this tested is achive -27.33 mm.

Next, for the BP biocomposite B had slightly different from sample BP
biocomposite A, due to the maximum flexural load only 43.07 N and the MOR was
2.59 MPa that had been pressed at the end of extension break at -47.07 mm. However,
this biocomposite the ME had received 90.24 MPa and the end of the slope of this
testing it drops to 43.18 N.

The final sample is BP biocomposite C, this sample was having trouble due to
having a high flexibility test at the end of the slope of flexural and extension break.
Both of these tests towards this sample has received 44.39 N and the end of the break
is slightly poor -46.3 mm. rather than the other two sample BP biocomposite A and
BP composite B the range extension break only 1.06 mm due to having high MOE.

The total overall average these three similar properties samples for the MOE
was 92.70 MPa and MOR was received 2.27 MPa, moreover the potential of this
material is only achieved 33.70 N. However, these sample having high of ME, it is
because the average slope of extension break had received -36.08 mm and the
extension yield just way below than -24.75 mm makes the maximum ME much higher
allow to 131.76 MPa.

The raw data is important for designer, manufacturer, and researcher to
conclude through these three samples of BP biocomposite when pressing the material,
as shown in APPENDIX AA p.216, APPENDIX AB p. 216, APPENDIX A p. 218,
APPENDIX B p. 220 and APPENDIX C p. 222, these data provide a full record on
previous experiment running on flexure test.

Through these result in BP material properties test, findings based on
Jayaprakash, HS, & BS, (2018); Wagner, AlGeddawy, ElMaraghy, & Müller (2014)
they had manufactured items such as drinking glass coaster or cutlery packaging and
pots coaster are the best example of potential weight which is a below than 5 kg. It
also agrees from Enssentilal, (2001), that the thickness range of 12 mm capable to
hold 5 kg to 8 kg than below and beside their agree that the thickness, also the
important role manufacturing for particle board is the thickness of the board.

152

This is believed based on the results though and this two researcher above
from Jayaprakash, HS, & BS, (2018); Wagner, AlGeddawy, ElMaraghy, & Müller
(2014), this BP biocomposite is capable in using household product design application
that was weighted with load weight below than this range of 3.43 kg to 4.53 kg such
as drinking glass coaster, bottle packaged, food absorbent bottle cover.

4.13 OVERVIEW OF ANALYSIS ON LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)
MATERIAL USE IN HOT AIR MOULDING TEMPLATE (HAMP) AS
TOOL FOR MANUFACTURING BAGASSE AND PITH (BP)
BIOCOMPOSITE

The analysis on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) material used in manufacturing
Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) as a tool in manufacturing BP biocomposite
here researcher had used two different software that enables analysis on the potential
of HAMP design.

Through this two modus operandi such as Eco Material Advisor (EMa) and
Model Checker, we are able to analyse any problem prior to as well as post-
development of HAMP in order to improve the manufacturing process of BP
biocomposite. Other than that, EMa software is capable of analysing material used
including the cost involved in producing HAMP mould for BP biocomposite using
MSP as the main material. Additionally, Model Checker is used to analysing any
problem manufacturing process of that mould.

4.13.1 Modus Operandi Eco Material Advisor (EMa) Result for Hot Air
Moulding Template (HAMP)

The modus operandi of Eco Material Advisor (EMa) is to analyse the value of
energy usage, “Carbon Dioxide” (CO2) footprint, water usage, and cost for the
manufacturing process of HAMP as a mould for the development manufacturing
process in producing BP biocomposite. This four operand is capable of evaluating the
amount of energy used for manufacturing process in Millijoule (Mj) unit and this
research was similar in applying LCA for manufacturing process mentioned by Leal-
Yepes (2013) towards of manufacturing process.

153

This software is the collection based on Granta database that allows for a
researcher to use the information about materials as a basic matric for analysing each
of material used such as parts, component, and end of life (EoF), energy MJ, CO2 kg
and mass kg in manufacturing HAMP using data sheet. This data allows the analysis
of each material component used in the manufacturing of HAMP mould using BP
biocomposite. Overall, in this manufacturing process researcher had used 28 pieces of
the component that include platform HAMP 30 cm × 30 cm × 0.3 cm.

Next, for the closet HAMP 30cm × 30cm × 0.3cm, brackets HAMP 5 cm ×
30 cm × 0.3 cm, frames 2 5 cm × 30 cm × 0.3 cm, Bolt [3.8 cm (L) × 0.6 cm (H) × 0.9
cm (D)] × 20(T)] and Nut [0.6 cm (H) × 1.5 cm (D)]. Based on this software, material
used for this mould manufacturing process includes 3 mm MSP and steel material
which is recyclable, safe for high temperature of 300ᴼ C to 400ᴼ C.

EMa can analyse the properties of materials used in manufacturing HAMP but
unfortunately, it cannot analyse the properties of materials used for BP biocomposite
hence for full access on this material, a researcher needs to purchase the full version
software online, refer to table 4.13.1.1 and table 4.13.1.2.

Table 4.13.1.1:

Result of Eco Material Advisor Test (EMa) for Hot Air Moulding Template

Eco Material Advisor Test Reference Page

(EMa)

Energy usage: breakdown for the APPENDIX DA p. 224

highest-contributing APPENDIX DB p. 225

APPENDIX DC p. 226

CO2 footprint: breakdown for the APPENDIX EA p. 228

highest-contributing parts APPENDIX EB p. 229

APPENDIX EC p. 230

Water usage: Breakdown for the APPENDIX F p. 232

Highest-Contributing Parts

Cost: Breakdown for The Highest- APPENDIX G p. 234

Contributing Parts

Table 4.13.1.2: Numbers of
End of Life (EoF): Analysed for Hot Air Moulding Template Parts
0
End of Life (EoF): Summary for 28 Parts Analysed for Hot Air Moulding 28
Template 0
Reuse 0
Recycle 0
Down Cycle- Comminution 0
Down Cycle- Reprocessing 28
Combustion
Landfill
Total

154

In terms of the energy usage in the manufacturing process, the highest-
contributing users are the 28 parts which are 128.05 Mj whereas the CO2 is showing
environmental green impact as the material used for this manufacturing process is
below than 13.89 kg of CO2 emission. These studies are in parallel with findings by
A, Richard O. et al., (1998) because they had received below than 20 kg as they
achieved 15 kg of CO2.

Based on this Slow Design experiment, the researcher had achieved a positive
outcome on CO2 and the energy consumption in manufacturing this HAMP; see
APPENDIX HA, p. 236 and APPENDIX HB p. 236. This is because the
manufacturing process of HAMP mould for BP biocomposite using low technology
manufacturing process specifically applying the development manufacturing process
for household product design application sees table 4.13.1.3 and table 4.13.1.4.

Table 4.13.1.3: Energy (MJ) Percentage
Energy Usage: Summary Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) (%)
378.8 98 %
Energy Usage: Summary for 28 Parts for Hot Air Moulding 0.0 0%
Template (HAMP) 9.18 2%
Material 395.74 100 %
Manufacturre -267.2 -
Disposal 128.05 -
Total (for first life)
End of The Life Potential (EOF
Total

Table 4.13.1.4:
“Carbon Dioxide” (CO2) Footprint: Summary Hot Air Moulding Template

“Carbon Dioxide” (CO2) footprint: summary for 28 parts analysed (CO2) kg Percentage
(%)
for Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) 98 %
0%
Material 25.2

Manufacturre 0.0

Disposal 0.55 2 %

Total (for first life) 26.27 100 %

End of The Life Potential (EOF -12.109 -
Total 13.89 -

This material used for HAMP as the mould for manufacturing BP

biocomposite had analysis through EMa and it shows in table 4.13.1.5, the restriction

of Hazardous Substance (RoHS) compliance and Food-contact compatibility summary

for 28 parts analysed using EMa, believe the total overall of this 28 material is

commercial material which is followed RoHS compliant or food contact.

155

Table 4.13.1.5: RoHS Food
Restriction of Hazardous Substance (RoHS) 28 0

Restriction of Hazardous Substance (RoHS) Compliance and Food
Contact Compatibility: Summary for 28 Parts analysed for Hot Air
Moulding Template (HAMP)

Compliant or Compatible Parts

Non-compliant or non-compactible parts 00

Condition apply, status unknown or no material assigned 0 28

Total 28 28

As the end of the lifecycle (EoF) these 28 parts of material also called as

closed-loop recycling, it capable reprocessing and recovered materials at the EoL by

returning this material to the manufacturer as a material that had a similar type, with

similar performance and embodied energy.

4.13.2 Modus Operandi Model Checker Result for Hot Air Moulding Template
(HAMP)

In testing the modus operandi for Model Checker, the researcher had used
three sets of HAMP from the first manufacturing and development of HAMP. This
experiment is to analyse error effect in mould design especially for the development
of manufacturing Bagasse and Pith (BP) biocomposite manufacturing.

For this technique researcher had referred to Wang, Liu, & Chen (2017), they
had used a model checker tool to analyse the surface mould and assist in the
installation of the mould. Moreover, this software used basic analysis for the model
checker tools in a 3D application. The first mould experiment from the three test
samples is shown in Appendix IA p. 237, based on the result from the first test, the
tangential discontinuity surface boundaries and the small angle between edges have
given a similar error, which is five and two components from this mould had faced a
problem.

Errors for small edge segment had decreased from 20 to 12 and small radius of
curvature had errors decreased from 16 to eight. Meanwhile, high edge segment
concentration for this mould had decreased from 18 to 10 errors and feature without
history was from 22 to 14 errors.

Hence, for this first HAMP mould, the final test result showed three error
boundaries indicating no interaction. These three error boundaries represented non
solid surface because, in the Pro Engineer software, 2D line was detected as it was
unable to be properly merged or unable to produce a complete shape to form 3D solid

156

surface, hence the researcher needs to use an application such as 3D max or inventor
so that all lines can be re-written.

Next, the development mould of HAMP as the second design is shown in
APPENDIX IB p. 238, the researcher had improved the design by welding a frame
for this mould between left and right sides to prevent from burst effect. From this
experiment, the researcher had analysed using the same Model Checker software as a
tool to analyse error on mould design.

The first error generated from this analysis is tangential discontinuity surface
boundaries, and the small angle between edges had similar error result from the first
and second test, which were eight and two errors respectively. Unfortunately, this
development mould had the highest feature without a history with 26 errors had
decreased to 14, which means that the import data from the previous software such as
Autodesk platform were still there.

In conclusion, this research had a similar technique in applying analysis on 3D
model checker as found by Creo.Co, (2008) on these two moulding template HAMP,
the final test gave zero results through this analysis and it is believed that this mould
that had been designed did not give any WARNING throughout its manufacturing
process.

Unfortunately, the first HAMP mould had a side effect causing the burst effect
when the curing process was in progress. Meanwhile, the development mould that was
welded with frame 2 5 cm × 30 cm × 0.3 cm had a potential to be used in the low
technology manufacturing process as a tool in manufacturing BP biocomposite for
craft household product design application.

4.14 OVERVIEW OF PROTOTYPE HOUSEHOLD PRODUCT DESIGN

In household product design based on the resulted the potential strength of
this board by referring to Jayaprakash, HS, & BS, (2018); Wagner, AlGeddawy,
ElMaraghy, & Müller (2014); Ismail & Zaaba, (2011); Zou et al., (2008); Enssentilal,
(2001), a researcher had drawn the prototype using Autodesk Inventor and had set it
up in precise scale. An advantage of this setup, researcher, designer, and manufacturer
was able to cut the BP biocomposite board used for reference before actual design
cutting.

157

Through this drawing and technical software, they can organize the cutting
size for their prototype design in designing drinking glass coaster with the ability to
combined or change into hot pot table dish using BP biocomposite.

Through this 3D application, the researcher needs to transform the design
using Maxwell Render software for colouring, texture and material aid for the final
view. Moreover, the researcher was also involved in the cutting process during
workshop progress work using Band Saw Machine for cutting the BP biocomposite as
End of Life (EoF) in manufacturing process household product design.

As for the final through this design process, the researcher ends up with a
single prototype of glass drinking glass coaster with the ability to combine or change
into hot pot table dish using BP biocomposite.

4.14.1 Sample 3D Prototype Household Product Design

The 3D dimension used in this research was Autodesk Inventor, 3D Max and
Maxwell Studio in generating output for the rendering software simulation. Moreover,
this software came in a different platform such as technical drawing; 3D arrangements
set up and render kit.

First, the sketches drawn by the researcher needed to be visualized using 3D
generator tool and then Autodesk Inventor application will generate sketch and model
arrangement similar to solid form in 3D view. After it was transferred in 3D Max, the
researcher is able to arrange the view as the proportion in perspective view and next,
need to change the file from Autodesk file assembly into the 3DS file as the output of
the rendering process.

In the rendering area, the researcher started with adding the material effect,
colour, and put on environmental view for the 3D prototype to be generated from a
better perspective view. The system used for this software is in 32 Bits and four
gigabytes Random Access Memory (RAM) as the basic requirement for this rendering
process. Moreover, the requirement for this rendering process is 2 hour but also
depends on the capability of the computer used.

The rendering experiment was done using Maxwell Render and the basic time
used for the rendering experiment were 2 hours with 25 samplings at each time
rendering and unfortunately, it depends on the capability of RAM used for this
experiment as shown figure 4.14.1.1. figure 4.14.1.2 and figure 4.14.1.3.

158

Figure 4.14.1.1: Rendering Experiment by using Maxwell Render for 2 Hours in Perspective
View

Figure 4.14.1.2: Rendering Setup Screen for Maxwell Render had Setup for 25 Samplings
Render for 2 Hour or 120 Minutes

Figure 4.14.1.3: Rendering Experiment by using Maxwell Render for 2 Hours in
Environmental View

4.14.2 Cutting Process for BP Biocomposite in Workshop Progress Work
The cutting size for this prototype is 130 mm × 130 mm and the researcher had

used sketch tool to centralize the arrangement of the cutting area as per figure 4.14.2.1
and APPENDIX MC, p. 252. The size of the actual board was 30 cm × 20 cm and it
was drawn as per the actual size or according to 1:1 ratio in a full scale as the output
reference when used in the cutting process.

Area Area
Cut Cut
Figure 4.14.2.1: Cutting Area for BP Biocomposite for Prototype Drink Glass Coaster

159

As for the cutting process, the researcher had done the experiment by cutting
the BP biocomposite using Band Saw Machine as in figure 4.14.2.2. The researcher
had used some of the other machines that are safe to cut by using a circular saw to
divide the board and in the trimming process after the curing process. Moreover, the
researcher had used a reference template in designing the drinking glass coaster and
anti-hot pot table using Hot Air Moulding template (HAMP).

Figure 4.14.2.2: The BP Biocomposite Cutting by using Band Saw Machine
Unfortunately, the BP biocomposite cannot be cut using Jigsaw Machine and
Vertical Jigsaw Machine. This is because the BP biocomposite material is porous in
nature and other manual tools such as nailing and screwing are able to be used for
hanging this material to the wall used for pinboard and coaster. Based on the similar
review by Boland & Li, (2010); Ferreira, Capela, Manaia, & Costa (2016); Mohini
Saxena & Anusha Sharma (2011), this researcher had used the same technique using
Band Saw Machine for cutting BP biocomposite in designing glass coaster and hot pot
table dish, as shown in figure 4.14.2.3.

Figure 4.14.2.3: The Design for BP Biocomposite Board That had been cut by using Band
Saw Machine a Coaster Prototype Drink Glass Coaster

Through this conclusion for this manufacturing process for BP biocomposite
from “saccharum officinarum” from (yellow cane) based its own potential capacity to
hold 3.43 kg to 4.53 kg after it being tested on flexure test (FT) and moreover the
water absorption for this fibre was only 19.53 %. Throughout this manufacturing BP
biocomposite, the thickness was 12 mm and all this manufacturing process result are
similar to Jayaprakash, HS, & BS, (2018); Wagner, AlGeddawy, ElMaraghy, &
Müller (2014); Ismail & Zaaba, (2011); Zou et al., (2008) and Enssentilal, (2001).

160

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

I. The Benefit of Bagasse and Pith (BP) Biocomposite from “saccharum
officinarum” (yellow cane) Plant as Potential Material for Product Design
Application

As a conclusion, the researcher had used Bagasse and Pith (BP) fibre from
“saccharum officinarum” (yellow cane), as a potential material for product design
application. The material was collected from the night market in Klang Valley. The
fabrication process of this product began with boiled, pre-treatment, drying, blending,
packing, bonding, cool pressing, and curing.

Next was the design process. The researcher started with sketches, technical
drawing and finalized with rendering simulation using Maxwell Render with four
gigabytes in computer RAM capacity. To generate this rendering experiment, the
researcher recommended using 32 bits and 64 bits computer. This software rendered
kit simulation focusing on the capacity of RAM to provide better efficiency. The time
range of this rendering software was 120 minutes with 25 sampling levels, each of this
rendering process took 4.8 minutes until rendering effect stopped by itself.

The BP biocomposite boards were then subjected to flexure test, resulting in
the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of 92.7 MPa and the modulus of rupture (MOR) of
2.3 MPa. The maximum flexure load for this material was 33.7 N while the flexure
was between 3.4 to 4.5 kg, which showed potential for product design application
uses. Furthermore, the main materials in this manufacturing of BP biocomposite
process are Bagasse and Pith mixed with 30% “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA) with a
combination of wire mesh 50 mm × 50 mm.

Finally, the prototype design for this manufacturing process using HAMP
mould as the development of low technology of BP biocomposite board
manufacturing, the researcher designed a drinking glass coaster as an example of
potential material. Other potential design can also be used through this manufacturing

161

process, such as cutlery packaging, food absorbent bottle cover, soft board, pin board
and Bottle packaging box cover. The result was based on an experiment in the Slow
Design experiment, showed the potential in a product design application.

II. The Benefit using Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) as Tool for
Manufacturing Natural Biocomposite

The researcher had designed a mould for BP biocomposite using Autodesk
Inventor software. Through this technical drawing, the researcher had designed
Hot Air Moulding Template (HAMP) for this manufacturing process.
Furthermore, the main material used for this mould was made from Mild Steel
Plate (MSP) and cutting by using Foot Metal Plate Cutter Machine (FMPC) and
drilled using a Floor Gear Drill Machine (FGDM).

The experiment through Eco Material Advisor (EMa), the researcher used
this software to analyse End of Life (EoF) in using Mild Steel Plate (MSP) for
designing HAMP as the mould of BP biocomposite. As the result of this
manufacturing process the material used 28 parts, such as platform, brackets 5 cm
× 30 cm × 0.3 cm, and frame 2 5 cm × 30 cm × 0.3 cm made from MSP.

These material components are tightened with eight pieces of Bolts [3.8 cm
(L) × 0.6 cm (H) × 0.9 cm (D)] × 20(T)] and Nuts made from low alloy material
steel capable to hold up to 1500 ᴼ C+/- using hot air as the main curing process.
Apart from these 28 parts for designing, HAMP is also able to be recycled and
reprocessed to recover the material for use in other manufacturing processes at
End of Life or returned to the manufacturing plant. Finally, based on this software
EMA, these 28 parts are capable for food contact according to Restriction of
Hazardous Substance (RoHS) and capable to commercialize as EoF based on the
final conceptual framework.

The research focused on the basic skills for the manufacturing process that
allowing other researchers or manufacturer to use it as the guideline in using low
technology manufacturing process.

The technique that is applied in research was based on manual skills
manufacturing process. Hand Lay Up fabrication method was applied for layering
or stacking technique using wire mesh to enhance the strength of this natural fibre
BP biocomposite. Furthermore, the adhesive used in this manufacturing process

162

was “Polyvinyl Alcohol” (PVA), which was the adhesive mixture of this natural
fibre. Additionally, the technique used in this manufacturing process is based on
low technology manufacturing process using hand lay up technic as the
development through this manufacturing process. This showed the capability to
commercialise any product for rural area manufacturing.

163

REFERENCES

3rd ed. Hertzberg, R., Vaughan, B., and Greene, J. Stephen Greene Press, B., &
Vermont. (1982). Drying Food. Retrieved May 5, 2018, from
http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/DRYING/dryfood.html#basics

A, Richard O.; A, Sanjeev; Dixon, J. Richard; Fitzgerald, Arthur D.; H. David C.;
Hughes, Gordon A.; Kunte, Arundhati; Lovei, agda; Lvovsky, Kseniya; Somani,
A. H. (1998). Iron and Steel Manufacturing. In Pollution prevention and
abatement handbook 1998 : toward cleaner production (English) (1st ed., pp.
327–331). The World Bank Group Washington, D.C.: The World Bank Group in
collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization. Retrieved from
https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/0-8213-3638-X

Abang Zaid, D. N., Chin, N. L., & Yusof, Y. A. (2010). A Review on Rheological
Properties and Measurements of Dough and Gluten. Journal of Applied Sciences,
10(20), 2478–2490. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2010.2478.2490

Abayomi, O. O., Temitope, A. K., Olawale, A. A., & Oyelayo, O. (2015). Recycling
of Rice Husk into a Locally-Made Water-Resistant Particle Board. International
Journal of Novel Research in Engineering and Science, 2(1), 21–30.
https://doi.org/10.4172/2169-0316.1000164

Abbas Hameed Almajmaie, Marcus Hardie, Tina Acuna, C. B. (2016). Differences in
aggregate stability due to different methods and mechanisms of aggregate
breakdown. In P. D. A. R. M. and P. D. A. NAMLI (Ed.), Abstract Book (1 st
editi, p. 187). Tasmania: Soil Science Society of Turkey.

Abbey, T. (2015). Verification vs. Validation in Relation to FEA. Retrieved October
3, 2017, from www.deskeng.com/de/verification-vs-validation/

Abdalla, A. M., Hassan, T. H., & Mansour, M. E. (2018). Innovative Energy &
Research Performance of Wet and Dry Bagasse Combustion in Assalaya Sugar
Factory - Sudan. Innovative Energy & Research, 7(1), 1–6.
https://doi.org/10.4172/2576-1463.1000179

Abdel-Halim, E. S. (2014). Chemical modification of cellulose extracted from
sugarcane bagasse: Preparation of hydroxyethyl cellulose. Arabian Journal of
Chemistry, 7(3), 362–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.05.006

164

Academy, K. (2015). The scientific method How the scientific method is used to test a

hypothesis. Retrieved December 6, 2019, from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-biology-

foundations/hs-biology-and-the-scientific-method/v/overview-of-biology

Adamsson, O., & Bergfjord, M. (2014). Additive Manufacturing of tooling for low

volume production of Fibre Reinforced Plastic. Chalmers University of

Technology. Retrieved from

http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/213772/213772.pdf

Ageorges, C., Ye, L., & Hou, M. (2001). Advances in fusion bonding techniques for

joining thermoplastic matrix composites: a review. Composites Part A: Applied
Science and Manufacturing, 32(6), 839–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-

835X(00)00166-4

Agriculture, D. of S. O. (2014). Organic Farming Organic Inputs and Techniques.

Retrieved May 19, 2018, from

http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm_biofertilizers.html

Aguilera, A. (2011). Monitoring Surface Quality on Molding and Sawing Process for

Solid Wood and Woo Panels. In J. P. Davim (Ed.), Wood Machining (1st Editio,
pp. 159–216). John Willey & Sons,Inc., 111 River Street Hoboken, NJ 07030,

USA: Willey Inc.

Ahmad Mousa, A. Z. (2014). 3-D Panel System: A Sustainable Building Solution for

Egypt. The International Conference for Industry Academia Collaboration. Civil
Engineering, Architecture and Building Materials Track, 1–4. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ahmad_Mousa5/publication/266208931_3-

D_Panel_System_A_Sustainable_Building_Solution_for_Egypt/links/544c969b0

cf24b5d6c409ee1.pdf

Akanzeriyomah, A. D.-L. (2015). Mechanical Characterization of Bio-Composites

Fabricated from Natural Coconut Fibre and Linear Low Density Polyethylene.

University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. Retrieved from

http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/7944

Akram, D. (2017). Is table salt an acid or a base? How can you tell?

https://doi.org/https://www.quora.com/Is-table-salt-an-acid-or-a-base-How-can-

you-tell

Al, A. S. G.-N. et. (2011). Abiotic Stress Diagnosis via Laser Induced Chlorophyll

Fluorescence Analysis in Plants for Biofuel. In M. Aurélio & dos S. Bernardes

165

(Eds.), Biofuel Production – Recent Developments (pp. 3–22). Pernambuco,
Brazil: InTech Open.
Al Dean, G. Corke, S. Holmes, J. T. and M. . . (2016). Develop 3D: Robot Man Fresh
Thinking for Industrial Machines. X3MEDIA, 14, 16, 32, 42, and 47-48.
Al, F. et. (2010). METHOD FOR BAKING BREAD USING i. Ulllted States:
A2IB5/00 (2013.01); A2ID 8/06 (2013.01).
Albuquerque, V. H. C. de, Tavares, J. M. R. S., & P., D. & L. M. (2008). Evaluation
of Delamination Damages on Composite Plates using Techniques of Image
Processing and Analysis and a Backpropagation Artificial Neural Network. In
Artigo em Livro de Atas de Conferência Internacional (pp. 1–5). Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil: International Conference on Engineering Optimization. Retrieved from
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Alex Driver *, Carlos Peralta, and J. M. (2011). Exploring How Industrial Designers
Can Contribute to Scientific Research. International Journal of Design, 5(1), 15–
28. https://doi.org/10.1360/zd-2013-43-6-1064
Allen, S. R. (2016). Geotextile durability. In Geotextiles: From Design to Applications
(pp. 177–215). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100221-6.00009-7
Allwood, J. M. (2014). Squaring the Circular Economy: The Role of Recycling within
a Hierarchy of Material Management Strategies. In E. W. and M. A. Reuter (Ed.),
Handbook of Recycling (1st ed., pp. 445–477). Department of Engineering,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom: Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-396459-5.00030-1
Almeida, C. M. V. B., Agostinho, F., Giannetti, B. F., & Huisingh, D. (2015).
Integrating cleaner production into sustainability strategies: An introduction to
this special volume. Journal of Cleaner Production, 96, 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.083
Almeida Silva, M. de, & Maitto, M. (2012). Ripening and the Use of Ripeners for
Better Sugarcane Management. In Crop Management - Cases and Tools for
Higher Yield and Sustainability (pp. 1–23). InTech.
https://doi.org/10.5772/28958
Aminudin, E., Khalid, N. H. A., Azman, N. A., Bakri, K., Din, M. F. M., Zakaria, R.,
& Zainuddin, N. A. (2017). Utilization of Baggase Waste Based Materials as
Improvement for Thermal Insulation of Cement Brick. MATEC Web of
Conferences, 103, 01019. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201710301019

166

Ana Ferrera, Alberto Vegab, P. L. and A. R. (2011). PULPING OF EMPTY FRUIT

BUNCHES (EFB) FROM THE PALM OIL INDUSTRY BY FORMIC ACID. In

APROVECHAMIENTO INTEGRAL DEL RESIDUO DE LA INDUSTRIA DEL

ACEITE DE PALMA (EFB). OBTENCIÓN DE DERIVADOS DE LAS

HEMICELULOSAS, PASTAS CELULÓSICAS Y CELULOSA NANOFIBRILAR
(pp. 193–216). Córdoba, Spain: UNIVERSIDAD DE CÓRDOBA.
Andrews, S. (2016). Sustainable product design : Learning through live projects, 1–8.

Retrieved from http://repository.falmouth.ac.uk/1744/

Anh, V. T. (1996). Cleaner Production Audit In The Pulp And Paper Industry: A Case

Study In Vietnam. Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok. Retrieved from

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.495.1557

Anil Netravali, P. G. (2012). High-Strength, Environmentally Friendly Corrugated

Board. United State of America: 15, 2013. https://doi.org/9168268

Anukam, A., Mamphweli, S., Reddy, P., Meyer, E., & Okoh, O. (2016). Pre-

processing of sugarcane bagasse for gasification in a downdraft biomass gasifier

system: A comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
66, 775–801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.046

Anwar, S. I. (2005). Assessment of Calorific Value of Jaggery and Khandsari Bagasse

and Development of Waste Heat Recovery System. In Proceedings of the

National Seminar on Sugarcane production technique for increasing recovery of
sugar in initial period of crushing season in sugar mills (p. 209–211)). Retrieved

from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Anwar%2C+S.I..+

Assessment+of+calorific+value+of+jaggery+and+khandsari+bagasse+and+devel

opment+of+waste+heat+recovery+system&btnG=#d=gs_cit&u=%252Fscholar%

253Fq%253Dinfo%253A2d4MuV6qUGUJ%253Ascholar.google.com%25

Anwar, S. I. (2010). DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT OF BAGASSE

OF JAGGERY UNIT USING MICROWAVE OVEN. Journal of Engineering
Science and Technology, 5(4), 472–478.

Arbex, M. a, Böhm, G. M., Saldiva, P. H., Conceição, G. M., Pope, a C., & Braga, a

L. (2000). Assessment of the effects of sugar cane plantation burning on daily

counts of inhalation therapy. Journal of the Air & Waste Management

Association (1995), 50(10), 1745–1749.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2000.10464211

167

Australian Goverment Department of Health and Ageing Office of the Gene
Technology Regulator. (2011). The Biology of the Saccharum spp. 15 National
Circuit, Barton ACT 2600, Australia. Retrieved from
http:/WWW.OGTR.GOV.AU, Australia

Avani. (2015). Hand Crafted Pigments, Dyes, and Supplies for Health and Happiness.
Retrieved May 18, 2018, from http://avani-kumaon.org/programmes/lifestyle-
products/

Azeh, Y., Olatunji, G. A., & Mamza, P. A. (2012). Scanning Electron Microscopy and
Kinetic Studies of Ketene-Acetylated Wood/Cellulose High-Density
Polyethylene Blends. International Journal of Carbohydrate Chemistry, 2012, 1–
7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/456491

Azizi, S., Ahmad, M. B., Ibrahim, N. A., Hussein, M. Z., & Namvar, F. (2014).
Cellulose nanocrystals/ZnO as a bifunctional reinforcing nanocomposite for
poly(vinyl alcohol)/chitosan blend films: Fabrication, characterization and
properties. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 15(6), 11040–11053.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms150611040

Azorín, J. M., & Cameron, R. (2010). The application of mixed methods in
organisational research: A literature review. Electronic Journal of Business
Research Methods, 8(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.4236/jis.2012.33026

Babu, K. M. (2018). Eco-friendly Green Fibre-reinforced Composites to Combat
Global Warming. Retrieved January 3, 2019, from
https://www.textileschool.com/3518/eco-friendly-green-fibre-reinforced-
composites-to-combat-global-warming/

Baghaei, B. (2015). Development of Thermoplastic Biocomposites Based on Aligned
Hybrid Yarns for Fast Composite Manufacturing. University of Boras. Retrieved
from http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hb:diva-764

Baharuddin, N. H., Mohamed, M., Abdullah, M. M. A. B., Muhammad, N., Rahman,
R., Omar, M. N., … Rizman, Z. I. (2016). Potential of cassava root as a raw
material for bio composite development. ARPN Journal of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, 10(9), 6138–6147.

Baines, T. S., Lightfoot, H. W., Evans, S., Neely, A., Greenough, R., Peppard, J., …
Wilson, H. (2007). State-of-the-art in product-service systems. Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering
Manufacture, 221(10), 1543–1552. https://doi.org/10.1243/09544054JEM858

168

Bakri, A. M. M. Al, Liyana, J., Norazian, M. N., Kamarudin, H., & Ruzaidi, C. M.
(2013). Mechanical Properties of Polymer Composites with Sugarcane Bagasse
Filler. Advanced Materials Research, 740, 739–744.
https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.740.739

Balaji, A., Karthikeyan, B., & Sundar Raj, C. (2015). Morphological and mechanical
behavior of sugarcane bagasse fibers reinforced polyester eco-friendly
biocomposites. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 7(8), 573–
577.

Balaji, A., Karthikeyan, B., Swaminathan, J., & Sundar Raj, C. (2018). Effect of Filler
Content of Chemically Treated Short Bagasse Fiber-Reinforced Cardanol
Polymer Composites. Journal of Natural Fibers, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1431829

Barati Bahareh, Elvin Karana, M. F. (2017). ‘Experience Prototyping’ Smart Material
Composites. In S. C. Elvin Karana, Elisa Giaccardi, Nithikul Nimkulrat, Kristina
Niedderer (Ed.), EKSIG 2017: Alive. Active. Adaptive (2017 JUNE, pp. 50–65).
Rotterdam, The Netherlands: TU Delft Open.

Barbu, M. C., Reh, R., & Çavdar, A. D. (2017). Non-Wood Lignocellulosic
Composites. In I. Management Association (Ed.), Materials Science and
Engineering: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications. In I. I. Global
(Ed.), Materials Science and Engineering (1st Editio, pp. 947–977). Transilvania
University Brasov, Romania: IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-
1798-6.ch038

Beger, A.-L., Löwer, M., Feldhusen, J., Prell, J., Wormit, A., Usadel, B., … Trautz,
M. (2015). Tailored natural components – functional geometry and topology
optimization of technical grown plants. 11th World Congress on Structural and
Multidisciplinary Optimisation, (June), 1–6. Retrieved from
http://web.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/WCSMO2015/papers/1323_paper.pdf

Belini, Ugo Leandro, Ugo Leandro Belini, Ângela do Valle and Poliana Dias de
Moraes, M. T. F. (2015). Composites of eucalypt and sugarcane bagasse:
technological characteristics. In F. A. R. Lahr, H. S. Junior, & J. Fiorelli (Eds.),
Non-conventional Building Materials based on agro-industrial wastes (1st editio,
pp. 48–74). Pirassununga-São Paulo-Brazil: Librarian Janaina Ramos – CRB-
8/9166.

Benfratello, S., Capitano, C., Peri, G., Rizzo, G., Scaccianoce, G., & Sorrentino, G.

169