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Recover

- Anticipate 20o before the reference point

- Roll out with aileron and rudder
- Through 30o bank relax the backpressure

- Return to glide attitude and speed

Airmanship

- Lookout
- Warm engine
- Watch rate of descent
- Minimum height 1500ft
- Not more than 360o
- Alternate turn directions

- Orientation

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5. ADVANCED STALLING

Introduction

The stall is fairly docile in current training aircraft with little tendency for a wing to drop.
However, in some older aircraft or aerobatic aircraft rapid wing drop can occur and it is
important the that the correct recovery action is taken

Principles

Once the wing has stalled, any yaw will have the effect of increasing the lift of the forward
going wing and reducing the lift on the receding wing due to the difference in airspeed.
This will lead to the receding wing dropping.

As this wing drops, the relative airflow will now come from further below the wing and will
have the effect of increasing the angle of attack of that wing. Conversely, the angle of
attack on the up-going wing will reduce.

If both wings are still above the stall angle of attack, the downgoing wing will have reduced
lift and increased drag. This will have the effect of continuing the yaw and roll. This is
known as autorotation.

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To break the autorotation the initial cause, the yaw, must be countered first. This is
accomplished by applying full opposite rudder to the direction of rotation. Relaxing any
backpressure on the elevator will help to unstall the wings. It is important to keep the
ailerons central as any aileron in the opposite direction to the roll will only increase the
angle of attack on the downgoing wing further and make the aircraft autorotate quicker.

Application

The stall is entered in the normal way with yaw induced by rudder.

Recovery

- Apply full opposite rudder to the direction of the roll
- Relax the backpressure on the elevator
- When the rotation stops, centralise the rudders
- When airspeed 60 kts, roll wing level with aileron
- Ease out of the dive
- As the nose comes up through the horizon, apply full power

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6. PRECAUTIONARY SEARCH & INSPECTION

Introduction

If it is not possible to land at a recognised airfield, a field must be selected and inspected to
establish its suitability for landing and subsequent take-off.

Reasons

This procedure would only be used if one of the following reasons prevented a landing at a
recognised airfield.

- Last light
- Low fuel
- Lost
- Bad weather
- Airframe or engine defect
- Sudden or chronic pilot or passenger illness

Considerations

Time

Time is important. Fly quickly if the reason is one of the first two above and make an early
decision to enable time for the search and inspection.

Wind

You must try to land into wind. Find the wind direction as for forced landing using the
following aids:

- Smoke
- Dust
- Water lanes or calm shadows on lakes or dams
- Low cloud shadows
- Met forecasts
- Runway direction or ATIS
- Drift of aircraft

Selection
For the selection of a suitable field; use the five ‘S’s as for forced landing.

- Size - as large as possible.
- Shape - rectangular if possible.
- Surface - in order: firm grass, pastures, ploughed land, loose
s
sand, standing crops. Beware livestock and ditches.

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- Surroundings - clear approach and alternative fields. Civilisation
- Slope close by
- land uphill if possible. Cross slope is dangerous.

Search

Head for an area of probability and carry out the following:

- Low flying vital actions.
- Set up precautionary cruise: 2000 rpm, 80 kts and two flap.
- Pan all whilst height remains for VHF communication.
- Descend to safe cruise height. Dependant on cloud, visibility and terrain.

Usually 500ft AGL.
- Select a possible field.

Inspection

A small circuit pattern, as shown in the diagram, should be flown at 500ft AGL. Complete
pre-landing checks when downwind on each circuit as normal. Do not descent below 500ft
until on the upwind or final leg. Maintain a speed of at least 80 kts until on final to land.

A. First run – Inspection, 500ft AGL 155

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This circuit is used to gain a general view of the field and its surroundings and to pick
turning points to ensure you do not lose sight of the field. You can align the DG with the
nearest cardinal heading to assist with circuit operation. If the field does not appear to be
suitable, look for another one.

B. Second run – Inspection 200ft AGL
When turning onto the upwind leg, reduce power to 1500 rpm and descend to 200 ft AGL.
Aim to level off before abeam the mid level final position. Look for obstructions in the
approach and climb out and check for large obstructions in the landing area.

C. Third run – Inspection 50ft AGL
When turning onto the upwind leg, reduce power to 1500 rpm and descend to 50ft AGL.
Aim to level off before abeam the threshold. Look at the condition of the landing surface
area. Pick the best area for landing.

D. Fourth run – Short Field Landing
If the field appears to be suitable, carry out a fourth run to land. Complete the pre-landing
checks on downwind. When turning onto final, reduce power to 1500 rpm and line up on
the approach to the field. Select full flap and carry out a short field approach and landing.

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7. SIDESLIPPING

Introduction

If you wish to increase your rate of descent in a glide without increasing speed or selecting
flap, a sideslip can be used. A sideslip is a manoeuvre in which the aircraft is in a banked
attitude with the natural tendency to yaw reduced or prevented. Some aircraft do not have
flaps (Pitts Special), or the flap extension mechanism may fail on aircraft with flaps. It can
also be used in the case of an engine fire to keep the smoke away from the cockpit.

Principles

To increase the rate of descent in a glide it is necessary to increase the drag. In a sideslip
the drag increases because of the increased surface area presented to the relative airflow.
To keep the forces in equilibrium the angle of descent must increase if the airspeed is to
remain constant.

The sideslip is achieved by yawing the aircraft in one direction while banking in the other.

Considerations

Lateral Stability
An aircraft’s lateral stability tends to level the wings in a sideslip. Therefore, positive
aileron pressure is needed throughout the sideslip.

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Directional Stability
The fin surface tends to turn the aircraft in the direction of the slip. Rudder is required to
hold the aircraft in yaw.

Inertia
The aircraft will want to continue at a high rate of descent when the sideslipping is stopped
due to inertia. As a result, the recovery from the sideslip should be initiated well above the
ground.

Flap
Flap can shield the rudder and elevator which are needed to maintain control. Sideslipping
should never be used with flap down.

Airspeed
The airspeed indication will be inaccurate due to the angled airflow during a sideslip. As
lightly higher indicated airspeed should be maintained to compensate.

Fuel
At low fuel levels, sideslipping can expose the fuel tank feeds and thus starve the engine of
fuel. Check the aircraft handling notes.

Direction of Travel
In a sideslip, the aircraft will track up to 30o off the nose in the direction of the applied
bank. To maintain track towards a feature on the ground it will be necessary to hold the
nose to the opposite side of the feature from the direction of bank. Bank is then altered to
keep the aircraft tracking in the desired direction. With a crosswind, the bank should be
applied towards the wind as the wind will appose the offset track caused by the sideslip and
keep the resultant aircraft ground track closer to the nose.

Application

Entry
Enter a glide keeping lined up on a line feature. When you wish to sideslip:

- Apply rudder in one direction.
- Apply bank in the other direction to maintain the aircraft tracking towards

the line feature.
- Lower the nose to maintain an indicated speed 5 kts above the glide speed.

If there is any crosswind, ensure that you bank into the wind.

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Recovery

Anticipate the inertia by initiating recovery well above the ground. Level the winds and
centralise the rudder. Select the glide attitude, check that the aircraft is in balance and
holding the correct glide speed.

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8. SHORT FIELD TAKE-OFF & LANDING

Introduction

In order to take-off and land on a strip which is a shorter length than that normally used, it
is necessary to modify the take-off and landing techniques.

Considerations

Take-off:

Flap
Use of optimum flap gives a lower stall speed enabling a slower take-off speed. This
produces a shorter ground run giving better obstacle clearance.

Power
Selecting full power while holding the aircraft with brakes gives the maximum acceleration.
Take-off speed is therefore reached in the shortest possible distance. It is important to
check that full static RPM is being developed and that engine oil pressure and temperature
are in the green. If the ground surface contains stones, do not hold the brakes on when
selecting power.

Rate of Climb
The rate of climb will decrease due to the airspeed being below the best rate of climb
speed.

Performance Charts
The performance charts must always be consulted to determine whether the aircraft will be
able to get airborne safely on the runway available in the prevailing conditions.

Approach & Landing

Flap
Full flap gives a lower stall speed, enabling a slower approach speed, resulting in a shorter
ground roll.

Power
A powered approach gives better control at low speed and reduces the risk of sudden sink.
It also reduces stall speed.

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Approach Path
Use a normal approach path reducing the airspeed to the desired slower approach speed
during final. The approach may seem flatter due to the higher nose attitude at the slower
speed. Avoid a flat approach if there are obstacles short of the threshold.

Threshold Speed
The target threshold speed will be dependant on the weight, wind conditions (wind shear)
and the skill and experience of the pilot.

Landing Run
The landing run will be short due to a shorter, positive flare, a lower airspeed and the use of
maximum effective braking. Landing at the minimum weight will also reduce the landing
roll.

Wind
Always land into wind whenever possible.

Application

Take-off:

Select optimum flap (second notch)
Taxi close to the end of the strip, lining up close to the fence
Hold the toe brakes on (except on gravel)
Smoothly apply full power
Release brakes
Check engine gauges
Rotate 5 kts into the green arc 45/55 kts
Gently lower the nose & accelerate to 55/65 kts, which is best angle of climb
speed, to a safe height (200ft AGL)
Raise flaps in stages
Accelerate to normal climb speed

Approach & Land:

As for normal approach aiming just beyond any obstruction before the
threshold
Select full flap
On short final reduce speed to 55/60 kts
Maintain a good glide angle with a constant touchdown point, watch for sink
on short final
Control speed accurately with power
Over the threshold reduce speed to 50/55 kts
Cut power
Short flare with minimum hold up
After touch down use maximum safe braking holding firm backpressure

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9. CROSSWIND TAKE-OFF AND LANDING

Introduction

The ideal take-off and landing is made into wind. Unfortunately not all aerodromes have
multiple runways available to us. When an into wind take-off/landing is not possible we
must be able to safely take-off, fly a standard circuit, approach and land the aircraft under
the influence of a cross wind under the prevailing conditions.

Considerations

Weathercock Effect
On take-off the wind hitting the keel surfaces will cause the nose to yaw into wind. Rudder
should be used to maintain direction.

Rolling Effect
The aircraft will want to roll away from the wind. This is caused by the dihedral of the wing
creating a greater angle of attack on the upwind wing and the shielding of the downwind
wing by the fuselage reducing the lift on the downwind wing. Aileron should be applied
into wind to counter this effect.

Side Load
The wind is trying to push the aircraft across the runway. This produces a side load on the
undercarriage which can strain it.

Drift
When airborne the wind will tend to push the aircraft off its intended track. This must be
compensated for on all legs of the circuit.

Take-off Roll
The take-off roll will be increased because the headwind component is reduced.

Power
Use of power increases controllability as it increases rudder and elevator effectiveness due
to the increased slipstream.

Flaps
Minimise the use of full flap on landing. Flaps increase the lifting ability of the wings so that
a gust will produce a greater rolling motion, thus decreasing stability.

Wind Strength & Direction
The wind strength and direction can be obtained from the ATIS. If an ATIS is not available,
strength and direction of the wind can be estimated by observation of the windsock.

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Crosswind Component
The component of the wind at right angles to the runway. The C-152 Is limited to a
maximum crosswind component of 15 kts, the PA28 17 kts.

Application

Take-off: Line up with the runway centreline
Aileron into wind
- Full power
- Maintain direction with rudder
- Keep the nosewheel firmly on the ground to maintain control
- As airspeed increases reduce aileron
- Rotate positively at 55/60 kts
- Yaw into wind and crab maintaining wings level
- Confirm tracking along runway centreline
-
-

Circuit:

- Allow for drift on all legs
- Aim to track to the normal turning points
- Crosswind and Base legs will require adjustment:

- Crosswind leg into wind will require a level period before turning
- Downwind
- Base leg out of wind will require a lower power setting and more

anticipation for the turn onto final
- Crosswind leg out of wind will require a turn onto Downwind

during the climb
- Base leg into wind will require a higher power setting and less

anticipation for the turn onto Final

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Approach: Use the same aiming point as normal
- approach
Allow for drift and crab to maintain centreline
- Use only 2 stages of flap if strong and gusty
- wind
Maintain an extra 5 kts
-

Crab in left crosswind

Landing: Just prior to the roundout:
- - Yaw aircraft in line with the centreline with rudder
- Roll wing into the wind
- Control drift with bank
- Keep the nose in line with the centreline with rudder
- Once on the ground aileron into wind
- Maintain direction with rudder

Rudder holding the nose parallel to the centreline
Wind down into wind to hold drift

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10. INSTRUMENT FLYING

Introduction

VFR pilots should never enter cloud. If this happens inadvertently, you need to know how
to fly the aircraft safely without visual reference to the ground, until visual flight is re-
established.

Human Factors

The body detects movement using three separate senses: Visual, Vestibular and Somatic.
All three are interpreted by the brain to give its owner a perceived position in space. In
instrument flight the only sense that can be relied on is visual.

Sight

Sight is the most accurate of the senses. It can detect movement down to 1/2o. Sight easily
identifies attitude (using the artificial horizon) during instrument flight and is the only
reliable sense during motion.

Vestibular

The vestibular system is contained in the inner ear and consists of three semi-circular fluid
filled canals arranged at 90o to one another. Hairs project into the fluid and their
movement sends signals to the brain depending on which way the fluid flows. This system
only picks up acceleration and deceleration. It also only detects head motion not body
motion. Only initial acceleration is detected, so steady motion will not be detected. The
vestibular system will also not detect turns of less than 2o per second.

Somatic

Motion sensed from expansion and contraction of muscles, joints and skin tell the body of
its orientation, but the information is not reliable without visual clues. The body cannot
differentiate between gravitational forces and other forces such as load factor in a turn.

In summary, taken together the three senses give an accurate picture of the orientation of
the body, but without sight, the vestibular and somatic senses will be misleading. Spatial
disorientation can follow if all three senses do not agree.

Instruments

Several instruments can be used to obtain pitch and roll information with varying degrees
of accuracy and reliability. The Artificial Horizon is the primary instrument for both pitch
and roll.

Pitch Roll

Artificial Horizon (AH) AH
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Turn Co-ordinator (T&B)
Altimeter (ALT) Directional Gyro (DG)
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
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Instrument Limitations

The instruments have a variety of limitations:

Artificial Horizon - 55o in pitch, 90o in roll
Directional Gyro - 55o in pitch and roll
Turn Co-ordinator - turns >20o /sec
Compass -
inaccurate during turns and accelerations

Instrument Errors

Blocked Static Tube
- If the tube from the static vent becomes blocked:

The ASI under-reads in a climb, over-reads in a descent
The Altimeter will have a constant reading of height at
failure
The VSI reads zero regardless of climb or descent

Blocked Pitot Tube

- If the tube from the pitot tube becomes blocked, the ASI will stick until altitude
is changed. It will then increase with increase in height and decrease with
decrease in height.

Checks

Because we may have to rely on the instruments it is important that we check that they are
working before we fly. Check the suction gauge and ammeter to ensure that the power
supplies are working. Check the AH, T&B, Compass and DG during a turn in each direction.
Check that the altimeter indicates within 100ft of the airfield elevation with the QNH set.

Application

Whether in cloud or not, the aeroplane will perform the same. The aircraft still flies
according to Power + Attitude = Performance. We still use PAST and ASPT to change
configuration for a climb or descent.

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When flying with a visual horizon we change the attitude reference to the horizon and then
check the performance instruments to see of the attitude is set correctly. When flying with
reference to instruments we simply substitute the AH for the visual horizon and use it for
the attitude changes. We then check the performance instruments to see the result and
look back at the AH again. It is important to keep looking at the AH with only quick
references to other instruments. Any changes of performance must be done with
reference to the AH. We use a selective radial scan based on the AH and only scan the
other instruments that are relevant to the current flight situation.

Because of the limitation of the instruments it is advisable to keep angles of bank low, so
we use a rate one turn (about 15o to 20o of bank) for all turns. Control movements should
be kept small and smooth with a pause after setting and attitude to correct for an
inaccuracy. This should be resisted and he eyes moved back to the AH.

There can be a tendency to look at one instrument for too long. It is important to keep the
eyes moving around the instruments to take in the whole picture. It is also natural to look
at the performance instruments when adjusting the attitude to correct for any inaccuracy.
This should be resisted and the eyes moved back to the AH.

Level Flight
The two parameters that are required for level flight are: height and direction. Therefore
the scan will be:

AH → ALT → AH → DG → AH

Every fifth scan look at the ASI and T&B. Not that the VSI also indicates changes in pitch.

Climbing and Descending

The two parameters that are required are: airspeed and direction. Therefore the scan will
be:

AH → ASI → AH → DG → AH

Every fifth scan look at the altimeter and T&B.

It is important to keep scanning the instruments continuously, concentrating on the AH

(about 80% of the time). As in visual flight it is important to monitor the engine
instruments, so every 20th scan look at the Tacho, Temp & Pressure, also adding to our scan

the ammeter and suction gauge.

Cruise Descent

The most common type of descent is the cruise descent. The basic requirement for the
cruise descent is a constant rate of descent (500 fpm). So in a cruise descent we need to
scan the VSI which gives us a good indication of the rate. Scan the VSI every third scan.

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Accuracy
In smooth air it should be possible to fly the aircraft within the following limits:

- Airspeed +/- 5kts
- Altitude +/- 100ft
- Heading +/- 5o

Lookout
When practising instrument flying in visual conditions it is important that someone is
looking out for other aircraft. The instructor will do the lookout for you, so you must not
practice instrument flying when flying solo.

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11. MAGNETIC COMPASS TURNS

Introduction

If the directional gyro (DG) is not working or not fitted we must be able to turn the aircraft
onto a required headings using the magnetic compass.

Principles

The surface of the earth is covered by a weak magnetic field. At the magnetic equator the
lines of force are parallel to the earth’s surface, but at other places the force has a
downward component towards the surface. A freely suspended magnet aligns itself with
the earth’s magnetic lines of force, therefore it has magnetic dip of varying degrees both
north and south of the equator. Dip makes the compass hard to read, so it must be levelled
somehow. The magnet is suspended below the pivot and a couple is produced to balance
dip, but some residual dip remains (about 2o) so a small weight is placed on the compass
card to level the magnet in a particular latitude. The displacement of CofG and pivot leads
to acceleration and turning errors.

Considerations

Acceleration Errors

If the compass is accelerated, the force acts through the pivot and, as the CofG is below the
pivot, the compass will lag and tilt. The compass will now be inclined slightly to the
horizontal so it will sense the magnetic dip and turn to align with it. In addition, the offset
CofG produced when levelling the compass card will produce a turning motion when the

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compass is accelerated, further increasing the turn on the card. This will produce an error
in the compass reading on heading away form North or South with a maximum error when
accelerating or decelerating on East or West.

Turning Errors
In a turn, the acceleration in the direction of the turn acts in the same way as straight
acceleration producing an error in the compass reading. This time there is no error when
turning through East or West but it is a maximum when turning through North or South.

Rate of Turn

If we know the rate of turn we can calculate how long it will take to complete a given turn.
When flying with reference to instruments we normally use a Rate One turn. This gives a
turn rate of 180o per minute, or 3o per second. To estimate a turn, simply divide the
number of degrees to turn by three. This will give the number of seconds required to
complete the turn. If you wish to turn through 90o, divide 90 by 3, giving 30 seconds to
turn. A rate one turn is normally a turn with 15 to 20o bank and can be checked by
reference to the turn co-ordinator. The wings of the co-ordinator should be aligned with
the first mark on the instrument.

Application

Make sure that the aircraft is steady with wings level and not accelerating. Take a reading
on the compass and work out the number of degrees required to turn and in which
direction. Read the compass carefully as the card reads in the opposite direction from the
turn.

Visual Turn

Pick a point on the horizon that corresponds to the angle of the required and turn visually
onto that point. Hold the aircraft wings level and without acceleration, and read the
compass when it has settled down. Make any small adjustment of heading required.

Instrument Turn

Calculate the time of the turn in seconds by dividing the number of degrees by three. Start
timing as bank is rolled on. Hold a rate one turn by reference to the turn co-ordinator.
When the number of seconds has passed, start to toll wings level. Hold the aircraft wings
level and without acceleration, and read the compass sheading when it has settled down.

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12. EMERGENCIES

Introduction

When flying in the training area, there are a number of emergencies that can occur. Being
able to cope with these emergencies is an essential part of the RPL, and a simulated
emergency of one of the following types is more than likely to occur during the flight test.

Bad Weather
The onset of bad weather is not always predictable before going for a flight. Should poor
weather occur when you are in the training area, the following procedures should be used:

- If the weather deterioration is only local in nature, divert around it or hold
until it passes.

- If a widespread weather front is approaching, return to Moorabbin if
possible, otherwise divert to a suitable local aerodrome: eg Tooradin, Tyabb
or Pakenham

- If you are completely surrounded by poor weather, perform a precautionary
search and inspection for landing in a suitable field (see Chapter 6).

Most importantly, NEVER ENTER CLOUD. The above options are far more desirable as
entering cloud can quickly lead to pilot disorientation and worse. If you do inadvertently
enter cloud, concentrate on flying on the instruments, carry out a rate one level turn
through 180o and fly back out of the cloud.

Engine Fire
An engine fire during flight is unlikely, but if it occurs it must be dealt with swiftly. The
engine should be shut down, the fuel turned off and a power-off landing made as soon as
possible. Follow the procedures in the emergency section of the aircraft checklist and in
Chapter 2, Forced Landings.

Electrical Fire
Should an electrical fire become apparent, turn off all electrical switches to stop the source
of ignition. Extinguish the fire if necessary. Turn on the switches, starting with the master,
one by one and attempt to isolate the offending circuit. If the fire continues, turn off all
electrical switches and land as soon as possible. Note: engine power will still be available.

Engine Failure - See Chapter 2, Forced Landings

Radio Failure
Radio failure procedures are found in the emergency section of the Enroute Supplement
Australia (ERSA). The procedures for Moorabbin, a GAAP aerodrome, are as follows:

- Fly to the approach point at 1500ft
- Make the normal calls prefixes with ‘transmitting blind’

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- Proceed to overhead the aerodrome at 1500ft and ascertain landing
direction

- Descend to circuit altitude and join on the crosswind leg of the circuit
- Proceed with a normal circuit, maintaining separation from other aircraft
- Watch for light signals from the tower

Alternator Failure

If an alternator failure occurs in the training area, turn the alternator off then back on
again. Reset any popped circuit breakers and reduce the electrical load to a minimum by
turning off all unnecessary systems. If this does not remedy the problem, return to
Moorabbin. Follow radio failure procedures if battery power is lost.

Birdstrike

Moorabbin attracts various birds throughout the year with the possibility of a birdstrike
ever present. Should this happen, climb to a safe height (3000ft) and conduct a slow speed
handling check to test that the manoeuvrability of the aircraft hasn’t been effected by the
birdstrike. If it has, increase your approach speed to maintain safe control.

Unsure of Position

Becoming unsure of your position in the training area may happen due to poor visibility, or
perhaps because of a few too many steep turns! In order to find your way back to
Moorabbin, fly at 2000ft and track on a westerly heading until you reach the coast. Identify
Carrum and track to Moorabbin as normal. If you are still uncertain, call Melbourne Radar
on 135.7 and they will assist you to find your way home.

Other Emergencies

Many other problems may arise out in the training area, such as passenger illness or a door
opening in flight. These need to be treated with common sense in order to ensure the safe
return of the aircraft and its occupants.

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SECTION EIGHT: AERONAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE

1. AREA SOLO

Prior to flying solo in the training area, you must have gained aeronautical knowledge
covering the following topics and be able to answer the questions listed below. You will
have to pass a simple exam before going solo in the training area. To help gain sufficient
knowledge, use the study material in this folder and ask your instructor.

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

Terminology

Direction
Define True (T), Magnetic (M) and Compass (C) North

Distance, Speed and Velocity - Nautical miles
State the units for distance - Metres, Kilometres
Navigation
Visibility
Define a knot (kt)
Define wind Velocity (W/V)

Vertical Measurement
State the unit used (ft) for vertical measurement and differentiate between:
Height
Altitude
Elevation

Other Units
State the units used for:
Runway dimensions
Temperature – degrees Celsius (C)
Pressure – hectopascals (hPa), psi, Hg
Weight – kilograms (kg), pounds (lb)
Volume – litres (l), US and Imp. Gallons (gal)

Given the W/V and runway directions determine the appropriate
runway for take-off landing, and the direction left/right of any wind
component.

Power Plants and Systems – Basics

State the purpose of the mixture control and describe the effect of excessively rich
and lean mixture strengths on engine operation.

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of a simple carburettor and a direct
injection system.

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Fuels and Oils
List sources of fuel contamination. State the advantage of filling tanks prior to
overnight parking.

Engine Handling
List the causes and effect of detonation. (Limited to improper use of mixture
control, MP/RPM and use of incorrect fuel octane).

Explain the significance of blue/black exhaust smoke.

Engine Icing
State the atmospheric conditions and engine control settings conducive to the
formation of:
Throttle ice
Fuel evaporation ice
Impact ice

State the danger of progressive throttle increments if engine icing is not diagnosed.

Flight Instruments
From a list, identify pressure and gyroscopic (suction and electrical) instruments
used in a typical light trainer.

State the effect of a blockage of the pitot or static source on the indications
displayed by each pressure instrument.

State the effect of using an alternate static source located inside the cockpit, on the
reliability of pressure instrument indications.

State how, when and why a DI should be synchronised the with magnetic compass.

FLIGHT RULES & AIR LAW

Pilot Licences, Privileges & Limitations
State the flight area limitations which apply to the holder of a student pilot licence.

State the recency requirements which apply to solo flight by a student pilots.

Flight Rules & Conditions of Flight

Recall/apply the following rules/requirements:

Visual meteorology conditions (aeroplanes) for operations below 10,000ft.
(CAR’s 170 to 173).
Altimetry procedures for flight below 10,000ft.

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State the rules relating to temporary medial unfitness (CAO 40.0 and CAR 64)

Recall the meaning of the following light signals directed at an aircraft
Steady “Green” and Steady “Red”
“Green”, “Red”, “White” flashes

Recall CAR 157 requirements relating to the minimum heights flor flights over:
Populated areas
Other areas

State the limitations imposed on:

Acrobatic flight (CAR 155)
Flights over public gatherings (CAR 156)

Recall the requirements for landing prior to the end of daylight (AIP)

Air Service Operations

Recall the following requirements for before flight.
The conditions specified on ACO 20.2 paragraphs 2 & 3; and CARs 244(1) &
245(2) regarding the:
Removal of locking devices
Security of doors, hatches, tank caps
Testing of flight controls
Removal of frost and ice
Instrument checks
Security of safety harness prior to solo flight in a dual aircraft
Fuel system inspection – How & When (CAO 20,2 subsection
5)

Aerodromes

Identify and explain the purpose of the following aerodrome and ALA markings
Runway markings
Runway threshold markings
Runway end markings
Cone and gable markers
Taxiway markings
Holding point/bays
A double white cross adjacent to the primary wind indicator
A horizontal white dumbbell

Airspace (General)

Locate training areas, and PRD’s or controlled airspace on an appropriate
topographic map and describe the local lost procedure.

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Emergencies and SAR
Extract emergency procedures form ERS(A)

AIRCRAFT TYPE KNOWLEDGE

Recall the:
Operating speeds for the short field Take-off and Landing.
Engine oil specifications and quantity.
Following fuel requirements/data
Grade used and method of identification
Total usable fuel

Systems
With reference to a pilot’s operating handbook, demonstrate a basic
understanding of the following systems:
Fuel, engine lubrication, hydraulic
Electrical ignition
Undercarriage, brakes

List the services provided by the:
Battery, alternator, magneto
Hydraulic system
Lubrication system
Vacuum system

With reference to the systems (or components) listed previously in this section
Identify malfunctions
List pilot actions (if any)
State consequences if malfunction cannot be rectified.

Engine Ice & Handling
State the cockpit indications which signify the presence of engine ice and state the
recommended procedure to clear engine ice.

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AERODYNAMICS

Basic Theory

Describe, draw or identify the following:
Aerofoil, angle of attack, relative airflow
Centre of pressure, centre of gravity
Lift, weight, thrust, drag

Lift and Drag

State whether lift and drag of an aerofoil will increase or decrease with changes in:
Airspeed
Angle of attack
Flap setting

Recall typical angles of attack at which a basic low speed aerofoil:
Generates maximum lift (16 degrees)
Is most efficient (best L/D: degrees)

and relate these angles to:
stall speed
best glide speed

Straight & Level Flight

State the relationship between attitude, angle of attack and airspeed in level flight.

Explain what is meant by: Power + Attitude = Performance

Climbing

Differentiate between rate and angle of climb.

State the effect (increase/decrease) on climb rate and angle resulting from changes
in:

weight
power
airspeed (changed from recommended)
flap deflection
head/tailwind component
bank angle

Turning

State the effect (increase/decrease) of bank angle on Load Factor.

Explain why an aircraft executing balanced level turns at low level may appear to
over/under bank when turning downwind or into wind.

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Given level flight stall speed, determine the stall speed and load factor during turns
at 45 and 60o bank.

Stalling, Spinning & Spiral Dives

List the effect (increase/decrease) of the following variables on the level flight stall
IAS:

Weight
Frost and ice
Altitude

Cite manoeuvres during which an aeroplane may stall at an angle which appears to
be different from the true stalling angle:

Differentiate between a spin and a spiral dive in a light aeroplane and describe the
standard recovery technique for each manoeuvre.

Taxi, Take-off and Landing

List the advantages of taking off and landing into the wind.

Compare a flapless approach to an approach with flap in terms of:
Attitude during descent
Approach path angle
Threshold and touchdown speeds
Landing roll

Wake Turbulence

State the primary control hazard that may result from a vortex encounter.

Identify from diagrams the approximate take-off touchdown points and flight
profiles that would assist in vortex avoidance.

Recall that rotor downwash can be a hazard to a radius of approximately thrice the
rotor diameter, and that this area should be avoided by light aircraft. Students
should be aware of the wake turbulence separation standards in AIP in order to
make value judgements to waive these standards at a controlled aerodrome or
provide their own separation at non-controlled aerodromes.

NAVIGATION 178

Basics
On a WAC and VTC which covers the local area of operation:

Identify without reference to a chart legend:
Major features to assist in map reading, eg roads, rivers, lakes;

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obstacles and spot heights including elevation or height above terrain
CTA, PRD’s and aerodrome data on VTC/VEC
Decode other symbols with reference to the chart legend.
Assess the general height of the terrain from hypsometric tints and contours.
Estimate track and distance.
Demonstrate and explain the reason for chart orientation in flight.

Use mental rules of thumb to estimate:
Time interval using estimated GS and distance
Endurance given fuel flow and fuel available (excluding reserve fuel)

Apply magnetic variation to obtain magnetic direction.

OPERATION, PERFORMANCE & FLIGHT PLANNING

Speed Limitations

Explain the following terms / abbreviations:
Normal operating speed (Vno)
Never exceed speed (Vne)
Maximum manoeuvre speed (Va)
Turbulence penetration speed (Vb)
Limit and design load factors
Flap operating speed (Vfo) and flap extended speed (Vfe)

Cite situations which may result in an aircraft exceeding speed and load factor
limits.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE & LIMITATIONS

Basic Health Knowledge for Pilots

Know the importance of the following factors on pilot performance:
Diet, exercise.
Coronary risk factors – smoking, cholesterol, obesity, hereditary factors.
Upper respiratory tract infection – colds, hay fever, congestion of air
passages and sinuses.
Food poisoning and other digestive problems.
Headaches and migraines.
Pregnancy – when to stop flying and effect on cockpit ergonomics.
Injuries.
Ageing.

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Alcohol and smoking.
Blood donations.
Dehydration.
Emotional – anxiety, depression and fear.

Student should be advised that persons should not fly when on any medication
unless they have obtained a medical clearance from a DME.

Hyperventilation
Know how to recognise and combat hyperventilation.

Noise

Know the effect of noise levels on hearing loss, its effect on pilot performance and
the precautions that should be taken to protect hearing.

Vision

Know the limitations of the eye with respect to:
The ability to discern objects during flight – other ac transmission lines
Empty field myopia
Glare

Be aware of the importance of seeking experienced professional advice for
spectacles prescriptions and selecting sunglasses.

Know the factors which are conducive to mid air collisions and describe/practice
techniques for scanning.

Spatial Disorientation, Sensory Illusions, Vertigo

Have a basic concept of the cause and effect of spatial disorientation, and describe
how to combat it.

Know what illusions may result from the following flight factors:
False horizontal clues – sloping cloud formations, sloping terrain

Depth perception - flying over water, snow, desert and other featureless terrain
- effect of fog; haze; dust

Optical characteristics of windscreens
Landing illusions

Approach angles; steep/shallow
Width and slope of runway
Slope of approach
Terrain approaches over water
Relative motion between objects

Motion Sickness 180
State the basic cause

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List the factors which may aggravate motion sickness
List the methods of combating motion sickness in flight

‘g’ Effects
Describe the physiological effects of positive and negative ‘g’ on the human body.

Basic Human Factors
Have a general concept of the factors which contribute towards fatigue and stress
and state the effect of fatigue and stress on pilot performance.

Know the basic principles of stress management and the methods used to cope with
fatigue.

Aircraft Equipment/Ergonomics

Know the importance of the adjustment of seats and controls and the use of safety
harnesses.

Discuss problems associated with flying different types.

Toxic Hazards
Know the sources, symptoms, effects and treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning.

Know the effect of breathing air contaminated by fuel and other noxious or toxic
aviation products.

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2. RECREATIONAL PILOTS LICENCE TEST

Prior to the Recreational Pilots Licence Test you must pass the written Basic Aeronautical
Knowledge examination. In addition, you must have gained aeronautical knowledge
covering the following topics and be able to answer the questions below. To help gain
sufficient knowledge use the study material in this folder and ask your instructor.

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

Power Plants & Systems – Basic

Demonstrate a basic understanding of the principle of a four-stroke cycle internal
combustion engine and state the purpose of the following components:

Cylinders; pistons; piston rings; inlet/exhaust valves; crankshaft; cam shaft;
spark plugs.

State the purpose of the following components/features:

Carburetor
Throttle
Magneto, dual ignition
Alternator
Battery, battery compartment vent
Propeller
Circuit breaker, fuse, bus bar
Impulse starter
Oil cooler
Fuel vent tanks

State how the following affect the power output of an engine:

Throttle lever position
RPM
Air density

State the purpose of lubrication.

Fuels and Oils

Explain the terms:

Viscosity, oil sump, multi-grade oils
Octane rating
Avgas, Avtur

and indicate how to identify Avtur and Avgas

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List the potential dangers/problems of:

Mixing hydraulic fluid
Using automobile fuel or fuel of a grade other than specified

List the factors conducive to fuel vaporisation and identify statements to minimise
this phenomenon.

List typical services provided by a light aeroplane’s:

Hydraulic system
Electrical system
Ignition system
Vacuum system

Engine Handling

On aircraft fitted with a fixed pitch propeller, describe the method of using a manual
mixture control if the aircraft:

Does not have an EGT gauge
Has an EGT gauge

State the effect on engine operation of:

Prolonged idling
Using a mixture that is too rich or too lean

Give reasons for the following limitations/actions:

Minimum oil pressure
Minimum/maximum oil temperature
Maximum RPM
Ignition checks: pre take-off and shut down
Prolonged use of starter motor, and use of pitot heat on the ground
Engine warm up on prolonged descents

Malfunctions

With respect to malfunction or failure of the components listed below:

Identify cockpit indications which may suggest a malfunction
State pilot actions (if any) to rectify the problem
Describe the consequences if the malfunction cannot be rectified

Components

CARs, CAOs, AIP, CAAP, ERS(A), NOTAMS, AIC

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Pilot Licences, privileges & limitations

State the privileges granted and the limitations imposed on the holder of a student
Pilot Licence with passenger carrying privileges.

Air Service Operations

Extract the restrictions pertaining to the carriage of passengers on certain flights
(CAR 249)

Extract / apply the following rules relating to the responsibilities of a pilot in
command:

Before flight:
Requirements of CAO 220.9 regarding:
Fuels and oils
Fuelling of aircraft
Starting and ground operation of engines
Appropriate passenger briefing CAO 20.11)

During flight:
Requirements of CAR 224 regarding the operation and safety of the
aircraft and the authority of the pilot in command.
Dropping of articles from aircraft in flight (CAR 150, CAO 29.5)

Recall the following requirements:

Before flight:
Carriage of passengers in the control seat (CAO 20.16.3
Carriage of children and infants (CAO 20.16.3)

During flight:
CAO 20.16.3 regarding:
Occupation of seats
Wearing of seatbelts
Adjustment of seats
CAR 225 & 228 – manipulation of aircraft controls
By pilots
Not permitted by unauthorised persons

Emergencies & SAR

Differentiate between an incident and an accident.
Extract the requirements applicable to the notification of accidents and incidents.
Explain the terms:

SARTIME, INCERFA, ALERFA, DETRESFA

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AEROPLANE TYPE KNOWLEDGE

Take-off and Landing Performance

Given the appropriate data use the flight manual to:
Extract the take-off and landing distances required
Determine maximum take-off/landing weight
Adjust take-off weight to ensure that structural weights are not exceeded

Loading
Use the aeroplane’s loading system to distribute load and ensure that the aeroplane
will not exceed CG limits.

AERODYNAMICS

Basic Theory
Differentiate between
IAS, CAS, TAS and GS

Lift and Drag

List the types of drag which affect a subsonic aircraft in flight.
Show how Total Drag varies with airspeed.

Turning
Describe the terms ‘g’; wing loading; load factor.

Taxi, Take-off, Landing

Describe the effect of wind shear (wind gradient) and ground effect on aerodynamic
and flight characteristics and identify pilot actions to counteract any adverse effects
of these phenomena.

Wake Turbulence
List factors affecting the strength of the vortex flow vis:
Aircraft weight, speed, wing shape.

Identify from diagrams the:

Approximate flow direction around each vortex
Approximate location of vortices (in still air) generated by a preceding
aeroplane during:

Cruise flight
Take-off and landing

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State / identify the effect of wind and atmospheric turbulence on the:
Strength of vortices
Longevity of vortices
Location of vortices

Thrust Stream Turbulence (Jet blast)
Recall that this form of turbulence varies with engine power and distance from the
source.

NAVIGATION

Basics
On visual charts identify airspace boundaries and symbols with reference to the
chart legend.

Use ERS(A) to extract:
Runway data
Data pertaining to Prohibited, Restricted and Danger Areas

Computations:
Carry out conversions between:
Feet/metres
NM/km
Lbs/kg
US gal/litres/kg of avgas
Determine head/tail, x-wind components given W/V and HDG.

OPERATION, PERFORMANCE & FLIGHT PLANNING

Airworthiness & Aircraft Equipment
With reference to a maintenance release decide whether an aircraft is serviceable
for a specific flight.
Recall the limitations imposed on a student pilot permit holder with regard to:
Conducting daily inspections
Signing a maintenance release
Reporting of defects (CAR 248)

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Take-off & Landing Performance

State the effect (increase/decrease) of the following factors on take-off, landing,
and take-off climb performance:

Strength of head/tail wind component
Air temperature
QNH
Density height (non-standard conditions)
Airfield elevation
Runway slope and surface including wet and slushy runways
Ground effect and windshear
Frost on aircraft

Differentiate between pressure height and density height.

Describe how to use an altimeter to obtain:

Local QNH at an aerodrome
Pressure height of an aerodrome
Elevation of an aerodrome

Explain the terms

Maximum structural take-off and landing weight
Climb weight limit

State the likely result of exceeding aircraft weight limits

Loading

At this phase of training a student should have basic understanding of the terms
listed below, to enable him/her to apply this knowledge when using the applicable
loading system in type training:

Datum, station, index unit
Centre of gravity (CG) and CG limits
Empty weight, zero fuel weight (ZFW), ramp weight
Maximum take-off and maximum landing weights
Floor loading limits

Describe the effect on pitch controllability in flight if the CG is outside limits.

METEOROLOGY

Demonstrate a basic knowledge of local weather, in particular the likely occurrence
of:

Thunderstorms
Low cloud

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Poor visibility
Turbulence

and describe how these phenomena may affect the safe operation of an aircraft.

Demonstrate an understanding of weather forecasts, reports and broadcasts which
are pertinent to the area of operation.

Recognise signs (forecast conditions and pilot observations) which may indicate the
presence of:

Turbulence, thermals, dust devils
Wind gradient, wind shear

Describe the effect of these phenomena on flight characteristics.

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