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right rudder pressure is required.
Use a reference feature, such as a town or lake or other distinguishable feature on the
horizon ahead to aid you to travel straight. If you wander off this feature, use gentle turns
to regain the reference feature.

POWER + ATTITUDE = PERFORMANCE

The performance instruments that we can use are the:

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
Altimeter (ALT)
Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
Turn Co-ordinator / Balance Ball
Directional Gyroscope (DG)

Only use the instruments to confirm what you are seeing outside. Only 10% of your time
should be spent looking inside, the remaining 90% should be spent looking outside.

To change the speed during S&L the sequence of actions is:

Power - select the power required for the new speed
Attitude - select the correct attitude for the new speed
Speed - wait for the aircraft to reach the new speed
Trim - trim out the forces on the control panel

Refer to the cruise power table for the aircraft you are flying.

Airmanship

Lookout
Use Firm, Positive and Smooth Control Movements
Keep the aircraft in Trim
Standard to be Achieved: +/- 10 Degrees, +/- 100ft, and +/- 10kt
Remain Clear of Cloud

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6. CLIMBING AND DESCENDING

Introduction

Climbing is achieved by using excess thrust over drag, not by extra lift. Reducing thrust to
less than that required for straight and level flight causes the aircraft to descend if speed is
maintained.

Forces in a Climb

In a constant speed climb, the forces are
in equilibrium with lift reduced and a
component of thrust supporting weight.
The angle of climb depends on the excess
thrust available.

Best Angle of Climb 102

The maximum excess thrust available
occurs when the thrust available curve is
the maximum distance from the thrust
required curve or drag curve. This will
occur at a relatively slow speed. At any
speed other than this speed, the angle of
climb will reduce due to the reduction in
excess thrust. Best Angle of Climb is used
when we wish to clear obstacles on take-
off.

Best Rate of Climb

Rate of climb is the height gained per unit
time (feet per minute). It is indicated on
the Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI). Power
is the rate at which work is being done
and is provided by the propeller. Rate of
climb is directly related to the excess
POWER. The best rate of climb is
achieved when the power available curve
is the maximum distance from the power
required curve. The rate of climb will
decrease at any other speed. Best rate of
climb is used when we need to gain height
as quickly as possible.

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Cruise Climb

When distance over the ground is more important than rate of climb, we use a cruise climb.
This can be any speed faster than the best rate of climb depending on the requirements.
This is used when transiting to the training area or on a navigation exercise. A cruise climb
also gives us better visibility and engine cooling. The diagram shows the relationship
between the three types of climb and indicates the height gained and distance travelled in a
given time.

Climb Considerations

Altitude

Both best angle and rate of climb decrease with altitude. As altitude increase the air is
thinner so the propeller is less efficiency producing less thrust, and less air enters the
engine so less power.

Weight

If weight increases, more thrust or power is required to balance weight and generate more
lift. This will reduce both best angle and rate of climb.

Flap

Flap increases drag therefore less thrust or power is available making climb performance
worse. However, if flap is used for take-off, the ground roll will reduce due to the lift
required for take-off occurring at a lower airspeed. This will give better clearance of
obstacles initially.

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Wind

The wind will have no effect on rate of climb, but a headwind will increase angle of climb
and a tailwind will reduce it. This is because the wind alters the ground speed of the
aircraft.

Power

We use full power in a climb so we must be aware of the effects of full power. The aircraft
will yaw to the left so right rudder will be needed to keep the aircraft in balance. The
elevator and rudder will be more effective due to the slipstream. High engine
temperatures will be caused by the high power and slower speed.

Climb Application

Following a good lookout, the sequence to enter a climb is the same as that used to change
cruise speed.

Power - full power
Attitude - select the required attitude for the required climb speed
Speed - wait for the aircraft to reach the new speed
Trim - trim out the forces on the control column

For the attitudes and speeds, refer to the climb table for the aircraft you are flying.

During the climb, maintain the correct airspeed by adjusting the attitude and ensure the
aircraft is in balance. Every 500ft either turn or lower the nose to clear the area ahead and
below. Then check the engine instruments for correct temperatures and pressures.

A different sequence is used for leveling off from a climb.

Attitude - select the correct attitude for the required cruise speed
Speed - wait for the aircraft to reach the new speed
Power - select the appropriate power
Trim - trim out the forces on the control column

Complete sequence with a good lookout.

Forces in a Glide

In a constant speed glide, the forces are in
equilibrium with lift reduced and drag
helping to support weight. The angle of
glide depends on the amount of drag. The
greater the drag, the steeper the glide
angle.

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Best Glide Speed

The shallowest glide will be obtainable when the drag is at a minimum. This will occur at
the angle of attack for the best lift to drag ratio. The airspeed that corresponds to this
minimum will vary with weight; a higher weight will result in a higher airspeed. The best
glide speed is used when we need to cover the greatest distance. This occurs if the engine
fails and we need to glide to a safe landing area. Any airspeed other than the best glide
speed will result in a shorter distance being covered.

Best Rate of Descent

Rate of descent is the height lost per unit time (feet per minute). It is indicated on the
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI). The minimum rate of descent will give us the maximum time
in the air, but this is of more relevance to gliders than powered aircraft.

Descent Considerations

Weight

If weight increases, the decent angle will only remain the same if speed is increased to give
the best lift drag ratio. This will result in an increase in rate of descent.

Flap

Flap increases drag, therefore, the glide angle will steepen. Flap also gives a lower nose
attitude, improving visibility.

Wind

The wind will have no effect on rate of descent, but a headwind will steepen glide angle and
a tailwind will reduce it. This is because the wind alters the ground speed of the aircraft.

Power

The use of power will lengthen the descent and decrease the rate of descent. This is
because the thrust will balance part of the drag thus making the angle of descent shallower.

Engine

At power settings below 2000 rpm, carburetor heat is required to prevent carburetor icing.
The engine will cool in a long slow descent, so it must be warmed every 1000 ft to warm the
engine and improve carburetor heating.

Cruise Descent

We use a cruise descent to maintain a constant rate of descent and an airspeed close to our
normal cruising speed. It is then possible to calculate the distance and time required to
descend through a given height. Our normal cruise descent is at 500 fpm, so it takes two
minutes to descent every 1000 ft.

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Descent Application

Following a good lookout, the sequence to enter a descent is the same as that used to
change cruise speed.

Power - carb heat on, set required power setting, left rudder will be needed
Attitude - select the correct attitude for the required descent
Speed - wait for the aircraft to reach the new speed
Trim - trim out the forces on the control column

For the attitudes and speeds, refer to the descent table for the aircraft you are flying.

During the descent, maintain the correct airspeed by adjusting the attitude and ensure the
aircraft is in balance. Keep a good lookout ahead and below by turning or lowering the
nose. Every 1000 ft warm the engine.

To level off, anticipate because of inertia. 100 ft before turn the Carb heat off. Then 50 ft
before:

Power - select the appropriate power
Attitude - select the correct attitude for the required cruise speed
Speed - wait for the aircraft to reach the new speed
Trim - trim out the forces on the control column

Complete the sequence with a good lookout.

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7. MEDIUM LEVEL TURNING

Introduction

A medium turn is one using 30o angle of bank; that is 30o between the horizon and the
lateral axis of the aircraft (the wings). It may also be necessary to roll out from the turn
onto a specific point or heading.

Principles

In a turn, lift no longer balances weight because the lift
vector is tilted towards the centre of the turn. In order
to balance the weight, lift must be increased. The
aircraft if not in equilibrium as a component of lift is
accelerating the aircraft towards the centre of the
turn.

Considerations

Airspeed

To increase the lift we either increase the airspeed by increasing the power, or increase the
angle of attack resulting in extra drag and thus reducing he airspeed. For a medium turn we
normally accept the decrease in airspeed caused by the slight backpressure required.

Balance

The turn is in balance when the ball is in the centre. Keep the ball in the middle by pressing
the corresponding rudder pedal if the ball is
to one side.

Overbanking

Because the outside wing of the turn is
following a larger circle than the inside
wing, it experiences an increase in lift due
to its extra speed. This gives a tendency for
the aircraft to want to increase the bank in
a turn. Aileron may need to be applied to
prevent an increase in bank angle.

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Aileron Drag

When rolling the aircraft with aileron the
downgoing aileron (on the outside of the
turn) creates more lift, therefore, extra
drag. This causes the aircraft to yaw in the
opposite direction from the desired turn,
reducing the rolling moment. The
manufacturer uses various devices to
reduce the effect, such as differential
movement of the ailerons and frise ailerons.
Nevertheless, the problem remains, so
rudder should be used in conjunction with
aileron when rolling the aircraft. The
rudder should be applied in the same
direction and in the same proportion as the
aileron, particularly at high angle of attack –
slow speed

Application - check clear all round
Entry to a Turn

- Bank - use aileron and rudder to roll on 30o bank

- Balance - use rudder to keep in balance

- Backpressure - increase backpressure to stay level

Maintaining a Turn - Attitude - check attitude correct and constant

- Angle of Bank - check correct

- All clear - a good lookout into the turn

Exiting - Anticipate recovery point

- Bank - use aileron and rudder to roll wings

- Balance - use rudder to keep balance to S & L attitude

- Backpressure - reduce backpressure to maintain altitude

- Lookout

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8. STALLING

Introduction

As the airspeed is reduced in straight and level flight, the angle of attack (AoA) is increased
until the Critical Angle or Stalling Angle is reached. This occurs at around 16o AoA in our
aircraft. At this point there is an uncontrolled separation of streamlined flow at the
boundary layer of the wing resulting in a dramatic reduction of lift and increase in drag.
This loss of lift results in a loss of altitude; therefore it is dangerous to allow the aircraft to
stall near the ground. It is important to be able to recognise the symptoms of the approach
to the stall in order to prevent it from occurring and also to be able to recover from a stall
with the minimum of height loss should one occur. However, at a safe height, the stall is a
safe and simple manoeuvre to perform.

Principles

At low AoA, the airflow over the wing is smooth with virtually no turbulence. Due to
friction between the air and the wing, there is a layer of slower moving air called the
Boundary Layer adjacent to the wings surface. The boundary layer continues to adhere to
the upper surface of the wing until it nears the trailing edge when it can no long do so; this
point is known as the Separation Point.

As the AoA is increased, the CL increases and the CoP begins to move progressively forward
as the Separation Point moves forward. The drag increases, reducing the airspeed.

Rising nose attitude
Speed reduction

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As the AoA continues to increase, the CL increases and the CoP moves further forward.
The drag continues to increase the airspeed reduces further.

High nose attitude
Reduction in control effect
Buffeting
Stall warning horn

Once the critical angle is reached the boundary layer separates from the upper surface of
the wing and the lifting ability of the wing reduces markedly. The CoP now moves
rearwards and there is a rapid increase in drag. The rearward movement of CoP helps to
cause the nose to pitch down at the stall.

Considerations

Basic Stalling Speed

In most training aircraft there is no angle of attack indicator so we have to use the airspeed
indicator to warn us of an impending stall. The basic stalling speed of an aircraft is defined
as the airspeed at which the aircraft will stall when it is straight and level, its maximum all
up weight, has flap up and with idle power.

Factors Affecting the Stall Speed

The stall speed will not vary with the altitude of the aircraft, but other factors will cause
stall speed to vary as follows:

Flaps
Flaps change the shape of the wing and increase the maximum amount of lift it can
produce for a particular angle of attack. Therefore, at the basic stalling speed the
wing will not have reached the critical angle. The speed will be able to reduce further
before the wing stalls. Flaps do, however, reduce the lateral stability at the stall due
to the CoP moving towards the wing root. This increases the likelihood of a wind drop
at the stall.

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Power
Power adds airspeed over the inboard sections of the wing and elevator. Therefore,
more lift is produced for a given AoA. Again, at the basic stalling speed the wing will
not have reached the critical angle and the speed will be able to reduce further
before the wing stalls. Another effect of power is to provide a vertical component of
thrust which assists in supporting the weight. This reduces the amount of lift required
from the wing; therefore, reducing the stall speed further.

Weight
The greater the weight the more lift that the wing has to produce. At the stall we
cannot increase the AoA to produce more lift so we must increase the speed. This
means that an increase in weight causes an increase in stall speed. Published stall
speeds are based upon the aircraft being at maximum gross weight. This highlights
one of the dangers of flying an aircraft overweight.

Manoeuvre
When an aircraft manoeuvres, more lift is being produced by the wing than required
for straight and level flight. At the stall, the AoA cannot be increased to produce
more lift so we must increase the speed. In a 60o bank level turn, twice as much list is
required than for straight and level flight. If the aircraft had a basic stalling speed of
50 kts, the stall speed would increase to 70 kts in this turn.

Ice / Damage
Ice and damage spoil the surface of the wing causing the boundary layer to separate
earlier at a lower AoA. This means that the aircraft will stall at a higher speed. In
addition, ice increases the aircraft weight, further increasing the stall speed.

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Tip Stall Prevention

If the outer section of a wing stalls first, a sharp wing drop could occur and, if allowed to
continue, the aircraft could enter a spin. Therefore, designers adopt devices to ensure that
the inner section of the wing stalls first, reducing any rolling moment at the stall. Washout,
or a twisting of the wing section along its span, creates a smaller angle of incidence on the
outboard sections of the wing. This ensures that the wing root reaches the stalling angle
earlier than the wing tip. Stall Strips are sharp edges attached to the leading edge of the
wing root. They have on effect at low AoA but cause the boundary layer to separate when
the AoA gets higher. This results in a stall in the area of the strips before the rest of the
wing. Another benefit of Stall Strips is that the early breakaway of the boundary layer
causes buffet on the elevator giving warning of the impending stall.

Controls

If ailerons are used near the stall, they can induce the wing with the downgoing aileron to
stall early, giving a rapid wind drop that can lead to a spin. This is because the downgoing
aileron increases the AoA on its wing tip taking it past the Critical Angle. When close to the
stall, rudder should be used to keep the wings level as the secondary effect of rudder is to
produce roll in the desired direction by increasing the speed on the wing to give lift, not by
increasing its AoA.

Application

Prior to entering a practice stall we must carry out some checks to ensure it is safe to stall
the aircraft.

H - Height - sufficient to recover by 3000’ AGL
A - Airframe - gear /flaps up
S - Security - nothing loose, harnesses tight, hatches secure
E - Engine - Oil pressures and temperatures in the green, Mixture rich,
Fuel sufficient, pump on check pressure, throttle friction nut
L - Location loose
L - Lookout
- not over built up areas, airfields, in CTA or busy traffic areas
- 360o turn

Approach to the Stall

Apply carburetor heat and reduce the power to idle. Apply sufficient backpressure to
increase the attitude as the speed reduces in order to maintain altitude. You will notice the
following symptoms of the approach to the stall

Nose high 112
Speed decreasing
Reduced wind noise
Controls sluggish
Warning horn at approximately 5-10 kts above the stall
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When the speed has been reduced to 10 knots above the stall speed return the carburettor
heat lever to off. (Or when you hear the stall warning indicator sound).

The Stall

Continue applying backpressure to maintain altitude. When the critical angle of attack has
been reached the aircraft will stall. Lift will be reduced, the centre of pressure moves
rapidly rearwards, the downward force on the tailplane is reduced thus pitching the nose
down.

The following are the characteristics of the stall:

Stall warning horn
Low airspeed
Buffet (possible)
Control fully back
High rate of descent
Nose pitching down
Possible wing drop

Recovery
The stall recovery is as follows

Relax the backpressure – to the horizon
Hold the glide attitude (almost S&L)
Wait until 70 kts
Level the wings using rudder and select full power
Climb away

Make gentle movements on the controls during the climb to avoid re-entering a stall. After
recovery, carry out a turn of at least 90o to lookout for other aircraft.

Recovery with Minimum Height Loss

If we accidentally stalled near the ground it is essential that we recover with the minimum
loss of height. To achieve this we can select full power as we initiate the recovery as
follows:

Relax the backpressure and select full power
Hold the nose just above the horizon
Wait until 60 kts
Level the wings
Climb away

Stall with Flap

For a stall with flap, select 2 stages of flap when the speed has reduced into the white arc
and continue the stall entry as before. The speed will reduce more quickly due to the

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increased drag of the flap and there is a greater tendency for a wing to drop at the stall.
The nose attitude will not be as high. The recovery is the same and retract the flaps once a
positive rate of climb is established.

Stall with Power On

Select 1500 rpm for a power on stall. As a result, the speed will reduce more slowly due to
the thrust from the engine. The nose will reach a higher attitude at the stall and there will
again be a greater tendency for a wing to drop at the stall.

Airmanship

Unexpected stalls should never occur
Always carry out HASSELL checks
Do not use aileron near the stall

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9. CIRCUITS

Introduction

The aim of this phase of training is to learn to take-off and land safely. Circuits provide us
with the opportunity to practice take-offs and landings and are also used to provide a
simple method of sequencing traffic at an aerodrome. All the exercises learned so far will
be used in the circuit work.

A take-off run is required to accelerate the aircraft to a speed which provides a safe margin
above the stall speed. The distance required for take-off is relatively simple to perform.
However, landings require a little more judgement and technique. Initially they are highly
demanding, but they become simple through experience and practice. A satisfactory
standard will mean progress onto first solo.

Considerations

Wind
It is desirable to take-off and land into wind. This has the advantage of:

1. Lowering the ground speed.
2. Shortening the ground roll.
3. Giving good directional control.
4. No drift.
5. A steeper climb and glide angle.
6. A better position if the engine fails on take-off.

Length of Take-off and Landing Run
The factors which affect the length of take-off and landing run are as follows:

Factor Take-off Landing

Increased Weight Increase Increase
Wind Strong Decrease Decrease
Surface Smooth Decrease Increase (brakes not used)
Elevation High Increase Increase
Temperature High Increase Increase
Slope Up Increase Decrease
Flap Down Decrease Decrease

Yaw on Take-Off

The slipstream effect and torque effect (increased weight on left wheel) will both cause the
aircraft to yaw to the left on take-off. This should be countered by using right rudder to
keep the aircraft straight.

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Runway

The number shown on the runway is the magnetic bearing of the runway rounded to the
nearest 10o with the last digit deleted: eg a runway with a magnetic bearing of 166o would
be rounded to 170o and be called 17. If the airfield has parallel runways, an L or R will be
added to indicate the left or right runway; eg 17L

Circuit Pattern

The main purpose of a circuit is to ensure safety. The orderly flow around an active runway
is designed to allow a sequence of approach by the aircraft in the traffic pattern.

The circuit is a rectangular pattern based on the runway in use. The standard circuit is left
handed with all turns being made to the left giving a better view from the left hand seat.
However, at some aerodromes and on some particular runways the circuits are right-
handed to avoid built up areas, high terrain, restricted airspace and to provide separation
between circuits on two adjacent runways.

The circuit has five legs. The Upwind leg is flown when climbing just after take-off. The
climb is continued on the Crosswind leg until the circuit height is reached (normally 1000 ft
AGL). Another turn takes you on the Downwind leg: this can be subdivided into
Downwind (abeam the upwind end of the runway), Mid Downwind (abeam half way along
the runway and Late Downwind (abeam the threshold or beyond). A descent is
commenced after the turn onto Base (this again can be split into Base, Mid Base and Late
Base). The last leg is called Final and a landing is made at the end of it (this can be split into
Final, Mid Final and Late Final).

Traffic

The Tower co-ordinates all traffic in the circuit and helps provide separation between other
aircraft. It is important to note the pilot himself must ensure that adequate separation will
be achieved between his aircraft and other aircraft operating in the same circuit patter. If
you are advised to follow a particular aircraft you must be able to see the traffic concerned
and maintain adequate separation on it. If you cannot see the traffic you have been told to
follow, advise the Tower ‘traffic not sighted’. The Tower will provide further assistance.

Application

Take-Off

Do not enter the runway until cleared by the tower and you have checked that the
approach is clear. Once lined up on the centerline take-off as follows: (settings quoted are
C152/PA28)

1. Apply full power and keep straight using right rudder.
2. Check engine rpm, temperatures and pressures: 2250/2300.
3. At 50/55 kts apply slight backpressure on the control column to take the

weight off the nosewheel.
1. Lift off the ground at 50/60 kts.
2. Climb initially at: 65/80 kts.

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Upwind

Keep the aircraft straight by selecting a feature on the horizon ahead. Accelerate to the
best rate of climb speed and trim. At 200 ft retract any flap. When approaching 500 ft:

1. Check flap retracted.
2. Turn off fuel pump and check fuel pressure. (If installed).
3. Lookout and select a reference point at 90o in the direction of the circuit.
4. Commence a climbing turn onto Crosswind (15o bank).

Crosswind
Continue the climb accelerating to the normal climb speed. Track at 90o to the runway
allowing for drift. At 1000 ft:

1. Select the straight and level attitude.
2. Throttle reduce to cruise power.
3. Lookout and select a reference point down the Downwind leg parallel to

runway.
4. Commence a medium level turn onto the Downwind leg (30o bank).

NOTE:

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Downwind

Track parallel to the runway and maintain straight and level at 1000 ft trimming at the
cruise speed. Between roll out from the turn and abeam the upwind end of the runway
make a radio call:

eg Cessna NKL
Downwind (or Mid/Late Downwind if call delayed)
Touch & Go (Full Stop)

The Tower will reply with traffic details. Acknowledge with your callsign unless he/she asks
you a question. At Mid Downwind carry out the pre-landing checks. When the threshold is
45o behind you (ie half way between the wing and tail of the aircraft):

1. Carb heat hot.
2. Throttle reduced to 1500/1700 rpm.
3. Lookout and select a reference feature.
4. Commence a medium level turn onto base (30o bank).
5. Maintain height until approaching 70/80 kts then commence descent.

Base

When the speed is approaching the white arc lower 2 stages of flap. Set the attitude to ½
ground and ½ sky and trim the aircraft at 75/80 kts. Track at 90o to the runway allowing for
drift. Make power adjustments as required to give the correct descent rate. When
approaching the runway centreline, turn onto final. Adjust the angle of bank to ensure that
you roll out on the centreline. Avoid flying past the centreline as you may get close to
traffic using the other runway.

Final

Use aileron to track along the centreline of the runway. Use the perspective of the runway
to check that you are on the correct glide angle. Select full flap and let the speed reduce to
65/70 kts and trim. Adjust the attitude to ensure that you touchdown point is at the
threshold of the runway. Maintain the airspeed with the throttle. After Mid Final reduce
the airspeed to 60/65 kts. You will receive clearance to touch & go or land from the tower.

Landing

The aim of the landing phase is to fly the aircraft level, just above the runway until it is
ready to land. This is achieved by commencing the level off at about windsock height and
closing the throttle. Transfer your eyes to the far end of the runway and you will be able to
sense whether the aircraft is climbing or descending. You will need to raise the attitude
progressively as the speed decreases to maintain level flight. As the nose reaches the
landing attitude, simply stop raising it and the aircraft will settle onto the runway. Keep
straight with rudder and lower the nose wheel gently. Commence braking or take-off as
required.

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After Landing

Slow down to a walking pace and turn off the runway at the next taxiway intersection; ie
follow the yellow lead-off line. Taxi past the holding point markers and stop to carry out the
after landing checks. (If you need to exit onto another runway a clearance is required).

Touch & Go

When practicing circuits it is convenient to keep the aircraft rolling and take-off again after
a short ground roll. To carry out a Touch & Go:

1. Keep the aircraft straight on the centreline with rudder. (Maintain control).
2. Select flap to take-off.
3. Check carb heat off.
4. Select full power.
5. Take-off as normal.

Go Around

It may be necessary to discontinue a landing for traffic reasons or a bad approach. To carry
out a Go Around:

1. Carb heat to cold.
2. Select full power.
3. Positive rate of climb (remove drag flap from 40o to 30o)

4. Commence climb.
5. Flap up in stages.
6. Keep to the ‘dead side’ of the runway or ‘live’ side of parallel runways.

However, @ MB due to parallel circuits it’s the live side of the circuit.

Bounce or Balloon on Landing

If you over rotate as you attempt to land or hit the runway too early and bounce you will go
high above the runway at low speed. It is important to lower the nose quickly into the S&L
Add power if necessary to increase the speed. Once the aircraft is descending simply

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commence the landing again. If in doubt, go around.

Flapless Landing

It may be necessary to land without using flap. Delay the turn onto base to give more time
for the descent and add 5 kts to the speeds on final. Fly a slightly flatter approach angle
and very little roundout is required to fly the aircraft level along the runway. The aircraft
will tend to float longer due to the reduced drag.

Glide Landing

Engine problems may make it necessary to carry out a glide landing. To practice these, turn
early onto base and delay descent until you are sure you will be able to reach a third of the
way into the runway. Close the throttle and trim at the best gliding speed. Allow for drift
on base and adjust to ensure you will make a third of the way into the runway. On final,
use flap progressively to bring the touchdown point close to the threshold. Only use full
flap when you are sure you will make the runway. You will need a slightly greater than
normal roundout to fly the aircraft level for landing.

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10. ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKE-OFF (EFATO)

Introduction

In the unlikely event of the engine failing after take-off, you must be able to carry out a
successful forced landing.

Considerations

Runway Remaining

If sufficient runway length remains, land on the runway ahead. If no runway remains
ahead, adopt the glide attitude and select an open space ahead.

Field Selection

Select a forced landing area within about 30o either side of the climb track and head
towards it using gentle turns. If no open area is available and you completed a 90o turn
onto crosswind (ie at above 700 ft) turn back towards the airfield. Note that a height loss in
a 180o turn is about 500 ft, so never turn back to the airfield if you have more than 90o to
turn.

Flap

Use flap on the approach to the field if time allows. Flaps will enable a slower approach
and landing speed. However, they steepen the glide angle so do not use flap until you are
sure to make the landing area.

Stall Speed

The most common cause of a crash after engine failure after take-off is as the result of a
stall. Keep a safe gliding speed; you will not gain by slowing down to stretch the glide.
Avoid manoeuvres that increase the stall speed such as steep turns.

Application

Engine Failure Before Lift Off:

- Close the throttle.
- Start braking.
- Mixture Off, Fuel Off, Mags Off, Master Off.
- Steer in a safe direction and ground loop if necessary.
- Make a radio call: ‘NKL aborting’

Engine Failure with Sufficient Runway Remaining:

- Lower the nose to the approach attitude.
- Close the throttle.
- Land on the runway and continue as Engine Failure before Lift Off.

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Engine Failure Without Sufficient Runway Remaining:

- Lower the nose to the glide attitude.
- Close the throttle.
- Look for a field 30o either side of the nose.
- If time permits check: Carb Heat, Fuel, Mixture, Switches and Start, radio

call.
- Avoid obstacles with gentle turns.
- B Brakes off and unlocked.

U Undercarriage as required.
S Switches off, ie fuel cock, master, magnetos.
H harnesses secure, hatches unlock, cover heads with soft clothing etc.
- If landing on poor field, minimize impact velocity.

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SECTION FOUR: AERONAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE

1. PRE-SOLO AERONAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE

Prior to flying solo, you must have gained aeronautical knowledge covering the following
topics and be able to answer the questions listed below. You will have to pass a simple
exam before going solo. To help gain sufficient knowledge, use the study material in this
folder to learn the answers to the following questions.

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

Terminology
Direction:
Express direction as a three figure group.
Express runways as two figure groups.
Recall the clock code method of expressing direction.
Define Heading.

Time:
Express time as 4, 6 and 8 time figure group.

Power Plants and Systems – Basics
State the purpose of the Tachometer.
State the purpose of the Ammeter/Voltmeter.
State the purpose of the Fuel Pressure Gauge.

Engine Icing
Describe the method for checking the operation of the carburetor heat prior to
take-off.

Flight Instruments
State the meaning of the following colors on the ASI:
Green Band
White Band
Yellow Band
Red Marker

State the effect of an incorrect sub scale setting on the reading of the altimeter.

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FLIGHT RULES AND AIR LAW
Flight Rules and Conditions of Flight

Recall / apply the following rules/requirements:

Rules of the air (CAR 160 to 163)
The requirements relating to the operation of aircraft in the vicinity of an
aerodrome (CAR 166(1) & 166(3) and the conditions relating to turns after
take-off.
Separation minima between aircraft for take-off and landing at a non-
controlled aerodrome.
Rules relating to restrictions on smoking in an aircraft during take-off,
landing and refueling (CAR 255).

State the rules relating to the use of drugs and alcohol (CAR 256), and recall the
minimum period between alcohol consumption and flight departure (CAR 256(1) to
(4).

Aerodromes
With reference to a map of MB airport, identify the movement areas.
Explain the significance of taxiway and runway markings.
Correctly label the legs of a circuit on a diagram.
Explain the significance of a white cross on the movement area.

Emergencies and SAR
Recall the intermittent use of navigation and landing lights by an aircraft to indicate
that an aircraft is in difficulty.

RADIO COMMUICATION

State the radio calls for a flight to the training area and return from start up to shut
down in the correct order.
State the radio calls for a flight in the circuit area and return from start up to shut
down in the correct order.
Sate the purpose of the following radio controls:

- On/Off switches
- Frequency Selection and Squelch control
- Transmit button
Describe the difference between a distress and urgency message.

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Give an example of when each type of call should be used including the text of a
sample call.

Describe the radio failure procedures listed in ERS(A).

AIRCRAFT TYPE KNOWLEDGE
Identify the following components of the:

 Fuselage
Entry and emergency exits, aerials, static vents, rotating beacon and
inspection hatches.

 Wings
Leading and training edges, nav lights, ailerons, flaps, trim tabs pitot
head, tie down points, stall warning, fuel caps, tanks drains, vents,
hatches.

 Tail
Elevator/Stabiliser, fin, rudder, trim tabs.

 Undercarriage 126
Struts, wheels, brakes, steering and ground handling points.

 Engine
Type, number of cylinders, induction system.

 General Cockpit layout
Engine and flight controls
Engine and flight instruments
Heating and ventilation switches and controls
Main switches

Recall :
 Emergency actions listed in the pilot operating hand book.
 Power plant and airspeed limitations given in the flight manual.
 The following operating speeds:
Rotate
Vtoss
Best rate Climb

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Normal Climb
Normal Approach
Flapless Approach
Glide Approach

 Symptoms of an impending stall and the correct recovery technique.

 Pilot actions in the event of:

Fire in the air
Fire on the ground
EFATO
Engine Failure in the training area

Systems

State the methods used to:

 Control engine temperature
 Lean fuel / air mixture
 Control power

Recall the allied gauges which provide appropriate information on the above
parameters.

AERODYNAMICS
Basic Theory

Differentiate between IAS and GS.

Flight Controls

Describe the primary and further effects of the elevator, rudder and aileron on an
aeroplanes movement about the longitudinal, lateral and normal axis.

Describe the effect of changes in power and airspeed on pitch trim and the
effectiveness of the elevator, rudder and ailerons.

Describe the purpose of the trim control.

State the effect of lowering or raising flap on lift, drag and attitude.

Descents

State the effect on rate, angle of descent and attitude resulting from changes in:

Power Constant IAS
Flap Constant IAS

State the effect of a headwind/tailwind on glide path and glide range.

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Explain why a pilot should maintain the Best glide speed if undershooting an
approach to land.

Turning
Describe what is meant by a balanced turn.
State the effect (increase/decrease) of bank angle on stall IAS.
List reasons for avoiding a steep turn shortly after T/O and during a glide,
particularly on approach.

Stalling, Spinning and Spiral Dives
Define the stalling angle and the characteristics of a stall.
Explain why you shouldn’t use aileron to correct for a wing drop at the stall.
Explain why an aircraft may stall at different speeds.
List the effect (increase/decrease/nil) of the following variables on the level flight
stall IAS
Power
Flap
Wind shear/vertical gusts
Manoeuvres

Taxi, Take-off and Landing
Cite situations which may cause an aircraft to ‘Wheelbarrow’, and state the
recommended pilot action in the event of such an occurrence.
Describe the effect of a cross wind on high and low wing aeroplanes during taxi,
take-off and landing.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

Basic health Knowledge for Pilots
Know the responsibilities of pilots with regard to being medically fit for flight.

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SECTION FIVE: RPL GENERAL INFORMATION

1. PRE TAKE-OFF SAFETY BRIEF

Prior to take-off, the pilot in command must mentally run through a safety brief to ensure
the correct actions are carried out in the event of either an aborted take-off or an engine
failure after take-off. The following is a recommended brief:

During Take-off roll

After receiving a clearance for take-off, I will apply full power. During the take-off
roll I will check that the oil pressure and temperature are in the green arc, airspeed
is increasing, and that the power is above the minimum RPM.

The aborted take-off

This may be due to an obstruction on the runway, engine failure or loss of power,
faulty instrument indications or an instruction from the tower controller.

Once the decision has been made to abort the take-off, I will close the throttle, keep
the aircraft straight with rudder and then brake to a full stop. I will then shut down
the engine when clear of the runway if required.

Engine failure after take-off

I will immediately lower the nose to the gliding attitude and maintain 60/73 kts.
Then I will close the throttle and pick a suitable landing area which is no more than
30o either side of the heading. If no suitable landing area is available ahead and I
have turned onto the crosswind leg I will turn back to the field. I will carry out a
BUSH check and a Mayday call if time permits. After landing I will apply the brakes
and come to a stop. Having safely landed the aircraft I will check that the electrical
switches are all off and that the fuel is turned off, then I will leave the aircraft taking
the fire extinguisher with me.

2. PASSENGER BRIEFING

It is important that you brief your passengers on what to do when in and around your
aircraft. Make sure they keep near you and do not wander near other aircraft when
walking to the aircraft. Tell them how to enter the aircraft and brief them on the following
items prior to take-off.

Smoking
Inform passengers that smoking is not permitted in Tristar aircraft. In aircraft where
smoking is permitted, it should not be allowed during take-off and landing.

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Luggage
Show where and how to stow luggage. Make sure no dangerous goods are contained in the
luggage.

Exits
Show passengers how to operate the door and any other emergency exit.

Seat Belts
Explain how to fit and remove the seat belts and that they should be worn at all times. If
passengers need to take them off in flight, do not allow them to remove them during take-
off and landing, when below 1000ft, in turbulent conditions or during an instrument
approach.

Life Jackets
Explain how to use the life jackets, if carried, and where they are located. They should be
worn if flying over water outside gliding range and below 2000ft.

Survival Equipment
Brief on any other survival equipment carried such as first aid kit, life raft and survival kit.

Controls
Brief any passenger in a control seat to keep their hands and feet away from the controls
and switches.

3. GETTING BACK TO MOORABBIN

At the end of a flight in the training area you will need to be able to find your way back to
Moorabbin, negotiating the airport procedures and avoiding other aircraft. Moorabbin has
Class D and as a result has special procedures. These are detailed in the section starting on
page XXXXXXX and specific Moorabbin procedures are found in ERSA.
These are approximately six miles from the airport and are shown on the VTC extract. Your
instructor will show you how to find them. While you are flying towards Carrum or GMH
you should achieve 1500ft and listen to the ATIS to obtain the latest information. Once
overhead the reporting point you should make your inbound call on 118.1 MHz at GMH or
123.0 MHz at Carrum.

At Carrum

You will receive instructions from the tower on how you are to join the circuit. You should
descend to 1000ft and track according to the instructions as follows:

35L Straight in. Stay over the water until on the centreline of the runway.
Call when you are on final.

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31L Oblique Base. Turn right onto base. Call on base. 3 mile Final may also be
used. Call on Final.

17R Downwind. Stay over the water then turn right onto downwind. Call on
downwind.

13R Downwind. Call on downwind.

04 Base. Call on base.

22 Oblique Downwind. Call on downwind.

At GMH
You will receive instructions from the tower on how you are to join the circuit. You should
descend to 1000ft and for runways 35, 31 and 04 head toward Rickets Point reporting at
Parkmore Shopping Centre if asked. For Runways 17, 13 & 22 head towards the city and
report at Sandown Race Course if asked. The likely joining instructions are as follows:

35R Base, Report at Parkmore. Call at Parkmore and on base.

31R Straight In, Report at Parkmore. Call at Parkmore and on final.

17L Base, Report at Sandown. Call at Sandown and on base.

13L Base, Report at Sandown. Call at Sandown and on base.

04 Oblique Downwind. Call on downwind.

22 Base. Call on base.

There may be variations in these procedures so you must listen carefully to the instructions.
Two of the major variations are to join Upwind or Overfly.

Upwind Join
Maintain 1500ft and track towards the airport aiming to turn upwind when overhead the
runway in use. Call upwind and the tower will give you circuit joining instructions. When
you have received these instructions or are given sequencing instructions, you are cleared
to descend to 1000ft.

Overfly
This is used to move you into the other runway circuit. You should maintain 1500ft and
track towards the airport. You will be instructed to change to the other frequency when
overhead the runways. Call on the other frequency and you will be given joining
instructions.

Whatever type of join you do, sequencing instructions will be given if there is other traffic
and you positively identify the traffic that you have been told to follow. It is your
responsibility to avoid other traffic.

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If you are joining on downwind, do your pre-landing checks after your downwind call.
Otherwise do your pre-landing checks after reporting at Parkmore or Sandown.

4. RECREATIONAL PILOTS LICENCE

At the end of this phase you will fly the Recreational Pilots Licence Test. It is a check of your
progress during your training towards a Private Pilot Licence. A copy of the test form is
enclosed after this section. Please read the form and note the comments in the
‘Introduction’ at the bottom and the requirements for the test in the ‘Flight Test Report’ at
the right.

In addition to the progress aspect of this test, when the test has been completed
successfully, you will be permitted to take passengers on flights in the training area. This
puts a greater safety emphasis on the test and will be a major consideration in the
assessment by the examiner.

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SECTION SIX: AIRCRAFT EXTRAS

1. FUELLING AIRCRAFT

Introduction

Fuelling an aircraft can be as simple as fuelling a car. However, there are a few extra
regulations to be considered and some company procedures to follow.

Fuel Type
You should check the aircraft flight manual and placards to make sure that the correct
grade of fuel is loaded. Most the aircraft flown with Tristar can use Avgas 100 low lead or
100/130. The 100LL is coloured blue and the 100/30 is coloured green.

Fuelling at Moorabbin
The fuel agent drives a fuel truck around the airport, topping up aircraft at regular intervals
and when requested by phone. If this is not convenient or possible, the aircraft can be
taxied to the AirBP station and the agent will fill the aircraft while you wait. The agency is
open 0800 to 1730, but a card is available for self-service outside these times.

When taking the aircraft to be fuelled, stop on the yellow line abeam the pump and shut
down leaving the parking brake off. After fuelling, pull the aircraft clear of the parking area
before restarting.

Paying for Fuel
At Moorabbin the agent will bill the company direct. At other airfields the bill has to paid to
the supplier at the time of receipt. In Tristar aircraft you will receive a rebate for the fuel
when you pay for the hire of the aircraft. However, the rebate will be at the rate Tristar
pays for its fuel at Moorabbin. This rate is available at the operations desk. It is important
that all receipts for fuel and oil are produced when requesting a rebate. ?????

Water Contamination Check
The fuel in the tanks must be checked for water contamination during the Daily Inspection
and after refuelling (see CAO 20.2). Drain a fuel sample from each tank and the engine fuel
line and check it for colour and presence of water. Small amounts of water will form
bubbles in the bottom of the sample. Keep draining fuel until water is no longer present in
the sample. There are water detecting papers or pastes available for checking for water if
you are in any doubt.

Safety During Fuelling Operations
It is important that safety precautions are taken during fuelling to minimise risk of fire. CAO
20.9 gives detailed orders on how fuelling operations are to be carried out. Apart from
some obvious precautions like no smoking and only fuelling in marked fuelling areas, the
following procedures should be used:

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Location of Aircraft when Fuelling
During fuelling operations, the aircraft and ground fuelling equipment shall be so
located that no fuel tank filling points or vent outlets lie within:

- 5m of any sealed building
- 6m of other stationary aircraft
- 15m of any exposed public area
- 9m of any unsealed building if aircraft has a MTOW not exceeding

5700kgs

Location of Personnel when Fuelling
During fuelling operations, all passengers and crew must vacate the aircraft.
Passengers must be taken away from the area a sufficient distance to comply with
the previous paragraph.

Prevention of Sparks
To prevent any danger of a spark igniting the fuel during the fuelling operation the
aircraft and fuelling apparatus must be earthed and bonded to each other. The
following procedure should be followed:

- attach earth wire to fuel supply point
- attach earth wire to earthing point on aircraft
- attach fuel nozzle bonding wire to earthing point near tank filler
- check all clear and pour fuel

The reverse procedure should be used to remove the earth connections.

2. MAINTENANCE RELEASE

Every aircraft has a Maintenance Release and it must be carried in the aircraft during flight.
The regulations concerning the Maintenance Release are contained in CAR 43 and
additional information is given in CAAP 43-1.

At the top right of the form is the expiry date and Total Time in Service (TTIS). The TTIS is
sometimes translated into a Flight Switch time so that it corresponds to the time on the
Maintenance Clock. The form is valid for one year and 100 hours but items in part 1,
‘Maintenance Required’ may be due before the expiry date or TTIS. Items in part 2,
‘Endorsements’ may also need rectifying before the aircraft can be flown.

On the reverse of the form is Part 3, ‘Daily Inspection Certifications and Aircraft Time-in-
Service’. This Part should be dated with that days date and signed by a full pilot licence
holder. The TTIS (or Flt Switch) should be entered for the end of the previous day.

A reduced example of a Maintenance Release is included at the end of this session.

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Maintenance Release Checking and Completion Procedure

1. Note the current date and TTIS (or Flt Switch).

2. Check that the Expiry date and TTIS have not been reached.

3. Check that any ‘Maintenance Required’ items are not due.
4. Check that the ‘Endorsements’ are acceptable or cleared.

5. Get a qualified pilot to carry out the Daily Inspection (this is generally a flight
Instructor for training flights).

6. If satisfactory, enter the TTIS or Flt Switch for the end of the previous day
and date the next line.

7. Get the pilot who carried out the DI to sign and enter his/her licence type
and number in Part 3.

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SECTION SEVEN: FLIGHT SEQUENCES

1. PRE RPL SYLLABUS

1. Practice Forced Landings 1.0 hour Dual

- Long Brief
- Re-famil of training area
- Demo & practice PFLs
- Glide circuit
- Complete area solo exam

2. Steep Turns & Area Solo Check 1.0 hour Dual

- Long Brief
- Revise PFLs
- Demo & practise steep turns
- Demo & practise steep descending turns & spiral dives
- Demo & practise recovery from visual unusual attitudes

3. Area Solo 1.0 hour Solo
- Familiarisation of the training area

4. Stalling - Advanced 1.0 hour
Dual

- Long brief
- Revise PFLs
- Revise steep turns
- Demo & practise advanced stalling

5. Area Solo 1.0 hour Solo
- PFLS
- Steep turns
- Stalling

6. Precautionary Search / Instrument Flight 1.0 hour Dual

- Long brief
- Short field take-off
- Demo & Precautionary Search
- Side slipping
- Short field landing

7. Training Area Consolidation 1.0 hour Solo

- Short field take-off 141
- PFLs
- Steep turns
- Stalling

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- Short field landing 1.5 hour Dual
8. Crosswind Circuits

- Crosswind circuit practice

9. Crosswind Circuits 1.0 hour Solo
- Crosswind circuit practice

10. Instrument Flying 1.0 hour Dual
- Basic instrument flying Simulator

12. Pre RPL 1.5 hours Dual
- Ground theory
- Practice test

13. RPL 1.5 hours Dual

- Must have at least the following before the test:

-20 hours flight time (dual and solo)
-5 hours solo
-2 hours instrument flight time (may include 1 hour simulator)

Total Flying During RPL Phase - 12 hours dual, 4 hours Solo

Total Flying to end of RPL Phase - 23 hours dual, 6 hours Solo

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2. FORCED LANDINGS

Introduction

Forced landings are the result of a malfunction in the engine or fuel starvation, often due to
pilot mismanagement. Some partial power may be available from the engine and if the
following procedures are used correctly the resultant landing need not be a tragedy.

Forced landings require quick decisions and sound judgement. Practice of the drills and
procedures will ensure you are prepared for an engine failure it happens to you.

Considerations

Type of Emergency
A fire is the worst case scenario and must be dealt with first. Whether the engine failure is
complete or partial will alter your actions. It may be possible to rectify the problem so
cockpit drills can be carried out carefully.

Wind Direction

Landing into wind will reduce your landing ground speed and ground roll. Therefore, it is
important to determine the wind direction early in the forced landing procedure. The
following give clues to the wind direction:

- Smoke
- Dust
- Water lanes or calm shadows on lakes or dams
- Low cloud shadows
- Met forecasts
- Runway direction or ATIS
- Drift of aircraft

Field Selection

If there are many fields to choose from turn downwind first and then pick a field to the
front and left of your aircraft. If there is not a suitable field in this area look to the front
right then try rear left and finally rear right. Only look in an area out to a 45o cone below
the aircraft. The following are considerations when choosing a field:

- Size -large as possible

- Shape -rectangular if possible

- Surface -in order: firm grass, pastures, ploughed land, loose sand,

standing crops. Beware livestock and ditches.

- Surroundings -clear approach and alternative fields. Civilisation close by.

- Slope -land uphill if possible. Cross slope is dangerous.

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Height
The height available will be a major consideration. The altimeter will show your height
above sea level, not above ground level. You must estimate the ground height of your field
and subtract it from your altimeter reading. The height available will govern the type of
pattern you will fly and the time available to carry out the drills. Fly at the best gliding
speed for your aircraft to give you the most time. Do not throw this time away by flying at
the wrong speed or selecting flap early.

Plan
Having chosen your field, formulate a plan of how you are going to fly to the field.

500ft Point
Pick a 500ft AGL point that you can aim to fly over when you roll out on the final leg.
Make sure that it is close to the field and is easily recognisable. Take account of the
wind strength.

1000ft Point
Pick a 1000ft AGL point that you will fly over when you roll out on the base leg. This
should ideally be on a left base and should give a longer base leg than the final leg.
Plan how you will fly to the 1000ft point with the distance and height available.
Keep the field in view at all times.

1. Initial Actions (CFMs)

2. Plan

3. Trouble Checks XXXXXXX

4. Mayday call

5. Passenger Brief

6. Revise plan

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Application

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(7) Shutdown Checks
On the base leg carry out the following shutdown checks:

-B Brakes, check pressure and off
-U Undercarriage down
-S Switches all off, including the fuel
-H harnesses secure, hatches unlatched

(8) Revise Plan

On base, check wind direction and speed by drift. Cut the corner onto final if the
wind is strong or you detect that you are low on the approach. If the wind is light or
you are too high widen the base leg or fly past the 500ft point and ‘S’ turn back onto
final. Do not select any flap unless you are sure you are very high. If you cannot
make the field or you now see that the field is unsuitable, look for another field
nearby and aim for that.

(9) Approach to Field

Aim initially to land a third of the way into the field. When you are sure of making
this, use flap to bring the aiming point back towards the beginning of the field. Only
use full flap when you are certain you will make the field.

(10) Landing

Aim to touch down at as slow a speed as possible. Bring the aircraft to a halt quickly
and vacate meeting upwind at a safe distance. If safe, return to the aircraft and
attempt to contact someone on the radio. Stay together with the aircraft unless
help is nearby.

Go Around

During practice forced landings away form an airfield you must go around by 500ft
AGL. Select carb heat to cold, apply cruise power and fly level for a few seconds to
warm the engine. Then select full power, raise any flap and climb away.

Airmanship

- Lookout.
- Always be aware of wind direction and strength in the area you are flying.
- On cross country flights, keep a lookout for suitable landing areas and be

aware of ground elevation.
- Be careful with fuel handling and engine control handling.
- Warm engine every 1000ft.
- Thorough and systematic checks and drills.
- Go around by 500ft AGL.
- Always keep field in sight. Never turn your back toward it or fly over it.

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3. STEEP TURNS

Introduction

It may be necessary to turn more quickly than the normal 30o banking turn allows. Perhaps
to avoid a conflict with another aircraft or poor weather. A steep turn is one where the
angle of bank is 45o or more. Most aircraft are limited to a maximum of 60o bank.

Principles

You will remember that the angle of attack has to be increased in a medium level turn in
order to maintain the vertical component of lift. As the angle of bank in a steep turn
increases, the angle of attack must be increased even more (for 90o bank the lift required is
infinite). The increased lift also increases the horizontal component of lift thus increasing
the rate of turn and reducing the radius.

Load Factor

The load factor is the ratio of lift to weight. In straight and level flight the load factor is one,
as the lift is the same as weight. In a medium level turn the load factor is 1.15 but as the
angle of bank increases, the load factor increases greatly for small increases in bank. At 60o
bank the load factor is 2, at 75o bank the load factor increases to 4 and at 85o bank it is 10!
Not even an F-18 an achieve that.

Considerations

Stall Speed

The stall speed will increase above the basic stalling speed as the load factor increases. This
is because as the angle of attack at the stall is already at 16o, to increase the lift in a turn
the aircraft must fly faster. To determine what the new stall speed will be at a given angle
of bank in level flight the following formula can be used:

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New stall speed = (old) basic stall speed x √load factor
At 60o bank the load factor is 2, so for an aircraft with a basic stall speed of 40 kts:

40 x √2 = 40 x 1.4 = 66 kts

As the load factor increases quickly at high angles of bank, the stall speed also increases
quickly at high angles of bank.

Power
As we increase the angle of attack to create the extra lift, the induced drag increases. In a
medium level turn we accept a slight reduction in speed due to this extra drag. However, in
a steep turn the increased drag would quickly wash off all the speed, so we must increase
power to balance the drag.

Overbanking Tendency
As with medium level turns, there is a tendency for the bank to increase due to the greater
speed of the outer wing. In a small radius turn, compared to a steep turn, the difference in
speed between the two wings is greater, therefore, there is a greater tendency to
overbank..

Instruments
The artificial horizon should be used to check the angle of bank. The altimeter will give an
indication of whether the attitude is correct and the ASI will verify the power setting. The
slip ball must be used to check the correct rudder setting.

Balance
The correct balance is important. In a left turn the slipstream from the propeller will
counteract most of the out of balance force from the turn. However, in a right turn it adds
to it. Therefore, in a right turn leave on the rudder used to co-ordinate with the ailerons
when the roll in is complete. Check the slip ball to ensure the turn is in balance.

Application

Entry - Pick a reference point near the horizon and straight ahead.

- A good lookout all round particularly to the rear in the direction of turn.

- Roll using aileron and rudder.
- When passing 30o bank: - increase power

- increase backpressure to hold the nose up

- Hold 45o bank

Maintain - Hold the attitude and trace the horizon through a point on the nose

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Recover holding a constant backpressure.
- Check the artificial horizon for angle of bank and hold off the

overbanking tendency.
- Check the altimeter for level.
- Check the ASI to ensure the power setting is correct.
- Check all clear.

- Anticipate 20o before the reference point.
- Roll out with aileron and rudder.
- Through 30o bank - Relax the backpressure

- Reduce power
- Return to straight and level attitude.

Recovery of a Bad Turn

Small errors such as incorrect bank angle or wrong attitude can be corrected in the normal
way. However, if the bank increases and the nose drops, applying more bank pressure in an
attempt to raise the nose will only increase the turn rate. The speed will increase as the
aircraft descends and the aircraft will enter a spiral dive. The correct method of recovery is
to roll off the bank first and then apply backpressure to raise the nose. Once the nose is
back to the correct attitude the bank can be reapplied. If the aircraft has entered a spiral
dive, reduce power to idle, level the wings and ease out of the dive. As the nose comes up
through the horizon into a climb, apply full power.

Airmanship

- Lookout
- Minimum height 1500ft
- Not more than 360o
- Alternate turn directions
- Orientation

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4. STEEP DESCENDING TURNS

Introduction

A steep descending turn is a combination of a glide descent and a steep turn. It might be
used to descend quickly in a confined space such as a gap in the clouds.

Considerations

The considerations for both a glide and steep turn apply to the steep descending turn. In
addition airspeed and the spiral dive need extra consideration.

Airspeed

There is no extra power to compensate for the increased drag caused by the extra lift
required in a steep turn, so we must lower the nose to maintain a safe margin over the
increased stall speed. An extra 5 kts above the normal best glide speed should be
maintained for a 45o bank turn.

Spiral Dive

If the bank angle gets too high or the attitude gets too low, the aircraft and quickly enter a
spiral dive. This can be recognised by:

- Increasing airspeed
- Low nose attitude
- High rate of descent
- Tightening turn

Application

Entry

- Enter a glide

- Lower the nose to increase speed by 10 kts

- Pick a reference point

- Roll in with aileron and rudder
- Through 30o bank increase the backpressure
- Hold 45o bank

Maintain

- Hold the attitude and trace the horizon through a point on the nose
holding a constant back pressure

- Check the artificial horizon for angle of bank and hold off the
overbanking tendency

- Check the ASI to ensure the attitude is correct
- Check all clear

Section 7: RPL Flight Sequences 150