Flight Training Guide

GUIDE TO FLIGHT TRAINING

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20. OPERATING LIMITATIONS (CONTD)

2. Standard Aeroplane Weights

Standard Empty Weight, 152 : 180 lbs (490.3 kgs)
152 II : 1118 lbs (507.1 kgs)

Standard Useful Load, 152 : 589 lbs (267.1 kgs)
152 II : 552 lbs (250.4 kgs)

3. Minimum Operating Crew

One pilot (student), limited to operations in VFR conditions and night VMC
only.

4. Maximum number of occupants
Two persons, pilot included.

5. Smoking
Smoking is strictly prohibited at all times on all Tristar Aviation aircraft.

21. SPEEDS FOR NORMAL OPERATION

Unless otherwise noted, the following speeds are based on a maximum weight of
1670 pounds (759 kgs) and may be used for any lesser weight.

Takeoff: 65-75 KIAS
67 KIAS
Normal Climb Out
Short Field Takeoff, Flaps 10o, speed at 40 feet

Climb, Flaps Up: 70-80 KIAS
67 KIAS
Normal 61 KIAS
Best Rate of Climb, Sea Level 55 KIAS
Best Rate of Climb, 10,000 feet
Best Angle of Climb, Sea Level through 10,000 feet

Landing Approach: 60-70 KIAS
55-65 KIAS
Normal Approach, Flaps Up
Normal Approach, Flaps 30o 54 KIAS
Short Field Approach, Flaps 30o
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Baulked Landing: 55 KIAS
Maximum Power, Flaps 20o
104 KIAS
Maximum Recommended Turbulent Air Penetration Speed: 98 KIAS
1679 lbs (757.5kgs) 93 KIAS
1500 lbs (680.4 kgs)
1350 lbs 612.4 kgs) 15 KNOTS

Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Velocity

22. AIRSPEEDS FOR EMERGENCY OPERATION 60 KIAS

Engine Failure After Takeoff 104 KIAS
98 KIAS
Manoeuvring Speed: 93 KIAS
1670 lbs (757.5 kgs)
1500 lbs (680.4 kgs) 55 KIAS
1350 lbs (612.4 kgs) 65 KIAS
60 KIAS
Maximum Guide

Precautionary Landing with Engine Power
Landing without Engine Power:

Wing Flaps Up
Wing Flaps Down

23. STALLS

The stall characteristics are conventional for the flaps up and flaps down condition.
The stall warning horn produces a steady signal 5 to 10 knots before the actual stall
is reached and remains on until the aeroplane flight attitude is changed. Stall speed
for various combinations of flap setting and bank angle are summarised in Table 2.

CONDITIONS: Power Off

NOTE
KIAS values are approximate and are based on
airspeed calibration data with power off.

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Table 2: Stall Speeds

MOST REARWARD CENTRE OF GRAVITY

WEIGHT FLAP 0o ANGLE OF BANK 60o
KIAS KCAS 30o 45o KIAS KCAS
LBS DEFLECTION KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS
36 46 51 65
UP 39 49 43 55

1670 10o 36 43 39 46 43 51 51 61
757 KG 30o 31 41 33 44 37 49 44 58

MOST FORWARD CENTRE OF GRAVITY

WEIGHT FLAP 0o ANGLE OF BANK 60o
KIAS KCAS 30o 45o KIAS KCAS
LBS DEFLECTION KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS
40 48 57 68
UP 43 52 48 57

1670 10o 40 46 43 49 48 55 57 65
757 KG 30o 35 43 38 46 42 51 49 61

24. VITAL ACTIONS BEFORE UNUSUAL MANOEUVRES 53
(PRE-STALLING CHECKS)

H………………………………………..…Height, sufficient
A………………..…Airframe, configured as required
S ……………………Security, hatches and harnesses
E………………………Engine, temp & pressure green
L..............................................Location, suitable
L……………………………………………………..…..Lookout

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25. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

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26. ENGINE RE-START (At Altitude)

In the event that the engine and the propeller stop rotating, the following re-start
procedure must be carried out:

1. Check throttle CLOSED.
2. Assume gliding attitude: 65 KTS.
3. Mixture control in FULL RICH.
4. Fuel tank shut-off valve ON.
5. Prime two strokes.
6. Ignition switch to BOTH.
7. Re-start engine with starter.

In case the starter does not operate the engine can be re-started in the following
way provided that at least 3000 feet terrain clearance is available:

8. Set throttle 1/3 open.
9. Prime two strokes.
10. Lower nose to increase airspeed to 125 KTS.
11. As soon as propeller starts rotating, smoothly return the aircraft to the

straight and level attitude.
12. If unable to start the engine before reaching a minimum height of 2000 feet,

do not further attempt to restart the engine but carry out a forced landing.

27. ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKE-OFF

Immediately engine fails:

1. Assume glide attitude (65 KTS).
2. Check FUEL ON, MIXTURE RICH, CARB. HT. HOT, MAGNETO SELECTION.
3. Land straight ahead. Deviate from heading only to avoid obstacles.

(Maximum deviation 30 degrees).
4. If time permits:

a. Master switch to OFF (AFTER FLAPS FULLY DOWN).
b. Ignition switch of OFF.
c. Fuel OFF.
d. Radio MAYDAY.

28. SIDESLIPPING

Sideslipping is prohibited with flaps down because of a downward pitch
encountered under certain combinations of airspeed and sideslip angle. Due to the
location of the static porthole airspeed indications are very erratic during sideslip.
Maintain IAS 65 KTS.

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29. PRECAUTIONARY SEARCH

Precautionary low flying in conditions of low cloud and/or poor visibility.

1. Check safety harness secure and tight.
2. Depending on forward visibility select between 10 and 20 degrees flaps

down and airspeed between 60 and 65 KTS, applying power as required to
maintain airspeed and height.

30. LET DOWN

1. Set mixture control to FULL RICH.
2. Reduce power to obtain the desired let down rate at the selected air speed.
3. Apply sufficient carburetor heat to prevent icing if icing conditions prevail.

31. OVER SHOOTING (Go around again)

1. Apply fully power.
2. Reduce flap setting immediately to 20 degrees. Trim.
3. Climb away at 55 KTS.
4. Accelerate to 65 KTS, flap 10 degrees, Retrim.
5. At 200 feet,

a. Raise flaps
b. Nose attitude 70 KTS
c. Trim

32. AFTER LANDING CHECK

Clear active runway as soon as possible with due regard to safety, and when clear:

1. Raise flaps.
2. Slacken throttle friction.
3. Trim set to take-off position.
4. Radio call – obtain clearance.

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33. RUNNING DOWN AND STOPPING ENGINE

1. Parking brakes ON.
2. Set throttle at 1200 RPM and allow engine to cool down gradually for at least

one minute.
3. Turn OFF radio equipment.
4. Check ignition for individual magneto operation and for DEAD CUT.
5. Stop engine by pulling mixture control into the IDLE CUT OFF position close

throttle as engine stops.
6. After propeller stops rotating turn ignition switch to “OFF”.
7. Master switch to OFF.
8. Fuel shutoff valve to OFF.
9. Leave the mixture control in the IDLE CUT OFF position.
10. Complete time form by entering flight times and report aircraft discrepancies

if any.
11. Fit control lock.
12. Chock aircraft.
13. Tie down aircraft always.

34. NOISE ABATEMENT

Increased emphasis on improving the quality of our environment requires renewed
effort on the part of all pilots to minimize the effect of aircraft noise on the public.

We, as pilots, can demonstrate our concern for environmental improvement by
application of the following suggested procedures, and thereby tend to build public
support for aviation:

1. Pilots operating aircraft under VFR over outdoor assemblies of persons,
recreational and park areas, and over noise sensitive areas should make every
effort to fly not less that 2,000 feet above the surface, weather permitting, even
though flight at a lower level may be consistent with the provisions of
government regulations.

2. During departure from or approach to an airport, climb after takeoff and
descent for landing should be made so as to avoid prolonged flight at low
altitude near noise sensitive areas.

NOTE

The above recommended procedures do not
apply where they would conflict with Air Traffic
Control clearances or instructions, or where, in
the pilot’s judgement, an altitude of less than
2000 feet is necessary for him to adequately
exercise his duty to see and avoid other aircraft.

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Figure 8: Instrument Panel

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Figure 9: Internal Cabin Dimensions

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The above example is taken from the American Pilot Operating
Handbook. The example below has been prepared using metric and is
for use with Australian Flight Manuals. Extract the empty aircraft weight
and moment from the individual aircraft Flight Manual.

Figure 10: Sample Loading Problem

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NOTES:
Line representing adjustable seats shows the pilot or passenger centre of gravity on
adjustable seats positioned for an average occupant. Refer to the Loading Arrangements
Diagram for forward and aft limits of occupant C.G. range.

Figure 11: Loading Graph

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Figure 12: Centre of Gravity Moment Envelope 62

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Figure 13: Centre of Gravity Limits

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LOADING ARRANGEMENTS

NOTE

The aft baggage wall (approximately station 94) can be used
as a convenient interior reference to point for determining
the location of baggage area fuselage stations.

Figure 14: Loading Arrangements

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BAGGAGE LOADING & TIE-DOWN

Figure 15: Baggage Loading & Tie-Down
Airspeed limitations and their operational significance are shown in Figure 16:

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SPEED KCAS KIAS REMARKS
VNE Never Exceed Speed
145 149 Do not exceed this speed in
VNO Maximum Structural any operation.
Cruising Speed
108 111 Do not exceed this speed
except in smooth air, and then

only with caution.

VA Manoeuvering Speed: 101 104 Do not make full or abrupt

1670 Pounds 96 98 control movements above this

1500 Pounds 91 93 speed.

VFE Maximum Flap 87 85 Do not exceed this speed with
Extended Speed windows open.

Maximum Window 139 143 Do not exceed this speed with
Open Speed windows open.

Figure 16: Airspeed Limitations
Airspeed indicator markings and their colour code significance are show in Figure 17:

MARKING KIAS VALUE OR RANGE SIGNIFICANCE
White Arc
35 – 85 Full flap Operating Range. Lower
Green Arc 40-111 limit is maximum weight VSo in
landing configuration. Upper
Yellow Arc 111-149 limit is maximum speed
Red Line 149 permissible with flaps extended.

Normal Operating Range. Lower
limit is maximum weight VS at
most
Forward C.G. with flaps retracted.
Upper limit is maximum
structural cruising speed.

Operations must be conducted
with caution and only in smooth
air.

Maximum speed for all
operations.

Figure 17: Airspeed Indication Markings

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Power plant instrument markings and their colour code significance are shown in Figure 18:

INSTRUMENT RED LINE GREEN ARC RED LINE

Tachometer MINIMUM NORMAL MAXIMUM
Oil Temperature LIMIT OPERATING LIMIT
Oil Pressure --- 1900 – 2550 RPM
2550 RPM
--- 100o – 245oF
245oF
25 psi 60 – 90 psi
100 psi

Figure 18: Power Plant Instrument Markings

Figure 19: Maximum Glide Graph Maximum Glide Graph

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CONDITIONS: 1670 Pounds

NOTE:

Cruise speeds are shown for an aeroplane equipped with speed fairings
which increase the speed fairings which increase the speeds by
approximately two knots.

NOTE: Cruise consumption figures will only be achieved at recommended
lean mixture.

FUEL FLOW IN US GPH
Figure 20: Cruise Performance

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AVGAS

Figure 21: Conversion Card

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EXAMPLE ONLY – USE APPROVED FLIGHT MANUAL

Figure 22: Take-off Weight Chart

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EXAPLE ONLY – USE APPROVED FLIGHT MANUAL

Figure 23: Landing Chart

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SECTION THREE: FLIGHT SEQUENCES

1. PRE SOLO SYLLABUS

1. Operation of Controls 1.0 hour Dual

- Long brief
- Demo walk round
- Student checks under instruction
- Demo radio
- Demo and practise taxi
- Demo T/O and transit to T/A
- Demo & practise operation of controls
- Point out ground features
- Return via Carrum
- Demo landing
- Student taxi back
- Student advised of documents to purchase
- Complete Student Record Folder
- Issue Student Licence

2. Straight & Level / Turning 1.0 hour Dual

- Long brief
- Student walk round under instruction
- Student checks & taxi
- Radio under instruction
- Demo T/O and transit to T/A
- Demo & practise turning
- Point out Training Area boundaries via GMH
- Demo landing

3. Climb & Descending 1.5 hour Dual

- Long brief
- Student T/O under instruction
- Demo & practise climb & descending
- Demo & practise climb & descending turns
- Student return to circuit under instruction
- Demo landing

4. Stalling 1.0 hour Dual

- Long brief 72
- Student T/O & transit to T/A
- Demo & practise stalling
- Student return to circuit under instruction
- Demo landing

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5. Circuits 1.0 hour Dual

- Long brief
- Demo & practise circuit pattern in T/A
- Demo & practise EFATO
- Student return to circuit via GMH
- Demo & practise circuit pattern

6. Circuits 1.0 hour Dual
- Circuit practice

7. Circuits 1.0 hour Dual

- Circuit practice
- Flapless landing
- Runway change procedure
- Radio fail procedure

8. Circuits 1.0 hour Dual

- Aborted T/O
- Circuit practice
- Glide landing
- Discuss EFATO
- Pre solo exam completed after flight

9. Circuits 1.0 hour Dual
(Grade 1 or 2 if close to solo)
- Circuit practise to solo standard
- Must have the following before solo:

- Pre solo theory exam passed
- Medical certificate
- Student Pilot Licence

10. Circuit 0.3 hours Solo
- One circuit

11. Circuits 0.5 hours Solo
- Circuit practice to solo standard

12. Circuits 0.5 hours Solo
- Three circuits

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13. Circuits 0.5 hours Dual
- Circuit practice to solo standard

14. Circuits 0.6 hours Dual
- Circuits

15. Circuits 0.5 hours Dual
- Circuits practice to solo standard

16. Circuits 0.6 hours Solo
- Circuits

TOTAL FLYING TO END OF CIRCUIT PHASE: 10.5 HOURS DUAL; 2 HOURS SOLO.

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2. STANDARD CONFIGURATIONS (C15/PA28)

POWER + ATTITUDE = PERFORMANCE

STRAIGHT & LEVEL + 4 Finger = S&L @ 95/100 kts
+ 3 Finger = S&L @ 80/80 kts
Normal Cruise : 2300 RPM + 5 Finger = S&L @ 105/115 kts
Slow Cruise : 2000 RPM
Fast Cruise : 2500 RPM

Work Cycles : Power – Attitude – Speed - Trim
: Attitude – Lookout - Performance
Entry : Power – Attitude – Speed - Trim
Maintenance
Exit

CLIMBING : Full Power + 7o/8o Nose up = 600 FPM/55/63 kts

Best Angle : Full Power + 5o Nose up = 700 FPM/65/79 kts
Best Rate
Cruise Climb : Full Power + 3o Nose up = 500 FPM75/87 kts

Work Cycles
Pre climb checks: Mixture – RICH/Carburettor heat – OFF / temp. and press. - GREEN

Entry : Power – Attitude – Speed - Trim

Maintenance : Attitude – Lookout - Performance

Exit (20’Lead) : Power – Attitude – Speed - Trim

REMEMBER : CLEARING TURN EVERY 500’ (15O AOB THROUGH 20O HEADING)

DESCENDING

Glide descent : Idle + 4 Finger = 600 FPM / 60/73 kts
Cruise descent 500 FPM/ 95/1000 kts
: 2000 RPM + 1/3 and 2/3 sky =

Work Cycles
Pre descent checks: Mixture – RICH/Carby heat – AS REQ’D / temp. and press. - GREEN

Entry : Power – Attitude – Speed - Trim

Maintenance : Attitude – Lookout - Performance

Exit (20’Lead) : Power – Attitude – Speed - Trim

REMEMBER : CLEAR ENGINE @ 1000’ IN A GLIDE DESCENT (POWER INCREASED TO
2000 RPM FOR 2 SECOND

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3. TAXIING

Introduction

You will need to taxi on every flight. To taxi an aeroplane means to move the aircraft under
its own power on the ground.

You need to increase engine power to start the aircraft moving and move the rudder pedals
to control the direction, with occasional assistance of differential braking if necessary. To
stop you need to throttle back to idle and use the frictional drag on the wheels, assisted by
brakes when necessary.

Inertia

Power is increased by advancing the throttle forward and the aircraft will begin to move.
The effect of wheel friction and brakes are used to stop the aircraft. However, aim to use
the brakes as little as possible while taxiing. Use the brakes to stop the aeroplane when at
a slow speed, or to hold position. Like all objects, an aeroplane has inertia as it is resistant
to change. It requires more power to start moving than to keep moving. Once the aircraft
is rolling at taxiing speed (safe walking pace), the power may be reduced simply to balance
the frictional forces and any air resistance. The amount of power required to maintain
taxiing speed depends on ground surface and slope – a rough upward slopping grassy
surface requires much more power than a flat sealed taxi-way.

Directional Control

Directional control is obtained by moving the rudder pedals. As well as moving the rudder
they are connected to the nose-wheel and steer the aircraft like a car (the slipstream on the
fin also assists). The rudder pedals are moved with your feet and are interconnected so
that you push the right pedal forward, the left pedal moves back. You should keep your
heels on the floor when moving the rudder pedals (this helps avoid applying toe brakes).

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To turn to the right when taxiing, push the right pedal forward smoothly with your right
foot. This will turn the nose-wheel to the right causing the aircraft to turn to the right. The
rudder will be deflected to the right such that it provides an aerodynamic force that will
turn the nose to the right but this force may be weak at typical taxiing speeds. The force
can be increased by applying power to increase the prop wash airflow over the fin and
rudder; however, the use of too much power could cause un unacceptable acceleration.
You can judge the amount of rudder pedal movement required according to the
responsiveness of the aeroplane. How far to move the pedals depends on:

The desired radius of turn
The nature of the ground surface
The wind direction and strength
The strength of the propeller slip-stream over the tail

Turning in confined spaces may require the use of differential braking to assist the turn. For
instance, a smooth touch of right toe brake would tighten up the right turn shown on the
previous page.

Once you have turned to the desired direction centralise the rudder pedals to steer straight
down the taxi way. You will be continually making small corrections about this neutral
position so that you can maintain the aircraft’s position on the central yellow taxiway line.
There are often lights set into the centre of the taxiway so it is advisable to taxi with the
nose wheel just to one side of the yellow line. Aim to run the line between your legs.

Always have the aircraft moving forward before attempting to turn it. This avoids undue
stress on the nose wheel. Also, when turning in tight circles pull back on the control
column to get the weight off the nose wheel and allow the aircraft to turn more easily.

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Power & Brakes to Control Taxiing Speed

Taxiing speed is controlled by power. To increase speed increase power and vice versa.
Brakes are used to assist in keeping the speed under control. Do not use power against
brakes. To slow the aircraft down, the power should be reduced. Friction will allow the
aircraft to decelerate, but if the deceleration is too slow, the brakes can be used gently, but
firmly. Anticipation is required to reduce power in time to slow down without the use of
brakes.

Toe brakes are situated on the top of each rudder pedal. When taxiing normally your heels
should be on the floor with the ball of the foot on the rudder pedals. When you wish to
apply a brake, roll your foot forward and with the toe of the foot apply the brakes as
required. To stop straight ahead, they must be applied simultaneously.

AVOID USING POWER AGAINST BRAKES

Ground Surfaces

Loose stones or gravel picked up and blown back in the propeller slipstream can damage
the aircraft. When taxiing on loose surfaces avoid the use of high power. Use sufficient
power to maintain momentum over the surface to clear the area. Small ditches or ridges
should be crossed at an angle so that each wheel crosses one at a time. This avoids the
situation of the nose wheel moving up and down excessively, which might stress the nose
wheel or cause the propeller to strike the ground. Large ditches should be avoided.

Wind Effect While Taxiing

The wind will affect the use of power; a head-wind will require more power while taxiing
with a tail wind will require very little power. Use power as necessary to achieve a safe
walking pace speed.

A crosswind will tend to try and make the nose ‘weathercock’ into the wind. You may need
to put the rudder in the opposite direction from the wind to keep the aircraft straight. Any

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crosswind will also affect the rate aircraft will turn a corner.

When taxiing with a strong wind, you should hold the flight controls in a position to avoid
either the tail or wing being lifted.

When taxiing into a strong head-wind, hold the control column either neutral or back. This
prevents the tail lifting and takes the load off the nose wheel. When taxiing with a strong
tail-wind, hold the control column forward to move the elevator down. This stops the wind
lifting the tail plane from behind. Avoid harsh braking and taxi slowly with a strong tail-
wind to avoid letting the wind get under the tail.

TAXI INTO WIND WITH THE CONTROL WHEEL NEUTRAL OR BACK,

AND TAXI DOWNWIND WITH THE CONTROL WHEEL FORWARD

With a strong wind from the side, you will need to move the ailerons to prevent the wing
from lifting. Use the simple rule to decide which way to move the ailerons – taxi into wind
put the aileron to wind; taxi out of wind put the aileron out of wind. The diagram on the
next page shows where to place the controls when taxiing with a strong wind from a
particular quadrant.

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Rules of Taxiing

You will often meet other aircraft when you are taxiing. There are simple rules that need to
be followed:

1. Regardless of any Air Traffic Control clearance, it is the duty of the pilot to do
everything possible to avoid collision with other aircraft and vehicles.

2. Aircraft on the ground must give way to aeroplanes landing or taking-off, and to
any vehicle towing an aircraft.

3. When two aircraft are taxiing and approaching head-on, or nearly so, each
should turn to the right.

4. When two aircraft are taxiing on converging courses, then the one that has the
other on its right should give way and avoid crossing ahead of the other aircraft
unless passing well clear.

5. An aircraft which is being overtaken by another should be given right-of-way,
and the overtaking aircraft should keep well clear of the other aircraft.

IF IN DOUBT – STOP

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Moorabbin Taxiway and Runway Layout

Taxiway markings are in yellow. The taxiway centreline may be marked with a continuous
yellow line. The edges of the taxiway may also be marked by continuous yellow lines.
These represent the boundary of the taxiway. Taxiway holding lines consist of a single or
double continuous yellow line and a single or double dashed yellow line across the width of
the taxiway. They are positioned just before the entrance to a runway with the continuous
line towards you as you approach the holding line on your way to the runway. You must
stop with no part of the aircraft extending beyond the holding line of an active runway until
you have a clearance to proceed form Air Traffic Control. There may be holding signs at the
edge of the taxiway that are red with white characters. An aircraft exiting the runway after
landing is not considered clear of the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the
holding line.

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Study the map of Moorabbin Airport and become familiar with the airfield’s layout. If you
become unsure of which way to go when taxiing solo, request taxi guidance from the
ground controller.

Checks While Taxiing
Check brakes by smooth application, simultaneously touching both toe brakes. Directional
control should be checked by moving the rudder pedals fully in each direction. Flight
instruments should be checked for correct operation during a turn in each direction. During
the left turn the instruments should indicate as follows:

- The compass and heading indicator should decrease in heading
- The artificial horizon should remain erect
- The turn co-ordinator should indicate a left turn
- The slip ball should show a skid to the right

Marshalling
Aircraft are not normally marshalled at Moorabbin, but the following marshalling signals
may be used at times.

SOME USEFUL MARSHALLING SIGNALS

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Application

To commence taxiing:

- Make radio taxi call before moving
- LOOKOUT
- Ensure wing tips unobstructed
- Throttle back to idle
- Release the brakes
- Increase power to start rolling
- Decrease power once rolling
- Only attempt to turn while moving
- Test brakes on the hard surface taxi-way

While taxiing:

- Check speed by looking out the side and keep down to walking pace
- Check wind-sock and position controls accordingly
- Check operation of Flight Instruments in a turn in both directions

At the Run-up Bay:

- Check wind-sock and park into wind
- Ensure not directly behind or in front of another aircraft
- Parking brake on and set 1000 RPM
- Perform engine run-up and complete pre-take off checks
- Taxi Clearance
- Continue taxiing
- Recite pre-take off safety brief

At the Holding Point:

- Park so that you can look into the approach
- Parking brake on and set 1000 rpm
- Change to tower frequency
- Complete FIST check
- Make Ready call

Taxiing after landing:

- Taxi clear of the runway and stop past the holding line
- Parking brake on and set 1000 rpm
- Complete after landing checks
- Make a radio all on the ground frequency
- Taxi to the parking area
- Request to cross any active runways

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Points to Remember
- Taxi with consideration for others
- Judge speed by looking out the side
- Do not use brake against power
- Turn using rudder pedal movement – tighten turn using the brakes
- Parking brake on and 1000 rpm set when stationary.

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4. OPERATION OF CONTROLS

Introduction
To carry out any sort of flying exercise it is vital that you have a good understanding of how
to operate the aircraft’s controls.

The main flight controls are the controls used to manipulate the aircraft whilst in the air.
They consist of three control surfaces; the elevator, the ailerons, and the rudder.

The ancillary controls are controls that do not directly affect the movement of the aircraft,
but are essential to enable us to operate the aircraft efficiently. The ancillary controls are
the throttle, the flap lever, the trim wheel, the carburettor heat and mixture controls

Principles
An aircraft flies because of the interaction of air on the aircraft. When in flight, the whole
of the aircraft is producing a force that supports the aircraft. We call this the lift force. The
major contributor to the lift force is the mainplane or wing, which is an aerofoil. An aerofoil
is a surface designed to aid in lifting, controlling or propelling an aircraft. Some typical
aerofoils are the wing, tailplane (Horizontal Stabiliser), fin (Vertical Stabiliser) and the
propeller blade.

A distinctive feature of the aerofoil is the camber or curved surface that helps produce the
lift force. As the aircraft moves through the air, many molecules impact upon the aerofoil
and they separate and proceed above and below.

Consider two molecules A and B. Both start and finish at the same time. However, A has to
travel over the cambered surface, ie a greater distance than B, therefore A has to travel
faster.

Bernoulli discovered that the velocity of a fluid (air is a fluid) actually increased through
constricted openings. By using a venturi tube (tube which narrows at the middle) he
noticed that with an increase in velocity there was also a corresponding decrease in
pressure. Therefore, whenever there is a difference in the speed of airflow over a surface
there is a difference in the pressure exerted. We can now see that on the diagram of
aerofoil above, the pressure of the air going over the wing will fall and so produce a force

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upwards that we call Lift.
The total pressure in a parcel of air remains constant. If the dynamic pressure is increased,
the static pressure will decrease and vice versa.

Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure
Static Pressure is the weight of the air acting above you. It acts equally in all
directions.
Dynamic Pressure is the speed of a parcel of air.
Total Pressure is the parcel of air that remains constant.
It is important that we realise that the whole wing is actually producing lift. As we saw
above it was due to differential pressure. We can simplify this by resolving the lift acting
upwards and represent the total lift by a force acting though the centre of pressure (CoP).
Lift always act 90 degrees to the relative airflow.

Factors Affecting Lift
Speed
The faster we travel the more molecules that will impact on the aerofoil (ie. an increase in
dynamic pressure). Therefore, there is an increase in lift.
Camber
By increasing camber (curvature of the aerofoil), the molecule travelling over the wing has
to travel a longer distance for the same amount of time (ie. it is travelling even faster,
therefore even greater dynamic pressure and reduced static pressure) and therefore
generates even more lift.
Angle of Attack
AoA is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow. Increasing AoA means the

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angle is reached (more about this later).

Density

If the air is more dense (colder) then more molecules will impact on an aerofoil. This means
that there is an even greater flow of air molecules per unit time, therefore increased lift.

Surface Area

By increasing the area of an aerofoil, more air will be affected thus producing more lift.

Planes of Movement

An aeroplane moves in three dimensions and its attitude, or position in flight can be
described using three mutually perpendicular references axes passing through the centre of
gravity. Any change in aeroplane attitude can be expressed in terms of motion about these
three axes.

Motion about the lateral axis is know as pitch.
Motion about the longitudinal axis is known as roll.
Motion about the normal axis is known as yaw.

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The Main Flight Controls

The pilot controls motion about the three axes with the main flight controls:

The elevator controls pitch.
The ailerons control roll.
The rudder controls yaw.

Primary and Secondary Effects of the Flight Controls

The elevator

The elevator is operated by fore and aft movements of the control column and it controls
pitch. The conventional elevator is a control surface hinged to the rear of the tailplane
(horizontal stabilizer). Deflecting the elevator changes the aerofoil camber creating an
aerodynamic force. Moving the control column back deflects the elevator up, causing an
increased speed of airflow beneath the tailplane reducing the static pressure in that area.
This results in a downward aerodynamic force on the tailplane causing the aeroplane to
pitch nose-up about the lateral axis. The tail moves down and the nose moves up. A similar
effect occurs when the control column is moved forward, but the nose then pitches down.

The ailerons

The ailerons are hinged control surfaces attached to the outboard trailing edge of each
wing. The ailerons are controlled by left/right movements of the control column. As one
aileron goes down and increases the lift generated by that wing, the other aileron goes up
reducing the lift on its wing, causing the aeroplane to roll. The aeroplane will continue to
roll while the ailerons are deflected – the roll rate being determined by the amount of
aileron deflection. Holding the control column neutral places the aileron in the neutral
position and stops the roll.

As the aeroplane is banked, the lift force is tilted. A sideways component of the lift force
now exists, causing the aeroplane to slip towards the lower wing. In this slip, the large keel
surfaces behind the centre of gravity (such as the fin and the fuselage) are struck by the
airflow causing the aeroplanes nose to yaw in the direction of the slip. This is a secondary
effect of using aileron, yaw in the direction of roll.

The rudder

The rudder is a control surface hinged to the rear of the fin (vertical stabilizer). The rudder
is controlled by both feet on the rudder pedals. These pedals are interconnected so that as
one moves forward the other moves back. Moving the left rudder pedal forward deflects
the rudder to the left. This increases the speed of airflow on the right hand side of the fin,
reducing the static pressure and creating an aerodynamic force to the right. The aeroplane
rotates about its normal axis and the nose yaws to the left. Conversely, moving the right
rudder peal forward yaws the nose to the aeroplane to the right. Yawing the aeroplane can
be uncomfortable, and is aerodynamically inefficient because it causes drag to increase.

The main function of the rudder is to maintain balanced flight. This indicated to the pilot by

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the small slip ball on the instrument panel. If the ball is out to one side, balanced flight can
be restored by applying rudder pressure on the same side that the ball is displaced – ie. if
the ball is out to the right, apply right rudder pressure.
Applying rudder will yaw the nose of the aeroplane and as a result, the outer wing will
move faster than the inner one thus increasing the lift on the outer wing. This rolling
tendency in the same direction as the rudder is applied is the secondary effect of rudder.

The controls operate relative to the aeroplanes three axes. The primary aerodynamic
controls operate in the same sense relative to the aeroplane irrespective of the aeroplanes
attitude in pitch or bank. For example, moving the control column forward will move the
nose in a direction away from the pilot even if (taking an extreme case) the aeroplane is
inverted.

Considerations

Effect of Airspeed

As the airspeed increases, more inflow over the control surface will increase control
effectiveness. The elevator, ailerons and rudder will all feel firmer, and only small
movements will be required to produce the required response. The opposite is true when
flying at low speed when airflow is reduced over each flight control. The elevator, ailerons,
and rudder will all feel sloppy, and large movements may be required to get the desired
effect.

Effect of slipstream

The slipstream from the propeller flows rearwards around the aeroplane in a corkscrew
fashion increasing airflow over the tail section. This makes the rudder and elevator more
effective at slow speed. The ailerons being outside the slipstream remain sloppy at slow
airspeed irrespective of the power set.

The slipstream can cause a tendency for the aircraft to yaw. As mentioned above the
propeller slipstream flows in back in a corkscrew fashion over the tail section, meeting the
fin at an angle of attack. This generates a sideways aerodynamic force which tends to yaw
the nose of the aeroplane. The pilot can counteract this yawing effect with rudder
pressure. The effect is pronounced under conditions of high power a low airspeed (eg,
during a climb), when the corkscrew is tighter and its angle of attack at the fin is greatest.

The direction of the yaw is determined by the direction of propeller rotation. If the
propeller rotates to the right, when viewed from behind, typical of the basic training
aircraft the aircraft will yaw to the left. This effect can be counteracted by application of
some right rudder.

Effect of power

Pushing the throttle in (or opening it) increases power, which is indicated by increased rpm
on the tachometer. This causes the propeller to rotate faster, generating increased thrust
and a stronger slipstream. This causes an increase in airflow over the tailplane and, as the

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tailplane normally creates a downforce, the increased slipstream increases the downwards
aerodynamic force this pitching the nose up. Reducing the power has the opposite effect.
In normal flight, when power is reduced with the throttle, the nose tends to pitch down,
and when the power is increased the nose tends to pitch up.
When the RPM is increased, the torque required to accelerate the propeller produces a
reaction in the opposite direction. This makes the aircraft tend to roll to the left. When
reducing the RPM the aircraft will tend to roll to the right.

In summary, when increasing RPM, the aircraft will yaw to the left, roll left and pitch up.

Ancillary Controls

Trim

Aeroplanes have an elevator trim that can relieve the pilot of sustained fore and aft
pressure on the control column. The trim is used to relieve control pressures in steady
conditions of flight. The trim should not normally be altered in transient manoeuvres, such
as turning. The elevator is controlled by fore and aft movement of the control column and
is used by the pilot to hold the desired pitch attitude. If this requires a steady pressure, it
can become tiring, making precise control difficult. The trim is used to relieve this control
pressure reducing it to zero. Trim is not used to alter the attitude of the aeroplane; only to
relieve control pressures. Changes in attitude must be made using the main flight controls.

When holding a steady back pressure on the control column to hold an attitude, the top of
the trim wheel is moved back, gradually releasing the pressure on the control column.
Pitch attitude should not change when you are trimming. Similarly, if forward pressure is
required on the control column then the top of the trim wheel needs to be moved forward.
Re-trimming will be required with any new power setting, speed change or changes in
configuration such as lowering the flaps.

Flap

The flaps are attached to the inboard trailing edge of each wing. They are operated from
the cockpit by a switch or mechanical lever. They move symmetrically on each wing,
altering the shape and airflow around the wing. They increase the lift produced by the wing
due to increased camber, angle of attack, and in some cases, an increase in wing area. This
increase in lift is used to enable the aircraft to fly more slowly when required at times such
as landing. They also increase drag thus giving a steeper glide angle and improved vision on
the approach.

As the flaps are lowered, the changes in airflow around the wing cause a nose up pitch
tendency. This will result in the aeroplane ballooning unless counteracted with pressure on
the control column. Conversely, when flap is raised there will be a nose down pitching
tendency. To ease this problem it is preferable to reduce flap one stage at a time as
airspeed increases.

The flap operating range is shown on the airspeed indicator as a whit arc. Before lowering
the flaps, ensure that the airspeed is less than the maximum speed allowed for flap
extension (Vfe) to avoid overstressing the structure.

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Throttle

The throttle controls engine power output. The throttle is a black knob in the centre of the
lower instrument panel. The throttle is connected to the carburetor and regulates the
amount of fuel/air mixture supplied to the engine. Power is increased by moving the
throttle forward, and decreased by moving it back. In fixed-pitch propeller aeroplanes, a
power increase is indicated by an TPM increase on the tachometer.

Carburetor Heat

Vaporisation of the fuel causes cooling of the fuel/air mixture in the carburetor. This may
reduce the temperature to below freezing and if the air is sufficiently moist, ice may form in
the induction system, partially or completely blocking the flow of fuel/air to the cylinders.
Carburetor ice can occur at outside air temperatures of up to 20oC or more and it adversely
affects engine power. The noticeable effects of carburetor icing are a drop in rpm, rough
running and a possible engine stoppage. The carburetor is particularly susceptible to icing
when the throttle is only part open.

The Carburetor Heat control can prevent or remove carburetor ice by heating the induction
air before it enters the carburetor. The carburetor heat control is a black nob situated near
the throttle. When operating a low rpm the carburetor heat control is pulled into the full
hot position before reducing power. When intending to select a high power setting, first
move the carburetor heat to off, then increase power. It is important to ensure that the
carburetor heat control is off with full power as power is reduced when hot air is being
used. Carburetor heat must also be off during taxiing to avoid damage to the engine.

Mixture Control

The mixture control is a red knob situated near the throttle. It is used to reduce the
amount of fuel in the mixture fed to the engine as the air becomes less dense as altitude is
increased. It is also used to cut off fuel to the carburetor when stopping the engine at the
completion of a flight.

When the mixture control is in full forward, or rich position, the mixture will contain the
highest ratio of fuel. As the mixture control is moved back the fuel in the mixture will
reduce until in the fully rear position there will be no fuel at all in the mixture. This is called
the Idle Cut Off and is used to stop the engine. During the early flights, the mixture control
will be left in the fully rich position until the end of the flight.

Airmanship
Airmanship is a term used to describe all the factors in flying an aircraft safely and
efficiently. The main airmanship points on this first lesson are:

Lookout
It is important to keep a good lookout for other aircraft as they can approach you
from any direction.

Handing Over/Taking Over
We must know who has control of the aircraft. We use the terms ‘Handing Over’
and ‘Taking Over’ with both pilots using the appropriate term each time control
changes hands.

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5. STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

Introduction

Flying straight and level means maintaining a constant heading, and this can be achieved by
holding the wings level with the ailerons, and keeping the aeroplane co-ordinated with
rudder to prevent any yaw. Flying level means maintaining a constant altitude, which can
be achieved by having the correct power set and the nose held in the correct attitude.
Altitude is displayed in the cockpit on the altimeter. Steady straight-and-level flight, co-
ordinated and in trim, is desirable both for comfort and good aeroplane performance.

Principles
In co-ordinated S&L flight there are four main forces acting on an aeroplane.

Weight acting through the centre of gravity, vertically downward towards the
centre of the earth.

Lift acts at right angles to the relative airflow, is equal and opposite to the
weight. Lift acts through the centre of pressure.

Drag acts parallel to the airflow and opposes motion through the air.

Thrust from the propeller acts forwards and is equal and opposite to drag.

The distribution of pressure over the
surface of an aircraft in flight and the forces
that result are complex, it can be simplified
by resolving these forces.

In steady straight and level flight, the
aeroplane is in equilibrium with no
tendency to accelerate.

Lift balances Weight
Thrust balances Drag

It is unusual for the four main forces to
counteract each other exactly. Almost
always, a balancing force is required from
the tailplane and elevator. The tail plane is
designed to create this aerodynamic
balancing force.

By having the CofP (through which the lift acts) located behind the CofG, the lift-weight
couple has a nose-down effect. Normally, this is opposed by the thrust-drag nose-up

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couple (a couple is a pair of parallel opposing forces not acting through the same point, and
therefore tending to cause rotation). As the L/W couple is of far greater magnitude than
T/D, there is more of a nose-down pitching moment; this must be balanced by the tailplane.

Only a small force is required as the tail plane has a long arm form the CofG and therefore
only a small deflection of the elevator is required. This will now balance the aircraft in
straight and level.

It thrust is lost, the nose-up couple is diminished, the L/W nose-down couple wins out
resulting in the nose dropping into the gliding attitude. The same result occurs when the
pilot intentionally reduces power; the nose will drop unless back pressure is applied.

Lift

Lift acts in a direction perpendicular to the relative airflow and to the lateral axis of
the aircraft. The amount of lift is governed by the magnitude of each of the
following factors:

Angle of Attack

(AoA). Angle of Attack is the angle between the relative airflow and the chord line.
As AoA is increased, a greater amount of lift is created. This is due to the fat that
the air now has to travel an even greater distance for the same amount of time,
therefore it has to travel faster reducing the static pressure further.

Camber

Camber is the curvature of the wing. By increasing camber, a greater amount of lift
is created. Both amber and AoA are related to the lifting ability of the wing, which is
called the Co-efficient of lift (CL).

Air Density

Air density is the mass per unit volume of air. It reflects the amount of air molecules
in a given quantity of air. Cold air is more dense than warm air, therefore the
aircraft will perform better aerodynamically in old air, as there are more molecules
flowing over the aerofoil. Therefore, greater lift.

Velocity

The faster we travel the more air molecules will pass over the aerofoil per unit time
and therefore there will be a greater amount of lift being created.

Surface Area

The greater the surface area of a wing the more molecules will pass over the
aerofoil per unit time, therefore more lift is created.

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The formula for lift incorporates all of the above factors:

L = CL ½  V2 S

L = Lift CL = Lifting Ability of the Wing
 = Air Density
V = Velocity S = Surface Area

The two variables over which the pilot has control are: AoA (CL) and Airspeed (V)
They then form the following relationship:

Such that AoA is inversely proportional to airspeed.

SLOW SPEED = HIGH AoA
HIGH SPEED = LOW AoA

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Weight

Weight is the force acting toward the centre of the earth, regardless of aircraft attitude and
flight path. It acts through the centre of gravity.

Drag

Drag is the resistance of the air to the movement of the aircraft. Drag acts in the opposite
direction to the direction of the flight of the aircraft and is parallel to the relative airflow.

INDUCED DRAG + PARASITE DRAG = TOTAL DRAG

Induced drag is due to the production of lift. It is directly related to AoA:

HIGH AoA = HIGH LIFT = HIGH INDUCED DRAG

Parasite drag is not associated with the
production of lift. It results when
airflow separates from the surface,
eddies form and streamline flow is
disturbed. As airspeed increases
parasite drag increase (see drag graph).

On the total drag curve there is a point
where minimum drag is produced. This
is where the drag curve is at its lowest
point. This point indicates the speed for
minimum drag or maximum Lift Drag
Ratio.

In Straight and Level L=W, therefore, the
minimum drag point is the point at
which the least drag will be created for
lift to balance the weight.

Performance Efficiency of an Aerofoil

L = CL ½  V2 S

As lift increases, CL increases up to the critical angle (efficient) and then decreases

(inefficient).

A wing produces both lift and drag, therefore does not only does it have a lift curve
associated with it but also a drag curve.

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D = Drag Cd = Co-efficient of drag  = Air density
V = Velocity S = Surface area

Therefore, as AoA is being increased, drag increases.

If both the lift and drag curves are 97
added they create the lift drag ratio
curve.

The curve has a most efficient angle.
This usually occurs at about 4o; that is,
the maximum of lift will be created at
this AoA for the minimum amount of
drag.

Thrust. This is the forward acting force that
opposes drag. Since thrust in level flight is any
given speed must always equal drag, the
thrust required curve is identical to the total
drag curve – in fact, the only change is the
name of the vertical axis.

Let us superimpose the thrust required curve
over the thrust available curve. The speed at
which the two curves cross represents the
maximum speed possible in level flight, since
at any speed higher than that the thrust

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available becomes less than the thrust required. The speed at the bottom of the thrust
required curve is the which requires the minimum thrust in level flight. It is also the speed
at which total drag is a minimum. The speed marked by the line to the left of the graph
represents the point where the greatest separation exists between the thrust available and
required curves. It is the speed at which the maximum surplus exists between the thrust
available at full power and the thrust required for level flight. This excess thrust can be
used for climbing.

If we continue slowing down to the extreme low speed end of the speed range, thrust
required rises rapidly as there is flow reversal on the wing and the separation on the wing
causes a rapid increase in drag. At this speed, controlled flight becomes a little difficult due
to loss of control effectiveness. Let us consider how power can effect thrust production.

POWER = WORK and as WORK = FORCE x DISTANCE
TIME

POWER = FORCE X DISTANCE = THRUST x SPEED

TIME

So, with full throttle applied at low speed, thrust is high. With full throttle applied at high
speed, thrust is low. Since power is the product of thrust and speed, the power available
from a piston engine is nearly constant throughout the speed range. This is why piston
engines are often rated as so many horsepower. You could not rate a piston engine-
propeller combination in terms of its thrust, because thrust changes as speed changes.
Power, however, remains almost constant. When speed is low, thrust required is quite
high, so power required is fairly high. When speed is high, thrust required is also high so
power required is very high.

The power required curve is similar in 98
shape to, but not the same as, the
thrust required curve. It rises more
steeply at the high speed end. The
speed S1 is the maximum speed level
flight. The speed S2 provides a
maximum excess of power, and
produces the maximum rate of climb.
The speed S3 is the speed which
requires minimum power and therefore
minimum fuel flow in level flight. This is
the speed to fly for maximum
endurance. When power available is
above the power required curve, level
flight is possible. Either side of the
intersections, level flight is not possible
as we would require more power than
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One power setting is available for two speeds, this occurs at two points on the power
required curve, ie

at HIGH AoA & LOW IAS
and HIGH IAS & LOW AoA

Stability

In flight, the aircraft is controlled about three axes. The lateral (PITCH AXES), the
longitudinal axes (ROLL AXES), and the normal axes (YAW AXES). We want the aircraft to be
a stable vehicle (ie reluctant to change its attitude), but we want it to be controllable. We
therefore require a compromise. There are two types of stability:

Static

If after the original displacement, forces are brought into play to prevent further
displacement and cause the object to move back to its original position, the object is
said to possess positive static stability. A good example of static stability is a
pendulum. Suspended at rest under the influence of gravity, it comes to rest in the
vertical position.

Dynamic
When we consider the sequence of events which now follow as the pendulum
response to the influence of the restoring force, we are concerned with dynamic
stability. In the case of the pendulum, it initially overshoots the rest position and
swings to the displacement on the other side. There are a series of oscillations
about the rest positions, with each displacement becoming smaller until the
pendulum returns to rest. These decreasing oscillations are a feature of positive
dynamic stability.

Stability is the natural or inbuilt ability of the aeroplane to return to its original attitude
following some disturbance (such as a wind gust) without the pilot taking any action. An
inherently stable aeroplane will return to its original condition unassisted after being
disturbed, and so requires less pilot effort to control than an unstable aeroplane.

Longitudinal Stability in Pitch

The tail plane provides longitudinal stability. By setting the tail plane onto the fuselage at a
smaller angle of incidence than the mainplane, a nose up pitch will always produce a bigger
proportional increase in lift on the tail plane than it does on the mainplane. This ensures
that there always remains a strong degree of stability.

The position of the centre of gravity (CofG) is an important consideration. A forward CofG
makes the aeroplane more stable because of the greater restoring moment from the tail
due to its greater leverage.

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Directional Stability in Yaw

Directional stability is the property which causes the aircraft to align its longitudinal axis
with the direction of the relative airflow. Putting it simply, it seeks to point the nose into
wind. Whenever the relative airflow strikes the aircraft from the direction other than
directly in front of the nose, all of the surface aft of the CoG generates stabilizing moments
which tend to realign the nose into the direction of the relative airflow. All of the surfaces
forward of the CoG generate destabilizing moments which encourage the aircraft to yaw
away from the relative airflow.

Lateral Stability in Roll

Lateral stability is the tendency for an aircraft to return to its original wings level attitude.

High Wing or Pendulum Effect

The simplest way to ensure lateral stability is to place the wind on top and the
weight from beneath it. Although the name pendulum is used, it is not quite that
simple. If an aircraft drops a wing in flight the lift vector inclines from the vertical.
Assuming no control inputs, the inclined lift will no longer support weight and the
aircraft will begin to lose height. The horizontal component of the inclined lift
vector will act to produce a sideways motion as well. The downwards and sideways
motion is called a slideslip.

Dihedral

The wings are set at an angle to the yawing plane (or to the horizontal). In the event
of a wingdrop, the aircraft commences a sideslip as we saw earlier. During the
sideslip, because of the dihedral, the AoA on the lower wing becomes greater than
that on the higher wing. Also, in the case of low wing particularly, the fuselage
shields the higher wing, disrupting the airflow across it. These two effects result in
more lift on the lower wing which stops the wingdrop and produces a roll towards
the level attitude.

Application

Perhaps the most important point to make in flying straight and level is keep the aeroplane
in trim and relax on the controls. Fingertip control should be sufficient. Aim for
competence and confidence. Flying straight means keep the wings level with aileron and
keep the ball in the centre with rudder pressure. If the wings are not level, the aeroplane
will tend to turn towards the lower wing. The outside visual cue to the pilot of wings-level
is the natural horizon being level in the windscreen. If it is not, sideways movement of the
control column will remedy this. The position of the wingtips relative to the horizon can
provide another cue to wings level. If the left wingtip is below the horizon and the right
wingtip is above the horizon, then the aeroplane is banked. Use the ailerons to level the
wings.

Co-ordination is achieved by keeping the co-ordination ball centred with rudder pressure. If
the ball is out to the left, more left rudder pressure is required; if it is out to the right, more

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