Integrated Reading

Unit 7
Review

Objectives:
1. To review some learned skills and materials
2. To establish mastery of learned skills and materials

Comprehending or Understanding a Text
As a summary of what have been learned in the previous units by having several
types of exercises, you are expected to have mastery on the following reading
skills:
 Skimming to find the topic and the main idea of a text
 Scanning to find specific pieces of information
 Finding referents
 Guessing meaning of unknown words

Some grammar points in each related unit such as noun phrase, noun clause,
etc. are also important elements for better understanding of a text.

Exercise 1
Read the following text and answer the questions that follow.

The relationship of economics to history is rather different from that of
the other social sciences. Curious as it may sound, this relationship in
many respects comes close to that between history and literature.
Economics, after all, is the science (in the broad meaning of the term) of
5 something which men actually do. Even if the science did not exist, men
would still make economic decisions, economic predictions, and participate
in the various forms of economic organization which, in part, it is the
economist‟s function to describe. Similarly, the disciplined study of
literature is concerned with something which men would also do anyway
10 even if the disciplined study did not exist: compose poems, act out dramas,
write novels, and read them. Political science, or the discipline of politics,
has it is true, many similarities to economics, particularly where it is
concerned with generalization about political structures.

A. Choose the best answer.

1. What does the passage mainly discuss?
a. Economics interrelationship with other subjects
b. The similarity between economics and politics
c. History and literature‟s curious relationship
d. A definition of economics

2. History is related to economics _________.
a. just as political science is related to economics
b. in many different kinds of ways
c. in a different way from its relationship to literature
d. in the same way as it is related to literature

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3. The word “broad” (line 4) is closest in meaning to which of the following?

a. vague b. typical c. popular d. general

4. Economics look at _____________.
a. people‟s real life behavior c. the description of historical events

b. all kinds of decision making d. broad aspects of organization over time

5. The word “that” (line 1) refers to ____________.

a. Economics c. history

b. the other social sciences d. the relationship

6. Studying literature involves _________.

a. putting poems and plays to music c. reading and writing novels

b. looking at some normal d. much hard workactivities of man

7. Where in the passage does the author describe economics?

a. lines 1 – 2 b. lines 4 – 5 c. lines 5 – 8 d. lines 11 – 13

B. Decide if the following statement is TRUE or FALSE according to the
text above.

8. The word „it‟ (line 2) refers to social sciences.
9. The word „that‟ (line 3) refers to relationship.
10. The word „it‟ (line 7) refers to nothing.
11. Political science is an example of social sciences.
12. Economics and literature have some similarities.
13. Economics means the science of something men really do.
14. Economics is the same as literature.
15. Like history, economics is concerned with generalization.

Exercise 2

It has been documented that, almost twelve million years ago at the
beginning of the Pliocene Age, a horse, about midway through its
evolutionary development crossed a land bridge where the Bering Straits
are now located, from Alaska into the grassland of Europe. The horse was
5 the hipparion about the size of a modern-day pony with three toes and
specialized cheek teeth for grazing. In Europe, the hipparion encountered
another less advanced horse called the anchitheres which had previously
invaded Europe by the same route, probably during the Miocene Period.
Less developed and smaller than the hipparion, the anchitheres was
10 completely replaced it. By the end of the Pleistocene Age both the
anchitheres and the hipparion had become extinct in North America where
they had originated. In Europe, they had evolved into an animal very similar
to the horse as we know it today. It was the descendant of this horse that
was brought by the European colonists to the Americas.

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A. Choose the best answer.

1. The suffix „ment‟ in the word „development‟ (line 3) shows that this word is

a/an ___________.

a. noun b. verb c. adverb d. adjective

2. The word „crossed‟ (line 3) is a (n) __________.

3. a. noun b. verb c. adverb d. adjective

4. The suffix „ly‟ in the word „completely‟ (line 10) indicates that this word is a (n)

__________.

a. noun b. verb c. adverb d. adjective

5. The suffix „-ed‟ in the word„specialized‟ (line 6) shows that it is a (n) ___.

a. noun b. verb c. adverb d. adjective

6. The word „documented‟ (line 1) can best be replaced by ________.

a. noted b. excluded c. located d. developed

B. Decide whether the following statement is TRUE or FALSE according

to the text above.

7. The word “it” (line 1) refers to nothing.
8. The word “its” (line 2) refers to the Pliocene Age.
9. The word “which” (line 7) refers to the hipparion.
10. The word “they” (line 12) refers to the anchitheres and the hipparion.
11. The word “it” (line 13) refers to Europe.

Exercise 3

Read the following dictionary entry. Choose the best answer for each question.

mark1/mark/ n 1 A sign that can be seen. 2 a stain. 3 a scar. 4 an object
aimed at. 5 a sign used as a guide to position. 6 a cross used instead of a
signature. 7 a point or number of points awarded according to the merit of
one‟s work, etc. 8 a distinguishing sign. 9 (usu. with a number) a type or model

mark2. –v.t. 1 to make a mark on. 2 to correct and value by giving marks (e.g.
an examination paper). 3 to show. 4 to note. 5 to watch closely, give attention
to. 6 (in football, etc.) to keep close to (an opponent) so as to hinder him if he
receives the ball. 7 to be a feature of: Ancient villages marked the lonely
valley. 8 to be a sign of: A movement in the crowd marked his approach.

1. “The boys marked the stone to let people know that they had been there”

In this sentence the word “marked” means

a. kept close to c. gave attention to

b. made a mark on d. were features of

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2. “He got a bad mark for his math” The word “mark” in this sentence is a(n)...

a. noun b. verb c. adjective d. adverb

3. The dictionary meaning of the word “mark” in sentence no 2 is stated in no

__________.

a. 1 b. 4 c. 7 d. 9

4. As a noun “mark” has _________ meanings. d. 7
a. 4 b. 5 c. 9

5. The word “mark” in the dictionary entry above has ______ parts of speech.

a. 1 b. 2 c. 7 d. 9

Exercise 4

The protozoans, minute, aquatic creatures, each of which consists of
a single cell of protoplasm, constitute a classification of the most primitive
forms of animal life. They are fantastically diverse, but three major groups
may be identified on the basis of their motility. The Mastigophora have one
5 or more long tails, which they use to project themselves forward. The
Ciliata, which use the same basic means for locomotion as the
Mastigophora, have a larger number of short tails. The Sarcodina, which
include amoebae, float or row themselves about on their crusted bodies.

In addition to their form of movement, several other features
10 discriminate among the three groups of protozoans. For example, at least

two nuclei per cell have been identified in the Ciliata, usually a large nucleus
that regulates growth but decomposes during reproduction, and a smaller
one that contains the genetic code necessary to generate the large nucleus.

Protozoans are considered animals because, unlike pigmented plants
15 to which some protozoans are otherwise almost identical, they do not live

on simple organic compounds. Their cell demonstrates all of the major
characteristics of the cells of higher animals.

Many species of protozoans collect into colonies, physically
connected to each other and responding uniformly to outside stimulate.
20 Current research into this phenomenon along with investigations carried
out with advanced microscopes may necessitate a redefinition of what
constitutes protozoans, even calling into question the basic premise that
they have only one cell. Nevertheless, with the current data available,
almost 40,000 species of protozoans have been identified. No doubt, as
25 the technology improves our methods of observation, better models of
classification will be proposed.

A. Decide whether the following statement is TRUE or FALSE
according to the text above.

1. The word „minute‟ (line 1 ) can be best replaced by “very small”
2. The protozoans probably do not live in the water.
3. Protoplasm is the substance that forms the cell of a protozoan.

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4. The amoebae belong to the Ciliata.

5. The purpose of the large nucleus in Ciliata is to regulate growth.

6. Protozoans are classified as the most primitive animals since each has only

one cell of protoplasm.
7. The word „uniformly‟ (line 19) is closest in meaning to “in the same way”.
8. The word „they‟ (line 15) refers to “protozoans”

9. Protozoans are difficult to observe.
10. The word „diverse‟ (line 3) is an adjective.
11. The word „they‟ (line 5) refers to “long tails”.
12. The word „their‟ (line 8) refers to “Mastigophora”.
13. The word „decomposes‟ (line 12) is a verb.
14. The word „proposed‟ (line 26) is an adjective.

15. The passage above is primarily concerned with the characteristics of

protozoans.

Exercise 5
Read the following text and answer the questions that follow.

Obesity is a huge problem in many Western countries and one which now
attracts considerable medical interest as researchers take up the challenge
to find a „cure‟for the common condition of being seriously overweight.
However, rather than take responsibility for their weight, obese people
5 have often solace in the excuse that they have a slow metabolism, a
genetic hiccup which sentences more than half the Australian population
(63% of men and 37% of women) to a life of battling with their weight. The
argument goes like this: it doesn‟t matter how little they eat, they gain
weight because their bodies break down food and turn it into energy more
10 slowly than those with a so-called normal metabolic rate.

A. Choose the best answer. Cross (X) a, b, c on your answer sheet.

1. The controlling idea of the paragraph is __________.

a. a huge problem b. considerable c. seriously over weight

2. The main idea of the paragraph is stated in the __________ sentence.

a. first b. second c. third

3. The word „one‟ on line 1 refers to ___________.

a. medical interest b. problem c. country

4. The part of speech of the word „sentences‟ line 6 is a(n) __________.

a. noun b. verb c. adjective

5. The verb form of the word „responsibility‟ line 4 is ___________.

a. responsibly b. responsible c. respond

6. According to the obese people their obesity results from a/an ______.
a. normal metabolic rate
b. abnormal metabolic rate
c. excessive meal

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7. Researchers try to discover a(n) ___________ for the obesity.

a. cure b. solace c. excuse

8. Which of the following is not mentioned as the excuse of the people in
Western countries for their obesity problem?
a. Having a slow metabolism
b. Having a genetic hiccup
c. Having a bad eating habit

B. Identify if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE according to
the passage.

9. Obese people fight with their weight for all their life.
10. Fewer women than men in Australia are overweight.
11. According to the passage obesity is not a very big problem.
12. The word „argument‟ in line 8 is closest in meaning to the word „reasoning‟.
13. Obesity cannot be considered as the attraction of medical interest.

Exercise 6

Read the following text and answer the questions that follow.

We tend to think of water in the personal terms - a mother
bathing her child in Calcuta, India, or a cool drink on a hot day – but only
10 percent of the water consumed worldwide is for household use.
Agriculture takes 70 percent, and half or more of that water is lost to
5 evaporation or runoff. Drip irrigation, whichuses perforated tubing to
deliver water to crops,uses 30 to 70 percent less than traditional methods
and increases crop yields. The first drip systems were developed in the
1960s, but even now they‟re use on less than one percent of irrigated
land. Most governments subsidize irrigation water so heavily that
10 farmers have little incentive to invest in drip systems or other water-
saving methods. Industry consumes the remaining 20 percent of water,
often inefficiently. In Binzhou, China, workers at a liquor company wash
bottles with water that is used once and discarded. Reusing water and
adopting other conservatiob measures could help the world‟s industry cut
15 its water demands by more than half.

A. Identify if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE according to
the text.

1. The topic of the above text is the usage of water.

2. According to the text, households use the least amount of wateron earth.
3. At least 50% of water supply on earth is lost to evaporation or run off.

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4. Although drip systems help farmers save their water usage, they are not
popularly used on irrigated land.

5. Farmers are not encouraged to put their money on water-saving systems
due to the government subsidy.

6. In Binzhou, workers at a liquor company use recycled water to wash bottles.
7. It can be concluded from the passage that water demands could actually be

reduced.
8. The word „which‟ line 5 refers to evaporation.
9. The part of speech of the word „subsidize‟ in line 9 is a noun.
10. From lines 10-11 we can conclude that „systems‟ and „methods‟ are

synonyms.
11. The meaning of the word „inefficiently‟ in line 12 is „in an efficientway‟.
12. The word „discarded‟ line 13 most probably means „not used‟.
13. The prefix „re-„ in the word „reusing‟ line 13 means „before‟.

Exercise 7
Read the following text and answer the questions that follow

Zoos and aquariums in the future will be critical for the survival of many
species and an integral part of in situ conservation programs for many
others. However, animal collections in individual zoos and aquariums are
typically too small to be of much value to long-term conservation. How then
5 can these individual collections serve a conservation purpose? The answer
will lie in cooperative international or regional ex situ breeding programs to
form large, viable populations. These cooperative breeding programs serve
many purposes: providing animal for public educational and/or exhibit
opportunities; providing fund-raising material; providing research collections
10 from which to gain basic knowledge of animal biology and husbandry; and,
on a large scale, providing demographic and genetic backup to wild
populations. To serve in all of these roles fully, these populations must be
viable over the long term. This requires that they be: demographically
stable; healthy, well maintained and capable of self-sustaining reproduction;
15 distributed among several institutions to lessen the risks of catastrophic
loss; of sufficcient size to maintain high levels of genetic diversity.
Demographic stability is needed to ensure that an adequate number of
animals of breeding age are available to reproduce at the rates needed to
increase or maintain the population at its desired size. Healthy populations
20 are needed to ensure that animals are capable of breeding when needed.
Genetic diversity is required for populations to remain healthy and adapt to
changing environments (i.e. experience natural selection). Ex situ breeding
programs need to preserve this diversity; otherwise, the long-term fitness of
these populations will be compromised.

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A. Identify if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE according to
the passage.

1. Paragraph One states that the cooperative breeding programs have four
roles.

2. Zoos and aquariums collection will depend on the cooperation of the
International or regional ex situ breeding programs.

3. Zoos and aquariums are parts of ex situ breeding programs.
4. It can be assumed that healthy animals are needed in the cooperative

breeding programs.
5. The transition „However‟ in line 3 indicates a contrast.
6. The writer uses the „roles‟ (line 12) to mean the same as „purposes‟.
7. The words „viable‟ (line 13) is closest in meaning to „able to survive‟.
8. The words „an adequate number‟ (line 17) is closest in meaning to „a

sufficient quantity‟.
9. The word „This‟ (line 13) refers to „the long term‟.
10. The verb form of the word „conservation‟ (line 5) is „conserve‟.
11. TFThe suffix „-al‟ both in the word in the word „critical‟ and „survival‟ (line 1)

shows the same part of speech.
12. The prefix „co-„ in the word „cooperative‟ (line 6) means „together‟.
13. The suffix „-en‟ in the „lessen‟(line 15) is used to form a noun.
14. The word „loss‟in line 16 is an adjective.

Exercise 8

A problem for some breeding programs is confiscated or
abandoned animals. These may have been illegally held as pets or
confiscated as illegally imported. They may be animals rescued and
turned over to wildlife authorities to avoid human/animal conflicts. When
5 assimilating confiscated and abandoned animals into a breeding program
the following points should be considered : questionable health, disease
risks; questinable origin because of lack of life history (wild born, wild-
caught,taxonomy); questionable relationships among individuals in
confiscated groups.
10 On the other hand, healthy confiscated or rescued wild-caught animals
can provide a breeding program with an opportunity to refresh the
founder stock, or replace post-reproductive old animals with young
breeders. Most breeding programs have not been established with an
adequate number of founders and the periodic inclusion of new
15 unrelated animals may be a bonus for such programs. Every effort must
be made, however, to ensure that any individuals that are included are
healthy, of known taxonomy, wild born (or, if collection born, their
relationship to the population is known) and appriately placed.

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A. Identify if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE according to
the passage.

1. The existence of confiscated animals in the breeding program is
beneficial.

2. Confiscated and abandoned animals rescued and turned over to wildlife is
used to prevent human conflict.

3. Any animal can get into breeding program without any consideration.
4. The problem of all breeding programs is the confiscated animals.
5. In the breeding programs information about taxonomy and the relationship to

the population is important.
6. „These‟ (line 2) refers to programs.
7. „They‟ (line 3) refers to „pets or confiscated animals‟.
8. The prefix „il-„ in the word „illegally‟ (line 2) means „without‟.
9. The suffix „-able‟ in the word „questionable‟ (line 6) means „can be‟.
10. „On the other hand‟ (line 10) does NOT show contrast.
11. „post-reproductive‟ (line12) can be replaced by „after productive again‟.
12. „healthy‟ (line 10) is the noun form of the word „health‟.
13. „inclusion‟ (line 14) is the noun form of the verd „include‟.
14. „refresh‟ (line 11) gets NO affix.
15. The words „confiscated‟ and „abandoned‟ (lines 1-2) have the same parts of

speech.

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Exercises for Tutorial Classes
(UNIT 7)

Exercise 1

Line 1Since time is immemorial, advances in agriculture have been closely linked to
the selection of the best strains of plants. For breeding, there are two plant types:
self-fertilizers and cross-fertilizers. Self-fertilizers, such as wheat, can inseminate
themselves or very close relatives. After a first cross with a donor plant that is
intended to contribute new characteristics, a plant can be back-crossed with its plant

5 of origin until it becomes almost identical genetically – except for the new
characteristics, which was intentionally crossed in. Most self-fertilizers – such as
commercial cereals, including rice – are homozygous. That means that both sets of
their chromosomes are broadly identical. They, therefore, produce identical progeny.
A farmer can use his harvest for seed as it has the same characteristics as the

10 parent material.
2The pollen of cross-fertilizers such as apples, grapes or bananas, however,

cannot fertilize the flowers of its plant origin. Instead, fertilization requires the pollen
of a genetically different plant. When thathappens, the seed inherits half the genome
of the mother plant and half that of the father plant or pollen donor. Genomes of
15 such plants are heterozygous. Planting seeds of apples or grapes of a particular
variety produces a host of genetically different, individually unique plants. Their fruits
are all identical because they are defined by the genetic make-up of the mother
plant, but their seeds are different.

3To produce seed for a pure variety – that is a genetically identical one – of
20 cross-fertilizers, conventional breeders employ vegetative reproduction methods,

such as using cuttings from the plant of origin. Therefore, all apples of a single
cultivar like Gala or Golden Delicious are basically clones of a single plant. Every
Golden Delicious apple tree, for instance, can be traced back to a seedling found by
chance in 19th America.
25 4Some varieties, however, share characteristics of both cross-fertilizers and self-
fertilizers. They are, however, subject to what is known as inbreeding depression.
They have the capacity to fertilize themselves – but the more often they do so, the
more negative traits they display. If different inbred lines are crossed with one
another, however, they produce hybrids with better characteristics. The drawback is
30 that the hybrid seed material cannot be reproduced: inbreeding depression reduces
the hybrid effect from one generation to the next. Maize is a classic example. Unlike
wheat, which yields seed that farmers can harvest and plant again the next year, or
grape-vines, which can grow from cuttings, hybrid maize seed needs to be bought
every year.

Indicate whether the following is TRUE (T) or FALSE (F).

1. The topic of the passage above is self-fertilizers.
2. Better characteristic hybrids can be obtained by crossing different inbred

lines with one another.
3. The passage mentions two plant types: self-fertilizers and cross-fertilizers.
4. In self-fertilizers, the plants cannot inseminate themselves.
5. Examples of self-fertilizers are apples and bananas.
6. Homozygous in line 7 means both sets of the chromosomes are identical.
7. The Golden Delicious apple tree originated in America.

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8. The fourth paragraph discusses the negative effect of having the

characteristics of both fertilizers.
9. The word „the next‟ in line 31 refers to inbreeding depression.

10. Examples of cross-fertilizers can be found in lines 11-12.
11. The phrase „a pure variety‟ in line 19 means a genetically identical one.

12. In the fourth paragraph there are 3 noun clauses.

13. Hybrid maize seed can be harvested and planted again and again.
14. The word „that‟ in line 7 refers to the information in the previous sentence.
15. You can find the antonym of the word „homozygous‟ (in line 7) in

Paragraph 2.

Exercise 2

Dictionary Entry

Fur/f3:r/ n 1 [U] soft thick hair covering certain animals, eg cats, rabbits. 2 [C]
animal skin with fur on it, especially when made into garments. 3 [U] rough
coating on a person‟s tongue when ill.
Furious/fjüəriəs/ adj violent; uncontrolled; full of fury.
Gassy /gǽsi/ adj of or like gas; full of gas; (of talk, etc) empty; vain and
boastful.

Gem /d3em/ n 1 precious stone or jewel, esp cut or polished. 2 sth valued
because of great beauty; sth much prized: the gem of the collection, the most
valued item in it.

Germ / d33:m/ n [C] 1 portion of a living organism capable of becoming a new
organism; (fig) beginning or starting-point (of an idea, etc). 2 microbe or
bacillus, esp one causing disease: ~ warfare, use of bacteria as a weapon in
war.

Gesture / d3est∫ə(r)/ n 1 [C] movement of the hand or head to indicate or
illustrate an idea, feeling, etc; sth done to convey a friendly intention: a ~ of
refusal; make a friendly ~ to sb. 2 [U] use of expressive movements: an actor
who is a master of the art of ~.

Choose the best answer for each question.

16.Women usually like to have __________. Some of them even collect it.

A. gem B. germ C. gesture

17. Nobody likes him. They say he is ___________; he talks too much.

A. gem B. gassy C. furious

18. When she wore her fur coat, animal lovers launched a protest.
The meaning of the word „fur‟ is number_________.

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3

19. How many meanings does the word „gesture‟ have? What is its part of

speech?

A. one/adjective B. one/noun C. two/noun

20. Which of the following cannot be an Uncountable noun?

A. gesture B. germ C. fur

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Exercise 3

Questions no 21 –33 are in the following text.

Lines Nowadays, Russian agriculture (21. A. develops B. is developing
5 C. have been developing) dynamically due to some factors. On the one
10 hand, world market prices for farm products in 2006-2007 (22. A have
15 B. have had C.had) a good impacton agribusiness. Some (23. A. another
20 B. other C. others) factors, such as oil price growth, attempts to
25 substitute standard fuel with biofuel, increasing food demand from
30 developing countries, have led to a new world scene. All over the world
prices for food are growing drastically and they are difficult to
(24.A.forecast B.forecasting C.forecasted). Agriculture (25.A.becoming
B.became C. has become) one of the key industries over the last 10
years.

Frequent (26. A.grow B.grown C. growth) of grain and oil-bearing
crops prices in global markets has made the investment fund of Russian
agriculture improving. It is estimated that Russian agriculture is at
tens of billion US dollars. The agribusiness in Russia (27.A. has grown
B. grew C. had grown) by 3-4% in 2007, twice more than that of 2004-
2005, and we can forecast further growth in this (28. A.industry
B.industrial C.industrially).The class of professionals and investors has
been formed. One of the 2007 tendencies was that companies are
actively consolidating big land assets in various regions in Russia and
Ukraine. Nowadays, foreign investors (29. A. create B.are creating
C.created) available lands of thousand hectares. This (30. A.cause
B.causes C.causing) emergence of new market oriented providers.

Ward Howell is the only Executive search company with an
agricultural practices focusing on searching for Russian and foreign highly
(31. A.quality B. qualify C. qualified) managers. (32. A. It B. Its
C.Their) clients include big and middle Russian agricultural companies
and those processing agricultural materials. In the near future, this
company (33. A. will expand B. expanding C. has expanded) to many
other agricultural sectors.

Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

34. The topic of the above passage is Russian agriculture.

35. The controlling idea of paragraph 1 is some factors.

36. The main idea of the passage is that Russian agriculture needs foreign

investors.
37. The passage reveals that the use of biofuel has been replaced by fuel.

38. The need for food in some countries has a good impact on Russian

agriculture.
39. Unlike the prices for farm products, the ones of grains have been rising.
40.“that Russian agriculture is at tens of billion US dolllars….” is a noun

clause.
41. The word „It‟ in line 14 refers to Russian agriculture.

42. There are three noun phrases in the last sentence (lines 28-30).
43. The word „growing‟ (in line 8) is the synonym of the word „improving‟ (in line

14).
44. Unlike grain prices, the ones of oil bearing crops are rising.
45. The part of speech of the word „forecast’in line 17 is a noun.

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46. One of the impacts of improving agriculture is the interest on owning land.
47. The word „those‟ in line 28 refers to clients.

Exercise 5

Lines Rabies, the disease that drives infected victims wild, is almost
5 always fatal once it reaches the brain. It jumps from host to host through
10
15 the bite of an infected animal. The virus itself travels from the wound to
20
the brain through an unusual highway. Instead of swirling through the
25 blood, it creeps along nerve fibers. This explains the variable timing of

symptoms following a bite: the farther the bite is from the brain, the longer

the virus must crawl. The time lag also gives bite victims the opportunity

to seek treatment. The critical moment is when the virus reaches the
central nervous system (CNS). Without treatment, weeks or months

after an attack the virus triggers a full-blown CNS infection, complete with

slavering, aggression and hydrophobia. At this point, it is usually too late
for even the best medical treatment.

. A new finding from two remote communities in the Peruvian Amazon
may reveal a gap in the virus‟ chain. Scientists have tested six native
people who have never received a vaccination yet appear to have

developed natural antibodies to the virus. The researchers think that

vampire bats, common in the region, bit the sleeping humans and
passed along small amounts of the virus over time. “The multiple,
low-dose exposure gave each person‟s immune system a chance to learn
how to fight back”, says Amy Gilbert, a postdoctoral fellow at the Center

for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Gilbert and her fellow researchers, first, interviewed 92 people in the

two communities, all of whom reported exposure to bats, whether to a

bite, scratch, or just abrush against bare skin.They then drew blood
samples from 63 of them. “Generally, the communities do not appreciate
the risk of rabies from a bite. They don‟t know how it is transmitted and
are unlikely to seek treatment because of the low perceived risk.” It was

finally found that several native individuals in the Peruvian Amazone
appear to have developed natural antibodies to the rabies virus.

Choose the best answer by crossing A, B, or C.

48. The best title for the above passage will be ______________________
A. Natural antibodies against rabies
B.Rabies disease that drives infected victims wild
C. Scientists studying Peruvian Amazone

49. The word „It‟ in line 2 refers to ___________

A. the brain B. the bite C. rabies

50. The virus of rabies travels _________. Which is NOT true according to the

passage?

A. to reach the brain B. through the blood C. along nerve fibers

51. The topic sentence of paragraph 1 is a statement of __________

A. intent B. opinion C. both intent and opinion

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52. The symptoms of rabies can be seen _________
A. immediately after the bite
B. in the wound to the brain
C. differently from one victim to another

53. Which of the following is NOT a noun clause.

A. when the virus reaches the central nervous system (CNS) (line 8-9)

B. who have never received a vaccination (line 15)
C. that vampire bats, bit the sleeping humans and passed…over time (line

16-18)

54. Which word can be used to replace the word „exposure‟ in line 23?

A. Disappointment B. Opportunity C. Contact

55. The word „first‟ in line 22 is a marker / signal word for _______

A. process B. listing C. cause effect

56. Hydrophobia will be experienced by those who ______________

A. get the best treatment B. are attacked by bats C. have CNS infection

57. Scientists believe that the virus‟ chain in rabies might be cut by ___________

A. vampire bat‟s bites B. vaccination C. living in remote areas

58. The word transmitted in line 25 is a/an ___________

A. adjective B. adverb C. verb

59. According to the passage people ignore bats‟ exposure because they ______

A. do not know that they can get rabies.

B. do not like any treatment C. do not have the risk

60. The word „it‟ in line 26 refers to _______________

A. treatment B. nothing C. risk

Answer the following questions in NO MORE than three words.

61. The part of speech of the word „timing‟ in line 5 is ____________
62. Prefix „post‟ in the word „postdoctoral‟ line 20 means _________
63. The word „This‟ in line 5 refers to _______
64. What is CNS (in line 9)? ________________
65. Which is the topic sentence of the second paragraph? _________

106

UNIT 8
CAUSE & EFFECT, COMPARISON & CONTRAST,

and ADVERB CLAUSES

Objectives:
1. To identify signals/clues that indicate causes or effects
2. To identify causes and effects
3. To identify signals/clues that indicate comparison & contrast
4. To identify comparison & contrast
5. To identify adverb clauses

1. Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a dependent clause used as an adverb within a sentence
to indicate time, place, condition, contrast, concession, reason, purpose, or
result. Also, it is known as adverbial clause.

An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as if, when,
because, or although) and includes a subject and a predicate.

Kinds of adverbial clauses

Kind of Common Function Examples

clause conjunctions

time when, before, These clauses are When you finished
clauses after, since, used to say when your homework, you
while, as, as something happens by may go home.
long as, until, referring to a period of
as soon as time or to another As soon as he heard
event. the news, he called
me.

conditional if, unless These clauses are Unless you work hard,
clauses used to talk about a you will fail in this
possible or counter- exam.
factual situation and its
consequences.

purpose so that, in These clauses are I will give you a map
clauses order that used to indicate the so that you can find
purpose of an action. the library easily.

reason because, These clauses are I did this work because
clauses since, as used to indicate the it is part of my
reason for something. educational project.

result so….that These clauses are There were so many
clauses used to indicate the
result of something. books on the subject
that Mary didn’t know

where to begin.

107

concession although, These clauses are I used to read a lot
used to make two although I don't get
clauses though, while, statements, one of much time for books
which contrasts with now.
even though the other or makes it
seem surprising.

place where, These clauses are He said he was happy
clauses wherever, used to talk about the where he was.
anywhere, location or position of
everywhere something.

Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences with a suitable word or phrase from the table
above.

1. Living in Bogor is sometimes frustrating ____________there are a lot of
traffic jams in every part of the city.

2. ___________dolphin lives in the sea, it is not a fish – it‘s a mammal.
3. I want to live __________ there are a lot of trees.
4. Riding a motorcycle needs fuel ____________ riding a bicycle needs

human energy.
5. ____________ you study hard, I am sure you‘ll pass the test.

2. Causes & Effects

When describing a sequence of events or actions, the writer can relate them
in two ways: by showing their order in time or showing how one causes the other,
if it does. Often, one action following another in time is also the result of that
action. There are a number of ways the writers can express these causal
relations. Some of them are listed below as the common cause and effect
markers.

The following are possible common signals to indicate cause and effect relations:

Verbs linking cause and effect: result, produce, allow, prevent, enable,
cause, result in, result from, bring about

Connectives: due to, as a result of, since, because, because of, in response
to, as, with the result that, so that, thus, therefore, consequently, hence, for
this reason, thereby

Implied marker: if, means

108

Sample Passage

Pulmonary Tuberculosis is caused by infection of the lungs with the
tubercle bacillus. Pulmonary lesions are due almost entirely to the human
form of the tubercle bacillus, as distinct from the bovine type, which is
Line mainly responsible for glandular and bovine tuberculosis. The bacilli lodge
5 in the lungs and set up a chronic inflammation of a specific type. They
produce areas of infiltration which have a characteristic tubercle
formation; hence the name for the organism.

The above passage shows relations of cause and effects. Some of the relations
are marked but others are linked implicitly.

Cause Effect Marker

Tubercle bacillus Infection of lungs caused by
Infection of lungs Pulmonary Tuberculosis due to
Human form of tubercle
Pulmonary lesions responsible for
bacillus set up
Bovine type of tubercle Glandular and bovine produce
tuberculosis
bacillus
Bacilli lodge in lungs Chronic inflammation
Infiltration
Inflammation

Exercise 2
Read the text below and complete the table that follows.

Scientific studies have shown that vitamin A may have beneficial
effects in clearing up skin problems, treating eye disorders, and fighting
infection. Tablets with vitamin A have been used effectively in treating
Line skin problems like acne. When it is applied directly to the skin, vitamin A
5 can also clear up boils and heal ulcers. Injections of vitamin A have been
used to remove warts from people‘s skin. Vitamin A is a successful way
of treating such eye disorders as night blindness and blurred vision. In
addition, therapeutic doses of vitamin A are used to treat glaucoma and
conjunctivitis (inflammation of the eyelids). Most important, vitamin A
10 protects the mucous membrane from invading bacteria. Furthermore,
dosages of vitamin A have shortened the duration of communicable
diseases, such as cold and measles. In conclusion, these many
beneficial effects demonstrate the importance of encouraging people to
take regular dietary supplements of vitamin A.

109

CAUSE: Use of Vitamin A in the Body

EFFECT 1: EFFECT 2: EFFECT 3
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………

Examples: Examples: Examples:
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………

Exercise 3
Read the text below and do the exercises that follow.

There are three reasons why solar energy generation has not
developed more rapidly. First, the cost per watt of solar cell generation is
more expensive than that of the steam power or nuclear power
Line generation. Therefore, the researchers are still looking for ways to make
5 solar cells cheaper. Second, nature plays a large part in solar cell
generation. For example, some days are cloudy and rainy. Because there
is no always fine weather, solar energy cannot be generated every day.
No solar energy is generated at night. Consequently, solar cells which are
very expensive must have the capacity to store energy for use during
10 these times. As a result, in low latitude areas can enough solar energy be
generated effectively at these times. Finally, building plants for solar cell
generation is extremely expensive. A very large space is needed, and the
need for maintenance is constant. To illustrate, the surface of the solar
cell plants has to be cleaned daily.
15 For all these reasons, it is very difficult to develop solar cell plants and
make solar cell energy available to the general public for a competitive
price. Despite all these problems, it is believed that the day will come and
when we use solar energy cells because they are a form of clean energy
with no pollution.

a. Underline the signal words for Cause & Effect.

b. Complete the following table based on the text above.

Effect: Solar Generation has not developed more rapidly

First Reason/Cause Second Reason/Cause Third Reason/Cause

………………………… …………………………… …………………………
………………………… …………………………… …………………………
………………………… …………………………… …………………………
………………………… …………………………… …………………………

110

c. Decide whether the following sentences and decide whether they are TRUE
or FALSE.

1. The topic sentence of paragraph 1 is stated at the first sentence of the
paragraph.

2. The controlling idea of the topic sentence is solar energy generation has not
developed more rapidly.

3. The words ―First‖ (line 2), ―Second‖ (line 5) and ―Finally (line 11) are markers
for process.

4. The word ―it‖ in line 15 refers to the solar energy.
5. The word ―they‖ in line 18 refers to solar energy cells.

d. Underline the adjective, noun, adverb clauses in the text above.

2. Comparison & Contrast

In most academic subjects, we often need to compare and contrast
things. Thus, one type of text organization is one in which several things are
compared or contrasted, where the language of comparison and contrast is used.
Paragraphs of this type of passage usually state the main idea of the things being
demonstrated as similar or different in the first sentence. Then, the idea is
developed in subsequent sentences, often with examples.

To compare means to show in what ways several things are similar, and
to contrast means to show in what ways they are different.

Signal Words/Markers

Some common signal words/markers for comparison

also in the same manner in comparison like
similarly in the same way likewise too
as Correspondingly the same as well as
similar to in comparison both resemble

Some common signal words/markers for contrast

however on the other hand while but
nevertheless on the contrary in contrast yet
more (than) --er than whereas conversely
rather than Although despite/in spite of unless
unlike Instead different from by contrast

111

Sample Passage

Both New York City and Paris depend on vast subway lines to transport
their millions of commuters. In both cities, the subways are often crowded,
especially at rush hours. Another likeness is the terrible noise level in the
trains. A further similarity is that the two subway systems both cover a wide
area at little expense for commuters. However, the differences between the
5 two are quite striking. While subway stations in New York range from plain
to ugly, Paris stations are generally attractive. Many of the French stations
are filled with works of art. In Paris, the subway trains are clean and they
run every few minutes. On the other hand, New York‘s trains can be less
clean and reliable.

The above paragraph compares and contrasts the subways in New York
City and with those in Paris. If we transfer the passage into a note form, this
would like the following.

Subways in NY City Subways in Paris Markers
Both
Crowded Another likeness
A further similarity
Terribly noisy However

Relatively cheap While
On the other hand
Stations range from Stations are attractive and
plain to ugly filled with art works

Less clean Clean

Less reliable Run every few minutes

Exercise 1

Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are
strikingly different in many ways. For example, the physical size of each
state is different. Arizona is large, having an area of 114,000 square miles,
whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth the size, having an area of only
5 1,214 square miles. Another difference is in the size of the population of
each state. Arizona has about four million people living in it, but Rhode
Island has less than one million. The two states also differ in the kinds of
natural environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry
state, consisting of large desert areas that do not receive much rainfall
10 every year. However, Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone and
receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In addition, while Arizona
is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies on the
Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.

1. What are being compared or contrasted?
2. How many points of contrast are there?
3. What are signals that show contrast?

112

Exercises for Tutorial Classes
(Unit 8)

Exercise 1
A. Read the following text and complete the table that follows.

Though some people may term communism and fascism as the two
sides of the same coin, they are different in their ideology and other
aspects. Communism is a socio-economic system that stands for a
Line classless, stateless and an egalitarian society. Fascism is an ideology that
5 tries to bring together radical and authoritarian nationalism. Fascism is
derived from Italian fascio, meaning bundle, whereas Communism comes
from French communisme, meaning common.

Fascism became popular between 1919 and 1945 and the term has
become an epithet for all bad things. Fascism originally referred to the
10 Fascists under Benito Mussolini. The authoritative document of Fascism is
―The Doctrine of Fascism.‖

Communism became popular after the Bolshevik Revolution of
Russia in 1917. The Communist Manifesto was made by Karl Marx, and
Friedrich Engels is considered to be the bible of communism.
15 Communism stands for a stateless society where all are equal. No
one is rich or poor in a communist system. In Communism, it is the
community that holds the production and the major resources. On the
other hand, Fascism pertains to state and it considers the state on top of
everything. In fascism the state is all embracing; no human values exist
20 outside the state.

Fascism Communism
1.
Communism is a socio economic
2. system that stands for a class less,
state less and an egalitarian society

3.

4. 5.

Fascism originally referred to the The Communist Manifesto was
Fascists under Benito Mussolini made by Karl Marx
6. 7.

Fascism pertains to state and it 8.
considers the state on top of
everything. The community that holds the
9. production and the major resources.

113

B. Answer the following questions briefly.

1. The first paragraph contains definitions. What are the terms being defined?
And what are the signal words for definitions?

2. What is the topic of the above passage?

3. Which country refers to fascism?

4. What is the holy book of communism?

5. Which ideology says that the state is above everything?

Exercise 2
A. Read the text and complete the table below.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is like a blueprint of biological guidelines
that a living organism must follow to exist and remain functional. RNA, or
ribonucleic acid, helps carry out this blueprint's guidelines. Of the two,
Line RNA is more versatile than DNA, capable of performing numerous, diverse
5 tasks in an organism, but DNA is more stable and holds more complex
information for longer periods of time.

DNA provides living organisms with guidelines—genetic information in
chromosomal DNA—that help determine the nature of an organism's
biology, how it will look and function, based on information passed down
10 from former generations through reproduction. The slow, steady changes
found in DNA over time, known as mutations, which can be destructive,
neutral, or beneficial to an organism, are at the core of the theory of
evolution.

Genes are found in small segments of long DNA strands; humans
15 have around 19,000 genes. The detailed instructions found in genes—

determined by how nucleobases in DNA are ordered—are responsible for
both the big and small differences between different living organisms and
even among similar living organisms. The genetic information in DNA is
what makes plants look like plants, dogs look like dogs, and humans look
20 like humans; it is also what prevents different species from producing
offspring (their DNA will not match up to form new, healthy life). Genetic
DNA is what leads some people to have curly, black hair and others to
have straight, blond hair.

Some Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

I. the name stands for 1.

II. more versatile

114

B. Find any sub-clauses (noun, adjective, or adverb) that you can find in the
passage.

C. Indicate whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE.
1. The main idea of the above passage is the differences between DNA and
RNA.
2. The first paragraph explains what DNA and RNA are.
3. It can be inferred from Paragraph One that RNA does not have as many
functions as DNA.
4. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
5. The slow, steady changes in DNA can destroy, neutralize, and benefit an
organism.
6. We know what plant is like because of the genetic information in DNA.
7. The guidelines in DNA provide genetic information in chromosomal DNA.
8. The part of speech of the word ‗function‘ in line 9 is a NOUN.
9. The word ‗which‘ in line 11 refers to mutations.
10. The word ‗others‘ in line 22 refers to genes.

Exercise 3
Mitosis and meiosis have different purposes, but share common features
in how they work. Mitosis allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair
damaged tissue. Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually.

Line The fundamental difference between mitosis and meiosis is that
5 mitosis produces two daughter cells with the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis results in four daughter cells
harboring only half of their parent's chromosomes, which underwent
recombination. Aside from these two distinct purposes, both mitosis and
meiosis occur in multiple stages during which the same general things

10 happen: DNA replication and condensation, nuclear membrane
degradation, spindle formation, chromosomal segregation and nuclear
reformation. The same mechanisms of chromosomal segregation are at
work in both mitosis and meiosis -- centrosomes, microtubules and motor
proteins.

15 Both mitosis and meiosis are multistage processes. The stages are
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The same
general processes occur in each of these stages for mitosis and meiosis.
Interphase is cell growth and DNA replication in preparation for cell
division. Prophase is when the nuclear membrane degrades. Metaphase is

20 when the chromosomes align in the middle of the cell. Anaphase is when
the chromosomes are pulled apart. Lastly, telophase is when one cell
splits into two separate cells.

115

Complete the following table to show similarities and differences between mitosis
and meiosis.

Mitosis Meiosis

Purpose

Number of Daughter
Cells produced

Chromosome Number

Mechanisms

Stages

Exercise 4
Read the text below.

1) According to researchers, two viruses cause Aids, namely HIV-1
and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the predominant virus in most parts of the world,
whereas HIV-2 is most commonly found in West Africa. These viruses
Line belong to a family called the retroviruses. They are unique viruses in that
5 they are able to insert their genetic material into the genetic material (DNA)
of cells of the person that they have infected. In this way they are able to
infect a person for the rest of that person's life. Viruses that are very
closely related to HIV are found in other primates (apes and monkeys).
These viruses are called Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses (SIV). HIV-2 is
10 genetically almost indistinguishable from the SIV found in sooty
mangabeys. A very close genetic relative of HIV-1 has been found in
chimpanzees. Therefore, most scientists accept that the human immune-
deficiency viruses are recently derived from these primate viruses. The
earliest human blood sample found to contain HIV dates from 1959; this
15 sample was collected in Central Africa.

2) Based on molecular technology and the use of large computer
programs, scientists have been able to trace back the genetic origins of
HIV-1 and HIV-2 and roughly pinpoint the time when these viruses first
appeared in humans. The current theory is that sometime between 1930
20 and 1940 there was a "species-jump" of certain SIV's into human
populations, probably through the practice of slaughtering, preparing and
consuming of "bush meat" from monkeys in parts of Central and West
Africa.

3) HIV is not as contagious as is often believed. The virus does not
25 survive long outside the body and can only be transmitted through the

direct exchange of certain body fluids such as blood, semen and vaginal
fluid. The virus can gain access to the body at its moist surfaces ("mucous

116

membranes") during sex, or through direct injection into the blood stream.
Sex is the major mode of transmission of HIV worldwide.

Choose the best answer for the following questions.

1. What is the best title for the passage above?

A. How Aids are transmitted. C. Where Aids come from.

B. The two viruses that cause Aids. D. The most dangerous viruses.

2. Which of the following is NOT true about HIV-2?
A. It is mostly found in West Africa. C. It belongs to retroviruses family.
B. It is dominant all over the world. D. It is unique.

3. According to the text, SIV found in sooty mangabeys is similar to ____.

A. HIV-2 B. HIV-1 C. apes D. monkeys

4. The first sample of human blood containing HIV was found in ____.
A. Central Africa B. West Africa C. chimpanzees D. monkeys

5. The passage mentions the means of transmitting HIV through these
fluids, EXCEPT _______.

A. blood B. vaginal fluid C. semen D. water

6. The synonym of the word ‗contagious‘ in line 24 is probably……

A. dangerous B. infectious C. famous D. serious

7. It can be inferred from Paragraph 3 that……
A. HIV cannot infect other people.
B. we can share food and drink with an HIV patient.
C. HIV victims cannot be cured.
D. HIV can only survive in a fluid.

8. The first sentence of Paragraph 3 is a statement of ……

A. Opinion B. Fact

9. Information about the first human blood containing HIV can be found in
…..

A. lines 7-8 B. lines 13-15 C. lines 16-19 D. lines 24-27

10. The last paragraph is mainly talking about ……
A. how HIV is transmitted
B. how to prevent HIV
C. what causes HIV
D. why HIV cannot survive outside the body

Exercise 5

1) World War I was a direct result of a tangled system of secret
alliances. Beginning after the unification of Germany in 1871, many
European nations began secretly allying themselves with each other.
Line Starting with the Dual Alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany in
5 1879, the nations of Europe allied themselves in mutual protection pacts in
such a way that if any one nation became the target of aggression, all of
Europe would be pulled into war. That act of aggression occurred in
Bosnia in 1914 when a young Serb, Gavrilo Princip, assassinated
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-
10 Hungary declared war on the nation of Serbia soon after. Within a year,

117

Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy had allied themselves against France,

Britain, Russia and the Ottoman Empire.
2) The after-effects of the war are numerous. Four empires

disappeared: Austria-Hungary, the Ottomans, Germany and Russia. Four
15 age-old royal lines were shattered: the Hapsburgs, Romanov‘s,

Hohenzollerens and the Ottman Turks. Of the 60 million soldiers mobilized

during the war, 8 million were dead, 7 million were disabled in some way
and 15 million were seriously injured. 15% of German‘s men aged 18-40

were gone, as were 17% of Austria-Hungary. A global famine also came
20 after the war, killing 100,000 people in Lebanon and 10 million in Russia!

One of the most important effects was that Germany was saddled with a

huge war debt that bankrupted the nation and provided fertile ground for
the rise of Hitler and the Nazi's, so one could argue World War I caused

World War II.

A. Choose the best answer to each question.

1. What is the topic sentence of Paragraph 1?

A. The first sentence C. The third sentence

B. The second sentence D. The last sentence

2. The controlling idea of the topic sentence of the first paragraph is _______.
A. a tangled system of secret alliances
B. secretly allying themselves with each other
C. mutual protection pacts
D. heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne

3. The text organization of the first paragraph is _______.

A. process B. cause-effect C. comparison D. contrast

4. The signal words to support the above text organization are _____.

A. a way B. when C. soon after D. each other

5. The controlling idea of the second paragraph is _____.

A. after-effects B. are C. the war D. numerous

6. With which country did Germany ally in 1879?

A. Austria-Hungary B. France C. Britain D. Russia

7. How many adverb clauses are there in Paragraph One?

A. One C. Three

B. Two D. None

118

B. Complete the following table with the information from Paragraph 1.

Causes Effects Markers

any one nation became the 1. If
target of aggression

2. Austria-Hungary declared war 3.
on the nation of Serbia soon
after

C. Complete the following table with the information from Paragraph 2.

Causes Effects

World War 1 1.

2.

Of 60 million 1. 8 million were dead
soldiers 2.
mobilized
during the war

3.
4. 15% of German‘s men aged 18-40 were gone

5.

Global famine 1.

2.

World War 1

119



UNIT 9
DEFINITION, EXEMPLIFICATION, CLASSIFICATION,

and ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Objectives:
1. To identify a text organization of definition and exemplification
2. To identify the adjective clauses
3. To identify a text organization of classification

1. Definition and Exemplification

a. Definition

The purpose of a paragraph of definition is to define, explain, or clarify the
meaning of something. Because of the nature of definition, it may involve
analysis, comparison and contrast.

A paragraph of definition provides the meaning or an example of a term or
concept. Paragraphs of definition often begin with a single-sentence dictionary
definition as a topic sentence and then go on to provide further explanation or
examples.

The following are the common signal words for definitions:

This is referred to as X is/are known as X is/are

X can be defined as X refers to X means

This means that In other words X is/are called

Sample Passage

Education theory can refer to either a normative or a descriptive theory
of education. In the first case, a theory means a postulation about what
ought to be. It provides the "goals, norms, and standards for conducting
Line the process of education." In the second case, it means "a hypothesis
5 or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation and
experiment." A descriptive theory of education can be thought of as a
conceptual scheme that ties together various "otherwise discrete
particulars.”

b. Exemplification

It is often useful in definitions to give examples; this action is known as
exemplification (or exemplifying) and it is commonly used throughout academic
writing.

The following are the common signal words for exemplifications:

an example for example This is analogous to

an instance for instance such as

an illustration

121

Sample Passage

Some of the most fascinating works of modern architecture are
associated with cities. In capitals such as Brasilia, monumental modern
structures determine the appearance of the city. Such buildings,
Line however, are not the only structures created by architects. They also
5 create buildings that are used by all of us in our everyday lives. Houses,
stores, shopping malls, schools, and factories, for example, are usually
built according to an architect‟s instructions. Architects also design
sports arenas, museums, hotels, and theaters, an example of which is
the Opera House in Sydney, Australia, designed by the Danish architect
10 Jorn Utzon. This building and others like it remind us of sculpture more
than of the tall towers of cities

2. Grammar points: Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause is often used in definitions to list their characteristics. It is a
dependent clause, which modifies a noun, describes, identifies, or gives further
information about a noun. (It is also called a relative clause). A dependent clause
is not a complete sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause.

Examples:

A chair is a piece of furniture that has a back and a single seat.

(independent clause) (dependent clause)

Mariculture is a type of agriculture that specializes marine plants and animals.

(independent clause) (dependent clause)

The patterns of Adjective Clauses

1. Using Subject Pronouns: WHO, WHICH, THAT

Examples:
a. I thanked the librarian who helped finish my report.
b. I thanked the librarian that helped finish my report.

2. Using Object Pronouns: WHOM, WHICH, THAT

Examples:
a. The man whom/that I saw was Mr. Jones.
b. The movie which/that we saw last night wasn‟t very good.

3. Using WHOSE (possession)

Examples:
a. The student whose composition I read is a good writer.
b. I am from a country whose history goes back thousands of years.

4. Using WHERE

Examples:
a. The building where he lives is very old.
b. The building which/that he lives in is very old.

122

5. Using WHEN
Examples:
a. Monday is the day when we learn English.
b. Monday is the day on which we learn English.
c. Monday is the day that we learn English.

6. Using EXPRESSIONS of QUANTITY
Examples:
a. In my class there are 50 students, some of whom are from Bogor.
b. John gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.
c. The teachers discussed Jim, one of whose problems was poor
study habits.

Sample Passage
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary
education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the
completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a

Line high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to
5 include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as
vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main
institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are
sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally
results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

1. An adjective clauses that is used to identify (distinguish one person or thing
from another) is called restrictive clauses.
Example: Judges are people who prefer a structured and predictable
environment.

2. An adjective clauses that is not used to identify something but simply adds
extra information is called nonrestrictive clauses.
Example: Whales, which were once plentiful, are now in danger of
extinction.

3. An adjective clause can often be reduced to adjective phrases when the
relative pronoun of the adjective clause is the subject of the clause.
Example: Anyone who is interested in cinema should experience this film.
Anyone interested in cinema should experience this film.

The dictionary which is on the table is mine.
The dictionary on the table is mine.

I bought a new book that contains descriptions of illuminated
manuscripts.

I bought a new book containing descriptions of illuminated
manuscripts.

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Exercise 1

Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being.
In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit,
and usually means to be free from illness, injury or pain (as in "good
Line health" or "healthy"). In 1946 the World Health Organization (WHO)
5 defined health in its broader sense as "a state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity." Although this definition has been subject to controversy, in
particular as having a lack of operational value and the problem created
by use of the word "complete", it remains the most enduring.
10 Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International
Classifications, including the International Classification of Functioning,
Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of
Diseases (ICD), are commonly used to define and measure the
components of health.

Read the above paragraph and answer the following questions.

1. What is the definition of health?
2. How many definitions of health does the text mention?
3. What words are used to show each definition?
4. Is there any exemplification given in the text?
5. What words are used to show examples?

Exercise 2
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow.

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary
education comprises the formal education that occurs during
adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically
Line compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional,
5 selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university,
vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this
period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools,
gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools.
The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to
10 another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education
also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally
around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education
occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada
and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes
15 referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used.
The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge,
to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.

The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not
happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and
20 technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of
electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job
demand, high schools were created and the curriculum focused on
practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or

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skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer
25 and the employee, because this improvement in human capital caused

employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the
employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees
with just primary educational attainment.

a. Underline the signal markers for definition and exemplification. (if there is any)

b. Underline the adjectives clauses found in the passage above.

c. Underline the noun clauses found in the passage above. (If there is any).

Exercise 3

It is common knowledge that forecasting is an attempt by
meteorologists to determine what weather will be in the future. Hindcasting
is the opposite of forecasting, an attempt to determine what weather was
Line like in the past. Meteorologists, experts who study the earth‟s atmosphere
5 and its changes, wish that records of weather had been kept in full for at
least a few millennia, but it has been only in the last century that detailed
records of the weather have been kept. Thus, meteorologists need to
hindcast the weather, and they do so by using all sorts of information from
other fields as diverse as archeology, botany, geology, literature, and art.
10 These pieces of information from other fields that are used as a basis for
drawing conclusions about what the weather must have been like at some
point in the past are called proxies.

Complete the table below with the information from the text.

Concept/term Definition Signal marker

Forecasting

Hindcasting

Meteorologists

Proxies

3. Classifications

Classification means the grouping of items to show relationship between
them. Items that are classified together have something in common; that is
something must apply to all the items in that group or category. Therefore,
paragraphs that divide people, places, or things into categories are called
paragraph of classification.

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The following are the signal words commonly used in classification:

X consists of according to … to classify
comprises to sub-classify
on the basis of …
X may be classified depending on … to divide into
may be divided to sub-divide into
may be sub-divided to categorize
may further be sub-divided to sub-categorize
to fall into

Sample Passage

Three of the vertebrate classes are fish. The most primitive of these is
Agnatha. It consists of jawless fish that do not have scales. These are
the lampreys and hagfish. Fish that have skeletons consisting of hard
Line rubber-like cartilage rather than bone are members of the class
5 Chondrichthyes. These are the sharks and rays. All of the bony fish are
members of the class Osteichthyes. Tuna, bass, salmon, and trout are
examples of Osteichthyes

Exercise 1

Organisms may be divided into three groups based on how they obtain
food. These groups are producers, decomposers, and consumers.
Organisms that contain chlorophyll are producers. Thus, green plants are
Line producers. Animals that eat other animals and plants are consumers.
5 Microbes, one-celled organisms that cause the decay of dead plants and
animals, are decomposers. Since decomposers cannot make their own
food, they are also consumers.

Indicate whether the following statement is TRUE or FALSE.
1. The topic of the above passage is how to obtain food.
2. The topic sentence is the first sentence.
3. The controlling idea is three groups.
4. The text above has a text organization of classification.
5. Green plants are producers.
6. Microbes are consumers.
7. Animals are decomposers.
8. Microbes have one cell.

Exercise 2

Like birds, mammals are endothermic, or warm blooded. They are
able to maintain a relatively constant body temperature regardless of
external environmental conditions mainly by using internal physiological
Line mechanisms. In other words, they are homoeothermic, or stable in
5 core body temperature, as a result of endothermy. All of the living
species of insects, fish, reptiles, and amphibians are ectothermic, or
cold blooded. They keep their body temperature in a normal range

126

mainly by avoiding exposure to environmental temperature extremes.
For instance, reptiles usually remain in shaded areas on hot days to
10 prevent fatal overheating. On cold nights, their lowered body
temperature can cause them to become sluggish and inactive. In
contrast, endothermic animals are able to remain active at night and
often in the winter when the air temperatures are especially cold. They
can also move about in the heat of very warm days. This ability most
15 likely provided an advantage for the early small mammals in surviving
alongside dinosaurs and other large reptiles, which apparently were
mostly ectothermic.

Read the above passage and the answer the following questions briefly
1. What is being classified in the passage?
2. What is the principle of classification?
3. What does endothermic mean?
4. What are the examples of endothermic?
5. What is homoeothermic?
6. What is the cause of homoeothermic?
7. What is ectothermic?
8. What examples of ectothermic are given in the passage?
9. How do reptiles prevent themselves from overheating?
10. What make reptiles sluggish and inactive?

Reading 3
Goats are considered small livestock animals, compared to bigger

animals such as cattle, camels and horses, but larger than micro-
livestock such as poultry, rabbits, cavies, and bees. Each recognized
Line breed of goats has specific weight ranges, which vary from over 300 lbs
5 for bucks of larger breeds such as the Boer, to 45 to 60 lbs for smaller
goat does. Within each breed, different strains or bloodlines may have
different recognized sizes. At the bottom of the size range are miniature
breeds such as the African Pigmy, which stand 16 to 23 inches at the
shoulder as adults.
10 Most goats naturally have two horns, of various shapes and sizes
depending on the breed. Goats have horns unless they are "polled"
(meaning, genetically hornless) or the horns have been removed,
typically soon after birth. There have been incidents of polycerate
goats (having as many as eight horns) although this is a genetic rarity
15 thought to be inherited. The horns are most typically removed in
commercial dairy goat herds to reduce the injuries to humans and other
goats. Unlike cattle, goats have not been successfully bred to be
reliably polled as the genes determining sex and those determining
horns are closely linked. Breeding together two genetically polled goats
20 results in a high number of intersex individuals among the offspring,
which are typically sterile. Their horns are made of living bone
surrounded by keratin and other proteins, and are used for defense,
dominance, and territoriality.

127

Goats are ruminants. They have a four-chambered stomach
25 consisting of the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum, and the

abomasum. As with other mammal ruminants, they are even-toed
ungulates. The females have an udder consisting of two teats, in
contrast to cattle, which have four teats.

Choose the best answer based on the passage above.

1. The topic of the above passage is ……
A. Description of goats
B. Processes of breeding goats
C. Differences between goats and other ruminants

2. The topic sentence of the third paragraph is …… sentence.

A. the first B. the second C. the last

3. The controlling idea of the last paragraph is……

A. ruminants B. an udder C. even-toed ungulates

4. The word “polled” (line 11) most probably means ……

A. without horns B. with horns C. with two horns

5. The prefix “poly” in the word “polycerate” (line 13) means …….
A. more than eight B. less than eight C. many

6. In commercial dairy goats, the horns are removed ……
A. to make them tamed
B. to reduce hurting others
C. to make injuries

7. According to the passage, the word „ruminants‟ means ……
A. having four stomachs
B. having a stomach consisting of four chambers
C. having a chamber

128

Exercises for Tutorial Classes
(UNIT 9)

A. DEFINITION

Exercise 1
Read the following four texts and answer the questions that follow.

Text I

Cholera is an intestinal infection that can be described according to
its cause, symptoms, and treatment. A bacterium, called Vibrio cholera,
is the causative agent of cholera. It can be spread through contaminated
Line food, water, or feces. Cholera patients may exhibit different symptoms
5 that can vary from mild to severe. Some symptoms are watery diarrhea
and loss of water and salts. Oral or intravenous replacement of fluids
and salts as well as specific antibiotics is a possible treatment for
cholera. Patients can be treated with an oral dehydration solution or, in
severe cases, an intravenous fluid.

Text II

The term protein quality refers to the ratio of essential amino acids
in a protein in comparison with the ratio required by the body. A high
quality protein contains essential amino acids in a ratio that matches
Line human requirements. A protein which is lacking or low in one or more
5 essential amino acids is termed a low quality protein. The essential
amino acids which are in the shortest supply are called the „limiting‟
amino acid. In general, animal proteins tend to be of a high quality while
vegetable proteins tend to be of a low quality. The exception is soy
protein, which is quite of a high quality.

Text III

Defining the city is a difficult task. We usually use vague phrases,
such as “a place larger than a village or town” to describe a city. The
word urban also has a vague connotation. For example, Webster’s New
Line Collegiate Dictionary defines urban as “of, relating to, characteristics of,
5 constituting a city.” Being more specific with either the term city or urban
can lead to arbitrary distinctions, but generally a city can be described
as a concentration of people with a distinctive way of life in terms of
unemployment patterns and lifestyles. A high degree of specialized land
uses and a wide variety of social, economic, and political institutions that
10 coordinate the use of the facilities and resources in the city make them
very complex machines.

When strong interconnections, in terms of work trip commuting,
exist between two or more metropolitan areas that share a common
boundary, the region is defined as a consolidated metropolitan statistical
15 area (CMSA). Each of the metropolitan areas within this designation is
then called a Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area (PMSA).

129

Text IV

Pitt defines development as the perceived increased effectiveness
of social and economic activities and functions of the society or situation
and in the range of options open to people. Therefore, development
Line should be seen as the perceived improvement in the quality of life
5 although this means fewer goods and services.

A. Complete the following table based on the reading texts above.

TEXT NO TERM MARKERS MEANING
I. 1.
II. 2.
III. 1.
2.
IV 3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.

B. Underline the adjective, noun, and adverb clauses found in the texts above if any

Exercise 2
The canines are the long, sharp teeth found in the front corners of

the upper and lower rows of teeth, between the incisors and bicuspids.
Because they are long and strong and deeply rooted, they have several
Line functions. First, even though canines do not chew food, they guide the jaw
5 during the chewing process. Second, they shape the face. They can also
serve as anchors for other teeth when a dentist puts in bridge work. And
finally, as the name "canine" suggests, they work like the teeth of a dog to
cut and tear food-and to bite."

Answer the following questions based on the passage above.

1. What term is being defined? What does it mean?

2. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph?

3. Is it a statement of intent or opinion?

4. What are the functions of canines?

5. What are the signal words found in the paragraph?

130

B. EXEMPLIFICATIONS

Exercise 1
Read the following passage and underline all the signal words for exemplification.

There are 27 main orders of birds, for example, falcon-like birds. Each
order may be divided into families, such as falcons, and each family may
be sub-divided into genera: eagles are an example. Finally, each genus
may further be sub-divided into a number of species, e.g. golden eagle.

Exercise 2
a. Read the following text. What do the underlined words mean?
b. Circle the signal words for definition.
c. Underline the signal words for exemplifications.

There are about 109 basic building blocks of matter. These are
called elements. Out of these, 92 occur naturally, for example, iron, gold,
oxygen, and hydrogen. The smallest particle of an element is the atom
Line of the element. Each element has its own characteristic properties.
5 Substances, such as water, carbon dioxide, salt, sugar, which are
made up of two or more elements, are called compounds. The smallest
particle of a compound is a molecule. A molecule contains two or more
atoms combined together. There are millions of compounds around us.

Most elements do not occur in a free state in nature. They occur in
10 the combined form as molecule.

Exercise 3
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

Different types of relationships exist between living things. One type
of relationship is parasitism, in which one partner benefits while the other
loses. A very different type of relationship is symbiosis, in which both
Line partners benefit.
5 An example of a parasitic relationship exists between the stone crab
and sacculina, a type of barnacle. The sacculina attaches itself to the
stone crab. It then eats into the crab, and the stone crab becomes
disabled.

An example of symbiotic relationship exists between the hermit crab
10 and the calliactic anemone. The anemone attaches itself to the crab, but it

is not a parasite because it does not harm the crab; it feeds on food that
is dropped by the crab. The anemone even helps the crab by protecting
the crab from other predators with its tentacles.

a. Answer the following questions.

1. What is parasitism?

2. What is symbiosis?

3. What is the example of a parasitic relationship?

4. Where in the passage does the author describe such a relationship
mentioned in number 3?

131

5. What is the example of a symbiotic relationship?

6. Where in the passage does the author describe such a relationship
mentioned in number 5?

b. Choose the best answer.

1. The subject of this passage is __________.
A. two different kinds of relationship among living things
B. parasitic relationship
C. relationship that are mutually beneficial to living things
D. symbiosis

2. Which of the following is NOT true about parasitic relationships?
A. There are two partners in a parasitic relationship.
B. One partner in a parasitic relationship hurts the other.
C. The stone crab can be part of a parasitic relationship.
D. A parasitic relationship is usually symbiotic.

3. According to the passage, what does sacculina eat?

A. The stone crab C. Barnacles

B. Food dropped by the crab D. Other parasites

4. The calliactic anemone ____________. C. eats into the hermit crab
A. is a parasite D. assist the hermit crab
B. harms the hermit crab

5. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
A. All crabs are involved in parasitic relationships.
B. All crabs are involved in symbiotic relationships.
C. Some crabs are involved in symbiotic relationships, while others are not.
D. Crabs are involved in neither parasitic nor symbiotic relationship.

C. CLASSIFICATIONS

Exercise 1
Read the following carefully. Then complete the diagram below.

The Classification of Birds
Birds are instantly recognizable creatures. Perhaps, it is their ability
to fly that causes this. Some people might consider that their shape was
the most distinguishing feature. Everyone, however, agrees on the
Line characteristics that a bird possesses: two wings, feathers, two legs, a
5 toothless bill or beak, warm blood, and it lays eggs.
The modern system of classifying birds is like a pyramid, with the
base formed by 8,514 different species. A convenient definition of
species is: an interbreeding group of birds which do not normally mate
with other such groups.
10 The next division above the species is the genus, a group of species
showing strong similarities. The scientific name of a bird gives the genus
first, the species. Thus, the scientific (Latin) name of the golden eagle is
“Aquila chrysaetos” (eagle, golden). When there are strong points of
similarities between one genus and another, these related genera are

132

15 grouped together and are said to belong to the same family. The names
of 215 families of birds always end in “idae”. The golden eagle, for
instance, is one of the “Falconidae” (falcon family).

Families with broadly similar characteristics are grouped together into
27 orders, whose names end in “iformes”. The golden eagle falls into the
20 order of “Falconiformes” (falcon-like birds). The larger order is
“Passeriformes” or perching birds. This contains 63 families, and more

species than all the rest put together. The feet are designed so that they

can grip a perch, with three toes in front and one behind. In addition, all

are known as song-birds. Two large families within this order are

25 sparrows, with 155 species, and crows, with 100 species.
Finally the orders make up the class “Aves” (birds). This system of

classification has enabled scientists to differentiate 8,514 species of birds.

Placing a bird at the right family depends upon a number of features.

Among them are external characteristics, such as the shape of the beak

30 and feet, and the color pattern of the feathers. However, at the level of

order, the next higher category, distinctions are based on such features

as the structure of the skull, the arrangement of the muscles in the legs,

and the condition of the young at the time of hatching.

a. Complete the following table.
The Classification of Birds

Classification division or Example of classification of Number of the
categories Golden Eagle (in English) for division
each division
1. …………………. 27
Falcon-like 2. ……………..

Family Falcon ---
Genus 3. ……………………….. 8541
4. ……………………
Golden Eagle

b. Answer the questions that follow.
1. What is the definition of a bird?

2. What is the definition of a species?

3. What are the two criteria that are used in assigning birds to the order of
Passeriformes?

4. What are the two examples of families of birds from the order of
Passeriformes?

5. What are the general characteristics of families of birds?
6. What are the general characteristics of order of birds?

133

Exercise 2
Read the text and answer the questions that follow.

The Earth is a solid sphere. It is made up of three concentric spheres
or layers. These are called the core, the mantle, and the crust. The solid
sphere is surrounded by a gaseous sphere, which is called the
Line atmosphere.
5 We know most about crust of the Earth which is the outermost
sphere. This layer is very thin compared with the diameter of the whole
Earth. It is only about 10 km thick under the ocean and about 30 km thick
on land. It consists of rock which contains a lot of minerals. These are
usually in compounds called oxides, containing oxygen, or sulfides,
10 containing sulfur.

The mantle is much thicker than the crust. It is about 30 km thick. It
consists mainly of rocks, but we do not know much about their
composition.

The core, which is situated inside the mantle, seems to be divided
15 into two parts. The inner core is about 2,800 km in diameter. We believe

that it is mainly composed of iron, but it also contains about 10 % nickel.
The layer surrounding the inner core is called the outer core and is
approximately 200 km thick. It is probably composed of molten iron and
nickel. However, the metals in the inner core seem to be rigid, and
20 therefore, solid. This is because they are under very high pressure, which
caused solidification in spite of the high temperatures at the center of the
Earth.

a. Complete the following table based on passage above.

Layers Contents

1. The crust

2. The mantle

3. The core: …………………………………………………………………
a. …………… …………………………………………………………………
b. ……………

b. Answer the following questions.
1. What do the underlined words mean? (Circle their meanings)
2. What are the signal words of „classification” found in the above passage?
3. What relationship does the signal word “however” in paragraph 4 show?
4. What relationship does the signal word “therefore” in paragraph 4 show?
5. What relationship does the signal word “because” in paragraph 4 show?

c. Underline the adjective, noun, adverb clauses found in the passage above if
any.

134

Exercise 3
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

An alga is a primitive form a life, a single-celled or simple multiple-
celled organism that is able to conduct the process of photosynthesis. It is
generally found in water but can also be found elsewhere, growing on
Line such surfaces as rocks or trees. The various types of algae are classified
5 according to pigment.

Blue-green algae, or Cyanophyta, can grow at very high
temperatures and under high-intensity light. This type of algae is the
oldest form of life with photosynthetic capabilities. Fossilized remains of
blue-green algae more than 3.4 billion years old have been found in parts
10 of Africa.

Green algae, or Chlorophyta, is generally found in fresh water. It
reproduces on the surfaces of enclosed bodies of water such as ponds or
lakes and has the appearance of a fuzzy green coating on the surface of
the water.
15 Brown algae, or Phaeophyta, grows in shallow, temperate water. This
type of algae is the largest in size and is most recognizable as a type of
seaweed. Its long stalks can be enmeshed on the ocean floor, or it can
float freely on the ocean‟s surface.

Red algae, or Rhodophyta, is a small, delicate organism found in the
20 deep waters of the subtropics. This type of algae has an essential role in

the formation of coral reefs: it secretes lime from the seawater to foster
the formation of limestone deposits.

Complete the following table based on the passage above.

NO. TYPES OF ALGAE LOCATION

1. Blue-green algae (Cyanophyta)
2. Green algae, or Chlorophyta
3. Brown algae, or Phaeophyta
4. Red algae, or Rhodophyta

Choose the best answer.

1. What is the author‟s main purpose?
A. To show what color algae is.
B. To differentiate the various classification of algae.
C. To describe where algae is found.

2. Which of the following is NOT true about algae?
A. All types of algae have one cell only.
B. It can be found out of water.
C. It can use photosynthesis.

3. Algae remnants found in Africa are ___________.

A. still flourishing B. extremely old C. photogenic

4. Brown algae would most likely be found _____________.

A. on trees B. near green algae C. in the ocean

5. According to the passage, red algae is ____________.

A. fragile B. sturdy C. huge

135



UNIT 10
READING TABLES AND GRAPHS (CHARTS)

Objectives:
1. To understand kinds of illustrated information
2. To familiarize with tables, graphs or charts
3. To read graphs, tables, or charts

Very often scientists and business people need to present a lot of
information. They set their information in such a way by presenting illustration
such as tables, graphs, diagrams, photos, maps, and pictures. Illustration will
enable the writers to present information more effectively. The basic principle in
presenting illustration is that it has to be interesting and can automatically
describe the essence of the information.

In scientific reading, all illustrated information in the form of tables is
called Table. Meanwhile, the illustrated information in the form of graphs or
charts is called graph or chart.

KINDS OF ILLUSTRATED INFORMATION

A. Tables

A writer will present a table as his illustrated information. If s/he has a lot
of variables to be presented and the units in its variables are not the same value,
s/he will set the data in a logical sequence before writing into a table. Compared
to graphs (charts) that have only two axes (X and Y), a table can contain more
than two variables.

A table normally consists of five main components:
1. Title of the table
2. Head of its rows
3. Head of its columns
4. Information, and
5. Footnote of the table

The weekly averages in Fort William during the summer months.

Week Average Week Average
temperature temperature
1 9
2 9°C 10 20°C
3 7°C 11 16°C
4 11°C 12 20°C
5 13°C 13 22°C
6 13°C 14 19°C
7 14°C 15 17°C
8 19°C 16 10°C
17°C 12°C

137

B. Graphs or Charts
There are three types of graphs/charts: 1) Histogram (Bar Graph), 2) Pie

Chart, and 3) Line Chart.
1. Histogram (Bar Graph)

Histogram is used to compare results or horizontal format. The example
of vertical histogram is as follows:

Find the facts:
 read the title
 read the labels
 look at the graph
 look at the scale.

Use the facts to answer questions like these:
Who didn’t use their phone? How can you tell?
How many calls did Val make?
How many calls were made altogether?
Which two people made the same number of calls?
138

2) Pie Chart

Pie charts are useful to compare different parts of a whole amount. They
are often used to present financial information. E.g. A company's expenditure
can be shown to be the sum of its parts including different expense categories
such as salaries, borrowing interest, taxation and general running costs (i.e. rent,
electricity, heating, etc.).

A pie chart is a circular chart in which the circle is divided into sectors.
Each sector visually represents an item in a data set to match the amount of the
item as a percentage or fraction of the total data set. The example of pie chart is
given below.

MAIN REASON FOR MIGRATION TO/FROM THE UK - 2007

IMMIGRATION EMIGRATION

12% 15% 22%

29%

30% 26% 13%

6% 11% 18% 4%
14%

Formal study Accompany join Looking for work

Definite job No reason stated Other

SOURCE : ONS

The above pie chart tells us about the percentage of immigration or
emigration to the United Kingdom in 2007. Here, we can see the writer divides
both the immigration and emigration into six categories, namely for formal study,
definite job, accompany/join, no reason stated, looking for work, and other. Each
category has its percentage value to the total number of immigration and
emigration.

3). Line Graph (Chart)

Line graph is generally used when the writer intends to present the
relationship between two variables, namely a dependent variable at Y
axis and an independent variable at X axis. Sample of a line graph is
presented below:

139

Computer Sales of Brands in 1997

Number of Units Sold 100
80
60 2ndQtr 3rdQtr 4thQtr

40
20

0
1st Qtr

Source: Computer Brand Industry, 1997

So, based on the figures, we can describe that:

1. The title of the table or graph is Computer Sales of Brands in
1997.

2. The source is Computer Brand Industry, 1997.
3. The variable in Axis Y is the number of units sold.

The variable in Axis X is the period of Sale (quarter)
4. There are three types of computer brands: A, B and C.

Explaining and Comparing a Chart

Read the following presentation by a Manager about the monthly sales of
food and drink in a cinema. Focus on how the Manager explains and compares
the data contained in the below chart. Think about the meaning of the words
in BOLD and how they compare to the data/information in the chart and when
they should be used.

Monthly food & drink sales in Keighley Cinema in 2010

3500

3000

2500

Sales (in units) 2000 Popcorn
Ice Cream

Drinks

1500

1000

500
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Months

140

'The above chart shows the monthly food and drink sales in the Keighley
cinema during 2010. The chart shows unit sales. As you can see, there are
three lines on the chart. The sales of popcorn are represented by the green line.
The blue line represents drinks. The red line represents ice cream. The
chart demonstrates that drinks are by far the biggest type of food and drink sold
in the cinema throughout the year.

The chart also shows that there is a correlation between popcorn sales
and drinks. When popcorn sales rise, there is also a rise in the sales of drinks.
This trend supports the theory that people drink more when they eat food that
contains a lot of salt. During the summer, sales of drinks and popcorn showed a
steady increase, by contrast, unit sales of ice cream actually fell slightly. In fact,
sales of ice cream fell from April to July, falling from 1025 units to 821 units per
month respectively. These results would seem to contradict the idea that
people consume more ice cream during summer, because as we can see from
the results there is no link.

Lastly, the results indicate that during the Christmas period of December
to January, people are willing to spend more money. Sales of all three types of
products went up during the period. But this could be due to a general increase in
attendance at that time of year.

The following are the expressions used to present a graph/table:

Introduction Topic Circumstances

This graph shows ... the results of our products ... over 10 years.
The diagram outlines ... rates of economic growth ... between 1990 and 1996.
This table lists ... the top ten agencies ... in the industrial world.
This pie chart represents the company's turnover ... for this year in our sector.
This line chart depicts ... the changes in sales ... over the past year.
This chart breaks down (ventile) ... the sales of each salesman ... during the past ten weeks.

WORDS GENERALLY USED TO READ GRAPHS OR TABLES

The four basic trends (tendencies) are :
 upward movement : 
 downward movement : 
 no movement : 
 change in direction :  or 

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Indicating upward movement: 

Verbs Nouns

Transitive Intransitive (an) increase
(a) raise (US), a rise (UK)
(to) increase (to) increase (an) upswing
(to) raise (to) rise (rose, risen) (a) growth
(to) push/put/step up (to) go/be up (an) extension, expansion
(to) grow (a) progression
(to) extend, (to) expand (to) extend, (to) expand (a) boom
(to) progress (a) jump
(to) boom/soar/climb (a) peak
(to) jump, (to) skyrocket
(to) reach a peak, (to) peak Nouns
(to) reach an all-time high
(a) decrease
Indicating downward movement:  (a) cut, (a) reduction
(a) fall
Verbs (a) plunge
(a) drop
Transitive Intransitive (a) downswing
(a) decline
(to) decrease (to) decrease (a) collapse (dramatic fall)
(a) slump
(to) cut, (to) reduce
Nouns
(to) fall (off) (fall, fell, fallen)
stability
(to) plunge, to plummet
Nouns
(to) drop (off)
(a) levelling-off
(to) go down (a) change

(to) decline

(to) collapse

(to) slump, (to) go bust

(to) bottom out

Indicating no movement: 

Verbs

Transitive Intransitive

(to) keep ... stable (to) remain stable

(to) hold ... constant (to) stay constant

(to) stabilize (to) stabilize

Indicating a change of direction:  or  ...

Verbs

Transitive Intransitive

(to) level off (to) level off/out, to flatten out

(to) stop falling/rising

(to) stand at (to) remain steady

(to) stop falling and start rising

(to) stop rising and start falling

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