Barbara MacKinnon, Andrew Fiala - Ethics_ Theory and Contemporary Issues-Cengage Learning (2017)

PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES

RUIN IN THE COMMONS treated as commons. Further growth of population

The fundamental error of the sharing ethics is that it and growth in the per capita conversion of natural
leads to the tragedy of the commons. Under a sys- resources into pollutants require that the system of
tem of private property the man (or group of men) the commons be modified or abandoned in the dis-
who own property recognize their responsibility to posal of “externalities.”
care for it, for if they don’t they will eventually suf-
fer. A farmer, for instance, if he is intelligent, will “But it isn’t their fault! How can we blame the
allow no more cattle in a pasture than its carrying poor people who are caught in an emergency? Why
capacity justifies. If he overloads the pasture, weeds must we punish them?” The concepts of blame and
take over, erosion sets in, and the owner loses in the punishment are irrelevant. The question is, what are
long run. the operational consequences of establishing a world
food bank? If it is open to every country every time a
But if a pasture is run as a commons open to need develops, slovenly rulers will not be motivated
all, the right of each to use it is not matched by an to take Joseph’s advice. Why should they? Others
operational responsibility to take care of it. It is no will bail them out whenever they are in trouble.
use asking independent herdsmen in a commons to
act responsibly, for they dare not. The considerate Some countries will make deposits in the world
herdsman who refrains from overloading the com- food bank and others will withdraw from it: there
mons suffers more than a selfish one who says his will be almost no overlap. Calling such a depository-
needs are greater. (As Leo Durocher says, “Nice transfer unit a “bank” is stretching the metaphor
guys finish last.”) Christian-Marxian idealism is of bank beyond its elastic limits. The proposers,
counterproductive. That it sounds nice is no excuse. of course, never call attention to the metaphorical
nature of the word they use.

With distribution systems, as with individual moral- THE RATCHET EFFECT
ity, good intentions are no substitute for good
performance. An “international food bank” is really, then, not a
true bank but a disguised one-way transfer device
A social system is stable only if it is insensi- for moving wealth from rich countries to poor. In
tive to errors. To the Christian-Marxian idealist a the absence of such a bank, in a world inhabited by
selfish person is a sort of “error.” Prosperity in the individually responsible sovereign nations, the pop-
system of the commons cannot survive errors. If ulation of each nation would repeatedly go through
everyone would only restrain himself, all would be a cycle of the sort shown in Figure 1. P2 is greater
well; but it takes only one less than everyone to than P1, either in absolute numbers or because a
ruin a system of voluntary restraint. In a crowded deterioration of the food supply has removed the
world of less than perfect human beings-and we safety factor and produced a dangerously low ratio
will never know any other–mutual ruin is inevitable

in the commons. This is the

core of the tragedy of the P2 “overpopulation”: “emergency”
commons. safety factor exhausted

One of the major tasks

of education today is to cre-

ate such an awareness of

the dangers of the commons

that people will be able to P1 at “carrying capacity”:
recognize its many varieties, with safety factor

however disguised. There is

pollution of the air and water Fig. 1. The population cycle of a nation that has no effective, conscious population
because these media are control, and which receives no aid from the outside. P2 is greater than P1.

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Chapter ❮❮ Global Justice and Globalization

of resources to population. P2 may be said to repre- equilibrate at some set point below the carrying
sent a state of overpopulation, which becomes obvi- capacity, thus avoiding the pains normally caused
ous upon the appearance of an “accident,” e.g., a by periodic and unavoidable disasters. For this
crop failure. If the “emergency” is not met by out- happy state to be achieved it is necessary that those
side help, the population drops back to the “normal” in power be able to contemplate with equanimity the
level—the “carrying capacity” of the environment— “waste” of surplus food in times of bountiful har-
or even below. In the absence of population control vests. It is essential that those in power resist the
by a sovereign, sooner or later the population grows temptation to convert extra food into extra babies.
to P2 again and the cycle repeats. The long-term On the public relations level it is necessary that the
population curve (Hardin 1966) is an irregularly phrase “surplus food” be replaced by “safety factor.”
fluctuating one, equilibrating more or less about the
carrying capacity. But wise sovereigns seem not to exist in the poor
world today. The most anguishing problems are cre-
A demographic cycle of this sort obviously ated by poor countries that are governed by rulers
involves great suffering in the restrictive phase, but insufficiently wise and powerful. If such countries
such a cycle is normal to any independent country can draw on a world food bank in times of “emer-
with inadequate population control. The third cen- gency,” the population cycle of Figure 1 will be
tury theologian Tertullian (Hardin 1969a) expressed replaced by the population escalator of Figure 2. The
what must have been the recognition of many wise input of food from a food bank acts as the pawl of a
men when he wrote: “The scourges of pestilence, ratchet, preventing the population from retracing its
famine, wars, and earthquakes have come to be steps to a lower level. Reproduction pushes the pop-
regarded as a blessing to overcrowded nations, since ulation upward, inputs from the world bank prevent
they serve to prune away the luxuriant growth of its moving downward. Population size escalates,
the human race.” as does the absolute magnitude of “accidents” and
“emergencies.” The process is brought to an end only
Only under a strong and farsighted sovereign— by the total collapse of the whole system, producing
which theoretically could be the people them- a catastrophe of scarcely imaginable proportions.
selves, democratically organized—can a population

(and so on ...)

P4 “emergency”

P3 “emergency” (input from
world food bank)

P2 “emergency” (input from
world food bank)

P1 (input from
world food bank)

Fig. 2. The population escalator. Note that input from a world food bank acts like the pawl of a
ratchet, preventing the normal population cycle shown in Figure 1 from being completed. Pn+1 is
greater than Pn, and the absolute magnitude of the “emergencies” escalates. Ultimately the entire
system crashes. The crash is not shown, and few can imagine it.

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PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES

Such are the implications of the well-meant shar- decent working conditions. Chavez understands the
ing of food in a world of irresponsible reproduction. ethics of a lifeboat.

World food banks move food to the people, thus The interests of the employers of cheap labor are
facilitating the exhaustion of the environment of the well served by the silence of the intelligentsia of the
poor. By contrast, unrestricted immigration moves country. WASPS—White Anglo-Saxon Protestants—
people to the food, thus speeding up the destruction are particularly reluctant to call for a closing of the
of the environment in rich countries. Why poor peo- doors to immigration for fear of being called eth-
ple should want to make this transfer is no mystery: nocentric bigots. It was, therefore, an occasion of
but why should rich hosts encourage it? This trans- pure delight for this particular WASP to be present
fer, like the reverse one, is supported by both selfish at a meeting when the points he would like to have
interests and humanitarian impulses. made were made better by a non-WASP speaking
to other non-WASPS. It was in Hawaii, and most of
The principal selfish interest in unimpeded immi- the people in the room were second-level Hawai-
gration is easy to identify: it is the interest of the ian officials of Japanese ancestry. All Hawaiians
employers of cheap labor, particularly that needed are keenly aware of the limits of their environment,
for degrading jobs. We have been deceived about and the speaker had asked how it might be practi-
the forces of history by the lines of Emma Lazarus cally and constitutionally possible to close the doors
inscribed on the Statue of Liberty: to more immigrants to the islands. (To Hawaiians,
immigrants from the other 49 states are as much of
Give me your tired, your poor a threat as those from other nations. There is only
so much room in the islands, and the islanders know
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, it. Sophistical arguments that imply otherwise do not
impress them.)
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore,
Yet the Japanese-Americans of Hawaii have
Send these, the homeless, tempesttossed, to me: active ties with the land of their origin. This point
was raised by a Japanese-American member of
I lift my lamp beside the golden door. the audience who asked the Japanese-American
speaker: “But how can we shut the doors now? We
The image is one of an infinitely generous earth- have many friends and relations in Japan that we’d
mother, passively opening her arms to hordes of like to bring to Hawaii some day so that they can
immigrants who come here on their own initiative. enjoy this beautiful land.
Such an image may have been adequate for the
early days of colonization, but by the time these The speaker smiled sympathetically and
lines were written (1886) the force for immigration responded slowly: “Yes, but we have children now
was largely manufactured inside our own borders by and someday we’ll have grandchildren. We can
factory and mine owners who sought cheap labor bring more people here from Japan only by giving
not to be found among laborers already here. One away some of the land that we hope to pass on to
group of foreigners after another was thus enticed our grandchildren some day. What right do we have
into the United States to work at wretched jobs for to do that?”
wretched wages.
To be generous with one’s own possessions is
At present, it is largely the Mexicans who are one thing; to be generous with posterity’s is quite
being so exploited. It is particularly to the advantage another. This, I think, is the point that must be got-
of certain employers that there be many illegal immi- ten across to those who would, from a commendable
grants. Illegal immigrant workers dare not complain love of distributive justice, institute a ruinous sys-
about their working conditions for fear of being repa- tem of the commons, either in the form of a world
triated. Their presence reduces the bargaining power food bank or that of unrestricted immigration. Since
of all Mexican-American laborers. Cesar Chavez has
repeatedly pleaded with congressional committees
to close the doors to more Mexicans so that those
here can negotiate effectively for higher wages and

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Chapter ❮❮ Global Justice and Globalization

every speaker is a member of some ethnic group it is Clearly, the concept of pure justice produces an
always possible to charge him with ethnocentrism. infinite regress. The law long ago invented statutes
But even after purging an argument of ethnocen- of limitations to justify the rejection of pure justice,
trism the rejection of the commons is still valid and in the interest of preventing massive disorder. The
necessary if we are to save at least some parts of law zealously defends property rights—but only
the world from environmental ruin. Is it not desir- recent property rights. It is as though the physical
able that at least some of the grandchildren of people principle of exponential decay applies to property
now living should have a decent place in which to rights. Drawing a line in time may be unjust, but
live? any other action is practically worse.

THE ASYMMETRY OF DOOR SHUTTING We are all the descendants of thieves, and the
world’s resources are inequitably distributed, but we
We must now answer this telling point: “How can must begin the journey to tomorrow from the point
you justify slamming the door once you’re inside? where we are today. We cannot remake the past. We
You say that immigrants should be kept out. But cannot, without violent disorder and suffering, give
aren’t we all immigrants, or the descendants of land and resources back to the “original” owners—
immigrants? Since we refuse to leave, must we who are dead anyway.
not, as a matter of justice and symmetry, admit all
others?” We cannot safely divide the wealth equitably
among all present peoples, so long as people repro-
It is literally true that we Americans of non- duce at different rates, because to do so would
Indian ancestry are the descendants of thieves. guarantee that our grandchildren—everyone’s
Should we not, then, “give back” the land to the grandchildren—would have only a ruined world to
Indians; that is, give it to the now-living Americans inhabit.
of Indian ancestry? As an exercise in pure logic I see
no way to reject this proposal. Yet I am unwilling MUST EXCLUSION BE ABSOLUTE?
to live by it; and I know no one who is. Our reluc-
tance to embrace pure justice may spring from pure To show the logical structure of the immigration
selfishness. On the other hand, it may arise from an problem I have ignored many factors that would
unspoken recognition of consequences that have not enter into real decisions made in a real world. No
yet been clearly spelled out. matter how convincing the logic may be it is prob-
able that we would want, from time to time, to admit
Suppose, becoming intoxicated with pure justice, a few people from the outside to our lifeboat. Politi-
we “Anglos” should decide to turn our land over cal refugees in particular are likely to cause us to
to the Indians. Since all our other wealth has also make exceptions: We remember the Jewish refugees
been derived from the land, we would have to give from Germany after 1933, and the Hungarian refu-
that to the Indians, too. Then what would we non- gees after 1956. Moreover, the interests of national
Indians do? Where would we go? There is no open defense, broadly conceived, could justify admitting
land in the world on which men without capital can many men and women of unusual talents, whether
make their living (and not much unoccupied land on refugees or not. (This raises the quality issue, which
which men with capital can either). Where would is not the subject of this essay.)
209 million putatively justice-loving, non-Indian,
Americans go? Most of them—in the persons of their Such exceptions threaten to create runaway pop-
ancestors—came from Europe, but they wouldn’t be ulation growth inside the lifeboat, i.e., the receiving
welcomed back there. Anyway, Europeans have no country. However, the threat can be neutralized by
better title to their land than we to ours. They also a population policy that includes immigration. An
would have to give up their homes. (But to whom? effective policy is one of flexible control.
And where would they go?)
Suppose, for example, that the nation has
achieved a stable condition of ZPG, which (say)

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PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES

permits 1.5 million births yearly. We must suppose dignity if we are to be guided by Spaceship eth-
that an acceptable system of allocating birth-rights ics. Without a world government that is sovereign
to potential parents is in effect. Now suppose that in reproductive matters mankind lives, in fact, on
an inhumane regime in some other part of the world a number of sovereign lifeboats. For the foresee-
creates a horde of refugees, and that there is a wide- able future survival demands that we govern our
spread desire to admit some to our country. At the actions by the ethics of a lifeboat. Posterity will be
same time, we do not want to sabotage our popula- ill served if we do not.
tion control system. Clearly, the rational path to pur-
sue is the following. If we decide to admit 100,000 REFERENCES
refugees this year we should compensate for this by
reducing the allocation of birth-rights in the follow- Anonymous. 1974. Wall Street Journal 19 Feb.
ing year by a similar amount, that is downward to Borlaug, N . 1973. Civilization’s future: a call for inter-
a total of 1.4 million. In that way we could achieve
both humanitarian and population control goals. national granaries. Bull. At. Sci. 29: 7–15.
(And the refugees would have to accept the popula- Boulding, K. 1966. The economics of the coming
tion controls of the society that admits them. It is
not inconceivable that they might be given propor- Spaceship earth. In H. Jarrett, ed. Environmental
tionately fewer rights than the native population.) Quality in a Growing Economy. Johns Hopkins
Press, Baltimore.
In a democracy, the admission of immigrants Buchanan, W. 1973. Immigration statistics.
should properly be voted on. But by whom? It is Equilibrium 1(3): 16–19.
not obvious. The usual rule of a democracy is votes Davis, K. 1963. Population. Sci. Amer. 209(3): 62–71.
for all. But it can be questioned whether a univer- Farvar, M. T., and J. P. Milton. 1972. The Careless
sal franchise is the most just one in a case of this Technology. Natural History Press, Garden City, N.Y.
sort. Whatever benefits there are in the admission Gregg, A. 1955. A medical aspect of the population
of immigrants presumably accrue to everyone. But problem. Science 121: 681–682.
the costs would be seen as falling most heavily Hardin, G. 1966. Chap. 9 in Biology: Its Principles and
on potential parents, some of whom would have Implications, 2nd ed. Freeman, San Francisco.
to postpone or forego having their (next) child –––. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162:
because of the influx of immigrants. The double 1243–1248.
question Who benefits? Who pays?suggests that a –––. 1969a Page 18 in Population, Evolution, and Birth
restriction of the usual democratic franchise would Control, 2nd ed. Freeman, San Francisco.
be appropriate and just in this case. Would our par- –––.1969b. The economics of wilderness. Nat. Hist.
ticular quasi-democratic form of government be 78(6): 20–27.
flexible enough to institute such a novelty? If not, –––. 1972a. Pages 81–82 in Exploring New Ethics
the majority might, out of humanitarian motives, for Survival:The Voyage of the Spaceship Beagle.
impose an unacceptable burden (the foregoing of Viking, N.Y.
parenthood) on a minority, thus producing political –––. 1972b. Preserving quality on Spaceship Earth. In
instability. J. B. Trefethen, ed. Transactions of the Thirty-
Seventh North American Wildlife and Natural
Plainly many new problems will arise when Resources Conference. Wildlife Management
we consciously face the immigration question and Institute, Washington, D.C.
seek rational answers. No workable answers can –––. 1973. Chap. 23 in Stalking the Wild Taboo.
be found if we ignore population problems. And—if Kaufmann, Los Altos, Cal.
the argument of this essay is correct—so long as Harris, M. 1972. How green the revolution. Nat. Hist.
there is no true world government to control repro- 81(3): 28–30.
duction everywhere it is impossible to survive in Langer, S. K. 1942. Philosophy in a New Key. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

Chapter ❮❮ Global Justice and Globalization

Lansner, K. 1974. Should foreign aid begin at home? Paddock, W., and E. Paddock. 1973. We Don’t Know
Newsweek, 11 Feb., p. 32. How. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Marx, K. 1875. Critique of the Gotha program. Page 388 Paddock, W., and P. Paddock. 1967. Famine-1975!
in R. C. Tucker, ed. The Marx-Engels Reader.Norton, Little, Brown, Boston.
N.Y., 1972.
Wilkes, H. G. 1972. The green revolution. Environment
Ophuls, W. 1974. The scarcity society. Harpers 14(8): 32–39.
248(1487): 47–52.

Paddock, W. C. 1970. How green is the green revolu-
tion? BioScience 20: 897–902.

REVIEW EXERCISES

1. What are some of the current contrasting conditions 5. Why is cultural relativism a concern when thinking
between rich and poor nations described in the text? about global justice?

2. Explain how the history of colonialism might be con- 6. Why might we think that we have obligations to
nected to current inequalities. Explain a criticism of be concerned with the suffering of those in distant
this idea. lands? Explain one criticism of this idea.

3. What self-interested reasons can be given for 7. Contrast Singer’s and Hardin’s views on how we
doing something to remedy the situation of poor ought to deal with famine.
countries?
8. Summarize different meanings of globalization given
4. What is justice, and what role does it play in deter- in the text.
mining what ought to be done about global
poverty? 9. Describe some positive and some negative aspects
of globalization.

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PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES

DISCUSSION CASES

1. Ethical Consumption. Chris is an advocate of Sam points out all of globalization’s crass and com-
ethical consumption. He tries to buy only fair-trade mercialized aspects—the same McDonald’s, con-
products, and he is willing to pay more for an item sumer electronics, and pop culture icons all over
when he is certain that the item is produced with- the world—and the negative impact that Western
out exploitation. This means that he often pays 10 culture has on local and indigenous cultures. Jane
to 25 percent more for certain products. His father argues that Western personal and political free-
thinks this is a bad idea. He tells Chris, “You could doms ought to be made universal and that a more
buy cheaper stuff and with the money you save, you homogenous culture is a small price to pay for
could save for your own future and retirement. Heck, democracy and the liberation of women and minor-
you could even give that money to the poor.” Chris ity groups.
is not concerned with his retirement fund. But he is
concerned about alleviating poverty. He’s puzzled With whom do you agree, Sam or Jane? Can eco-
by his father’s response. nomic and political modernization be divorced from
Should Chris try to find the cheapest products cultural globalization?
and save money, which he would then donate to 4. Colonialism and Globalization. Robert is excited
charity? Or should he continue to seek out fair trade about the recent focus on global justice within insti-
items, which would leave him with less to donate to tutions such as the United Nations and the World
charity? What is the solution to this problem? Explain Bank. His family emigrated from Africa to the United
your thinking. States to escape the poverty and political instability
of his home country. He thinks these new initiatives
2. Which Poverty Matters? Madison is a successful will be helpful to those they left behind. But his
businessperson who has become convinced that brother, Daniel, is not convinced. Daniel complains,
she ought to give a substantial amount of her earn- “Nobody helps without asking for something. Most
ings to help those in extreme poverty in the devel- of those international organizations serve the inter-
oping world. Her brother, Thomas, a local college ests of the countries who caused our unhappiness
student, is not persuaded that such donations are a to begin with. The rich countries are always taking
good idea. “It just makes people ask for more hand- advantage of the poor. They enslaved and marginal-
outs later,” he says. “And besides,” he adds, “there are a ized lots of us and exploited our countries’ resources.
lot of poor people here in our city: homeless people Then they left us with a mess.” Robert disagrees. “I
living on the streets. And I’m not doing too well don’t know why you blame others for the poverty
myself. You ought to give me some of your charity back home. Anyway, I’m glad that the rich countries
so I can pay for college. I’m going to be swamped are finally helping. Our people need any help they
with student loan debt.” can get.” Daniel responds, “They owe us for what
How should Madison reply? Does she have an they did to us. But I still don’t trust them.”
obligation to help her brother pay for school, to help
the homeless in her city, or to help those in poverty What do you think? Do rich countries owe some-
in other countries? Should her proximity or relation- thing to poor countries? Do rich countries offer their
ship to these various people make a difference here? help without strings attached? Or is Daniel right to
Or is Thomas right that handouts don’t help? be cynical?

3. Global Culture. Sam and Jane have been argu- For more chapter resources and
ing about the effects of globalization as a form activities, go to MindTap.
of modernization or Westernization of the world.

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Glossary

A Advance directive a health care Animal welfare idea that animal
directive that stipulates in advance suffering matters and that we
Absolutism metaethical idea what sort of care a patient wants should not cause unnecessary
that there are eternal and or does not want in case of harm to animals (associated with
unchanging values and rules incapacity; see also living will and utilitarianism and Singer); see
(versus relativism). durable power of attorney. also animal rights.

Act utilitarianism utilitarian Aesthetics the study of beauty Anthropocentrism approach
theory that focuses on judging and taste. to environmental ethics (and
whether individual acts create animal welfare) that maintains
the greatest happiness for the Affirmative action social that human interests alone are
greatest number (compare: rule programs that take positive steps the proper focal point (versus
utilitarianism). to remedy past injustice and biocentrism and ecocentrism).
inequality (usually racial); for
Active euthanasia actively example: preferential treatment; Arguments from analogy
killing someone for the benefit criticized as reverse discrimination. arguments based upon a
of the one being killed (versus comparison between items;
passive euthanasia). Ahimsa term meaning relevant similarities among things
nonviolence; associated with are intended to incline us to accept
Actuality ontological South Asian traditions such as conclusions about these things
consideration focused on what a Hinduism and Buddhism. that are also relevantly similar.
thing is at the present moment
(versus what it has the potential Akrasia see weakness of will. Autonomy self-determination,
to become); often employed self-control, independence, and
in discussions of the ethics of Altruism behavior that is freedom of action.
abortion; see also ontological oriented toward the well-being of
status and potentiality. others (versus egoism); see also B
pro-social behavior.
Ad hominem a phrase meaning Begging the question a fallacious
“to the person”; ad hominem Animal rights idea that argument in which the conclusion is
arguments are (usually) fallacious individual animals have an assumed in the premises (also called
arguments that attack a person interest in their lives and a a circular argument).
rather than the person’s idea or corresponding right not to suffer
logical reasoning. or be killed (associated with Biocentrism approach to
Regan); see also animal welfare. environmental ethics that is

❮❮

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GLOSSARY

focused on the value of biotic autonomy and individualism equality, and the abolition of
systems and all life (versus (associated with Noddings). social classes; see also socialism
anthropocentrism); see also (versus capitalism).
ecocentrism. Categorical imperative Kantian
idea about the universal form of Communitarianism a theory
Bioconservativism idea that the moral law, which is not based of society that emphasizes
we should not be “playing God” on hypothetical or conditional communal belonging and is
with regard to biotechnologies, interests; Kant’s formulation: “act critical of the individualistic focus
sometimes based upon repugnance only according to that maxim, of liberalism and libertarianism.
toward new technologies whereby you can will that it
(associated with Kass). should also be a universal law” Consequentialism normative
(versus hypothetical imperative). theories that focus on the
Bioengineering projects consequences of actions;
aiming to develop mechanical Circular argument a fallacious examples include egoism,
supplements for biological argument that assumes what altruism, utilitarianism (versus
systems, which can be used for it seeks to prove (also called non-consequentialism).
therapy or enhancement. begging the question).
Contractarianism normative
Biotechnology interventions Cisgender someone who theory that holds that moral norms
and manipulations of biological identifies with the sexual/gender arise from a contract or agreement
systems and organisms through identity they were assigned at between rational parties (associated
the use of technological means birth or with traditional gender with Hobbes and Rawls); see also
including genetic engineering, roles (as opposed to transgender). reciprocal altruism.
cloning, the use of drugs,
surgeries, and so on. Civil disobedience breaking a Cosmopolitanism idea that there
law in a civil manner that retains are (or ought to be) universal
Biotic pyramid the interrelated fidelity to the system of justice norms that unite people across the
food chains that unite plants, grazing and accepts punishment as an act globe.
animals, prey animals, predators, of protest.
and human beings (associated Criminal justice justice that
with Leopold’s land ethic). Civil union a legally recognized is focused on punishment and
relationship between same- correction (versus social justice);
C sex partners, similar but not see also retributive justice,
identical to marriage (also called deterrence, restorative justice.
Capitalism a social and economic civil partnership or domestic
system based on private property partnership). D
and freedom to make profit; see also
laissez-faire capitalism (versus Collateral damage term used Decarceration the idea of
socialism and communism). in just war ethics to describe eliminating prisons or radically
unintended noncombatant harm reducing the role of incarceration
Cardinal virtues primary virtues; that is justified by application of in punishment.
the four cardinal virtues in the the principle of double effect; see
ancient Greek tradition are justice, also noncombatant immunity. Deep ecology extreme ecocentric
wisdom, moderation, and courage. idea in environmental ethics that
Communism a social and emphasizes human belonging to
Care ethics ethical theory economic system focused on nature and the intrinsic value of
that emphasizes nurturing communal ownership of the natural things (associated with
relationships, while downplaying means of production, radical Devall and Sessions).

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GLOSSARY

Deontological ethics normative based upon the authoritative pursue only our own self-interest
theory that morality ought to be decrees of God. (versus altruism).
focused on duties and adherence
to rules and imperatives Double effect the principle or Embryonic stem cells cells
(associated with Kant). doctrine of double effect is the removed from a developing
idea in deontological ethics that embryo, which can develop into
Descriptive claims propositions holds that if the intention behind multiple tissues; controversial
that state true or false claims an action is morally appropriate, because the embryo is destroyed
about facts in the world. unintended (but foreseen and to harvest them.
accidental) negative effects may
Descriptive egoism (defined be permissible. Emotivism metaethical idea
under egoism). that ethical propositions express
Durable power of attorney emotional states (associated with
Descriptive relativism used to appoint or empower Stevenson).
descriptive claim that values someone to make health care
differ depending upon culture and decisions for you in the case of Enhancement an intervention
perspective. incapacity; see also advance that goes beyond natural/
directive and living will. normal function and creates
Deterrence a focal point for superior performance, employed
consequentialist approaches E in discussions of biotechnology
to criminal justice, which is (versus therapy).
concerned with deterring criminals Ecocentrism approach to
from committing crime (versus environmental ethics that is Enlightenment period of
retributive justice and restorative focused on the value of the fertile development of Western
justice). ecosystem as a whole and not culture and philosophy, during
merely on its relation to human the seventeenth and eighteenth
Discrimination (in just war) beings (versus anthropocentrism); centuries.
principle of the just war theory see also biocentrism.
that stipulates that just warriors Environmental ethics field of
should target only combatants Ecofeminism a critical version ethical inquiry that is concerned
and protect noncombatants; see of environmental ethics that with the question of the value
also noncombatant immunity. emphasizes the way that of ecosystems, the natural
patriarchal systems have abused environment, and the distribution
Discrimination (as injustice) nature and a more productive of benefits and harms in relation
to treat someone unfairly and feminine connection with nature. to the environment.
unequally based upon racial,
ethnic, gender, or other identity Ecosystem a concept used in Environmental justice a
claims (not to be confused environmental ethics that refers to concern in environmental
with discrimination in just war the broad integrated, coordinated, ethics that is focused on the fair
theory). and organized whole, including distribution of harms and benefits
plants, animals, and human beings. to human beings in relation to
Distributive justice a theory environment impacts such as
of justice concerned with the fair Egoism normative or ethical pollution (related to distributive
distribution of benefits and harms egoism claims that we ought to justice and social justice).
within society (versus retributive pursue our own self-interest;
justice and procedural justice). descriptive egoism (also called Epicureanism theory of
psychological egoism) maintains Epicurus, which holds that
Divine command theory idea that as a matter of fact we can pleasure and happiness are
that ethical norms are ultimately primary (also called hedonism).

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GLOSSARY

Epistemology theory of Female genital mutilation Globalization process of
knowledge. removal of parts of the female increasing integration of global
genitals (includes a variety of markets and ideas, by way of
Ethical egoism see egoism. procedures); also called female growing international cooperation
circumcision. and international business.
Eudaimonia Greek term for
human flourishing and happiness Feminism intellectual Golden Mean idea associated
that is more than simply pleasure; commitment and a political with virtue ethics that virtue is
associated with Aristotle and movement that seeks justice for found in the middle between
virtue ethics. women and the end of sexism in excess and deficiency.
all forms.
Eugenics goal of producing Golden Rule idea that one ought
genetically superior offspring, Feminist ethics a critical to love one’s neighbor as oneself
either through genetic screening or theory of ethics that rejects male- or do unto others as we would
through more forceful interventions dominant ideas, can include have them do unto us.
including forced sterilization. “feminine” ethics emphasizing
community and caregiving Greatest happiness
Eurocentrism attitude or practice (associated with Noddings). principle utilitarian idea that
of interpreting the world from a we ought to work to achieve the
perspective that focuses primarily Fundamentalism idea that truth greatest happiness for the greatest
on European interests, values, and is grounded in religious texts, number of people; see also
history. traditions, and prophets. principle of utility.

Euthanasia literally good death; G H
also called mercy killing; forms
include active, passive, voluntary, Gay marriage marriage of Hate crime a crime that is
involuntary, and nonvoluntary. homosexual couples, also called accompanied by bias (racial,
same-sex marriage; see also civil religious, gender, sexuality)
Exoneration to be found union. against the individual who is the
innocent of a crime for which one victim of the crime.
was previously convicted and Genetic screening process
found guilty. of choosing embryos based Hedonism theory that holds that
on their genetic assets prior to pleasure is the highest good; as
Extraordinary measures in implantation; can include efforts a normative theory tells us we
discussion of end of life care to modify genes to eliminate ought to pursue pleasure; see also
and euthanasia, extraordinary disease or produce enhanced Epicureanism.
measures are medical capacities.
interventions that are not proven Hippocratic Oath medical ethics
to be reasonably beneficial—may Genetically modified pledge rooted in ancient Greek
include, for example, experimental organisms plants or animals that tradition; primary tenet is to do no
treatments or risky interventions have been genetically altered by harm.
(versus ordinary measures). scientists in an effort to improve
the stock and increase yield. Human rights rights that are
F basic to human beings, often
Global justice concern for described in universal terms that
Fair chase idea in hunting ethics distributive justice, environmental transcend national and cultural
that the animal should stand some justice, and social justice across differences; see also rights,
chance and the hunter requires the globe. natural rights.
some skill and good luck.

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GLOSSARY

Humanism orientation to Inherent worth/value value warfare, including proportionality,
human concerns and interests (as residing by nature in something discrimination, and prohibition on
opposed to theistic or religious and without reference to any other intrinsically evil means.
orientation); see also secular value or good; see also intrinsic
ethics. value. Just cause concern of jus ad
bellum, which holds that a war
Hume’s law the claim (derived Institutional racism see is justified only if there is a
from David Hume’s thinking) structural racism. just cause, including defending
that it is illegitimate to derive an the innocent or repelling
“ought” from an “is”; see also Instrumental value/goods aggression.
naturalistic fallacy. things that are useful or good as
tools or as means toward some Just war theory a theory about
Hypothetical imperative other good (versus intrinsic the justification of war that
Kantian idea of a conditional goods). maintains that war should be
rule that governs prudential limited by moral concerns; see
behaviors and skilled activities Intrinsic value/goods things also jus ad bellum and jus in
aimed at procuring or producing that have value in themselves bello.
some conditional good (versus and not merely as tools or means
categorical imperative). (versus instrumental goods); see K
also inherent worth.
I Kingdom of ends Kantian ideal
Intrinsically evil means concept of rational, moral society in which
Implicit bias unconscious in just war theory that rules out persons are respected as ends in
prejudices and attitudes, based some weapons and methods of themselves.
upon stereotypical ideas, which war as being evil in themselves
affect our judgments and (or mala in se). L
behaviors without conscious
awareness. Intuitionism metaethical idea Laissez-faire capitalism form
that ethical truths are objective of economic and social organization
Imperfect/meritorious duties and irreducible and can be known that emphasizes leaving the market
Kantian idea about duties of by faculty of intuition (associated alone to regulate itself.
virtue that are admirable and with Moore).
praiseworthy but not always Land ethic an ecocentric idea in
necessary (versus perfect/ Involuntary euthanasia environmental ethics that views
necessary duties). euthanasia that is done against an the land as a whole and claims
individual’s will (versus voluntary that good actions contribute
In vitro fertilization a process euthanasia and nonvoluntary to the well-being of the whole
by which egg and sperm are euthanasia). (associated with Leopold).
united outside of the uterus, the
consequent embryo is implanted J Law of peoples idea of
into the uterus—a way to create international law that transcends
pregnancy for infertile couples. Jus ad bellum just war concern national borders.
for ethical issues arising in
Individual relativism idea deciding to go to war, including Legitimate authority concern
that ethical claims are relative just cause, legitimate authority, of jus ad bellum that holds that
to an individual’s values and proportionality. a war is justified only if the
and perspectives; see also entity declaring war holds power
subjectivism. Jus in bello just war concern legitimately.
for ethical issues arising within

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GLOSSARY

Lex talionis an idea of Metaethics study of moral limit to legal intervention; see also
retributive justice that is focused concepts and the logic of ethical rights, human rights.
on equivalence or proportionality language.
between the crime and the Naturalistic fallacy argument
punishment, often described as Minimum wage legally that inappropriately derives
“eye for an eye” justice. mandated minimum hourly wage normative claims from descriptive
for labor (versus living wage). claims (associated with Moore);
LGBT acronym standing for see also Hume’s law.
“lesbian, gay, bisexual, and Modernization theory of
transgendered” (can be extended development that emphasizes Negative rights rights of
to include other sexual identities, increased secularization, spread noninterference and prevention of
sometimes abbreviated as of capitalism, and liberalization of harm, often called liberty rights
LGBT+. economics and politics. (as opposed to welfare rights and
positive rights).
Liberalism a political theory Moral agent a being who is able
that emphasizes a combination of to express ethical concern and Nepotism showing favoritism
concern for liberty and concern take responsibility for behaviors, toward one’s relatives.
for social justice and distributive attitudes, and actions (versus
justice (associated with Rawls) moral patient) Noncombatant immunity idea
(versus libertarianism and in just war theory that
socialism). Moral patient an object of noncombatants should not be
ethical concern, a recipient of deliberately targeted; see also
Libertarianism a political moral concern, or a being that is collateral damage.
theory about both the importance viewed as having value (versus
of liberty in human life and moral agent). Non-consequentialism
the limited role of government normative theories that do not
(associated with Rand) (versus Moral pluralism see value focus on consequences of actions
liberalism and socialism). pluralism. but instead on intentions, rules,
or principles; examples include
Liberty rights see negative Moral realism idea that there deontology, divine command,
rights. are ethical facts and that moral and natural law (versus
judgments can be said to be true consequentialism).
Living wage a minimum wage or false; see also objectivism.
standard indexed to the cost of Nonvoluntary euthanasia
living (versus minimum wage). N euthanasia that is done when
the patient is incapacitated and
Living will a form of advance Natural law a theory of law unable to express her wishes or
health care directive; see also that is grounded in claims about give consent (versus voluntary
advance directive and durable nature; natural law ethics is a euthanasia and involuntary
power of attorney. normative theory that holds that euthanasia).
reason can discover objective
M ethical norms by examining Normative ethics study of
natural human functions prescriptive accounts of how we
Metaethical relativism (associated with Aquinas). ought to behave.
metaethical claim that there are
no objective or nonrelative values Natural rights rights or Normative judgments
that could mediate disputes about entitlements that we have by evaluative or prescriptive claims
ethics. nature, which are not created by about what is good, evil, just, and
positive laws and which create a the like.

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GLOSSARY

O Palliative care health care that euthanasia; doctors prescribe
is aimed at pain management and lethal medication but patients take
Objectivism metaethical dealing with suffering. the medication, killing themselves.
idea that ethical propositions
refer to objective facts (versus Palliative sedation sedation Positive rights rights of
subjectivism); see also moral employed to provide pain entitlement to basic subsistence
realism. management at the end of life and other means of living
(related to terminal sedation). sometimes called welfare rights
Ontological status related to (as opposed to liberty rights and
a theory of being (ontology); Paradox of hedonism problem negative rights).
questions about the moral status for hedonism: when pursuing
of things (fetuses, ecosystems, pleasure directly, we fail to obtain Post-structuralism a
etc.) depend upon deciding what it; but pleasure occurs when we philosophical movement of
sorts of beings these things do not directly pursue it. the late twentieth century that
are; see also actuality and emphasizes the social construction
potentiality. Paradox of toleration problem of categories of thought.
of whether one should tolerate
Ontology theory of being or those who are intolerant or who Potentiality ontological
beings; an account of what exists reject the idea of toleration. consideration focused on what a
or about the sort of being a thing has the potential to become;
thing is. Passive euthanasia allowing often employed in discussions of
someone to die (“letting die”) the ethics of abortion; see also
Ordinary measures in for the benefit of the one who is ontological status and actuality.
discussions of end of life care and dying (versus active euthanasia).
euthanasia, ordinary measures Precautionary principle an idea
are those medical interventions Perfect/necessary duties used in environmental ethics and
that are proven to be reasonably Kantian idea about duties of in thinking about biotechnology
beneficial in most cases (vs. justice that we always ought to do that emphasizes avoiding risk
extraordinary measures). or that we always ought to avoid when considering innovations.
(versus imperfect/meritorious
Original position idea used in duties). Preferential treatment a form
John Rawls’s theory of justice that of affirmative action that intends
asks us to imagine ourselves as Persistent vegetative state a to give preference to members
original or founding parties to the condition of permanent brain of groups who were previously
social contract; see also veil of damage, characterized by lack unjustly discriminated against; see
ignorance. of awareness and loss of higher affirmative action.
brain functions; patient remains
Original sin Christian idea that alive but has lost cognitive Premises the reasons given in an
human beings inherit a tendency function; see also whole brain argument that provide support for
to do evil from the original sin of death. the argument’s conclusion.
Adam and Eve.
Perspectivism relativist idea that Prima facie term meaning “on
P there are only perspectives and the face of it” or “at first glance.”
interpretations, which cannot be
Pacifism commitment to reduced to a fundamental fact of Prima facie duties pluralist idea
nonviolence and opposition to the world. that there are several duties, each
war (associated with Gandhi and of which is valuable but which
King). Physician-assisted can end up in conflict (associated
suicide closely related to with Ross).

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GLOSSARY

Principle of equality idea that Q and organs using stem cells—both
we should treat equal things in embryonic stem cells and other
equal ways and that we ought to Queer theory a post-structuralist forms of stem cells.
treat different things in unequal approach to thinking about gender
ways. and sexuality that maintains that Relativism a variety of claims
sex and gender roles are socially that deny the objectivity of
Principle of utility utilitarian constructed (associated with Butler). values including: descriptive
idea that what matters is the relativism, individual relativism
pleasure produced by an action, Quickening the point in (or subjectivism), metaethical
especially the pleasure produced pregnancy at which the mother relativism, and social or cultural
for the greatest number of people; is able to detect movement of the relativism.
see also greatest happiness fetus; sometimes viewed as the
principle. time when the fetus attains moral Relativism, social or
status. cultural idea that ethical claims
Prisoner’s dilemma problem for are relative to a social or cultural
rational self-interest and social R matrix.
contract: self-interested parties
who do not trust one another will Racial profiling law Religious pluralism idea that
be unable to cooperate and thus enforcement technique that targets diverse religions provide multiple
will end up with less than optimal individuals based upon suspicion paths toward a common truth
outcomes. resulting from the individual’s (associated with Gandhi).
racial or ethnic identity.
Problem of evil argument Reproductive cloning a
against the existence of God that Racialism idea that there are firm cloning procedure that aims to
claims that a good God would biological distinctions between develop an individual organism
not permit evil but since evil human beings based on racial as a substitute for ordinary
exists, God must not exist (versus categories (critiqued by Appiah). reproduction (versus therapeutic
theodicy). cloning).
Racism unjust use of racial
Procedural justice a theory of or ethnic categories to classify Restorative justice an approach
justice focused on the fairness of individuals and distribute social to criminal justice that seeks to
the procedures used to distribute benefits and harms. make criminals take responsibility
benefits and harms (versus and make amends, while restoring
distributive justice). Realism view on ethics of war the community that they have
that maintains that limits on broken (versus retributive justice
Proportionality concern of just warfare are merely pragmatic or and deterrence).
war theory that maintains that war prudential and that the goal is
should be a proportional last resort strength and victory. Retributive justice a theory
and that limited and proportional of criminal justice that focuses
means should be employed during Reciprocal altruism idea that on giving criminals what they
the course of war. altruistic behavior is traded deserve and forcing them to pay
with others in a mutually back what they owe to victims
Pro-social behavior behaviors beneficial exchange; see also or to society (versus restorative
that intend to help others (versus contractarianism. justice and deterrence); see also
antisocial behavior). lex talionis.
Regenerative medicine an
Psychological egoism (defined approach to medical therapy that Reverse discrimination an idea
under egoism). aims to regrow damaged tissues used to criticize affirmative action

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GLOSSARY

that claims that actions aiming to Sexting sending and receiving who maintain that human beings
help those who were previously sexually explicit messages via cell are superior to nonhuman animals
discriminated against result in phones. (associated with Singer).
discrimination against those who
were the beneficiaries of past Sex-selective abortion abortion Stem cell research a promising
discrimination. performed for the purpose of line of research that could help
selecting the gender of the baby. to regenerate damaged tissues;
Rights basic entitlements that controversial when it employs
ordinarily cannot be taken away Skepticism questioning and human embryonic stem cells.
or overridden; can be positive doubting attitude.
entitlements (positive rights) or Stoicism theory of ancient Stoic
negative protections (negative Social contract theory idea philosophers, which holds that
rights) (associated with Locke); that social norms and political obedience to natural law and duty
see also natural rights and agreement are derived from a is essential (despite pain).
human rights. mutually beneficial contract to
which the parties would consent Straw man argument fallacious
Rule utilitarianism utilitarian (associated with Hobbes, Locke, argument that describes an
theory that focuses on postulating and Rawls). opponent’s position in such a way
general rules that will tend to as to easily dismiss it.
produce the greatest happiness for Social Darwinism idea of
the greatest number (versus act applying Darwinian evolution to Structural racism idea that
utilitarianism). society as a way of improving the social structures are constituted in
genetic stock of humanity (widely ways that create disparate racial
S repudiated as immoral). outcomes (also called institutional
racism).
Secular ethics approach Social justice an approach to
to ethics that locates ethical justice that is concerned with Subjectivism metaethical idea
norms in nonreligious principles the fair distribution of goods in that ethical propositions refer to
acceptable to people from a society, often associated with subjective dispositions or values
variety of religions (versus divine natural law theories (versus (versus objectivism); see also
command theory); see also criminal justice). individual relativism, descriptive
humanism. relativism, metaethical
Socialism a social and economic relativism.
Secularization movement away system focused on developing
from religious culture and toward shared social assets and a social Supererogatory a term used to
a nonreligious public sphere; see safety net; see also communism describe actions that go above and
also modernization. (versus capitalism). beyond the call of duty.

Sentience the ability to feel, Sociobiology a field of study T
perceive, and be conscious of that applies evolutionary
the world, used in discussions of and comparative biology to Teleological adjective used
animal welfare and abortion in understanding social phenomena, to describe ideas and theories
considering the moral status of including ethical behaviors. that are focused on goals,
animals and fetuses. purposes, or outcomes (related to
Sound argument a valid consequentialism).
Sex trafficking trading sex for argument with true premises.
money; also called prostitution. Terminal sedation use of
Speciesism a pejorative term sedatives in palliative care that
used to describe anthropocentrists,

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GLOSSARY

aims to reduce suffering at the end Transgender persons who do contract that asks us to ignore
of life but may also contribute to not feel comfortable with or who concrete facts about our own
death and be considered as part of do not identify with the traditional situation as we imagine the ideal
euthanasia. sex/gender roles assigned to them social contract.
(see cisgender).
Theodicy theoretical explanation Viability the point at which
of why a good God would permit Transhumanism a movement a fetus might live outside of
evil; response to the problem of aiming to improve human the womb if delivered early;
evil. abilities, extend human life span, sometimes used as a criteria for
and increase cognitive capacity; determining the permissibility (or
Therapeutic cloning a cloning sometimes referred to as post- not) of abortion.
procedure that is used to grow humanism (associated with
stem cells or tissues that could Bostrom). Virtue ethics normative theory
be used for organ donation or that maintains that the focus of
regenerative medicine (versus U morality is habits, dispositions,
reproductive cloning). and character traits (associated
Utilitarianism normative with Aristotle).
Therapy an intervention theory that we ought to concern
employed to return something ourselves with the greatest Voluntary euthanasia
to natural/normal function, happiness for the greatest number euthanasia that is done with the
employed in discussions of people (associated with consent of the one being killed
of biotechnology (versus Bentham and Mill). or dying (versus involuntary
enhancement). euthanasia and nonvoluntary
V euthanasia).
Toleration attitude of
forbearance or permissiveness Valid argument an argument in W
for attitudes or behaviors that which the conclusion necessarily
are disapproved; an open and follows from the premises. Weakness of will problem in
nonjudgmental attitude. moral psychology: we sometimes
Value pluralism the metaethical will things that we know are not
Totipotent term describing the idea that there is more than one in our own self-interest or are
ability of embryonic stem cells to objective value (associated with unable to do things we know are
develop into any kind of tissue; Ross); see also prima facie duties. good (also called akrasia).
see also stem cell research.
Vegetarianism commitment to Welfare rights see positive
Tragedy of the commons avoiding eating meat including rights.
worry about degradation of veganism, which avoids
common resources when no consuming any animal product Whole brain death legal
one owns them, associated with including eggs, milk, and leather. criteria for death focused not on
concerns for environmental respiration and heartbeat but on
degradation (associated with Veil of ignorance idea used in the presence of brain activity; see
Hardin). John Rawls’s version of the social also persistent vegetative state.

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Index

Abortion, 166, 172–173, 210, Warren, M., on, 247, defining, 325
249n, 268, 376. See also 249, 272n equality principle and,
Prochoice abortion advocacy
Abortion Counseling (Needle and 327–328
brain development and, 243 Walker), 268 forms of, 321, 325–326
conception and, 243 goals, 326
consent and, 238 The Abortion Myth (Cannold), justice and, 316, 328–329, 337
fetus status arguments, 265–266 nonconsequentialism and,

242–249 Absolute morals, 46, 52, 64 328–329
Hursthouse on, 248, 265 Absolute values, 46, 52, 64 preferential treatment and, 319,
law, 237–240 Absolutism, 51, 56, 123
MacKinnon on, 248 Ackerman, Peter, 549, 550 325–329
Marquis on, 246, 249, Active euthanasia, 199, quotas, 326
Affordable Care Act, 349–350
252–260 206–207 Age discrimination, 315
methods, 235–237 passive versus, 216–218, “Ageless Bodies, Happy Souls”
opponents, 232–233
population control and, 236 224–228 (Kass), 515–524
potentiality and, 246–247 ADA. See Americans with Ahimsa, 24, 533, 551
quickening and, 234, Air pollution, 418
Disabilities Act Akrasia, 72
237, 244 Adarand v. Pena, 321 Alexander, Michelle, 400–401
rights-based arguments, Advance directives, 200, 214, Alex-Assensoh, Yvette M., 336
All Men are Brothers (Gandhi),
241–242 220n
sex-selective, 236–237 durable power of attorney, 39–42
Thomson on, 241–242, Almaleki, Noor, 173
208–209 Altruism
248–249, 251–252, living will, 208–209
264–265, 270–271 ordinary and extraordinary defined, 6, 68
Tooley on, 246–247 egoism conflicting with, 69
trimester formula, 238 measures, 212–213 Pinker on, 89–92
utilitarianism and, 240–241 palliative sedation, 211–212 Rand on, 70–71, 71f, 370
value and, 247–248, physician-assisted suicide, 199, reciprocal, 71, 73, 89
270–272 social contract and, 68, 71,
viability and, 244–245 206, 209–211, 216t
Affective response, 18–19 89–93
Affirmative action

compensatory justice, 328–329
consequentialism and, 326–328

❮❮

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INDEX

American Medical Association Regan on, 474, 486 ethical reasoning and, 9–11
(AMA) rights, 472–474, 486 on euthanasia, 222–224
sentience of, 469–472 moral, on global poverty,
on euthanasia, 225, 227, 228 Singer on, 461, 471, 474,
on physician-assisted 563–568
477–485 punishment, 377, 378–379,
suicide, 210 species, 471–472, 481, 487
American Nurses Steinbock on, 474 379–381
value of, 467–468, 469, 486 Aristotle, 22, 98, 142, 143,
Association, 212 welfare, 461, 463–464,
American Society for the 163, 463
469–472 on deficiency and excess, 158
Prevention of Cruelty to Animal Welfare Act (AWA), on friendship, 286
Animals (ASPCA), 464 on function of man, 164–165
American Sociological 463–464 on good, 158–159, 164
Association, 292 Anthropocentrism, 6 on happiness, 159, 164
Americans with Disabilities Act on homosexuality, 298,
(ADA), 315, 321 animals and, 420, 423, 450,
Amnesty International, 386–387, 460, 469 299, 300
388, 422 on human nature, 148, 157,
Analogy, arguments from, 11–12 environment and,
Analytical ethics, 16 420–422, 436 158–160
Anarchy, State, and Utopia on universe, 145
(Nozick), 364 Anti-foundationalism, 52 on virtues, 157–160, 162,
Anderson, Warren, 422 Antiterrorism and Effective Death
Animal experimentation, 465 164–169
opposition to, 463–464 Penalty Act, 414n on women, 161
Singer on, 482–485 Appiah, Kwame Anthony Armstrong, Lance, 492
Animal Legal Defense Fund, 464 ASPCA. See American Society for
Animal Liberation (Singer), 471, on cognitive incapacity, 334
477–485 on race feeling, 312, 315, 334 the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals on racialism, 312, 329, 334 Animals
anthropocentrism and, 420, on racism, 329, 334 Assensoh, Kwandwo, 342n
423, 450, 460, 469 Applicative Justice: A Pragmatic Atheism, 25, 32
Bentham on, 480, 481 Athletic enhancement, 492–493,
cloning, 494, 495–496, 503 Theory for Correcting 501–502
current issues, 460–468 Injustice (Zack), 335 Atkins v. Virginia, 389
Descartes on, 469–470 A priori principle, 129, 132 Augustine (Saint), 29, 45,
endangered, 457–458, Aquinas, Thomas, 142f, 148n, 145, 237
466–468 189, 237, 565 just war theory and, 534
equal consideration of, 469– just war theory, 534 Aurelius, Marcus, 116, 551
472, 474, 478–485 on natural law, 141–145, Authority
ethics approaches, 149–152 death penalty, 409–410
468–474, 472t on reason, 142 just war theory and
hunting, 458–459 on sexuality, 301–302, legitimate, 535
Kant on, 289, 469 305n, 307 obedience to, 2
Nussbaum on, 470 on universe, 142, 145 Autonomy
pain and, 458–459, 461, 465, on virtue, 150 defined, 215
471, 474 Arab Spring, 549 euthanasia and, 200, 202,
“Are Prisons Obsolete” (Davis), 215–216, 218
401–402 Kant on, 215
Arguments sexuality and, 280
from analogy, 11–12
circular and sound, 10

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INDEX

AWA. See Animal Welfare Act Biotic pyramid, 424 laissez-faire, 76, 357
Al-Awlaki, Anwar, 542 Black Lives Matter movement, Rand on, 369–370
Ayer, A. J., 8 self-interest and, 357
Ayres, Ian, 340 309–311, 310f, 329 Card, Claudia, 185, 187
Black male exceptionalism, 336 Cardinal virtues, 158
Baier, Annette, 185–192 Blacks, police homicides of, 309– Caring: A Feminine Approach to
Baier, Kurt, 71
Bakke v. U.C. Davis Medical 310, 335–341, 341n Ethics and Moral Education
Blank State, 90 (Noddings), 175, 184–185
School, 321 The Blank State (Pinker), 88–92 Carney, Cormac, 387–388
Ban Ki-moon, 435 Bloom, Alan, 55 Carrasco, Ignacio de Paula,
Bartels, Daniel, 103 Blue Lives Matter, 310 199–200
Baxter, William F., 442 Blum, Lawrence, 185 Carson, Rachel, 445
de Beauvoir, Simone, 179, 193 Bookchin, Murray, 443 Carter, Stephen, 327–328
Begging the question, 1, 10 Boston Marathon bombing, 376, Casanova, José, 33
Benedict, Ruth, 45, 56, 58–59 “The Case for Animal Rights”
Bentham, Jeremy 529 (Regan), 486
Bostrom, Nick, 525–526 Casey v. Planned Parenthood,
on animals, 480, 481 Botstein, David, 498 232, 238
on death penalty, 392 Boulding, Kenneth, 584 Castile, Philando, 309
on deontology, 115 Bowers v. Hardwick, 304n Categorical imperative, 288–289
on natural rights, 146, 481 Boyd, Craig, 147 first form, 120–121
on pain, 96, 98 Brahman, 29 Kant on, 119–122, 129–134
on pleasure, 98, 100 Brave New World (Huxley), 496 second form, 121–122
on sexuality, 288 Brewer, Jan, 322 Character is Destiny
on utilitarianism, 96–97, 288 Broken Window Policy, 339 (McCain), 155
Berg, Peter, 443 Brown, Michael, 309, 335 Chemical weapons, 542–543
Bhagwati, Jagdish, 572 Brownmiller, Susan, 284 Cheney, Dick, 95, 546–547
Bill of Rights, 320 Brown v. Board of Education, Chimeras, 503
bin Laden, Osama, 95, 528, Chodorow, Nancy, 177
320 Chomsky, Noam, 572
540, 541 Buddhism, 160, 551, 553 Churchill, Ward, 549
Biocentric equality, 424, Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S., Cicero, 141–142
Circular argument, 10
447–448 375–376 Cisgender, 280
Biocentrism. See Ecocentrism Burton, Kristi, 264 Civic life, 24–25
Bioengineering. See Bush, George W., 502, 506, 510, Civil disobedience, 4–5,
24–25, 141
Biotechnology 528, 546 Civil law, 141
Biological weapons, 542, 544 Butler, Joseph, 63 Civil rights
Biomass fuel, 432–433 Butler, Judith, 180, 180f, 315 human rights differentiated
Biotechnology The Butterfly Defect (Goldin and from, 320
legislation, 321–322
current issues, 492–500 Mariathasan), 560 Paine on, 320
defined, 492 Byrd, James Jr., 324 Civil Rights Act, 311, 321, 328
Kass on, 500, 515–524 Civil Rights movement, 337
legal issues, 500–510 Cady, Duane L., 551
objections to, 517–519 Cannold, Leslie, 265–266
precautionary principle, 500 Capabilities approach, 47–48,
terminology problems, 516–517
as unnatural, 520–522 48f, 53
Cap-and-trade system, 434
Capitalism, 346, 358

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

Civil unions, 293 Constitution of United States on prisons, 385, 395, 401–402
Clean Air Council, 431–432 Bill of Rights, 320 on punishment, 402
Climate change, 427–431, 434 Eighth Amendment, 410 Dawkins, Richard, 6, 9
Clinton, Bill, 279 First Amendment, 20, 21, 23, D&C. See Dilation and curettage
Clinton, Hillary, 435 324, 340, 341 Deahl, Joshua, 340
Cloning Fourteenth Amendment, 297, Dear, Robert L., 233
320, 322, 336 Death penalty
animals, 494, 495–496, 503 Fourth Amendment, 322, 336 authority, 409–410
Gurdon on, 496 Nineteenth Amendment, 320 Bentham on, 392
humans, 503–505 Carney on, 387–388
issues surrounding, 495, 496, Consumerism Conference of Catholic Bishops
fair trade practices, 561
504–506 Galbraith on, 454 on, 386, 392
reproductive, 495, 496 costs, 389–390
SCNT, 495 Contemporary virtues, 160–161 deterrence and, 390–391
therapeutic, 496 Contested Lives (Ginsburg), 264 exonerations, 388, 406–407
The Closing of the American Conventionalism, 58–60 fairness and, 388–389
Convention on International history of, 387
Mind (Bloom), 55 humane, 394–395
Cognitive incapacity, 334 Trade in Endangered Species, just cause and, 408, 410
Cohabitation, 282–283 UN, 466 Kant on, 391, 414n
Colonialism, 570, 588 Corrective virtues, 161 as last resort, 408, 411, 413
Communism, 357–358 Corvino, John, 293, 306–307 legal issues, 386–388
Communitarianism, 363–364 Cosmopolitanism, 22–24 mental disabilities and, 376
Community policing, Casanova on, 33 mercy and, 392–394
global justice and, 562 methods, 394–395
339–340, 376 Courage, 161, 162, Mill, John, on, 390, 395,
Comprehensive doctrines, 32 165–166, 168
Comprehensive nonviolence, 550 Crime rate, 375–376 402–406
Conception, 234, 243 Crimes against humanity, 545 model approaches to, 393t
Conference of Catholic Bishops, Crimes against peace, 545 moral presumption against,
Criminalization of Female
385, 386, 392 Genital Mutilation Act, 409–411
Confucius, 160, 161f U.S., 283 motivation for, 408, 410
“The Conquistador and the Critical ethics, 16 natural law and, 407–408
Critical race theory, 311–313 race and, 388–389
Dark Continent: Reflections Cruelty to Animals Act, 463 Reiman on, 392
on the Nature of Love” Cruzan, Nancy, 206–207 restorative justice and,
(Gilligan), 186 Cultural relativism, 26–27, 45,
Consent, 238 56, 60–62 392–394
Consequentialism, 12, 97, individual relativism versus, retribution and, 391–392
293, 386 46–47 Steffen on, 386, 395, 406–413
affirmative action and, Culture, 60–62 Death Penalty Information Center,
326–328
euthanasia and, 214–215, 217 Dalai Lama, 27f, 28, 551 388, 389
globalization and, 560–561 Darwin, Charles, 92, 468 Decarceration, 383
realism and, 532 Date rape, 284 Declaration of Independence,
same-sex marriage and, Davis, Angela
291–292 23, 359
sexuality and, 287–288, natural rights and, 138,
291–292
145–146

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INDEX

Deep ecology, 426 Devall, Bill, 437, 443–449 diversity and, 27
biocentric equality, 447–448 Dignity, 520, 525–526 Dostoevsky and, 26
Devall on, 437, 443–449 Dilation and curettage Socrates on, 26, 116
ecological consciousness Dixon, Travis, 314
cultivated through, 444–445 (D&C), 235 DOMA. See Defense of
Fox, W., on, 446 Dilation and extraction (D&X),
Guha on, 449–455 Marriage Act
Naess on, 425, 427, 235, 238 Domestic Manners of the
445–446, 448 Disabled, 321
political action and, 453 Americans (Trollope), 195
principles of, 448–449 death penalty and Domi, Tanya L., 319
reform environmentalism, mentally, 376 Dominance, 423, 426–427
443–444 Donne, John, 58
self-realization, 446–447 discrimination and, 315 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 26
Sessions on, 425, 437, euthanasia for, 201–206 Double effect principle, 211–212,
443–449 Discrimination
Taoism and, 445–446, 452 age and, 315 211f, 537, 538
current issues, 320–324 Down syndrome, 225
Deep Ecology: Living as If defined, 310–311
Nature Mattered (Devall and disabilities and, 315 abortion and, 237
Sessions), 443–449 forms of, 315–316 Rachels on, 203
gender and LGBT, 315 Drones, 540–542
“A Defense of Abortion” harm and, 328–329, 338 D’Souza, Dinesh, 570
(Thomson), 251–252, implicit bias, 310, 313–315 Du Bois, W. E. B., 312, 337
264–265 just war theory and, 536–537 Due care, 200
laws, 320–324 Dukha, 29
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), racial, 311–315 Durable power of attorney,
279, 293 religion, 323, 325
reverse, 329 208–209
Deficiency, 158, 166, 169 Distributive justice Durocher, Leo, 78
De Grazia, David, 471 end-state, 353–354, 369, 566 Dussel, Enrique, 33
DeLuca, Kevin, 422 equal opportunity and, Duty. See also Prima facie duties
Deontology, 12, 97, 215
354–356 acting from, 115–116,
Bentham on, 115 Mill, John, on, 351 127–129
pacifism and, 533 Nozick on, 368–369
sexuality and, 288–289 process, 352–353 imperfect, 124–125
variations on, 125 “Distributive Justice” (Nozick), Kant on, 116, 118, 123,
virtues and, 157, 162
Dependency thesis, 56, 60, 61 368–369 124–125, 127–129
Descartes, René, 423, 438n, Diversity perfect, 124–125
Ross on, 125
469–470 divine command theory and, 27 transgression of, 128
Description, 196–197 globalization and, 575–578 Duvall, Jack, 500, 549
Descriptive egoism, 68, 69 of moral views, 49–51 Dworkin, Ronald, 271
Descriptive judgments, 4, 16 Plato on, 28 D&X. See Dilation and extraction
Descriptive laws, 140 relativism and, 48–50, 55–57,
Descriptive relativism, normative Eagle Man, 424
60–61 Earth First!, 425
relativism versus, 45–46 of religion, 21, 27–29 Earth Summit, 434
Deterrence, 377, 378–379, women and, 180, 193 Ecocentrism, 422–427, 436
Diversity Thesis, 56, 57, 60 Eco-fascism, 425
390–391 Divine command theory, 25, 115 Ecofeminism, 426–427

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INDEX

The Ecology of Freedom Enlightenment, 32 prisoner’s dilemma, 74–75, 74f
(Bookchin), 443 freedom and, 22–24 psychological egoism and,
Kant on, 23–24, 117
Economic inequality, 568–569 71–74
education and, 349 Environment. See also Climate self-interest and, 70, 74–75
gender, 348 change; Deep ecology social contract and, 73–75
Greenspan on, 347 universal, 73, 74
health care and, 349–350 anthropocentrism and, Ethical reasoning, 9–11
justifications, 345–346 420–422, 436 Ethical Relativism, 60
statistics on, 344, 348 Ethical theory, 11–13, 11f
cost-benefit analysis and, Ethics, 16, 32–34, 420t
Economic justice, 346, 350–351 421–422 approaches to animals,
Economic theory, 76
Ecosystem, 422, 423–424, 433, current issues, 427–437 468–474, 472t
DeLuca on, 422 Aristotle on, 157,
446, 451 Eagle Man on, 424
EEOC. See Equal Employment ecocentrism and, 422–427 163–169, 286
Guha on, 449–455 defining, 2–3
Opportunity Commission Hardin on, 436 global, 560, 585
Egalitarianism, 380, 391 international conventions, Kant on, 3, 116, 351
Egoism, 124–125. See also Plato on, 3, 13, 78–85, 116
434–435 reasons and, 7
Ethical egoism justice and, 422, 435–437 reasons for studying, 1–2
altruism conflicting with, 69 Leopold on, 424 religion and, 25–28
Baier, K., on, 71 prisoner’s dilemma and, 436 teaching, 13
defined, 68 reform, 443–444 terms, 6–7, 18–19
descriptive, 68, 69 sustainable development and, Ethics of care, 550
Gewirth on, 71 evaluation of, 181–182
Hobbes on, 75, 77 435–436 gender and, 174–179
virtues and, 76–78 value of, 419–420, 437n Noddings on, 175, 184–185
Eighth Amendment, of Environmental Protection Agency relationship in, 176
Slote on, 179
Constitution, 410 (EPA), 428, 431 stereotypes and, 176, 179
Eisenstadt v. Baird, 304n Epicureanism, 98, 107–108 Ethnocentrism, 55–56, 58
Embryo, 234 Epistemology, 3, 44 Eudaimonia, 159
Embryonic stem cells, 494 Equal Employment Opportunity Eugenics, 496–497
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 424 Eurocentrism, 22, 33
Emotivism, 7, 9 Commission (EEOC), Euthanasia
311, 321 active, 199, 206–207,
ethical terms and, 18–19 Equality principle, 316–319,
Smith on, 8, 13 327–328 216–218, 224–228
Endangered animals, 457–458, Equal opportunity, 351, 362 AMA on, 225, 227, 228
distributive justice and, arguments on, 222–224
466–468 354–356 autonomy and, 200, 202,
Endangered Species Act, 443, Fishkin on, 354, 355
Schaar on, 355 215–216, 218
457, 466 Equity and Inclusion, 336 consequentialism and,
End-state distributive justice, Ethical consumption, 561
Ethical egoism 214–215, 217
353–354, 369, 566 commonsense morality and, 76 criteria for, 200, 203–206
Enhancement, 518 economic theory and, 76 defined, 201, 221–222
individual, 73
athletic, 492–493, 501–502 moral point of view, 76–77
cognitive, 492–493, 501–502
therapy distinguished from,

492, 493, 516–517

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INDEX

for disabled, 201–206 justice and, 566 Fisher v. University of Texas at
due care, 200 Rawls on, 125, 566–567 Austin, 326
extraordinary measures, Fair trade practices, 561
Fanon, Frantz, 570 Fishkin, James, 354, 355
212–213 Farm subsidies, global poverty Fitz-Gibbon, Andrew, 548–553
Gay-Williams on, 221–224 “Five Faces of Oppression”
infant, 200, 201–206, 225 and, 570–571
involuntary, 206, Fatwa, 21 (Young), 329, 333
Feinberg, Joel, 255 Fleming, Alexander, 465
207–208, 217 Felker v. Turpin, 414n Foot, Philippa, 161, 162, 187
lethal prescriptions, 200 Female genital mutilation (FGM), Fossey, Diane, 466
for mentally ill, 200, 215–216 Foucault, Michel, 395
moral judgments about, 45, 173, 283–284 Fourteenth Amendment, of
Female moral perspective,
214–218 Constitution, 297, 320,
nonconsequentialism and, 174–175 322, 336
Feminine morality, 177–178 Fourth Amendment, of
215–218 Feminism, 171, 426–427 Constitution, 322, 336
nonvoluntary, 206, 207–208, Fox, Michael Allen, 550
defining, 173, 192–194 Fox, Michael J., 494
213, 214f description and prescription, Fox, Warwick, 446
ordinary measures, 212–213 Fracking, 433
passive, 206–207, 216–218, 196–197 Framework Convention on
evaluation of, 181–182 Climate Change, 434
222, 224–228 history of, 179–180 Francis (pope), 27f, 350, 364,
Rachels on, 224–228 Lindemann on, 192–198 370–373
Singer on, 202 morality and politics, 197–198 Frankfurt, Harry, 355
types, 206–209 Nussbaum on, 180 Franklin, Benjamin, 77–78
voluntary, 206, 207–208, power and morality, 195–196 Freedom, 443
Feminism Unmodified Enlightenment and, 22–24
213–216, 214f, 216t morphological, 525
Euthyphro (Plato), 26, 34, (MacKinnon), 194 of religion, 21
Feminist Theory from Margin to reproductive, 525
35–38 Free will, 29–31
Evangelii Guadium (The Joy of Center (hooks), 192 Freud, Sigmund
Feminization of poverty, 181, on sexuality, 286
the Gospel) (Pope Francis), on women, 176, 177
364, 371–373 269 Fried, Charles, 508
Evil Ferrell, Jonathan, 340 Friedman, Milton, 357
free will and, 29–31 Fetal development stages, Friendship, 286
Hobbes on, 86 Fullinwider, Robert, 325
just war theory and intrinsic, 233–235 Fundamentalism, 31, 32–33
537–538 Feticide, 230 Fundamental Principles of
Plato on, 13, 550 Fetus, 234 the Metaphysics of Morals
Evolutionary theory, 145 (Kant), 125, 126–137,
Ewert, Craig, 201 moral status of, 240–249 209, 351
Excess, 158, 166, 169 FGM. See Female genital Furman v. Georgia, 387,
Exonerations, 388, 406–407 410, 412
mutilation
Facts and Values (Stevenson), Fields, Gary S., 571
16–17 Finitude, 523–524
Finnis, John, 145, 293,
Fair chase, 458, 459
Fairness, 121 298–306
First Amendment, of
death penalty and, 388–389
Constitution, 20, 21, 23, 324,
340, 341

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INDEX

Galbraith, J. K., 454 Geneva Convention, 95, 146, Pogge on, 563–564, 573
Galtung, Johan, 550 539–540 rights, 567–568
Gamer, Eric, 309, 335 Sachs on, 573
Gan, Barry L., 549–550 Genocide, 545–546 self-interest, 565
Gandhi, Mohandas K., 141, 392, Geo-engineering, 430–431 Singer on, 564, 573, 580–584
Gewirth, Alan, 71 solutions and progress, 573
425–426 Gilligan, Carol trade barriers, 570–571
on animals, 460 Global warming, 427, 428
on civil disobedience, 24 Baier, A., on, 185–192 GMOs. See Genetically modified
King on, 533, 549 on gender, 174–176, 182
on pacifism, 549, 550, 553 Kohlberg and, 176, 187 organisms
on religion, 39–42 Ginsburg, Faye, 264 God
Gardner, Ronnie Lee, 394 Giuliani, Rudolf, 335, 336, 339
Garner, Eric, 309 Glaucon, 77, 81–84 Locke on, 152–153
Gauthier, David, 75 Global ethics, 560, 585 moral law and, 27
Gay marriage. See Same-sex secular ethics and, 32–34 playing, 503, 504, 515
Global inequality, 562, 568–569 values and, 65
marriages Globalization Goering, Hermann, 140
Gay-Williams, J., 221–224 Bhagwati on, 572 Goffman, Erving, 508
Gender, 180, 183n, 187 Chomsky on, 572 Golden Mean, 158, 162
consequentialism and, Golden Rule, 28, 28f, 30, 71,
Chodorow on, 177
defining, 194–195 560–561 121, 288–289
differences, 173, 176–177 critics of, 573–577 Goldin, Ian, 560
discrimination, 315 cultural diversity and, 575–578 Gonzales v. Carhart, 238
economic inequality, 348 defined, 562 Good, 98–99, 105
equality, 173 economic impacts of, 574–575
ethics of care and, 174–179 global ethics and, 560, 585 Aristotle on, 158–159, 164
Gilligan on, 173–176, 182 protesters, 572–573 Hobbes on, 86
perspectives, 173, types of, 574 Moore on, 5, 53
Wright, R., on, 574 Nietzsche on, 47
174–175, 174f Global justice, 435–437, Plato on, 8
power and, 194–195 Stevenson on, 17–19
proof of difference, 316–317 562–564, 573, 580–581, will, Kant on, 118, 126–127
reasoning and, 173–179 584–590 Gore, Al, 385, 430
selective abortion, 236–237 Global poverty. See also Poverty Graham, Franklin, 21
socialization, 73 causes of, 570–573 Grant, Oscar, 309
Whitbeck on, 177 colonialism, 570 Gray, Freddie, 309
Gender Trouble farm subsidies and, 570–571 Greater Day for race, 337, 341n
global inequality, 562, Greenberg, Anna, 263
(Butler, Judith), 180 568–569 Greene, Graham, 91
Gene editing, 492 global justice and, 562, 563 Greenhouse effect, 427, 428–429
Genetically modified organisms Hardin on, 564–565, 584–590 Greeno, Catherine, 176
institutional issues, 571–573 Greenspan, Alan, 347
(GMOs), 499–500, 509–510 international aid, 569–570 Gregg v. Georgia, 387, 409
Genetic engineering, 496–497, justice, 565–567 Griggs v. Duke Power
Kim on, 563
506–509 moral arguments about, Company, 331n
Genetic Information 563–568 Griswold v. Connecticut,

Nondiscrimination Act, 509 297, 304n
Genetic screening, 496–497,

506–509

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INDEX

Groningen Protocol, on infant Hedonism paradox, 73 violence against, 279–280
euthanasia, 202 Hemingway, Ernest, 57–58 Honor killing, 173
Herskovits, Melville, 58–59 hooks, bell, 192
Grosmaire, Ann, 393–394 Hess, Rudolf, 140 Hopwood v. Texas, 326
Grotius, Hugo, 143 Hick, John, 28 Humane Society, 464
Grutter v. Bollinger, 321 Hijab, 172 Human Genome Project,
Guantanamo Bay, 139, 139f HIll, Warren Lee, 389
Guha, Ramachandra, 449–455 Hinkley, John, Jr., 382 497, 498
Gurdon, John, 496, 502 Hippocratic Oath, 209, 210, 235 human immunodeficiency virus
Gutmann, Amy, 506 Hitler, Adolf, 58, 59
Gyges, 77, 79–80 HIV. See human (HIV), 281, 463
Human nature
Habermas, Jürgen, 32–33 immunodeficiency virus
Half the Sky (Kristof and Hobbes, Thomas Aristotle on, 148, 157,
158–160
WuDunn), 172–173 on egoism, 75, 77
Hall v. Florida, 389 on evil, 86 Hume on, 13, 14–15
Hanisch, Carol, 197 on good, 86 Locke on, 148
Hansen, James, 430 on love, 86 Rorty on, 147
Happiness on natural rights, 146 Sartre on, 147
on peace, 75, 88 sexuality and, 287, 289–292
Aristotle on, 159, 164 on social contract, 75, 78 Human rights, civil rights
calculation of, 98–100 on strong government, 144
duration and intensity of, 99 on war, 75, 88 differentiated from, 320
greatest, 98–99, 100, 101, 103 Holder, Eric, 540 Human Rights Watch, 384
as intrinsic good, 98–99, 105 Holdings, 369 Hume, David, 5, 8, 13,
likelihood of, 100 Hollingsworth v. Perry, 292
Mill, John, on, 98, 100–101, Homosexuality. See also Same- 14–15, 144
Hume’s law, 5, 144
110, 111–112 sex marriages Hunting animals, 458–459
utilitarianism and, 97–100 Aristotle on, 298, 299, 300 Hurricane Sandy, 417, 418f
Hardin, Garrett cisgender, 280 Hursthouse, Rosalind, 248, 265
on environment, 436 consequentialist views on, Huxley, Aldous, 496
on global justice, 564 Hypothetical imperative, 119,
on global poverty, 564–565, 291–292
Corvino on, 306–307 131–132
584–590 defined, 291 Hysterotomy, 235
Harris, Sam, 38–39 Finnis on, 298–306
Kant on, 291 IACUCs. See Institutional Animal
on free will, 30 Macedo on, 304n Care and Use Committees
on profiling, 323 natural law and, 291–293
Harvey, William, 463 Plato on, 298–299, 300, 304n IMF. See International Monetary
Haslanger, Sally, 173 Regnerus on, 291–292 Fund
Hate crimes, 324 Scalia on, 279
Hayden, Michael, 546 Socrates on, 298, 304n Immigration law, 322
Health care transgender transitions, 280 Impartiality, 123–124
economic inequality and, as unnatural, 292–293, Implicit bias, 310, 313–315
In a Different Voice
349–350 306–307
medical bankruptcy, 349 utilitarianism and, 291 (Gilligan), 186
rationing, 350 Incarceration rates, 375–376
Hedonism, 98 Incest, 284
Incrementalism, 585
“In Defense of Posthuman

Dignity” (Bostrom), 525–526

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INDEX

Inden, Ronald, 453 Islam, 21, 29 punishment and, 379
individual relativism, 52 Islamic State in Iraq and Syria Rawls on, 124, 125, 186,

cultural relativism versus, (ISIS), 529, 560 360–364, 367–368, 566
46–47 “It’s Not Natural” (Corvino), time-slice principles, 356
Just war theory, 143, 407
Infant euthanasia, 200, 306–307 Aquinas and, 534
201–206, 225 IUCN. See International Augustine and, 534
discrimination and, 536–537
Inherent value, 419 Union for the Conservation intrinsically evil means and,
Innocence Project, 388 of Nature and Natural
Insanity defense, 381–382 Resources 537–538
Institutional Animal Care and Use Iraq War and, 535
Jacobsen, Mark Z., 430 just cause and, 530, 534–535
Committees (IACUCs), 464 Jaggar, Alison, 186 last resort and, 536
Institutional or structural Janzen, Daniel, 452 legitimate authority and, 535
Jefferson, Thomas, 23, 31, 138, Obama and, 534
oppression, 329, 333 proportionality and, 535–536
Institutional racism, 313–315 142, 145, 359, 480, 481 right intention, 536
Instrumental goods, 9, 98 Jenner, Caitlyn, 280 Walzer on, 554–558
Instrumental value, 419 Jim Crow, 320, 323, 385,
Integrity, 101–102 Kant, Immanuel, 16, 118f, 137,
Intellectual virtues, 400–401 138, 215, 259, 505
John Paul II (pope), 209,
159–160, 165 on animals, 289, 469
Intention, 126n 392, 414n on categorical imperative,
Interests, 95 Johnson, Harriet McBryde, 202
International aid, 569–570 Johnson, Lyndon B., 321 119–122, 129–134
International distributive The Joy of the Gospel. See on death penalty, 391, 414n
on duty, 116, 118, 123,
justice, 566 Evangelii Guadium
International Monetary Fund Juan Crow laws, 323 124–125, 127–129
Just cause on Enlightenment, 23–24, 117
(IMF), 571, 572 on ethics, 3, 116, 351
International Society for Stem Cell death penalty and, 408, 410 evaluating moral theory of,
just war theory and, 530,
Research, 503 122–124
International Union for the 534–535 on good will, 118, 126–127
Justice, 369, 544, 565, 567. on homosexuality, 291
Conservation of Nature and on hypothetical imperative,
Natural Resources (IUCN), See also Distributive justice;
452, 466 Economic justice; Global 119, 131–132
Intrinsic goods, 9, 144 justice; Restorative justice on impartiality, 123–124
happiness as, 98–99, 105 affirmative action and, 316, on justice, 188, 351
Mill, John, on, 105 328–329, 337 on kingdom of ends, 122
Intrinsic value, 419 Baier, A., on, 185–192 on maxim, 120–121, 133–134
Introduction to the Principles bias and, 360 on moral equality, 123–124
of Morals and Legislation compensatory, 328–329 on moral imperatives,
(Bentham), 96 environment and, 422,
Intuitionism, 7–8 435–437 122–123, 130–131
Involuntary euthanasia, 206, Gilligan on, 186 on morality, 115, 117,
207–208, 217 Kant on, 188, 351
Iraq War, 535 Machan on, 351–352 125, 197
ISIS. See Islamic State in Iraq poverty and, 566 moral law respect, 129
and Syria procedural, 352

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INDEX

on moral obligation, 119, 122 Lachs, John, 53, 62–67 Living High and Letting Die
on motives, 117–118 Ladd, John, 56 (Unger), 581–582
on persons as ends, 134–136 Laissez-faire capitalism, 76, 357
on racism, 329 “The Land Ethic” (Leopold), 424 “Living on a Lifeboat” (Hardin),
on reform, 24 Lao Tzu, 452 584–590
right intention principle, 536 Last resort
on sexuality, 287, 288–289 Living wage, 348
on Stoicism, 117 death penalty as, 408, Living will, 208–209
on suicide, 97, 209, 218 411, 413 Locke, John, 25, 151
on virtues, 162
Karma, 30 just war theory and, 536 on God, 152–153
Kass, Leon, 8 “Law, Morality, and ‘Sexual on natural law, 148, 379
on biotechnology, 500, on natural rights, 138,
Orientation’” (Finnis),
515–524 298–306 145–148, 351
on finitude, 523–524 Law of Peoples (Rawls), 566 on social contract, 75
on mastery, 519–520 Lawrence, D. H., 337 on state of nature, 152–154
Keenan, Nancy, 266 Lawrence v. Texas, 278–279 on toleration, 31, 32
Kennedy, John F., 321 LBGT. See Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, Locked-in syndrome, 219n
Kerrick, Randall, 340 and Transgender Love, 186
Kevorkian, Jack, Lectures on Ethics (Kant), 351 Hobbes on, 86
LeMay, Curtis, 544–545 sexuality and, 286
209–210, 220n Leopold, Aldo, 425, 445 Loving v. Virginia, 297
Keystone XL Pipeline, 433 on biocentric equality, 424, 447
Khomeini, Ruhollah on environment, 424 Maccoby, Eleanor, 176–177
Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, and Macedo, Steven, 303, 304n
(Ayatollah), 21 Transgender (LBGT), 280, Machan, Tibor, 356
Kierkegaard, Søren, 116 315, 325
Kim, Jim Yong, 563 Lesbians, 193 on justice, 351–352
Kin, 90–91 “Letter Concerning Toleration” MacIntyre, Alasdair, 161–162,
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 24f, (Locke), 31
“Letter from Birmingham Jail” 185, 187
141, 320 (King), 24 MacKinnon, Catharine A., 194,
on civil disobedience, 24 “Letter to a Christian Nation”
on Gandhi, 533, 549 (Harris), 38–39 248
influences on, 25 Leviathan (Hobbes), 85–88 Macy v. Department of Justice,
on pacifism, 549, 550, 553 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 91
Kingdom of ends, 122 Levitt, Steven, 376 321
Kinsey, Charles, 309 Lewis, C. S., 520 Madoff, Bernie, 347
Kissling, Frances, 261–262, Liberalism, 359 Male moral perspective, 175
Liberalization, 574 Malthus, Thomas, 564
264–270 Libertarianism, 352, 356–357, Mariathasan, Mike, 560
Kluckhohn, Clyde, 60 359 Maritime Mammal Protection
Kohlberg, Lawrence, 175, 176, Liberty, 96, 152
Life’s Dominion (Dworkin), 271 Act, 466
187 Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, 321 Markovits, Daniel, 340
Koppelman, Andrew, 302, 303, Lindeman, Hilde, 192–198 Marquis, Don, 246, 249,
Lippmann, Walter, 147
305n, 306n 252–260
Kristof, Nicholas, 172–173 Martin, Trayvon, 309, 335
Kurtz, Paul, 32 Marx, Karl, 33, 353, 354, 366n
Kyoto Protocol, 434–435 Mason, Jim, 461
Massaro, Thomas, 350
Mass incarceration, 374,

384, 385

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INDEX

Mastery, 519–520 on sexuality, 288 Moral philosophy, ethics as, 2–3
Maternal practice, 177–178 on virtue, 111–112, 162 Moral pluralism, 53–54
Maternal thinking, Ruddick on women, 96–97 Moral realism, 52–53
Milosevic, Slobodan, 549 Morals
on, 177 Mind-computing technology,
Mather, Cotton, 64 absolute, 46, 52, 64
Matthew Shepard and James 490–491 foundation of, 64
Minimum wage, 348 Moral significance, of voluntary
Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Miscarriage, 235
Prevention Act, 324 M’Naghten Rule, 382 euthanasia, 214–216
Maxim, 120–121, 133–134, 136 Modern liberalism, 359 Moral standard, 109–110
Maximin strategy, 361, 363 Mohammed, Khaled Sheikh, 95, Moral uncertainty, 48–50
Maxwell, Carol J. C., 263–264 Morning-after pill, 235
Maynard, Brittany, 199–200 546 Morphological freedom, 525
McBride, Conor, 393–394 Montejano, Antonio, 323 Mother Teresa, 57, 59
McCain, John, 155, 546 Montreal Protocol, 431 Motives, 12, 117–118, 126n
McDonnell, Kathleen, 262, Moore, G. E., 7, 63–64, 144 Muir, John, 424, 448
264, 269 Multiculturalism, 319, 550–551
McElroy, Wendy, 172 on good, 5, 53 Muslims, profiling of, 323
McInemy, Ralph, 144 naturalistic fallacy, 5 Myostatin, 498
McNamara, Robert S., 544–545 Moore, Mary Tyler, 494
Mean, virtues as, 158, 162, Moral agents, 423, 473 Naess, Ame, 425, 427,
167–168 Moral Contexts (Walker), 196 445–446, 448
Medical bankruptcy, 349 Moral development
Mentally ill, euthanasia for, 200, Kohlberg on, 175, 187 NAFTA. See North American Free
215–216 Rawls on, 187 Trade Agreement
Metaethics, 3, 16, 44, 46 Moral disagreement, 49–50
Mifepristone (RU486), 235 Moral equality, 123–124 Nagel, Thomas, 211
Mill, Harriet Taylor, 97 Moral imperatives, Kant on, Naidoo, Kumi, 435
Mill, James, 96 NARAL Pro-Choice America, 262,
Mill, John Stuart, 357 122–123, 130–131
on death penalty, 390, 395, Morality, 25, 26, 33, 44–45, 132 263, 266
402–406 National Environmental Policy
on distributive justice, 351 commonsense, 76
on economic justice, 350–351 feminine, 177–178 Act (NEPA), 443
on Epicureanism, 107–108 Finnis on, 298–306 National Police Misconduct
on happiness, 98, 100–101, gender differences in, 176–177
110, 111–112 gender-specific approaches to, Reporting Project, 340
on intrinsic good, 105 National Wildlife Federation,
on liberty, 96 178–179
on morality, 97 Kant on, 115, 117, 125, 197 433–434
on pleasure, 97–98, 100, Mill, John, on, 97 Naturalistic fallacy, 5–6,
108–109 politics and, 197–198
portrait of, 93f, 96f power and, 195–196 74, 144
on principle of utility, 101 reasons for, 77–78 Natural law, 5, 29, 139, 377
on prostitution, 288 Young on, 197
on sacrifice, 98 Moral judgments, 7, 54n, Aquinas on, 141–145,
149–151
214–218
Moral law, 27, 129, 140, 143 Boyd on, 147
Moral obligation, 119, 122 Cicero on, 141–142
Moral patients, 423, 460, 473 death penalty and, 407–408
evaluating, 143–145
Grotius on, 143
historical origins, 141–143
homosexuality, 291–293

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INDEX

human laws derived from, New Natural Law (NNL), just war theory and, 534
150–151 306–307 on torture, 546
Obergefell v. Hodges, 278, 279,
introduction to, 140–141 Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle),
Locke on, 148, 379 157, 163–169, 286 280, 293, 296–298
McInemy on, 144 Objectivism, 7, 8–9, 46, 51,
precepts, 149–150 Nietzsche, Friedrich
punishment and, 379 on power relations, 47, 50 55–56
same-sex marriage and, on relativism, 47 Occupy Movement, 344–345
O’Connor, Peg, 173
292–293 Nineteenth Amendment, of Offshoring, 574
sexuality and, 289–291 Constitution, 320 Okin, Susan Moller, 182
Veatch on, 144 “One Is Not Born a Woman”
virtues and, 150 NNL. See New Natural Law
Voltaire on, 145–146 Noddings, Nel, 175, 184–185 (Wittig), 193
Natural rights Noncombatants, 537 On Liberty (Mill, John), 96, 351
Bentham on, 146, 481 Nonconsequentialism, 12 On the Subjection of Women
Declaration of Independence
affirmative action and, (Mill, James), 96
and, 138, 145–146 328–329 Ontology, 242
evaluating, 146–147 Operation Pipeline drug
Hobbes on, 146 euthanasia and, 215–218
Lippmann on, 147 same-sex marriage and, 292 interdiction project, 322
Locke on, 138, 145–148, 351 sexuality and, 288–289, 292 Optimal pollution, 437, 442
Mill, John, on, 147 Noninterference rights, 356, 357, Original position, 360
Nature, of virtues, 158–159, Original sin, 29
358, 359 “The Origins of Morality in Early
164, 166–167 Nonviolence. See Pacifism
“The Need for More than Justice” Nonvoluntary euthanasia, 206, Childhood” (Gilligan), 186
Outlaw, Lucius, Jr., 312–313
(Baier, A.), 185–192 207–208, 213, 214f Outsourcing, 574
Needle, Rachel, 268 Normative ethics, 3, 16 Ozone depletion, 431
Negative peace, 550 Normative judgments, 4
Negative rights, 358 Normative relativism, descriptive Pacifism, 530, 534
Neo-humanism, 32 Ackerman on, 549, 550
“Neo-Humanist Manifesto” relativism versus, 45–46 Duvall on, 500, 549
Normative theory, 4, 31 Fitz-Gibbon on, 551–553
(Kurtz), 32 North American Free Trade Gan and, 549–550
NEPA. See National Gandhi and, 533, 549, 550
Agreement (NAFTA), 571 King on, 533, 549, 550
Environmental Policy Act Nozick, Robert, 211, 363, Sharp on, 549, 550
Netherlands
368–369 Pacifism as Pathology
abortion rates, 269 Nuclear weapons, 543–544 (Churchill), 549
euthanasia practices, 207–208 Nuremberg Code, 114, 140
involuntary euthanasia in, 217 Nussbaum, Martha, 47–48, Paglia, Camille, 286
legalized active euthanasia Pain, 168
47f, 53
in, 207 on animals, 470 animals and, 458–459, 461,
Termination of Life on Request on feminism, 180 465, 471, 474

and Assisted Suicide Act Obama, Barack, 312, 433, 502, Bentham on, 96, 98
in, 200 506 pleasure minus, 98–99
The New Jim Crow (Alexander), Paine, Thomas, 320
395, 400–401 on bin Laden, 540 Palin, Sarah, 459
on colonialism, 570
on drone use, 541
ISIS and, 529

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INDEX

Palliative care, 200–201 on kin, 90–91 community policing,
Palliative sedation, 211–212 on social contract, 78, 89–92 339–340, 376
Paradox of toleration, 32 on society, 90–91
Parks, Rosa, 320 Pinto, Juliano, 490 Deahl on, 340
Parsons, Talcott, 91 Pistorius, Oscar, 492–493 federal immigration law
Passive euthanasia, Pius IX (pope), 237
Pizarro, David, 103 enforcement, 322–323
206–207, 222 Planned Parenthood of Kansas homicides, of blacks, 309–310,
active versus, 216–218,
City v. Ashcroft, 238 335–341, 341n
224–228 Plato, 22, 26, 77, 91, 157, National Police Misconduct
Pateman, Carol, 288
Patient Self-Determination Act 235, 497 Reporting Project, 340
on abortion, 235 Operation Pipeline, 322
(PSDA), 206, 209 on diversity, 28 stop-and-frisk policy, 322,
Patterning, of distribution, on ethics, 3, 13, 78–85, 116
on eugenics, 497 335–336, 340, 376
356, 369 on evil, 13, 550 violence against, 309–310
Paul, Ron, 70 on good, 8 Political liberalism, 32, 359
Payne v. Tennessee, 414n on homosexuality, 298–299, Politics
Peace, 548–549 deep ecology and, 453
300, 304n morality and, 197–198
crimes against, 545 on religion, 28, 34, 35–38 Pollution, 431–433
historical and multicultural Pleasure, 168 air, 418
Bentham on, 98 Baxter on, 442
precedents, 550–551 Mill, John, on, 97–98, 100, costs, 421–422, 430
Hobbes on, 75, 88 optimal, 437, 442
pacifisms, 551–553 108–109 Poor Richard’s Almanac
“Peace” (Fitz-Gibbon), 548–553 minus pain, 98–99
Peace After Abortion (Torre- quantity vs quality of, (Franklin), 77–78
Population
Bueno), 267, 268 100–101, 108–109
Pearce, Diana, 269 utilitarianism and, 97–98, growth, 93–94, 418, 564
People for the Ethical Treatment in prisons, 375, 383
108–109 Population control, 93–94,
of Animals (PETA), 464 Plessy, Homer, 320
People or Penguins: The Case Plessy v. Ferguson, 320 586–589, 586f, 587f
Pluralism abortion and, 236
for Optimal Pollution Pornography, 281
(Baxter), 442 moral, 53–54 sexting and, 282
Persistent vegetative state (PVS), Rawls on, 362 Wolf, N., on, 172
204, 219n religious, 28–29 Positive peace, 550
Personal integrity, 101–102 value, 28 Positive rights, 358
“The Personal Is Political” Poaching, 466 Post-Abortion Syndrome, 263,
(Hanisch), 197 Pogge, Thomas, 563–564, 573
Person/Planet (Roszak), 444 Pojman, Louis, 61–62 266–268, 272n
Perversion, 290–291 on conventionalism, 58–60 Posthuman, 491
PETA. See People for the Ethical on relativism, 54, 55–60
Treatment of Animals on subjectivism, 57–58 Bostrom on, 525–526
“The Philosopher’s Brief,” 210 Police Post-Scarcity Anarchism
Physician-assisted suicide, 199, Blue Lives Matter, 310
206, 209–211, 216t Broken Window Policy, 339 (Bookchin), 443
Pinker, Steven Poverty, 372. See also Global
on altruism, 88–92
poverty
Aquinas on, 565
extreme, 568

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INDEX

feminization of, 181, 269 abortion reduction, 268–270 external relation to
rate, 346–347, 349 Burton on, 264 lawbreaking, 378
Singer on, 564 Cannold on, 265–266
Unger on, 581–582 caring for grieving women, insanity defense, 381–382
Power justice and, 379
gender and, 194–195 263, 266–268, 272n natural law and, 379
morality and, 195–196 Dworkin on, 271 nature of legal, 377–378
relations, 47, 50 fetal value, 247–248, 270–272 proportional equivalency,
“The Power and the Glory” Ginsburg on, 264
Kissling on, 261–262 380, 391
(Greene), 91 Manninen on, 261–272 responsibility and, 381–383
Pragmatism, 52, 132, 137, 532 Maxwell on, 263–264 retribution argument, 377,
Precautionary principle, 500 McDonnell on, 262, 264, 269
Preferences, 95–96 NARAL Pro-Choice America, 379–381
Preferential treatment, 319, PVS. See Persistent vegetative
262, 263, 266
325–329 Post-Abortion Syndrome, 263, state
Preimplantation genetic
266–268, 272n Quality of life, 202–203
screening, 497 Torre-Bueno on, 267, 268 Queer theory, 180
Prejudice, 313, 354 Wicklund on, 267–268 Quickening, 234, 237, 244
Premises, 10 Wright, J., on, 269–270 Quinlan, Karen, 206–207, 221
Prenatal Nondiscrimination Profiling
hard, 323–324 R2P. See Responsibility to
Act, 236 Harris on, 323 protect
Prescription, 196–197 Muslims, 323
Prescriptive laws, 140 Operation Pipeline drug Race
Prima facie duties, 53, 125, 419 Appiah on, 312, 315, 334
Prima facie value, 419 interdiction project, 322 death penalty and, 388–389
Principle of the will, 129 racial, 310, 322, 335–336, discrimination based on,
Principle of tolerance, 59 311–315
Principle of volition, 128, 136 338–339 feeling, 334
Prisoner’s dilemma soft, 323–324 Outlaw on, 312–313
Project Tiger, 451–452 prisons and, 375–376, 383,
environment and, 436 Property rights, 363–364 384–385
ethical egoism and, 74–75, 74f Pro-social behaviors, 69 as social construct, 312, 315
Prisons Prostaglandin drugs, 235
abolitionist alternatives, Prostitution, 285, 288 Rachels, James
Protagoras, 65–66 on Down syndrome, 203
401–402 Prothero, Stephen, 29, 30 on euthanasia, 224–228
costs, 384 PSDA. See Patient Self-
Davis on, 385, 395, 401–402 Racial
Foucault on, 395 Determination Act discrimination, 311–315
population in, 375, 383 Psychological egoism, 71–74 profiling, 310, 322, 335–336,
race and, 375–376, 383, Punishment 338–339

384–385 Alexander on, 400–401 Racialism, 311, 313
reform, 376 Davis on, 401–406 Appiah on, 312, 329, 334
restoration and rehabilitation, deterrence argument, 377,
Racism
385–386 378–379 Appiah on, 329, 334
Privacy, 507–508 egalitarian equivalency, Black Lives Matter movement
Prochoice abortion advocacy and, 311
380, 391 defined, 313

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INDEX

Racism (continued) Reagan, Ronald, 382 “Relativism and Its Benefits”
education and, 313–314 Realism, 530, 531–532 (Lachs), 62–67
employment and, 314
extrinsic, 334 moral, 52–53 Religion
institutional, 313–315 Reciprocal altruism, 71, 73, 89 differences between, 21,
intrinsic, 334 Recycling, 431–433 22–23, 28–29
media and, 314–315 Redistribution, 363–364 discrimination and, 323, 325
prejudice differentiated Reductionism, 423, 424–425 diversity of, 21, 27–29
from, 313 Reeve, Christopher, 494 ethics and, 25–28
structural, 313–315 Reformist environmentalism, Gandhi on, 39–42
Young on, 333 Marx on, 33
Zack on, 329, 335–340 443–444 Plato on, 28, 34, 35–38
Regan, Tom, 474, 486 pluralism and, 28–29
“Racisms” (Appiah), 334 Regenerative medicine, 491, 494 Prothero on, 29, 30
“Radical American Regnerus, Mark, 291–292 Socrates on, 21–22, 34
Rehabilitation, 385–386 virtues, 160
Environmentalism and Rehm, Markus, 493
Wilderness Preservation: A Reiman, Jeffrey, 392 Reproductive technologies, 492,
Third World Critique” (Guha), Relationship, in ethics of 495, 496
449–455
Rand, Ayn, 351, 364 care, 176 Republic (Cicero), 141
on altruism, 70–71, 71f, 370 Relativism. See also Cultural The Republic (Plato), 77, 79–85,
on capitalism, 369–370
Rape, 280, 284 relativism 91, 235, 497
Rape, Abuse & Incest National Bloom on, 55 Rescher, Nicholas, 467
Network, 284 cultural, 26–27, 45, 46–47, Responsibility to protect (R2P),
Ratchet effect, 586–589
Rationalism, 191 60–62 534–535
Rationalization, 11 Dependency Thesis, 56, 60, 61 Responsive Communitarian
Rawls, John, 211 descriptive vs. normative,
on comprehensive doctrines, 32 Platform, 363
on economic liberalism, 363 45–46 Restorative justice, 386
equality of liberties, 360–361 diversity and, 48–50, 55–57,
on equal opportunity, 362 Conference of Catholic Bishops
on fairness, 125, 566–567 60–61 on, 385
on justice, 124, 125, 186, Diversity Thesis, 56, 57, 60
360–364, 367–368, 566 Ethical, 60 death penalty and, 392–394
on original position, 360, 361 Ladd on, 56 Retribution, 377, 379–381,
on patterning, 356, 369 metaethical, 44, 46
on pluralism, 362 Nietzsche on, 47 391–392
on political liberalism, 32, 359 open-mindedness and, 48, 50 Rice, Tamir, 309, 335
on property rights, 363–364 Pojman on, 54, 55–60 Right intention principle, 536
on redistribution, 363–364 Rorty on, 51–52 Robertson, John, 203
on social contract theory, self-contradictions and, 51–52 Robespierre, Maximillen, 538
75–76, 367 situational differences and, Roeder, Scott, 232
on veil of ignorance, 360, Roe v. Wade, 231, 232, 237,
363, 368 48–49
strong, 47–48 238, 244, 248–249
support for, 48–53 Rolston, Holmes, 467–468
tolerance and, 48, 49, 50, Rorty, Richard, 51–52, 147
Ross, W. D.
52, 59
uncertainty, 48–50 on intuitionism, 7–8
weak, 47–48 on prima facie duties, 53, 125
Roszak, Theodore, 444, 446
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 75, 181

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INDEX

Rowan, Andrew, 482–483 Secular ethics love and, 286
RU486. See Mifepristone global ethics and, 32–34 Mill, John, on, 288
Ruddick, Sara, 177 toleration and, 31–32 natural law and, 289–291
Rudolph, Eric, 232–233 nonconsequentialism and,
Rule utilitarianism, 103–104, Secular humanism, 32
Secularization, 31, 33 288–289, 292
123, 215, 217 Segregation, in social media, perverted, 290–291
Rumi, 28 pornography, 172, 281–282
Ruse, Michael, 8–9 336–337 psychological health and, 282,
Rushdie, Salman, 21 Selective nonviolence, 550
Ryan, George, 388 Self-evident truth, 145 286, 287
Ryan, Paul, 70 Self-interest, 69, 118 standards, 301–303, 305n
STDs, 281
Sachs, Jeffrey, 573 capitalism and, 357 utilitarianism and, 281,
Sacrifice, 98 ethical egoism and, 70, 74–75
Saints, 156 euthanasia argument, 222–223 287–288
Sale, Kirkpatrick, 450 global poverty and, 565 yes means yes law, 280
Saline solution abortion Selfish gene hypothesis, of Sexually transmitted diseases

method, 235 Dawkins, 6, 9 (STDs), 281
Same-sex marriages, 278– Self-sacrifice, 70–71 Shakespeare, Tom, 202–203
Sen, Amartya, 34 “The Shallow and the Deep,
279, 287, 294. See also Sentience, of animals, 469–472
Homosexuality September 11 terrorist attack, Long-Range Ecology
consequentialism and, 291–292 Movements” (Naess), 445
Finnis on, 300–303 376, 528 Sharp, Gene, 549, 550
natural law and, 292–293 Sessions, George, 425, 437, Shepard, Matthew, 324
nonconsequentialism and, 292 Sidgwick, Henry, 480
Sanders, Bernie, 345 443–449 on hedonism paradox, 73
Santorum, Rick, 207–208 Sex education, 282–283 Singer, Peter
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 147 Sex-selective abortion, 236–237 on animal experimentation,
Scalia, Antonin, 279 Sexting, 282 482–485
Scanlon, Thomas, 75, 507 Sex trafficking, 284–285 on animals, 461, 471, 474,
Schaar, John, 355 Sexual assault, 171–172 477–485
Scheindlin, Shira, 338 Sexual harassment, 321 on euthanasia, 202
Schiavo, Michael, 204 Sexuality. See also on global justice, 580–581
Schiavo, Terri, 203–204, on global poverty, 564, 573,
207, 213 Homosexuality 580–584
Schuermann, Jan, 490, 490f Aquinas on, 301–302, on speciesism, 471, 480–482
Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 384 on suffering, 481–484
Schweitzer, Albert, 57 305n, 307 on utilitarianism, 96
Scientific method, 16, 17 autonomy and, 280 on women, 480
SCNT. See Somatic cell nuclear Bentham on, 288 “The Singer Solution to World
transfer conceptual problems with, Poverty” (Singer), 580–584
The Second Sex (Beauvoir), Single nucleotide polymorphisms
179, 193 285–286 (SNPs), 498
Second Treatise on Government consequentialism and, Skepticism, 50, 56, 147
(Locke), 138, 151–154, 379 Slavery, 320, 350–351
287–288, 291–292 Slote, Michael, 179, 185
current issues, 280–285 Smith, Adam, 8, 13, 76, 92, 346
deontology and, 288–289
Freud on, 286
human nature and, 287,

289–292
Kant on, 287, 288–289

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INDEX

SNPs. See Single nucleotide Starting gate theory, 355 Symbiosis, 424
polymorphisms STDs. See Sexually transmitted Szasz, Thomas, 382

Social contract theory, diseases Taoism, 445–446, 462
100–101, 146 Steffen, Lloyd, 386, 395, Targeted killing, 540–542
Taylor, Thomas, 478
altruism and, 68, 71, 89–93 406–413 Tea Party, 345
ethical egoism and, 73–75 Steinbock, Bonnie Teen pregnancy, 282
Gauthier on, 75 Terminal sedation, 211–212
Hobbes on, 75, 78 on animals, 474 Termination of Life on Request
Pinker on, 78, 89–92 on speciesism, 471–472, 487
Rawls on, 75–76, 367 Stem cell research, 493–495, and Assisted Suicide Act,
Social cooperation, 64 Netherlands, 200
Social Darwinism, 144 502–503 Terrorism, 540–547
Social ecology, 426 Sterba, James, 71 defined, 538
Socialism, 346, 357–358 Sterling, Alton, 309 ISIS and, 529, 560
Social justice, 350–352 Stevenson, C. L. September 11 attack, 376, 528
Social media, 336–337 suicide and, 538–539
Social mobility, 348, 362 on descriptive judgments, 16 Tertullian, 587
Sociobiology, 5–6 on emotivism, 8, 13 Theism, 40
Socrates, 16, 24, 35–38 on good, 17–19 Theodicies, 29
on divine command theory, Stiglitz, Joseph, 572 “A Theory of Just Execution”
Stocker, Michael, 185 (Steffen), 406–413
26, 116 Stoicism, 116–117 A Theory of Justice (Rawls), 125,
on homosexuality, 298, 304n Stop-and-frisk policy, 322, 360–364, 367–368
on religion, 21–22, 34 Therapeutic cloning, 496
Sodomy, 278–279, 302, 305n 335–336, 340, 376 Therapy, 492, 493, 516–517
Soft universalism, 47 Straw man, 51 Thich Nhat Hanh, 551
Somatic cell nuclear transfer strong relativism, 47–48 This Common Secret
Subjectivism, 8 (Wicklund), 267
(SCNT), 495 Thomas, Laurence, 185
The Souls of Black Folk (Du Pojman on, 57–58 Thomson, Judith Jarvis, 11,
Substantial equality, 351 211, 241–242, 248–249,
Bois), 337 Suffering, 29–30, 224, 251–252, 264–265, 270–271
Sound argument, 10 Thoreau, Henry David, 24, 141,
South Carolina v. Gathers, 410 460–461, 469–470, 424, 444, 552–553
Spaceship Earth suicidal policies, 481–484 Three-strikes law, 380
Sufficiency doctrine, 355 Thucydides, 531–532
584–590 Suicide. See also Euthanasia; Tiller, George, 232, 239
ethics, 585 Physician-assisted suicide; Tillman, Pat, 155, 156, 156f
ratchet effect, 586–589 Spaceship Earth suicidal Toleration, 21
tragedy of the commons, 586 policies Habermas on, 32–33
Speciesism John Paul II on, 209 Herskovits on, 59
Singer on, 471, 480–482 Kant on, 97, 209, 218 Locke on, 31, 32
Steinbock on, 471–472, 487 terrorism and, 538–539 open-mindedness and, 50
“Speciesism and the Idea of women and, 210 paradox, 32
Summa Theologica (Aquinas),
Equality” (Steinbock), 487 142, 149–152
“Speech in Favor of Capital Sumner, William Graham, 56
Supererogatory, 352
Punishment (1868)” (Mill, Surrogate decision making, 203
John), 402–406 Sustainable development,
Sperling, John, 495 435–436

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relativism and, 48, 49, 50, Universal Declaration of INDEX
52, 59 Human Rights, 20–21, 32,
138–139, 146 Utilitarianism (Mill, John), 96,
secular ethics, 31–32 97, 105, 107–112
Tolstoy, Leo, 460 Universal ethical egoism,
Tooley, Michael, 246–247 73, 74 Utility principle, 96, 98
Torre-Bueno, Ava, 267, 268 Mill, John, on, 97, 101, 105
Torture, 139, 376, 484–485, Universalism, 47, 54 proof of, 105, 110–112
Universalization, 574
540, 545 Universe, 142, 145 “The Value of Choice and the
Cheney on, 95, 546–547 Unnatural Choice to Value: Expanding
Trade barriers, 570–571 the Discussion about Fetal
Tragedy of the commons, animals and, 289 Life within Prochoice
biotechnology as, 520–522 Advocacy” (Manninen),
435–437, 584, 586 Corvino on, 293, 306–307 261–272
Transcranial direct-current homosexuality as, 292–293,
Veatch, Henry, 144
stimulation, 493 306–307 Vegetarianism, 460–463
Transgender transitions, 280 Uterine or vacuum aspiration, Veil of ignorance, 360, 363, 368
Transgression of duty, 128 Venter, Craig, 497–498
Transhuman, 491, 514 235 Ventura, Jesse, 459
Utilitarianism, 12, 376–377 Vice, 156, 157–158, 166, 168
Bostrom on, 525–526 Vietnam War, 555–556
defining, 525 abortion and, 240–241 A Vindication of the Rights of
Transport for Female Genital Bentham on, 96–97, 288
controversies, 94–95 Women (Wollstonecraft),
Mutilation Act, 283 on death penalty, 391 179, 478
Trapping program, 458 defining, 107–112 Violence, 550
Treatise of Human Nature evaluation of, 101–102 Black Lives Matter movement
forms of, 103–104 and, 309–310
(Hume), 13, 14–15 happiness and, 97–100 downward trend in crimes
Trimester formula for abortion, 238 historical background, 96–97 of, 376
“The Triumph of Just War Theory homosexuality and, 291 against homosexuality,
influence of, 105 279–280
(and the Dangers of Success)” justifications of, 94–95 permitted, 529
(Walzer), 554–558 Mill, John, on, 96, 97, 105, against police, 309–310
Trivers, Robert, 89 against women, 171–173
Trolley problem, 102–103 107–112 Virtues, 265
Trollope, Frances, 195 moral standard, 109–110 Aquinas on, 150
Trump, Donald, 21, 345 personal integrity and, Aristotle on, 157–160, 162,
Truth, Sojourner, 480, 481 164–169
Truth and reconciliation 101–102 cardinal, 158
process, 386 pleasure and, 97–98, Confucius on, 160
Tuana, Nancy, 173 contemporary, 160–161
Turnbull, Colin, 60–61 108–109 corrective, 161
Turner v. Safley, 297 procedure for, 95 courage, 161, 162,
Tuskegee experiments, 114, 115, proof of, 105, 110–112 165–166, 168
115f, 120–121 rule, 103–104, 123, 215, 217 cross-cultural, 160–161
Tutu, Desmond, 386 sexuality and, 281, 287–288 deficiency, 158, 166, 169
Singer on, 96 deontology and, 157, 162
Unger, Peter, 581–582 trolley problem, 102–103
United States v. Windsor, virtues and, 157, 162
weighing consequences,
279, 293
95–96

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INDEX

Virtues, (continued) Warren, Mary Anne, 247, 249, equality for, 146, 193
effort and, 162, 169–170 272n Freud on, 176, 177
egoism and, 76–78 Mill, John, on, 96–97
evaluating, 161–163 Waste disposal, 431–433 Post-Abortion Syndrome, 263,
excess, 158, 166, 169 Watts, Jonathan, 444–445
Foot on, 161, 162 Weak relativism, 47–48 266–268, 272n
function of person, 164–165 Weapons of mass destruction sexual objectification of, 172
intellectual, 159–160, 165 Singer on, 480
Kant on, 162 (WMDs), 528, 542–544 suicide and, 210
MacIntyre on, 161–162 Weber v. Kaiser Aluminum, 321 violence against, 171–173
as mean, 158, 162, 167–168 “What ‘White Privilege’ Really virtues, 181
Mill, John, on, 111–112, 162 World Bank, 567, 568, 569,
moral, 161, 165 Means” (Yancy), 335
natural law and, 165 Whitbeck, Caroline, 177 571, 572
nature of, 158–159, 164, Whitehead, Alfred North, 3 World Health Organization
166–167 White Privilege and Black Rights
religious, 160 (WHO), 236, 283
utilitarianism and, 157, 162 (Zack), 329, 335–340 World Trade Organization (WTO),
women and, 161 WHO. See World Health
571, 572
“Virtue Theory and Abortion” Organization World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 452
(Hursthouse), 265 Whole brain death, 205–206 The Wretched of the Earth
“Who’s to Judge” (Pojman),
Voltaire, 145–146 (Fanon), 570
Voluntary euthanasia, 206, 55–62 Wright, Joseph, 269–270
“Why Abortion Is Immoral” Wright, Robert, 574
207–208 “The Wrongfulness of
moral significance of, 214–216, (Marquis), 252–260
Wicklund, Susan, 267–268 Euthanasia” (Gay-Williams),
216t Wilberforce, William, 59 221–224
types of, 213, 214f Wilderness protection, 433–434, WTO. See World Trade
Voluntary motion, 85 Organization
Voting Rights Act, 321 449–455 WuDunn, Sheryl, 172–173
Wildlife Services, 458 WWF. See World Wildlife Fund
Walker, Lenore, 268 Williams, Bernard, 187, 355
Walker, Margaret Urban, 196 Wilson, E. O., 5–6, 60 Xenotransplantation, 509
Walzer, Michael, 554–558 Wisdom, 161
War, 75, 88. See also Just war Wittig, Monique, 193 Yamanaka, Shinya, 502
WMDs. See Weapons of mass Yancy, George, 335
theory Yanukovych, Viktor, 549
crimes, 544–546 destruction yes means yes law, 280
Iraq, 535 Wolf, Naomi, 172 Yoo, John, 546
Vietnam, 555–556 Wolf, Susan, 156, 187, 196 Young, Iris Marion, 197, 329, 333
Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Wollstonecraft, Mary, 179, 478 Yousafzai, Malala, 171, 172f
Women, 179, 478. See also
Antonio, 331n Zack, Naomi, 329, 335–340
Warren, Karen J., 426 Abortion; Feminism Zimmerman, George, 309
Aristotle on, 181
combat roles, 319
diversity and, 180, 193
economic inequality, 348

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