History The Past as you've Never Seen it Before

1 million There were at least this many people living No women, even the free born, could 49
in the city of Rome by the 1st century ce. vote or hold office in ancient Rome.

THE ROMAN North Early emperors of Rome
EMPIRE Sea
Although Julius Caesar never became emperor
At its greatest BRITAIN of Rome, his adopted son and heir Octavian did,
extent in 117 ce, ruling with the title Augustus. He was the first in
the Roman Empire a long line of emperors. Some were strong and
covered about skilled statesmen, but others abused their power.
5 million sq km
(2 million sq miles) ATLANTIC Rhine Danube Caspia
and included tens OCEAN
of millions of GAUL
people. n Sea
I TA Black Sea

SPAIN Corsica L Byzantium
Y MACEDONIA A S I A
Rome

Sardinia MINOR

Medit e r Sicily Crete SYRIA
Carthage
NORTH AFRICA ran an Se Cyprus Jerusalem
e Alexandria ARABIA
a

Key Augustus (27 bce–14 ce) Caligula (37–41 ce)
Ruling for more than Known for his cruelty,
Extent of Roman territory at the EGYPT 40 years, Augustus was Caligula was one of
death of Julius Caesar in 44 one of Rome’s most many Roman emperors
Extent of Roman Empire at the Nile successful emperors. to be assassinated.
death of Augustus in 14
Roman Empire at its greatest 0 500 1,000 km
extent in 117
Territory gained and lost 0 250 500 miles
between 14 and 117

Emperor Heart of the empire Claudius (41–54 ce) Nero (54–68 ce)
The most powerful person A great administrator, Later Roman historians
in the Roman Empire. At its height the Roman Empire Claudius expanded the gave Nero a reputation
stretched 4,000 km (2,500 miles) east Roman Empire by for being a cruel and
Senators to west and 3,700 km (2,300 miles) conquering Britain. selfish emperor.
Rich and powerful lawmakers north to south. The central hub of this
who governed Rome. vast civilization was the city of Rome,
which by the 1st century ce had more
Equestrians than 1 million inhabitants.
Noble families, who were often
wealthy and influential.

Plebeians
Working people, such as
labourers and merchants.

Freedmen
Former slaves who had
been granted freedom.

Slaves
Slaves had no rights,
and were owned by
their masters.

Roman society Rome in 100 ce Trajan (98–117 ce) Hadrian (117–138 ce)
By the end of the 1st century ce, the The soldier-emperor In Hadrian’s reign, a
The people of the Roman empire had different rights city of Rome was filled with palaces, Trajan expanded the massive wall was built
depending on their place in society. At the bottom were temples, theatres, public baths, Roman Empire to its in Britain to mark the
slaves, who often came from conquered foreign nations monuments, and amphitheatres. greatest extent. limit of the empire.
outside of Rome. At the top were the noble-born families
of the equestrians and senators, as well as the emperor.

70 ce 113 ce From 122 ce 286 ce 312–330 ce 476 ce

The Colosseum is begun Trajan’s column Hadrian’s Wall The Eastern and The rule of The fall of Rome
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, known This marble column in Built to protect Roman Western Roman Constantine From the late 4th
as Vespasian, founded the Flavian Rome celebrates the Britain from northern tribes empires The emperor century ce, the
Dynasty in 69 ce. He ruled for military victories of in modern-day Scotland, Near the end of the Constantine Western Roman
10 years, but is best known Emperor Trajan. Hadrian’s Wall was 118 km 3rd century ce, the founded the city Empire declined in
for beginning construction of the It was completed in (73 miles) long. The wall vast Roman Empire of Constantinople, power, unable to
Colosseum in Rome. He was the first 113 ce and inspired had a fort every 8 km split in two, with the which became prevent the advance
many later victory and (5 miles) along its length. western half ruled the capital of the of powerful tribes
Roman emperor to memorial columns, from Milan and Eastern Roman from western and
pass the throne such as Nelson’s Ravenna and the Empire. He also central Europe.
on to his son. Column in Trafalgar eastern half ruled became the first The last western
Square, London. from Nicomedia at emperor to emperor, Romulus
first and later from convert to Augustulus, was
Constantinople Christianity, but overthrown by a
(modern-day only did so on Germanic king
Istanbul). his deathbed. in 476 ce.

Cloak Galea The Roman army 50 the ancient world THE ROMAN ARMY
In warm weather, a A legionary’s helmet,
or galea, was made The army of the Roman Empire was the most effective
legionary’s cloak of iron with bronze fighting force of the ancient world. Unlike most of
was rolled up in a decorations. their enemies, Roman soldiers were highly trained
bag. It was used as and made their living from being in the army.
a blanket at night.
The finest soldiers were heavily armed citizen footsoldiers
Loculus called legionaries. They joined up at the age of about 18,
Soldiers stored their and served for the next 25 years. Constant training,
personal belongings and marching with heavy equipment, kept them fit.
Legionaries were labourers as well as fighters. They built
in a leather satchel temporary camps, as well as forts and roads. Alongside
called a loculus. the legionaries were non-citizen soldiers called
auxiliaries (helpers), who were lightly armed and
Situla fought as archers, slingshot wielders, and cavalry
The situla was an (soldiers on horseback).
iron cooking pot.
Focale
Faix This woollen scarf
A long sickle known stopped the soldier’s
as a faix was used to cut armour from rubbing
down corn from fields. against his neck.

Ration bag Lorica segmentata
A net bag carried enough This armour was made
of overlapping metal
food to feed the soldier plates so that the
for three days. soldier could move
and bend freely.
Dolabra
Soldiers used this Pilum Even with their packs, legionaries could
pickaxe to cut down This javelin could be march 35 km (22 miles) in five hours.
trees and to dig ditches. thrown at distant
enemies before they
Turf cutter came in range of the
This tool was used to build soldier’s sword.
a low earth wall to protect
Pugio
the army’s camp. This small dagger
Cingulum militare could be used as a
secondary weapon.
This belt, hung with leather strips
studded with metal, was also worn Furca
when the soldier was out of uniform. The soldier used this
pole to carry his pack
on the march.

Marching equipment Tunic The total number of soldiers
Soldiers wore a
On the march, each legionary carried short-sleeved, 375,000 in the Roman army in 117 ce.
his own equipment and supplies, in a knee-length woollen
“sarcina” (pack) carried on a pole slung tunic underneath
over his shoulder. The sarcina included their armour.
food rations and a sickle for reaping
corn, as well as a pickaxe and turf Scutum
cutter to help build a new camp at This rectangular
the end of every day’s march. curved shield was
made of wood
Gladius covered in leather.
The gladius was a short,
stabbing sword used in The number of legionaries
close-quarters fighting.
165,000 in the Roman army in 117 ce.
“Then they advance, all

marching in silence

and in good order, each man

keeping his place

in the ranks, as if in face of the enemy”

Josephus, Description of the Roman Army, 70 ce

Caligae
The soles of these
heavy sandals were

reinforced with
iron nails.

A Roman legion Lesser cohorts Cavalry unit Roman cavalry 51
The second to tenth cohorts were made Each legion was supported The soldiers who made up
The Roman army was split by a cavalry unit made up the Roman cavalry were
into legions. In 117 ce, when the Roman up of 500 men each, with the tenth of 120 skilled horse riders. skilled horse riders who
Empire reached its greatest extent, there cohort being the least experienced. were able to fight from
were 30 Roman legions spread throughout the back of a horse.
the empire. Each had a number and a
name, which might have been the country
its soldiers came from or a nickname, such
as “Fulminata” (lightning hurler). One
legion was made up of 5,500 men, split
into 10 divisions called cohorts. These
cohorts in turn were divided into
centuries, smaller units of 100 men.
Each legion also had a unit of cavalry,
who served as scouts and messengers.

First cohort

The first cohort was made up of

800 men, who were the most

experienced soldiers in the legion.

52 the ancient world ROMAN DAILY LIFE 1 million The population of the
city of Rome in 1 ce.
Roman daily life Atrium
The atrium (entrance hall), where
There were big differences between the lives of visitors were greeted, was the
rich and poor people in the Roman Empire. While most public part of the house.
the wealthy had lives of luxury, the poor often The compluvium, an opening in
lived in small rooms in badly built slum blocks. the roof, let in light. Beneath,
rainwater collected in the
In a traditional upper-class Roman family, the oldest impluvium, an ornamental pool.
male was known as the paterfamilias (father of the family).
He often owned a town house, called a domus, and a
country house or villa. While the villa was a place to relax
and go hunting, the domus was where the paterfamilias
did business and socialized. Every morning he received a
stream of visitors, who were often less wealthy Romans
coming to ask favours. The family was served by many
slaves, who did all the housework, acting as maids and
cooks. The slaves lived in small, simple rooms around
the courtyard at the back of the domus.

A Roman domus

The plan for this Roman domus
is based on evidence found at
Pompeii, where many houses were
preserved when they were buried
by a volcanic eruption in 79 ce.

Ianua and vestibulum
The front door (ianua)

opened into a small
entryway (vestibulum)
that was closed off from

the main domus.

Taberna
The parts of the domus
facing the street were rented
out as tabernas (shops).
These were often run by
former slaves of the family.

44,850 The number of apartment 53
blocks in Rome in 315 ce.

Peristylum
Romans loved gardens, and a
domus often had a peristylum,
a courtyard filled with plants or
sometimes featuring a small pool.

Latrina
The latrina (toilet) was
cleaned out using waste
water from the kitchen.

Culina
Slaves cooked all the
meals, which were
prepared over a charcoal
fire in the culina (kitchen).

Tablinum
At the centre of the domus,
the tablinum was an office,
where the paterfamilias
conducted his business.

Triclinium
The dining room (triclinium) was
named after the three couches
on which diners reclined to eat.
They leant on their left elbow
and ate with their right hand.

Cubiculum High-rise living
The cubiculum (bedroom)
was not just where family In Rome and other big cities, the poor lived
members slept. It was also in towering apartment blocks called insulae
a place for private meetings (meaning “islands”). Often badly and cheaply
with important visitors. built, they were at constant risk of fire and
sudden collapse. The tallest could reach
nine storeys in height.

Lararium
Every home had a small
shrine called a lararium,
where offerings were made
each day to the gods who
watched over the family.

Concrete walls
A Roman invention, concrete was
a cheap building material. Early
concrete was made of rubble held
together with a material called
lime (which means “sticking”).
Volcanic ash was added to the
mix to help prevent cracks.

54 the ancient world GERMANIC PEOPLES 3 The number of days the Visigoths
spent plundering Rome.
Germanic peoples
RELATIONSHIP WITH ROME
In 250 bce, hundreds of tribes were living in a region known
to the Romans as Germania (in Scandinavia and eastern Europe). For more than 600 years, the Germanic tribes
Many were nomads and migrated across large distances, were at odds with the Roman Empire. In the 4th
forming new kingdoms and battling old empires as they century ce, people known as the Huns migrated
roamed across the continent. into Germania, forcing several tribes to move

Germanic people settled across modern-day Germany, Scandinavia, into lands occupied by the Roman Empire.
France, Britain, Spain, and North Africa. They lived outside and near Some tribes settled peacefully and traded with
the borders of the Roman Empire. The Germanic tribes were not united the Romans, as well as adopting their values
and often fought among themselves, as well as with the Roman Empire.
During the 4th and 5th centuries ce, after several rebellions and wars, and traditions. But they started to rebel and
the tribes contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Over the invade more land, and also attacked Rome
next 300 years, small Germanic kingdoms formed across Europe and several times.
would later grow into some of the major European kingdoms of
the medieval period. Chieftain Arminius
In 9 ce, in
GERMANIC PAGANISM Teutoburg Forest
in modern-day
The many Germanic tribes had their own religious western Germany,
beliefs. They worshipped many gods that chieftain Arminius
represented nature and the world defeated invading
around them. These beliefs Roman legions.
are collectively known as
Germanic paganism.
They also believed in
supernatural beings,
such as elves, sprites,
and dragons. As the
tribes migrated across
Europe, each tribe’s
religious beliefs
changed over time.

Torslunda plates
Cast in bronze, the
Torslunda plates were
found in Sweden in 1870.
Historians think that they
show scenes from
Germanic mythology.

GERMANIC TRIBES Vandals Suebi Goths

The Germanic people formed The Vandal tribe of Scandinavia The Suebi were a collection of tribes, The Goths were made up of two
many tribes across Europe, migrated through mainland Europe. including the Marcomanni, Quadi, and tribal groups – the eastern Goths,
from Scandinavia in the north They settled in North Africa in the Lombards. They settled along the known as the Ostrogoths, and the
to the Black Sea in the south. 5th century ce, where chieftain banks of the River Elbe in central western Goths, known as the
After the fall of the Roman Genseric started the Vandal Kingdom. Europe, as well as Visigoths. In 410 ce, Goth leader
Empire in 476 ce, some of venturing west Alaric I successfully attacked and
these tribes established the VANDALS PLUNDER ROME, 455 ce to modern-day plundered Rome. In the late
first Germanic kingdoms. Spain where 5th century, Theodoric the Great
some tribes formed an Ostrogothic empire
established the in modern-day Italy.
Kingdom of
the Suebi. THE MAUSOLEUM
OF THEODORIC
SUEBIAN STATUE OF
A PRAYING MAN

Some Germanic warriors believed that pendants Germanic prophets, known as soothsayers, 55
worn on their swords could heal wounds. performed rituals at sacred locations, such as groves.

WARFARE AND KINGS AND CHIEFTAINS
WEAPONS
Germanic tribes were ruled by skilled warriors.
Germanic warriors were fearless These chieftains led by example and gained reputations
fighters. They used iron to make as fierce warlords. After centuries of war with the
swords, but iron was scarce, and declining Roman Empire, the nomadic tribes settled and
their swords were weaker than claimed land. Their rulers changed from chieftains into
the steel weapons used by the monarchs, reigning over their new territories.
Roman Empire. They were also
armed with lances, wooden Germanic chieftain
clubs, and darts. It was rare for a Clovis I was a
Germanic warrior to wear armour, chieftain before he
and most carried a shield made became the first
from wicker or wooden planks. king of the Franks
in 482 ce. He was
Sutton Hoo helmet baptized as a
A 7th-century Germanic helmet Christian in 496 ce.

discovered at a burial site
called Sutton Hoo in Britain was

made from iron and copper.

GERMANIC SOCIETY Mead hall People in Germanic society had a value
Large one-room buildings in gold known as weregild based
At first, Germanic tribes were clan-based, with related called mead halls, also known
families forming small settlements of wooden houses. They as feasting halls, were places on their social status.
grew crops and reared animals for food. Over the centuries, where tribespeople and
as populations grew and the need for protection increased, warriors celebrated with If they were killed or injured, their family
military chieftains and lords came to power, with younger their lord or chieftain. would receive payment from the attacker.
warriors pledging loyalty to their leader.

Anglo-Saxons Lombards Franks

The Anglo-Saxon tribes migrated From the 6th to The Franks spread from modern-day
from northern Germany the 8th centuries, western Germany into Belgium and
into Britain from the 5th the Lombard tribe France. Charlemagne formed the
to the 6th centuries. split from the Carolingian
Several Anglo-Saxon Suebi tribes Empire, one
languages merged and started the of the most
and became known Kingdom of powerful
as “Old English”. the Lombards, kingdoms
occupying most of in western
ANGLO-SAXON modern-day Italy. Europe.
PENDANT, 600 CE
LOTHAR I, KING OF CHARLEMAGNE,
THE LOMBARDS KING OF THE
FRANKS



THE MEDIEVAL WORLD

In the 1,000 years between the 5th and 15th centuries, the collapse
of the Roman Empire fractured Europe into rival kingdoms. China,
and new Islamic empires spreading from the Middle East, went
through golden ages of art and science. In Japan, warlords took over
the empire, eventually leading to a century of civil war. New cultures
emerged in the Americas, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific.

58 the medieval world TIMELINE OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD

SAMURAI ARMOUR c.1190: Mesa Verde Cliff Palace 13th century: Maori
AND WEAPONS The ancestral Puebloans, a arrive in New Zealand
people of southwest North The Polynesian people known as
America, built a settlement ANCESTRAL PUEBLOAN the Maori settled on the islands
WOVEN BASKET of New Zealand, which they
now known as Cliff Palace in called Aotearoa, meaning
a rock face at Mesa Verde “land of the long white cloud”.
in modern-day Colorado.

MAORI MASK

1185: Warlords rule Japan 12th century: Great Zimbabwe KRAK DES
With the support of his The Kingdom of Zimbabwe in CHEVALIERS
samurai armies, the military southeast Africa built a capital
leader Minamoto Yoritomo city known as Great Zimbabwe.
came to power in Japan. This Its towers were the tallest structures
led to more than 400 years in sub-Saharan Africa until the arrival
of conflict as rival warlords of Europeans in the 15th century.
fought for control of Japan.

BIRD SCULPTURE
AT GREAT
ZIMBABWE

Timeline of the CHARLEMAGNE 802–1431: The Khmer Empire
medieval world The people of the Khmer
Empire in Southeast Asia
In Europe, with the fall of the Roman Empire, constructed hundreds of
ancient knowledge was lost and regional temples at their capital
rulers fought each other for dominance. But city of Angkor, in
across Asia and the Americas, old and new modern-day Cambodia.
empires continued to expand and flourish.
800: The Holy Roman Empire ANGKOR TEMPLE SCULPTURE
Belief in Christianity took hold across Europe, while Charlemagne was crowned
the new religion of Islam quickly spread out from the first emperor of the
the Middle East into North Africa and southern Holy Roman Empire, a
Spain. Conflict between the two religions led to group of territories in
centuries of warfare. Elsewhere, the great cultures west and central Europe.
of China and India spread their influence into
Southeast Asia, while the Pacific Islands were 794–1185: The Heian Period
settled by Polynesians. Great civilizations arose in During the Heian Period, a
the Americas, isolated from the rest of the world
until the arrival of Europeans in the 15th century. high point of Japanese culture,
literature and the arts flourished

at the imperial court and
Buddhism continued to spread

throughout Japan.

HEIAN PERIOD BUDDHIST STATUE

527–565: Justinian I MISSISSIPIAN JABAL AL-NOUR c.610: Islam begins
The eastern portion of the Roman CULTURE According to Islamic belief,
Empire survived the fall of Rome the prophet Muhammad
in 476 ce, and continued on as the DECORATED POT began preaching Islam after
Byzantine Empire. One of its most being visited by an angel at
successful emperors, Justinian I, From c.600: Mississippian culture a cave in a mountain now
sent armies that conquered parts In North America, Native American known as Jabal al-Nour (the
of North Africa, Spain, and Italy. tribes living in the Mississippi Valley “Mountain of the Light”).
region built giant earth mounds and
traded in pottery and woven items.

JUSTINIAN I

59

MONGOL 1206–1368: The Mongol Empire SONGHAI 1368–1644: The Ming Dynasty MING PORCELAIN
QUIVER The Mongol tribes of Central TOMB Ming China produced highly VASE
prized porcelain pottery. The
Asia, united under the c.1335–1591: The Songhai Empire
leadership of Genghis Khan, The Muslim Songhai Empire was Ming also took on great building
conquered large areas of one of the largest states in African projects, such as the Forbidden
Asia, the Middle East, and history. It controlled all trade along
Europe, creating one of the the River Niger in West Africa. City in Beijing and the rebuilding
largest empires in history. of the Great Wall of China.

1095–1291: The Crusades 1054: The East–West Schism
Christian armies from Europe set out The Roman Catholic Church and the
on a series of holy wars known as Eastern Orthodox Church separated
the Crusades. Their aim was to conquer in an event known to historians as the
cities in the Holy Land (in the Middle East-West Schism. The Hagia Sophia
East) that were under Muslim control. cathedral in Constantinople became
The Crusaders built or captured many the centre of Orthodox Christianity.
castles, such as Krak des Chevaliers.
HAGIA SOPHIA

960–1279: The Song Dynasty c.1000: Vikings land in America LEIF ERIKSON
During the Song Dynasty, the The Viking explorer Leif Erikson and
Chinese economy boomed and his crew became the first Europeans
the population of China doubled to set foot on the east coast of North
from 50 million to 100 million. Like America. They named the area they
the Tang emperors before them, the
Song were great patrons of the arts. explored Vinland, after the
grapevines they found there.

SONG DYNASTY COIN

VIKING 793: The Vikings raid Lindisfarne THE CITY OF
HELMET A seafaring people from Scandinavia BAGHDAD
known as the Vikings raided a
Christian monastery on Lindisfarne, 750-1258: The
an island off the coast of England. For Abbasid Dynasty
the next three centuries, the Vikings The Abbasids oversaw a
launched attacks against coastal period of learning, art, and
settlements throughout Europe. culture across the Islamic
world. They ruled from the
new city of Baghdad.

618–907: The Tang Dynasty THE MEZQUITA OF CÓRDOBA c.718–1492: The Spanish Reconquista
Under the rulers of the Tang The Moors, an Islamic people of North
TANG STATUE OF A DANCER Dynasty, China experienced Africa, invaded southern Spain in the
a Golden Age of cultural and 8th century. They converted many
artistic achievement. The Tang churches, such as the Mezquita in
set up academies to promote Córdoba, into mosques. The Spanish
arts such as pottery making, drove out the Moors after a series of wars
scroll painting, and poetry. known as the Reconquista (“reconquest”).

the medieval world 1760 Joan of Arc’s age when she led French
THE POWER OF THE CHURCH troops into battle against the English.

Timeline 313–380 ce 597 Augustine of Canterbury 711–1492
A group of monks led by
Medieval Christianity Christianity endorsed AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY Augustine journeyed from Spanish Reconquista
by Rome Rome to England on a mission At the start of the 8th century,
As empires rose and kingdoms At first, Romans treated Joan of Arc to spread Christianity in 597. Muslim people known as
fell, Christianity endured and Christians with violence, Joan of Arc, a peasant Augustine became the first Moors invaded modern-day
became increasingly powerful. as the Christians refused girl, believed she was Archbishop of Canterbury, Spain and Portugal. From the
Christianity helped to build to worship Roman gods. chosen by God to help converting thousands of English early 8th century to the end of
kingdoms, mighty institutions, However, in 313 ce, attitudes people to Christianity, including the 15th century, the Christian
and spread new ways of started to change when drive the invading King Ethelbert of Kent. kingdoms of Spain battled the
thinking. However, it also Emperor Constantine I English from France. In Muslim Moor armies for
sparked violent wars and granted religious freedom to control of the region. The
created divides between all Christians in the Roman 1429, she led French conflict lasted for more than
empires and cultures. Empire. Later, in 380 ce, armies against English 700 years and is known
Emperor Theodosius I made troops and helped win as the Spanish Reconquista.
Christianity the official
religion of the Roman Empire. many battles.

The power Aachen Cathedral
of the Church Built under the rule of
Charlemagne in the late 8th
From its beginnings in the 1st century ce, the century, Aachen Cathedral is the
religion of Christianity began to spread from oldest cathedral in northern
the Middle East, eventually reaching Europe and was inspired by
Europe. The teachings of the Christian eastern Roman architecture.
Church became a part of everyday life.
AACHEN
For its first 1,000 years, the Church was unified and
was led from Rome by a religious leader known as
the Pope. This Roman Catholic Church influenced all
aspects of medieval society, from the courts of kings
and queens to the daily routines of peasants. As it
grew in power, the Church gained wealth and began
to control large areas of land. It built elaborate
places of worship, helped to care for the sick,
and provided education. It also helped to raise
armies for war and influenced powerful monarchs.

AVIGNON

Palais des Papes
Between 1309 and 1377
Pope Clement V temporarily
moved the headquarters
of the Roman Catholic
Church from Rome to the
Palais des Papes in Avignon
in France because of
political unrest in Rome.

CÓRDOBA The Mezquita
When the Muslim Moors invaded modern-day
Spain in the 8th century, they captured Christian
cathedrals such as the Mezquita in Córdoba. It was
adapted into an elaborate mosque. In the 13th
century, when Christians regained Córdoba, it
was converted back into a cathedral.

30 The number of years it took to build 1.3 billion The approximate number of 61
Old St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Catholics in the world today.

800 1054 1084–c.1250 1095–1291 1455

HOLY ROMAN The East–West Schism Different factions emerge The Crusades The Gutenberg Bible
EMPEROR In the middle of the 11th During the 11th to the 13th In 1095, Pope Urban II called During the Printing Revolution, the
century, the Roman Catholic centuries, several religious for the Christian armies of first mass-produced book was a
CHARLEMAGNE Church, based in Rome, and orders emerged from Europe to invade the sacred Bible made by printing pioneer
the Eastern Orthodox Church, monasteries throughout cities of the Holy Land in the Johannes Gutenberg. It had 1,286
Charlemagne crowned based in Constantinople, Europe and the Middle East. Middle East, which were at pages that filled two volumes. The
In 800 ce, the Frankish king, separated. This was caused These new orders, such as the that time under the control expensive Bibles were bought by
Charlemagne, was crowned by years of arguments over Cistercians, Carthusians, and of Muslim empires. Over the wealthy church leaders.
Holy Roman Emperor by Pope interpretations of the Bible Carmelites, focused on a next 200 years, several wars
Leo III. Charlemagne’s Holy and cultural differences solitary existence, taking vows between Christian and
Roman Empire included most between the Roman West of silence and living simple, Muslim armies, known as the
of western and central Europe. and the Greek East. disciplined, and spiritual lives. Crusades, raged across the
Middle East.

GUTENBERG
BIBLE

Old St. Peter’s Basilica Christian Europe
Old St. Peter’s Basilica was built in the
4th century ce. It was one of the most The Roman Catholic Church was based
important centres of the Roman Catholic in Rome, with its headquarters at Old St.
Church and the largest church in the Peter’s Basilica from the 4th century ce.
world. It became a sacred destination The building was demolished and replaced
for pilgrimage and religious ceremonies. with the current St. Peter’s Basilica in the
16th century. The Eastern Orthodox
Church, which split from Rome in the
11th century, was based in the city of
Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).

Vladimir the Great’s baptism
The Grand Prince of Kiev,

Vladimir the Great, converted
to Christianity in 988 ce and

helped spread the religion
across eastern Europe.

CHERSONESUS

Hagia Sophia
Built during the reign of
Byzantine ruler Justinian I
in the 6th century, the
Hagia Sophia cathedral in
Constantinople was the centre
of Orthodox Christianity.

CONSTANTINOPLE

ROME

Montecassino
The hilltop monastery at
Montecassino was founded
in the 6th century. It is home
to one of the first orders of
monks – the Benedictines.

The Byzantine
Empire

In 395 ce, the Roman Empire was
divided in two. The Western Roman
Empire was captured by barbarians
in 476 ce, but the Eastern Roman
Empire survived, and became
known as the Byzantine Empire.

The Byzantine Empire was named after
Byzantium, the original name of its capital,
Constantinople (now Istanbul in present-
day Turkey). At its height the Byzantine
Empire stretched from southern Spain to
the Middle East. Its people were devoutly
Christian, spoke Greek, and referred to
themselves as Romans. The Byzantine
Empire was invaded by barbarians and
nearby empires many times, but it
endured for almost 1,500 years.

527–565 600–900
Emperor Justinian I The Byzantine
was crowned in 527. Empire lost some
During his reign, he of its territory
led many successful to nearby Muslim
military campaigns empires and to
to conquer parts of invaders from
North Africa and Italy. Europe and Persia.

976–1025 1054
Emperor Basil II ruled The Byzantine Empire
split from the Roman
over a golden age in Catholic Church and
which the Byzantine formed the Eastern
Empire grew wealthy, Orthodox Church.
produced great works
of art and literature, 1204
and strengthened its The Byzantine Empire’s
alliance with European
military might. kings dissolved and
the Crusaders attacked
1095–1204 and plundered the city
The Byzantine of Constantinople.
Empire allied with The empire became
European kings severely weakened.
during the Crusades,
a series of military
campaigns against
the Muslim empires.

1204–1453
The Byzantine Empire
grew even weaker after

constant invasions.
Now just a city-state,

Constantinople was
conquered by the

Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Byzantine empress
This mosaic depicts Empress Theodora (in

the middle wearing a brown robe and a
jewelled crown decorated with sapphires

and emeralds) and other ladies of the
Byzantine royal court. Theodora married

Emperor Justinian I and together they
ruled over the Byzantine Empire.



64 the medieval world MEDIEVAL JAPAN Samurai swords were so strong that
they could cut through armour.

EARLY JAPAN Medieval ERA OF THE SHOGUNS
Japan
From 11,000 bce, during the Jomon During the Heian period, wealthy
Period, clans of people lived in small From the end of the 12th century to landowners hired warriors to protect
settlements on the islands of Japan and the beginning of the 17th century, their land. These warriors became known
created simple pottery. Around 10,000 Japan experienced a turbulent as the samurai. After the Genpei War, in
years later, in the Yayoi Period, the clans period of civil war, power struggles, the late 12th century, the victorious
mined bronze and iron, and farmed rice. and foreign intervention. Minamoto clan set up the first shogunate
(a government controlled by a military
The Kofun Period (300–552 ce) Military leaders came to power in Japan, dictator) and claimed power. Over the
supposedly ruling in the name of the next 400 years, civil wars raged across
The Kofun Period is now known for the emperor. These leaders took control Japan as rival clans tirelessly battled
elaborate burial mounds that were built for of the country, setting up military each other for territory and power.
the era’s leaders. The tombs were created in governments, called shogunates, that
several designs, including special keyhole ruled Japan for more than 400 years. Castles
shapes. Haniwa – cylinder-shaped figurines The leaders of these governments
crafted from clay – were buried with the dead. were known as the shoguns, and they Japanese castles were initially built in
commanded armies of loyal warriors important strategic positions, such as along
DAISEN KOFUN NEAR OSAKA, known as samurai. Warfare between the trade routes and next to major rivers. They
THE LARGEST KOFUN TOMB IN JAPAN samurai clans broke out regularly, as rival later became the official residences of lords
leaders competed for control. Yet amid and their samurai followers. The castle itself
The Asuka Period (552–710) the civil wars and social chaos, Japanese stood at the heart of a complex of buildings
culture and art continued to flourish. that were built to govern the local lands.
Japanese society began to change during the
Asuka Period. Buddhism arrived from Korea JAPANESE SOCIETY Himeji Castle
and started to spread with the help of the The Himeji Castle complex was
Soga clan, who rose to power and dominated Under the samurai, everyone in Japan had made up of more than 80 buildings
Japan until 645. different rights and privileges, depending and was protected by an imposing
upon their role in society. The social system stone base and several moats.
A new name was similar to that of Europe, but here,
During the Asuka peasants were seen as an important part THE UNIFICATION
Period, the islands of society, because farmers and fishermen OF JAPAN
became known as provided food for everyone to eat.
Nippon, which means Merchants were looked on less favourably, During the second half of the 16th century,
“land of the rising sun”. as they produced nothing and profited three influential daimyo, Oda Nobunaga,
from the work of others. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu,
helped to bring an end to the civil wars, and
The Nara Period Emperor finally united the warring clans of Japan.
(710–794) Although the emperor was seen by Tokugawa Ieyasu established the last
the Japanese as the supreme ruler, shogunate of Japan, bringing all of the
During the short Nara Period, he lacked any real power. regional lords under his control.
Buddhism grew in popularity and
became a mainstream religion Shogun
across Japan. Large Buddhist Officially the emperor’s second-in-
temples were built, such as the command, the shogun made most of
one at Todaiji. The era was also the political decisions.
known for its poetry and
historical literature. Daimyo
Influential landowners, the daimyo
NARA BUDDHIST STATUE swore loyalty to the shogun and
employed samurai to guard their land.
The Heian Period
(794–1185) Samurai
These elite Japanese warriors served
The Heian Period was the and protected their masters and their
community, living by a code of honour.
high point of the imperial
Peasants and craftworkers
court and early Japanese The samurai protected those below
them in return for food, weapons,
culture. Literature flourished, armour, and other goods.

with female writers such as Merchants and servants
All classes of the community were
Murasaki Shikibu and Sei served by people who bought and
sold goods.
Shonagon producing works MURASAKI SHIKIBU
that are still read today. WRITING THE TALE OF

GENJI, c.1020

10% The estimated amount of the Japanese 7 The number of virtues the samurai were expected to possess. 65
population that belonged to the samurai class. They included honesty, courage, loyalty, and honour.

The samurai Timeline Japan under the samurai

The name samurai means “one who 1192 When Minamoto Yoritomo
serves”. The samurai were soldiers became the first shogun, the
who loyally supported their shoguns 1274 and 1281 elite warrior class of samurai
and protected the lands of their lords. rose to power. This led to more
They followed a strict code of conduct, than 400 years of conflict as
known as Bushido. The sword was an rival samurai warlords battled
important part of samurai culture and with each other for power.
represented their status.
Minamoto Yoritomo
Culture and the arts becomes shogun
After defeating rival clans, Minamoto
New traditions and art forms Yoritomo established the Kamakura
developed during the medieval period. Shogunate, taking the political power
Decorative arts, such as garden design, away from the emperor. Yoritomo’s
flower arranging, and calligraphy authority relied on the samurai.
(handwriting) flourished. The rituals
of the tea ceremony, originally from The Mongols invade
China, took on a distinctly Japanese Having conquered China, Mongol
form. Plays and performance arts, leader Kublai Khan set his sights on
such as Noh dance-dramas, also Japan. He amassed a huge fleet and
became popular. tried to invade by sea on two
occasions. However, the samurai and
a series of devastating storms made
the Mongols retreat both times.

Masks 1331–1333 Genko War
Noh masks were Emperor Go-Daigo attacked the
crafted from wood. 1338 Kamakura Shogunate with the help of
They were carved the shogun’s rivals. A civil war broke
so that, depending 1467–1477 out, known as the Genko War, and the
on the position of Kamakura Shogunate was defeated.
the actor and the 1543
stage lighting, Ashikaga Shogunate
the expressions The Kamakura Shogunate were
and moods looked betrayed by one of their own
different to the generals, Ashikaga Takauji, who then
audience. stole power from Emperor Go-Daigo
and established the Ashikaga
MASK OF AN Shogunate in Kyoto.
OLD MAN
Onin War
MASK OF A WOMAN The Onin War started an era of civil
war and unrest across Japan known as
the Sengoku or “Warring States” period.
Japan divided into regional warring
clans battling for dominance.

Japanese firearms
When Portuguese sailors arrived in
Japan with firearms, Japanese
engineers studied the weapons and
started to manufacture them. This
changed how battles were fought.

14TH-CENTURY SAMURAI ARMOUR AND WEAPONS

Oda Nobunaga Toyotomi Hideyoshi Tokugawa Ieyasu

Using new firearms, based on those brought Toyotomi Hideyoshi took over as Oda After Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s death, another
to Japan by Portuguese sailors, Oda Nobunaga’s successor after Nobunaga’s civil war broke out as rival clans tried
Nobunaga and his samurai death. He continued the attempt to claim power. In 1600, Hideyoshi’s
defeated many rival clans and to conquer all of Japan and powerful adviser, Tokugawa Ieyasu,
overthrew the Ashikaga eventually unified all of won the Battle of Sekigahara.
Shogunate. By the time the clans. In 1585, he He took lands away from
of his death in 1582, became the Chancellor his previous enemies,
Nobunaga had united to the Emperor, and placed his allies in
nearly half of Japan. later, the Chief strategic positions,
Imperial Minister. and established an
era of peace
across Japan.

66 the medieval world THE EARLY ISLAMIC WORLD 62 million – the population of the Islamic
empire during the reign of the Umayyads.

The Mezquita
Islamic people known as the
Moors arrived in Spain from
Morocco in 711. The Islamic
influence on Spanish architecture
can be seen in the red-and-white
archways inside the Mezquita’s

prayer hall in Córdoba.

CÓRDOBA

TANGIER

CAIRO

The Islamic empire City of the Dead
This network of tombs,
At its height in the mid-8th century, crypts, and mausoleums in
the early Islamic states formed one Cairo was built during the
of the largest empires the world Islamic conquests of Egypt.
had ever seen, stretching for more
than 8,000 km (5,000 miles) from
modern-day Spain across North Africa,
through the Middle East, and into Asia.

Ibn Battuta
The great explorer Ibn Battuta
(1304–1369) travelled the world for
nearly half of his life. His journey of
around 120,000 km (75,000 miles)
took him through modern-day Turkey,
Crimea, Asia, India, China, and Africa.

The early Pioneering scientist
Islamic world Ibn al-Haytham
(965–1040), also
The religion of Islam was founded by the prophet known as Alhazen,
Muhammad in the Middle East in the early 7th century. was one of the
Within just 100 years, powerful Muslim armies had world’s first
spread the influence of the new religion across three physicists. He
continents, creating an Islamic empire. performed many
experiments
Over the following centuries, the Islamic empire continued to that helped to
expand its borders in Asia, Africa, and Europe. The empire was establish the idea
ruled by a series of caliphs (“successors” of Muhammad), many of scientific method.
of whom encouraged the development of new ideas in science,
maths, and medicine. Travellers and merchants from the Islamic
world journeyed far and wide, spreading their culture and
beliefs around the world.

During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Islamic empire 29 The number of years Ibn Battuta 67
established some of the world’s first universities. spent travelling the world.

Early Islamic leaders UTHMAN IBN AFFAN, The Umayyads The Abbasids FATIMID TEXTILE The Mamluks
SECOND CALIPH In the mid-7th century, The Abbasid Dynasty The Mamluks were slave
According to Muslim belief, the Umayyad Dynasty came to power in 750 and The Fatimids warriors before they
Islam was founded in 610 The first rulers took control of the encouraged learning, art, During the 10th century, a overthrew their masters,
when a merchant named When Muhammad died in caliphate and expanded and culture. They began rival clan to the Abbasids, the Abbasids, and took
Muhammad saw a vision 632, the first Islamic its lands to Spain and to lose power during the the Fatimids, claimed to over the caliphate. They
of an angel in a cave. government, known as Central Asia. 13th century after the be descendants of were formidable soldiers,
The angel dictated to a caliphate, was created. Mongol Empire destroyed Muhammad’s daughter, defeating the Mongols.
Muhammad the word of The first four caliphs were UMAYYAD GREAT MOSQUE Baghdad, their capital. and rose to power across
Allah (God), which he wrote leaders who had been North Africa and the MAMLUK POTTERY
down as the Qu’ran, Islam’s taught by Muhammad. 661–750 ABBASID ART Middle East.
holy book. Muhammad 1250–1517
went on to unite the tribes 632–661 750–1258 909–1171
of Arabia under Islam.

Timeline

Umayyad Mosque
Based in Damascus in
modern-day Syria, the
Umayyad Dynasty built one
of the largest mosques in the
world, the Umayyad Mosque.

DAMASCUS
JERUSALEM

BAGHDAD Baghdad
When the Abbasid Dynasty
Dome of the Rock took over the Islamic Caliphate,
This Islamic shrine in they built a new circular
Jerusalem was built by capital city called Baghdad,
the Umayyad Dynasty in now in modern-day Iraq.
the 7th century. It was
constructed on a holy
site sacred to Muslims,
Christians, and Jews.

MECCA Golden age
From about 750 to
Jabal al-Nour 1258, the Abbasid SCHOLARS IN AN
This mountain near Dynasty ushered in a ABBASID LIBRARY
Mecca has a sacred cave, golden age of Islamic
where Muslims believe culture, with great
the prophet Muhammad achievements in
was visited by an angel. science, maths, the
arts, and engineering.

“I constantly
sought knowledge

and truth.”

Alhazen, Islamic scientist,
Book of Optics, 1021

68 the medieval world THE VIKINGS 870 The year Iceland was discovered by
a Viking who set sail from Norway.
The Vikings Kitchen
A fire in the hearth burned all day
The Vikings, a seafaring people from Scandinavia, and night for cooking and warmth.
ventured beyond their homeland in search of land, raw Cooking cauldrons were either hung
materials, and lured by the promise of gold and silver. from the ceiling or suspended from
a tripod. Once the Sun had set at the
From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings’ fearsome end of the day, families gathered
reputation spread as they raided and plundered settlements together to eat.
across Europe. But they weren’t just pirates – the Vikings
were excellent shipbuilders, sailors, and navigators too.
They were daring explorers, sailing as far west as North
America and travelling overland as far east as Baghdad
in present-day Iraq. They also created new trade routes,
selling animal furs, crafts, and slaves.

Viking longhouse Smoke holes
Gaps in the roof
When they were not at sea, allowed smoke from
Vikings lived a rural life in the fire to escape.
large, narrow homes known
as longhouses. Several families
lived inside a longhouse, alongside
their animals. There was little
privacy, but it was cosy and warm.

Growing crops
Crops included wheat, rye,
barley, and oats, as well as
onions, cabbages, and peas.

Chopping firewood Longhouse floor
Lots of dry firewood was The floor was made
from compacted earth.
needed to keep the fire
burning inside the longhouse. Wattle and daub walls
Walls were made of
interwoven branches,
covered in a mixture of
clay, soil, sand, and straw.

Important Vikings were buried in boats, 841 The year Viking explorers first Some longships had enough space 69
along with their weapons and valuables. settled in Dublin, Ireland. to carry horses as well as crew.

Barn animals
Vikings kept their animals
and tools in a barn area at
one end of the longhouse.

Roof materials VIKING
Roofs were made from LONGSHIP
materials such as wooden
tiles, thatched reed, or turf.

Adventurous explorers

The Vikings used their navigational skills
to explore far-reaching lands, sailing fast
wooden longships huge distances. Each ship
had a large sail as well as 24–50 oars with a
crew of at least as many people. One group
of Viking explorers crossed the Atlantic
Ocean, stopping in Scotland and Iceland
before reaching Greenland in 982. In about

1000, Leif Eriksson was the first
European to make landfall on
the east coast of North America.

Prized animals Weaving garments Viking warriors
Sheep, cows, goats, and Viking women spent part of each
poultry supplied meat, day making clothes. They used wool In 793, Viking raiders destroyed a Christian
eggs, and milk for food, as or flax on a weaving loom to make monastery on Lindisfarne, an island off the
well as wool for clothing. fabric, which was then fashioned northeast coast of England. This violent raid
into clothing. Vikings wore simple shocked the Christian world.
Sleeping areas tunics, sometimes embellished with For the next three centuries,
The Vikings ate, worked, and slept patterns or fur trimmings. Viking raiders terrorized
on raised wooden platforms that ran Europe, looting enough
alongside the walls of the longhouse. treasure to fill their
They used animal furs and blankets ships, taking slaves,
to keep warm and comfortable. and setting up bases
Longhouses had little furniture – only from which to attack
the richest families had chairs or beds. new targets. They
demanded enormous
Storage space payments in return for
Locked wooden chests leaving areas in peace.
stored clothing, blankets,
and family valuables. VIKING HELMET

Gods and religion

The Vikings worshipped many different gods,
such as the one-eyed Odin, the super-strong
thunder god Thor, and the mischief-maker
Loki. Around campfires, they told stories
through songs and poems about the gods
and their epic battles against giants and
monsters. Over time, as the Vikings settled
across Europe, they
began to convert
to Christianity.

Thor’s hammer
Thor was the favourite

god of farmers and
peasants. His hammer
protected him against

his enemies.

Medieval Europe Jousting tournaments 70

Between around 720 and 1400, many European Chain mail To train and to show off their the medieval world MEDIEVAL EUROPE
nations were organized on the feudal system, in A knight wore a shirt of chain, known combat skills, knights took part in
which different levels of society, from kings and as a hauberk. It was made up of elaborate tournaments. They would
queens to peasants, had obligations to each other for small interlinking metal rings and battle each other in a joust,
military protection, the rights to farm land, and food. was an effective defence against exhibitions of swordplay, and
most medieval weapons. show off their horse-riding skills.
Feudalism affected everyone living in northern and western
Europe. Rulers needed armies to defend their kingdoms, so Helmet Plate armour
they shared their land with lords, who would supply them The knight’s helmet
with trained and armoured knights in return. For the next was made of metal By the 15th century, improved
700 years the knight became one of the most important and often had a hinged weaponry, such as crossbows, and
soldiers in the army of European monarchs. visor and holes to allow advances in making armour meant
him to breathe. knights replaced chain mail with
Sword suits of armour made from metal
Knights mainly used Shield plates. This meant they were
swords in battle, but A knight carried a better protected, although it
they also used lances, shield made of wood was heavier than chain mail.
maces, and warhammers. or metal to protect
him during battles
and tournaments.

Warhorse Coat of arms The number of knights England’s King
The knight’s combat horse A knight’s shield was
decorated with his personal c.6,000 Henry II could summon to battle.
was bred for strength, coat of arms, so other soldiers
stamina, and speed. could identify its owner.

Scabbard
The knight stored his
sword in a leather pouch
that had been shaped to
fit the weapon.

Bard The word “knight” comes from an Old
A knight’s horse wore English word meaning “servant”.
special armour, called a
bard, which was very Stirrup
expensive and heavy. The stirrup supported the
knight’s foot, allowing him
to balance and fight, even The number of knights that attended the largest

on a charging horse. 3,000 tournament, at Lagny-sur-Marne, France, in 1179.

Knight of the realm

A knight was usually of noble birth and began
his training from the age of seven. He started
as a page, helping to care for another knight’s
horse and equipment. At around the age of 13,
he became a squire, starting combat training and
assisting his knight during battle. He eventually
became a knight himself at the age of 21.

The feudal system Monarch The Black Death 71
A king and queen owned all the
The king allowed lords to hold areas of the During the middle
king’s lands (known as “fiefs”) in exchange land in their kingdom. of the 14th century,
for money and the promise of fighting a plague known as the
men during times of war. The lords then Lords and ladies Black Death spread
leased parts of their fief to noble Lords and ladies received land (often across Europe, killing
knights. Knights were in charge of a manor house) and peasants from millions. Suddenly,
law and justice in their land. Serfs the monarchs in exchange for there were fewer
(peasants) worked the land for loyalty and military aid. peasants to work the
the knights, producing food and land and the demand
supplies in exchange for a place Knights for peasants rose.
to live. Some serfs worked for Knights received food, protection, Peasants realized
free, others paid rent – but and land from lords in exchange they could choose
no serf was allowed to for loyalty and military service. where and for
leave the fief without the whom they worked,
permission of their lord. Serfs which led to
Serfs received food, feudalism’s decline.
protection, and a place
to live from knights
in exchange for
work and rent.

72 the medieval world EMPIRES OF SOUTHEAST ASIA

DOMINANT EMPIRES Empires of
Southeast Asia
The mix of cultures and religions created tensions between the
kingdoms of Southeast Asia, leading to rivalry, war, and the rise From the 2nd century ce, contact with the cultures of
and fall of several empires throughout the region’s history. India, China, Europe, and the Middle East transformed
However, from the 11th century onwards, a group of large the tribes and settlements in the jungles of Southeast
empires – the Khmer (see right), Champa, Srivijaya, Pagan, and Asia into great city-states, kingdoms, and empires.
Dai Viet – were locked in a power struggle to dominate the area.
Early Southeast Asian societies were shaped by the politics,
0 500 1,000 km religions, art, and architecture of their neighbours, India and
China. European and Arab merchants later brought their own
Me k ong 0 250 500 miles culture to the region. By combining these influences in different
ways, Southeast Asia developed many distinct cultures. Some
PAGAN DAI VIET became empires, building huge cities and thousands of temples,
Pagan as well as seaports to trade with the rest of the world.

SUKHOTHAI Hainan

Bay of KHMER CHAMPA Vijaya
Bengal Angkor
South
Andaman Gulf of China Philippines
Sea Thailand
Sea
INDIAN
OCEAN S THE KHMER
EMPIRE
Key R “The suffering of
The Khmer Empire (802–1431)
Champa Kingdom I was one of the largest and the people
Dai Viet Empire most powerful in the region.
V Stretching from present-day is the suffering of the
Khmer Empire S south China to Malaysia,
the Khmer Empire used the emperor.”
Pagan Empire I Mekong River for trade and
Srivijaya Empire u travel. The Khmer people were Emperor Jayavarman VII,
Sukhothai Empire great builders and constructed 1181–1218
JmAaYtAr Borneo roads, canals, and reservoirs.
Palembang The capital of the empire was Angkor Wat
a based in Angkor, which, at its
Java peak, was the largest city in Originally a Hindu temple, Angkor
the world. It had hundreds of Wat was built in the early 12th
Champa Kingdom (192–1471) ANCIENT HINDU TEMPLE AT temples, including Angkor Wat. century by thousands of workers
MY SON COMPLEX, VIETNAM for Suryavarman II, the ruler of the
On the southeast coast of present-day Vietnam, Khmer Empire. It was a large
the Champa Kingdom began as a group of small complex that covered an area of
settlements. The Champa built many distinctive 2 square km (0.75 square miles).
red-brick temple-towers, and survived several
attacks from their more powerful neighbours.

SRIVIJAYAN Srivijaya Empire (c.650–1288)
METAL COINS
This sea-based empire had its capital on the
Indonesian island of Sumatra. It controlled all Main entrance Ancient shrine
sea trade to India and China, before The main entrance, Eight towers
losing its dominance to the surrounding Angkor
seafaring Indian Chola Dynasty. to the west of the Wat are thought to
complex, had lion have been part of
Water barrier statues guarding a an old shrine.
The moat around the
stone causeway.
complex was about
Pagan Empire (849–1287) 200 m (650 ft) wide.

Built on the Irrawaddy River in present-day BUDDHA STATUE AT SULAMANI
Myanmar, Pagan started out as a city-state, but TEMPLE, MYANMAR
later united the surrounding states to form an empire.
Its people built thousands of Buddhist temples.

Dai Viet Empire (939–1804)

Around what is now present-day Hanoi in Vietnam,
the Dai Viet Empire emerged in the 10th century. It
created foreign trade routes, and survived invasions
from the powerful Mongol and Khmer empires.

BUST OF DAI VIET MILITARY
COMMANDER TRAN HUNG DAO

Sukhothai Empire (1238–1438) SUKHOTHAI Khmer homes
STONEWARE DISH The Khmer people probably
In the early 13th century, Sukhothai separated
from the Khmer Empire and became the first lived in thatched houses
independent Thai state in the region. The new surrounding the temple.
empire spread from what is now present-day
Thailand into Laos and Myanmar.

1 million The number of people that lived in 200 The number of wall paintings 73
Angkor during the 12th century. decorating Angkor Wat.

RELIGIOUS Hinduism from Buddhism from Islam from Christianity from MALACCA AND
INFLUENCE the 1st century the 5th century the 10th century the 16th century THE SPICE ISLANDS
Hindu culture spread Both Indian and Arab merchants Portuguese traders
The empires of Southeast overland from India Chinese cultures travelled the long brought Christianity In the 15th century, the
Asia were influenced by the in the northwest, as brought Buddhism trade routes from the to the area. Dutch, city-state of Malacca was
religions of India, China, well as by sea when to a few empires. Middle East to East English, and German formed in what is now present-
the Middle East, and Europe, Indian sailors began Some Hindu Asia, bringing Islam missionaries helped day Malaysia. It soon became
as traders, conquerors, and to visit the region. temples later to the region. spread the new faith. the main port for the region’s
pilgrims travelled through became Buddhist. spice trade. In the 16th century,
the region. Four of the Europeans arrived, looking
world’s major religions – to trade in nutmeg, mace,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, cloves, and pepper.
and Christianity – have all
been important in the
history of Southeast Asia.

Central tower Towers
The 65-m (215-ft) central The four outer towers and the
central tower of the temple are
tower of the temple was
accessed by a steep staircase. thought to symbolize Mount
Meru from Hindu mythology.
Laterite core
A hard, red-coloured Intricate design
The intricate decorative
rock called laterite features on the temple
formed the core of buildings were carved
from soft sandstone, and
the buildings. then adorned with gold.

Vishnu statue KHMER WOMEN
The temple was built in honour of the
many-armed Hindu god Vishnu, who had a PARTICIPATED IN TRADE
giant statue in the central tower. The statue
was later moved near the entrance. AND SERVED AS

BODYGUARDS
FOR THE KING

74 the medieval world CULTURES OF NORTH AMERICA

Cultures of
North America

Before the arrival of Europeans from the
late 15th century onwards, several distinct
cultures developed across the different
landscapes of North America.

In their early history, North American tribes relied
on their environment for food – they hunted, fished,
and gathered seeds and nuts to eat. Later, some tribes
began to farm the land, growing crops and rearing
animals for food, clothing, and tools. Some of the tribes
were nomadic, and followed food sources such as
migrating bison herds. Others settled by rivers or built
structures into mountainsides. Many tribes were
experts in basket weaving, pottery, and sculpting,
creating unique works of art.

Basket weaving
The Ancestral Puebloans were
expert basket makers. They
weaved intricate patterns into
their baskets, which were used
to gather crops, nuts, and
berries. The baskets were
also used for cooking.

ANCESTRAL PUEBLOANS Hunter Crafting pots Turkeys
The Ancestral Pottery was made from Domesticated turkeys were
Date: From 1500 bce Puebloans hunted
animals to supplement long coils of clay. Pots reared for food, and their
Originally hunter-gatherers, the tribes of the crop harvest. were decorated with feathers and bones were used to
the Ancestral Puebloan culture that lived in the geometric patterns. decorate clothing and make tools.
mountainous regions of the modern-day states Grinding corn
of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah Corn was ground
eventually became farmers. They built some of down using a rounded
their settlements in large sheltered cliff faces, stone called a mano
such as the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde. and a flat stone plate

called a metate.

ADENA CULTURE HOPEWELL CULTURE MISSISSIPPIAN CULTURE

Date: c.1000–100 bce Date: c.200 bce–500 ce Date: c.700–1600

The Adena culture was a collection of tribes that A collection of societies and tribes that arose The tribes of the Mississippian culture were
lived in western and central North America. They from the Adena culture, the Hopewell culture mostly farmers, who grew corn, squash, and
were hunter-gatherers, following animal herds and spread along the rivers of eastern North beans. They lived in small towns in the
farming simple crops. They used tools, created America. They were skilled sculptors and Mississippi Valley and the surrounding areas,
pottery, and built large earth mounds, which were developed a large network of trade routes constructing houses and buildings on top of
used as places to meet and for ceremonies. along rivers and streams. earth mounds and platforms. They also sculpted
and carved unique works of
art and decorated pottery.

SCULPTURE
OF A DUCK
AND FISH

SERPENT MOUND IN MODERN-DAY OHIO IN THE US DECORATED POT

c.100 The number of people that lived 50 million people were living in North 75
at the Mesa Verde Cliff Palace. America by the late 1400s.

Homes Farming the land
Multi-storey homes Ancestral Puebloans farmed crops
were made from such as corn and beans on the fertile
sandstone and ground above and behind the cliff
mortar, and accessed face. They built dams to ensure
by ladders. their crops got enough water.

Storing crops
Small rooms at the
back of the Cliff
Palace were used
to store crops.

Family Kiva
Many families Built underground, large circular
occupied the Cliff chambers known as kiva were used
Palace, with for important community meetings
several generations and religious ceremonies. They were
living together. accessed through a hole in the roof that
also let out smoke from a fire pit below.
Tools
The Ancestral Puebloans
did not use metal –
they crafted tools from
animal bones and stone.

GREAT PLAINS HUNTERS THE NORTHWEST COAST DORSET AND THULE PEOPLE

Date: From at least 10,000 bce Date: From c.9000 bce Date: From c.500 bce

The many tribes of the Great Plains of central The tribes that lived along the Pacific coastline of The tribes of the Dorset and Thule cultures lived in
North America were hunter-gatherers who western North America relied on the ocean for food. the Arctic regions of North America. They adapted
followed herds of migrating bison. They crafted They used trees from coastal forests to make canoes to living in cold climates, making houses from bones
bison remains into everyday items, such as and houses. The Makah tribe carved images in stone and clothing from furs and animal skins. The Dorset
headdresses. The people of the Great Plains (called petroglyphs) showing hunters, priests, whales, tribes hunted seals, while the Thule tribes used
and ships, which can still be seen today. harpoons and skin-covered canoes to hunt whales.
were nomads and
lived in cone-shaped
tepees (tents) that
were easy to
build, pull
down, and
transport.

AMERICAN BISON

MAKAH PETROGLYPH IN MODERN-DAY WASHINGTON IN THE US THULE HOUSE IN MODERN-DAY ONTARIO IN CANADA

China’s
Golden Age

In the 7th century, after a period
of 400 years in which China was
divided into rival clans, the Tang
Dynasty unified the country and
ushered in a cultural and creative
golden age.

Poetry, pottery, and scroll painting
flourished under the new regime.
Academies were set up to promote the
arts and an exam system encouraged
scholars to join the government. After
the Tang Dynasty’s decline, the Song
Dynasty ruled and maintained the
empire’s cultural and economic
prosperity. This period of peace and
growth saw China’s population rise
to more than 100 million.

618–626 626–649
Governor Li Yuan Emperor Taizong,
ended the brief reign the son of Gaozu,
of the Sui Dynasty encouraged learning
and the arts, and
and proclaimed expanded the
himself Emperor empire’s borders.
Gaozu, the first ruler
of the Tang Dynasty. 712–756
Emperor Xuanzong
690–705 established academies
The Tang Dynasty was for musicians and poets.
briefly interrupted by He was overthrown by
the Zhou Dynasty, led a rebellion led by the
by Empress Wu Zetian, warlord An Lushan.

a former mistress of 960–1126
Emperor Taizong. The Song Dynasty
rose to power and
820–907 encouraged classic
Assassinations and Chinese traditions,
corruption weakened improved living
conditions, and
the Tang Dynasty, organized an
leading to rival armies increase in rice and
iron production.
clashing throughout
the fragmented empire.

1127–1279
After losing territory

in the north to the
Jin Dynasty, the Song
Dynasty continued to
reign in the south, but
eventually fell to the

Mongol Empire.

Scroll painting
Painted by Zhang Zeduan during the

Song Dynasty, Along the River was
more than 5 m (16½ ft) long. This colour
version of the scroll was created during

the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911).



78 the medieval world THE CRUSADES c.50,000 The number of Crusaders that
fought in the Second Crusade.

Multiple battles Timeline The Crusades

The first four Crusades involved 1095–1099 From the end of the 11th century, European Christian armies
thousands of soldiers fighting in violent
battles across the Middle East, with power embarked on a series of military campaigns called the
and land shifting between Muslim and
Christian forces. As the battles raged on, Crusades. They invaded Muslim empires in an effort to gain
the Middle East endured five more “Minor
Crusades”, as well as other smaller control of cities in the Holy Land, a region in the Middle
campaigns and internal conflicts.
East sacred to both Christians and Muslims.
The First Crusade
Since 638, Muslim rulers had controlled For the next 200 years, these campaigns were led by
the Holy Land. In 1095, Pope Urban II called European kings and nobles, and involved thousands
for the First Crusade, and a year later armies of knights who travelled east to battle Muslim
marched east to take back the city of forces. At first, the Crusaders were victorious
Jerusalem from the Muslims. Within three and captured several key cities across the
years of fighting, they regained control of the Middle East as they took advantage of
city and established four Crusader states. divisions between the Muslim empires.
The Crusaders established small
kingdoms and built huge castles
throughout the region to defend their
newly conquered lands. However,
the Muslim forces defended
their land, and eventually
defeated the Crusaders,
forcing them to return
home to Europe.

THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM 1147–1149 Arrow loops
Openings along the walls and
The Second Crusade the towers allowed archers to
After defeat in the First Crusade, the Muslim
Seljuk Empire declared jihad (holy war) against fire on the enemy below.
the Crusader states. German and French soldiers
marched east, but they were defeated by Seljuk Krak des Chevaliers
forces at Damascus in present-day Syria.
The Crusaders captured, built, and
The Third Crusade 1189–1192 adapted many castles to defend their
newly established states. Krak des
Forty years later, the Muslim Chevaliers in present-day Syria was built
by Muslims in 1031, but was captured in
sultan of Egypt, Saladin, 1110 by Christian armies, who expanded
it in 1142–1170. With thick stone walls
captured the city of and towers, this castle proved to be a
formidable fortress.
Jerusalem from the

Crusaders. A third Crusade,

led by many kings such

as King Richard the KING RICHARD I
Lionheart of England,

re-established Christian rule in the region, but was

unable to take back Jerusalem. Instead, Richard and A long journey east

Saladin agreed a treaty that allowed Christian In heavy armour and carrying their equipment and
supplies, most of the Crusaders marched east for
pilgrims safe passage into the city. months across dangerous terrain. They travelled
more than 3,220 km (2,000 miles) from western
The Fourth Crusade 1202–1204 Europe to Jerusalem. In later Crusades, they sailed
Called for by Pope Innocent III, the Fourth Crusade across the Mediterranean Sea – a voyage that was
set out to once again recapture Jerusalem. However, faster and Nsao rftehr than the journey across land.
the armies were diverted to Constantinople, and the
Crusaders sacked the city for its wealth. Sea

Crusades Five to Nine 1217–1291 London Climbing the walls
For the next 90 years, the Crusaders fought five The invading forces
more holy campaigns that saw their grip on the Mainz
Middle East weaken. Speyer used long ladders
Their presence in the to climb the castle’s
Holy Land ended in Clermont Venice Black Sea
the late 13th century, Constantinople outer walls.
when a new Muslim Genoa Zara
dynasty, the Mamluks, Machicolations
led by Sultan Baybars, Marseille Holes in the floor at the
forced the Christian edge of battlements, called
Crusaders to retreat Rome Edessa machicolations, allowed
and head home.
M e d i t erra n e a n Antioch Damascus the defending army to
SULTAN BAYBARS Jerusalem drop rocks and boiling oil
Key First Crusade Sea
on the invaders below.
Second Crusade Cairo

Third Crusade 0 500 1,000 km

Fourth Crusade 0 250 500 miles

During the Crusades, several religious orders of knights were 2,000 The maximum number of knights 79
formed, including the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller. Krak des Chevaliers could hold.

Order of knights Catapult defence Battering ram
The Knights Hospitaller, The Crusaders used catapults, known Many armies favoured this type of
who controlled Krak des
Chevaliers, were an order as trebuchets, to launch huge rocks siege machine, which was used to
of knights that wore from the top of large towers. They break open castle walls and doors.
distinctive black clothing were used to target siege towers and
with white crosses. To protect the soldiers operating
machines, as well as break up the ram, sloping roofs were built
attacking lines of enemy soldiers. to deflect arrows and boiling oil.

Inner citadel
The middle part of the castle had a chapel
and main hall, and was entered through a
second, heavily guarded gateway.

Moat
Between the outer
walls and the inner
citadel was a moat
of water, a further
barrier for invaders.

Turrets
The castle’s outer wall
contained several round
towers that allowed soldiers
to defend in every direction.

80 the medieval world SUB-SAHARAN KINGDOMS Zimbabwe means “houses of
stone” in the Shona language.

KINGDOM OF AKSUM KINGDOM OF ZIMBABWE Clay house
A group of clay-walled thatched
Date: 100–900 ce Date: From the 12th century to 1450
huts within a circular walled
Located on the Red Sea coast enclosure may have been home
in what is now modern-day
north Ethiopia and Eritrea, The city of Great Zimbabwe was once the centre to the king and his family.
Aksum grew rich on trade.
The kingdom converted to of the powerful Kingdom of Zimbabwe in
Christianity in c.340 ce.
Legend says that the kings southeast Africa. Its rulers controlled the gold
of Aksum were descended
from King Solomon and the trade between inland regions and the Indian Ocean
Queen of Sheba, prominent
figures in the Bible. coast. The modern-day country of Zimbabwe is

named after this kingdom. The Great Enclosure,

the most impressive part of the city, may have

been the royal palace.

AKSUMITE COIN Narrow passageway
Historians think a narrow
KANEM-BORNU EMPIRE passage that ran for 55 m
(180 ft) between the outer
Date: c.700–c.1840 and inner walls may have
been used as a secret escape
This empire emerged around Lake Chad. It formed route if the city was invaded.
at the southern end of the trade route that
crossed the Sahara Desert to other settlements on
the Mediterranean coast. Traders exchanged salt,
ostrich feathers, and ivory for horses and guns.
The empire reached its peak in the 17th century.

PART OF A KANEM-BORNU HORSE HARNESS

“Among the gold mines of Inner wall
the plains… is a fortress A maze of inner
walls within the Great
made of stones Enclosure divided public
and private spaces.
of marvellous size.”

Vicente Pegado, a Portuguese captain,
after visiting Great Zimbabwe, 1531

Sub-Saharan Outer wall
kingdoms The outer wall, made of cut
blocks of granite, was 9.7 m
(32 ft) high in some places.

About 3,000 years ago, groups of farmers began KINGDOM OF BENIN
migrating out of the rainforests of West Africa into
much of sub-Saharan Africa – the vast region of Date: 1200–1897
Africa south of the Sahara Desert.
The wealthy Kingdom of Benin,
These farmers, who spoke many different forms of Bantu in what is now modern-day Nigeria,
languages, taught the hunter-gatherers and cattle-herders living was ruled by a powerful king called
in the grasslands how to use iron. Around 100 bce, people from an Oba. The kingdom’s people,
Asia brought tame camels into North Africa. North African the Edo, made many kinds of art,
traders could now cross the Sahara Desert to bring back gold including fine metalwork. In 1897,
from sub-Saharan Africa. These changes led to organized British soldiers stormed the Oba’s
kingdoms emerging in different parts of the region. palace and looted all their treasures.

BRONZE BENIN SCULPTURE

1 million The approximate number of stones used to 100,000 The population of Timbuktu, 81
build the Great Enclosure at Great Zimbabwe. capital of the Mali Empire, in 1500.

Soapstone bird
At least eight sculptures

of an eagle-like bird,
carved from soapstone,
were found in the ruins

of Great Zimbabwe.

Conical tower
A tall tower at the
end of the passage
probably had
religious or
symbolic meaning.

Patterns
Part of the outer wall was
decorated with a pattern
of chevrons (V-shapes).

Courtyard
A large courtyard near the
main entrance may have
been used for ceremonies.

MALI EMPIRE KINGDOM OF KONGO SONGHAI EMPIRE

Date: From 1230 to Date: 1390–1914 Date: c.1335–1591
the 16th century The Kingdom of Kongo, in what is now modern-
day Angola, was the most powerful state in Sonni Ali was the first TOMB OF SONGHAI EMPEROR
The vast empire of Mali Central Africa. The kingdom traded in cloth and ruler of the Songhai ASKIA MOHAMMED
lay on the southwestern pottery. Its rulers converted to Christianity Empire. He took control of
edge of the Sahara Desert. after the arrival of Portuguese traders in 1483. gold trade routes across
Its most famous ruler, Mansa It became a Portuguese colony in 1914. the Sahara Desert from
Musa I, was a Muslim and the the Mali Empire, which
richest person in the world KONGOLESE SWORD was by then in decline.
at the time. He ordered the Songhai’s capital was
building of the Great Mosque Gao on the River Niger
in Timbuktu, a city famous in modern-day Mali.
for its artists and scientists.
MALIAN POTTERY

82 the medieval world POLYNESIAN EXPANSION Statues on Easter Island once had eyes made from
coral and a volcanic glass known as obsidian.

Polynesian WAVES OF MIGRATIONS OUTRIGGER CANOE
expansion
The Lapita people from the Bismarck Archipelago, off Polynesians were expert
Around 1400 bce, people living in New Guinea, sailed to Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga in c.1400 sailors and built canoes called
Southeast Asia sailed east from New bce. More than a thousand years later, they settled on outriggers. These boats were
Guinea to find new homes. They the eastern Polynesian islands. A few centuries later, made from two hulls attached
began to settle on thousands of they discovered and settled Hawaii and Easter Island. to each other with logs and
islands in the Pacific Ocean known as The final migration occurred around 1,000 years ago, rope. Outriggers varied in size
Polynesia (meaning “many islands”). when Polynesian seafarers landed in New Zealand. and were fast, robust, and
could withstand voyages of
Polynesia stretches from New Zealand Mariana Marshall Hawaii up to 4,800 km (3,000 miles).
in the south to Hawaii in the north and Islands Islands Polynesians are thought to
Easter Island in the east. The earliest Micronesia PACIFIC have been the first people
Polynesians sailed eastwards. They OCEAN to navigate across open
continued to explore and settle the ocean, using the stars, sea
Pacific until Polynesian cultures spread Bismarck Kiribati currents, weather patterns,
across the whole region east of Fiji. Archipelago and migrating birds to
Polynesians shared similar languages New chart their course.
and beliefs, but developed their own Guinea Solomon
identities and ways of life. Islands Tuvalu Marquesas Rope
Islands Polynesians made rope out
Vanuatu Samoa Cook
Islands of coconut fibres to hold
Society their masts upright.
Fiji Niue Islands
Tonga
AUSTRALIA New Gambier
Caledonia Islands
Easter
Island

NEW Key
ZEALAND
Origin of the Paci c settlers

Chatham c.1400–1000
Islands 1000 –1
1–500
0 2,000 4,000 km

0 1,000 2,000 miles 1000–1400

THE SPREAD SAUDELEUR DYNASTY Prow
OF ANIMALS The prow (front end)
The Saudeleur Dynasty (c.1100-1628) was
Polynesian explorers one of the first organized governments in of the canoe cut
brought animals such as the region and ruled the island of Pohnpei through choppy water.
pigs, chickens, and dogs with in Micronesia for more than 500 years.
them as they settled new PIG It was established by twins, Olisihpa
islands. Dogs were used RAT and Olosohpa, who arrived in a canoe.
to hunt, while pigs and
chickens were sources CHICKEN Nan Madol
of food. Stowaway The capital of the Saudeleur Dynasty, Nan Madol
rats, attracted by food was built on man-made islands and canals.
on the boats, also spread Historians call it the “Venice of the Pacific”.
from island to island. The
newly introduced animals
and the settlers’ overhunting
caused many native mammals
and birds to become extinct.

HAWAII Kahanu Ke-Ao Lanihuli MAORI CULTURE
A symbol of A symbol of
Made up of volcanic islands, purity. In the 13th century, the Maori
Hawaii was settled by energy. were the first people to settle in
Polynesian explorers in about Kahanuala what is now called New Zealand.
400 ce. Over several centuries, Uli-Nana-Pono A symbol of They called the islands Aotearoa,
more migrations from Tahiti A symbol of meaning “land of the long white
and the Society Islands brought calm. breath. cloud”. The settlers lived in large
new religions and ideas to the groups that were ruled by chiefs.
islands. When the migrations Their beliefs were passed on
ended, Hawaii started to through songs and dance, and they
develop its own culture, art, worshipped more than 70 gods.
and spiritualism, including
Ho’omana (which means “to Maori mask
make life force”). Followers Traditionally, Maori
of Ho’omana meditated while masks were intricately
visualizing special symbols to carved from wood.
focus their minds and bodies. The masks honoured

their ancestors.

25 million sq km (10 million sq miles) – the total area 10,500 km (6,500 miles) – the distance Polynesians travelled over 83
that Polynesia covers in the Pacific Ocean. several generations from New Guinea to Easter Island.

Mast Fishing
Masts made of Fish, turtles, and sharks
long, sturdy logs were caught for food as
held the sails. the explorers travelled and
searched for new islands.
Sail
Sails were made from
plant fibres woven into
matting. They helped to
control the force of the
wind on the canoe.

Rudder Stern
A steering paddle The curved shape of
was used to steer the stern (at the back
of the canoe) stopped
the canoe. waves from breaking

on the deck.

Water
Drinking water
was stored in
gourds, and was
topped up during
storms by catching
rainwater from
the sails.

Storage Deck
The hollow hulls provided Lightweight wooden
space to store supplies, planks were supported by
which also weighed down the tightly woven fabric across
canoe to keep it stable at sea. the canoe’s two hulls.

Food
As well as food for the journey, plants,
seeds, and animals were transported
to help start new settlements.

Conch Polynesian explorer EASTER ISLAND
Conch shell horns, Several families would
known as Pu, were travel on the canoe as Polynesians colonized Rapa Nui (known
used to communicate they searched for new today as Easter Island) between 800 and
across the water islands to settle. 1200 ce. They built large stone statues called
between the canoe moai, which represented their ancestors and
and people onshore. Hull were worshipped as gods. As the population
Large tree trunks were grew, they split into tribes, which fought for
carved and hollowed resources such as wood and food that were
out to create the main becoming scarce. After c.1500, the people of
hulls of the canoe. Rapa Nui toppled the moai statues and
adopted a new belief system with new gods.
Polynesian navigators They organized annual rituals, which saw
them compete against each other every
used shells, sticks, and coconut fibres year to select the island’s ruling tribe.
to make simple maps of the islands
and sea currents they experienced Moai statues
on their journeys. All of the Moai statues faced outwards from the
island and were placed on ceremonial platforms.

The Mongol
Empire

In the late 12th and early 13th
centuries, the Mongol tribes were
nomads living in the grasslands
of Central Asia. Temüjin, a chieftain
who later took the name Genghis
Khan (“universal ruler”), united
them in 1206. From then until
1368, the Mongols conquered
large areas of Asia, the Middle
East, and Europe, forming one
of the largest empires in history.

Genghis Khan and his descendants
commanded large armies of warriors
skilled at fighting on horseback, and
used this military might to overwhelm
their enemies and expand their territory.
The Mongol Empire eventually covered
an area of more than 23 million sq km
(9 million sq miles). Though the empire
was created through warfare, Mongol
rule brought peace and stability, and
people were able to travel between
Asia and Europe in relative safety.

1219–1221 1185–1206
The Mongols defeated the Genghis Khan united
the nomadic tribes
Khwarazmian Dynasty living in Central Asia.
in Central Asia, claiming
1227–1241
their lands and their After Genghis Khan’s
trade routes from death, his son Ögodei
Europe to Asia. became the Great
Khan and expanded
1241–1251 the empire, conquering
After Ogedei’s death, northern China.

a power struggle 1258
lasted for several The Mongol Empire
years. Eventually conquered parts of
the Middle East,
Genghis Khan’s plundering Baghdad,
grandson, Mongke and ending the rule
Khan, defeated his of the Muslim
rivals to claim power. Abbasid Dynasty.

1260–1294 1330–1368
After a period of The Mongol Empire
civil war, Kublai fragmented after
Khan took control of Kublai Khan’s death
the Mongol Empire. and was weakened
He defeated the Song further by the spread
Dynasty and started of the bubonic plague.
the Yuan Dynasty. He In China, the Yuan
was the first non- Dynasty was defeated
Chinese ruler of the by the Ming Dynasty.

whole of China.

The Siege of Baghdad
The Mongol Empire attacked Baghdad in

modern-day Iraq in 1258, which led to
the fall of the Muslim Abbasid Caliphate.

The Mongol forces, led by Hulagu Khan,
went on to conquer most of western Asia.



Ancient Americas The Incas Temple of the Sun 86 the medieval world ANCIENT AMERICAS
The Inca visited this
Between about 3000 bce and 1697 ce, several mighty The Inca Empire was established in 1438 on semi-circular building
civilizations and empires flourished in what is now the Pacific coast of South America. The Inca to worship the Sun god,
present-day Mexico, Central America, and the were master stonemasons who constructed Inti. An altar in the temple
western regions of South America. about 40,000 km (25,000 miles) of roads as lined up perfectly with a
well as large mountainside cities. The city of window and the Sun during
One of the first civilizations to form in the Americas was Machu Picchu (meaning “old mountain”) was the summer solstice, and is
that of the Norte Chico (from c.3200 bce), who farmed cotton 2,430 m (7,972 ft) above sea level and sat thought to have been used
on the coastal regions of present-day Peru. The later Olmec of on the side of Huayna Picchu, a peak in the for religious ceremonies.
Mexico (1200–400 bce) built impressive buildings and crafted Andes mountains. Abandoned around the
monuments and sculptures. From these two early cultures time of the Spanish conquest in the 16th Solar heating
grew three great civilizations – the Maya and Aztecs in century, the city remained undiscovered The Incas positioned their
Mexico, and the Incas in Peru. These four great empires built by Western explorers until 1911. buildings so that they were
settlements in hot deserts, dense jungles, and on mountainsides. heated by the Sun throughout
They constructed large pyramids, immense road networks, Royal palace the day, which kept the
and thought of unique ways to farm in challenging landscapes. The Incas used the best stone to build a palace that residents warm at night.
They were extremely religious and held lavish ceremonies,
and performed human sacrifices to appease their many gods. may have been for Emperor Pachacuti in 1450.
They used gold, a resource the civilizations had in abundance,
to decorate their temples and religious buildings, and to Social areas
make jewellery and ornaments. Across the city were
large square areas, known
as plazas, for locals to
meet and watch religious
ceremonies and festivals.

Intihuatana
Standing at the top of a large terraced
pyramid, this ritual stone was used
as an astronomical clock or calendar
to plan when to farm and when to
hold festivals of Sun worship.

million people were living in the

12 Inca Empire during the 15th century.

Roads Bricks Andenes Llamas Farming tools The approximate population of Tenochtitlán,
The Incas built roads made out Builders carved each Stepped terraces called Domestic animals The Incas used multipurpose
of stone that cleaved through brick to fit perfectly andenes were cut into the tools such as the raucana 200,000 the Aztec capital, during its peak.
mountainous landscape. This vast into place so they did steep mountainside to grow such as llamas (a rudimentary gardening tool)
road system connected cities to crops, such as maize, cocoa, were used to to prepare soil, harvest potatoes,
each other. Messengers ran to and not need mortar to and potatoes. Stone walls and remove weeds.
from way-stations between cities, glue bricks together. helped to prevent landslides transport goods
carrying messages to one another. caused by torrential rain. between towns.

THE OLMECS THE MAYA THE AZTECS

Dates: c.1200–c.400 bce Dates: 1000 bce–1697 ce Dates: 1325–1521

The Olmec civilization emerged Ranging from the Yucatan Ruling over most of what is now present-day Mexico,
along the southern coast of Peninsula in present-day Mexico the Aztec emperors had millions of subjects who they
the Gulf of Mexico. They to parts of Central America, the controlled with threats of war, violence, and ritual
lived in large settlements Maya civilization was made sacrifice. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, was built on a
and farmed crops such up of self-ruling city-states, marshy island in Lake Texcoco, where Mexico City stands
as corn and beans. The such as Palenque. The Maya today. It had a pyramid at its centre and many temples, as
Olmecs traded goods had their own written well as man-made islands that were used to grow crops.
made from jade and language, and were master
obsidian, and carved large mathematicians and builders.
stone heads that were up With no central capital to
to 3 m (10 ft) tall. They overthrow, the Maya did
worshipped many gods not fall easily when the
and believed some animals Spanish invaded in the
were sacred. Many of their 16th century. It took
beliefs were adopted by the Europeans nearly 200
later civilizations, such as years to conquer them.
the Aztecs and Mayans. The
Olmecs may have developed the OLMEC HEAD JADE MAYA MASK AZTEC DOUBLE-HEADED SERPENT SCULPTURE 87
first writing in the Americas. SCULPTURE

88 the medieval world MING CHINA 24 The total number of emperors that consecutively resided at
the Forbidden City between the Ming and Qing dynasties.

Ming China THE GREAT WALL

The Ming Dynasty seized power from the Mongol Yuan During the era of the Ming
Dynasty in 1368 and went on to rule China for 276 Dynasty, the Great Wall of
years. The Ming period was an era of change for China, China was rebuilt and
and was known for its porcelain and great buildings. expanded to protect the
empire from the Mongol tribes
The early Ming emperors fortified the northern borders, invading from the north. New
protecting China from Mongol invaders. Trade and exploration building techniques allowed
were encouraged, and new types of food were imported from the wall to be reinforced with
around the world. This led to more crops being grown, and battlements, watchtowers,
the population more than doubled. But in the last century of the and military fortresses.
dynasty, years of money problems and poor harvests led to
rebellion, and the Ming Dynasty eventually collapsed in 1644. Northern vantage point
New watchtowers allowed the
THE HONGWU
EMPEROR Chinese military to watch
the border and react quickly
In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang
became the first emperor of to any attacks by enemies.
the Ming Dynasty, and became
known as the Hongwu THE FORBIDDEN CITY
Emperor. He brought all parts
of the government under his The third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Yongle (who ruled
own authority, and established from 1402 to 1424), moved the capital to Beijing. In 1406, he
a new law code, known as ordered the construction of a new palace complex. It housed the
the Grand Pronouncements. imperial family, court officials, and important foreign visitors, as
A commanding leader, Hongwu well as many servants. The palace was heavily guarded and access
was also fearful of betrayal. into the complex was restricted, so it became known as the
He set up a secret police force Forbidden City. It was one of the largest palaces in the
to protect his power. world, with 980 buildings and around 9,000 rooms.
Its many buildings were topped with golden yellow
Peasant warrior tiles, which was the emperor’s official colour.
Born into poverty, Zhu
Yuanzhang led the forces fighting Gateway
against the Yuan Dynasty, and On each side of the
eventually became emperor. outer wall was a guarded
gateway into the complex.
VOYAGES OF ZHENG HE

Zheng He (1371–1433) was one of China’s greatest explorers.
As an admiral of the imperial fleet, he commanded a treasure
fleet of several hundred ships on seven voyages to India, the
Persian Gulf, and the east coast of Africa. He contacted new
cultures, expanded China’s influence, and returned with spices,
gems, and trade representatives from foreign nations.

Key

PERSIA 1st–7th voyages Nanjing Outer wall
Hormuz 4th–7th voyages MING The outer wall of the city
5th–7th voyages EMPIRE was 8 m (26 ft) high and 8 m
6th and 7th voyages
Changle (26 ft) wide at its base.
Arabia 7th voyage only
Layout of the city
Salalah INDIA
The city was planned using
Arabian ancient Chinese rules of design.
Sea Qui Nhon Important buildings faced south,
Aden Calicut Bay of CHAMPA to honour the Sun, and the
Bengal KINGDOM ceremonial palaces were
arranged in groups of three,
AFRICA Galle Samudera symbolizing heaven and holiness.

Malacca

Malindi 0 1,000 2,000 km I N D I A N Sumatra Meridian Gate
O C E A N Palembang The great main gate
0 500 1,000 miles J a v a Surabaya into the complex was

on the south wall.

c.27,800 The number of sailors that crewed In 2014, a porcelain vase from the 89
Zheng He’s fleet on his first voyage. Ming Dynasty sold for $21.6 million.

MING PORCELAIN

In 1369, the Hongwu Emperor re-established the
Imperial Porcelain factory, that had been founded by
the previous Song Dynasty, in Jingdezhen. The factory
perfected old techniques created by the Tang Dynasty
to produce porcelain wares for the imperial palace. The
distinctive blue-and-white Ming porcelain became
popular and was exported around the world.

THE MING TOMBS The Sacred Way
Leading to the Yongle
At the foot of Tianshou Mountain, north of Beijing, Emperor’s tomb, a 7-km
the emperors of the Ming Dynasty built a complex (4-mile) path was lined
of mausoleums, known as the Thirteen Tombs of the with statues of generals,
Ming Dynasty. The whole complex covered an area
of 120 sq km (46 sq miles). imperial officials,
and animals.

PILGRIM FLASK GLOBULAR VASE SLEEVE VASE

Inner Court Imperial garden
The emperor and his The imperial gardens
family lived in the were used for relaxation,
northern part of exercise, and ceremonies.
the complex.

Hall of Supreme Harmony
The grandest building in the
Ming Empire, this hall housed
the throne room and hosted

major ceremonies.

Central platform Watchtower
The main halls in the outer Guards kept watch for
court were built on an enemy soldiers and
8 m- (26 ft-) high platform. assassins from the
corner watchtowers.
Outer court
The southern part of the Moat
palace was where the emperor The city was protected
held official ceremonies. by a 50 m- (170 ft-) wide
moat around its perimeter.

100,000

craftsmen spent
14 years building
the Forbidden City.



THE AGE OF EXPLORATION

Between the 14th and 17th centuries, new discoveries and
voyages of exploration transformed people’s knowledge of the
world. In Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, scientists made
revolutionary breakthroughs, while artists used new methods to
portray the world in a realistic way. Europeans also explored and
colonized the Americas, at the expense of native populations.

92 the age of exploration TIMELINE OF THE AGE OF EXPLORATION

SLAVE 1619: Slaves arrive in Jamestown 1632–1653: The Taj Mahal
ANKLETS The first African slaves taken to the The fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan,
English colonies in America were made ordered the construction of many
to work on tobacco plantations. Over palaces and mosques. The Taj Mahal
the following centuries, thousands of was a tomb built for his wife, Mumtaz
Africans were taken from their homes Mahal. Shah Jahan himself was also
to be sold in the Americas. buried here after his death.

JAMESTOWN TAJ MAHAL

1607: Jamestown 1603: Edo Japan
A group of English colonists built a Tokugawa Ieyasu united Japan
settlement called Jamestown on the under his rule and moved the
banks of the James River in modern-day capital to Edo (modern-day
Virginia. It was the first successful Tokyo). This began an era of
English colony in North America. peace in Japan that saw the arts
flourish. A new form of theatre,
KABUKI ACTOR kabuki, entertained the public. KOREAN TURTLE SHIP

Timeline of the 1520–1566: Suleiman the Magnificent
age of exploration The longest-ruling emperor of the Ottoman

From the 15th century, a new curiosity about Empire, Suleiman the Magnificent,
the world led to many daring voyages, the oversaw a golden age of Islamic arts,
questioning of established beliefs, and
the beginnings of modern science. crafts, science, and architecture.

When the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus first landed DECORATED OTTOMAN PLATE
in the Americas in 1492, he opened up new continents for
European exploration, and the nations of Europe began to 16TH-
create empires to rival those of East Asia, India, and the CENTURY GLOBE
Islamic Middle East. In Europe itself, the rediscovery
of ancient knowledge led to the Renaissance (“rebirth”), 1519–1522: Voyage of Magellan
a period of great artistic and cultural achievement. It The Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
was followed by the Scientific Revolution, a time of new Magellan led an expedition to
discoveries and inventions, many of which challenged circumnavigate (sail all the way
previously accepted views of the universe. around) the Earth. Magellan died
on the voyage, but the crew of one
of his five ships made it home.

HERNÁN CORTÉS

GUTENBERG 1450s: The Gutenberg Bible 1453: The fall of Constantinople
PRESS Johannes Gutenberg invented a The Islamic Ottomans conquered
printing press that revolutionized Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul),
the production of books. One of the the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
first books he mass-produced was Christian scholars and scientists fled
a version of the Bible, bringing its from the city to Europe, bringing with
words to a wider audience. them new ideas and ancient texts that
helped to kickstart the Renaissance.
OTTOMAN SHIELD

93

1643–1715: Louis XIV 1668: Newton’s 1673: Leeuwenhoek’s LEEUWENHOEK’S
The French king Louis XIV reflecting telescope microscope MICROSCOPE
moved the royal residence to English scientist Isaac Newton
Versailles outside Paris. He made improvements to the The Dutch scientist
expanded the palace and forced telescope, using a series of and inventor Anton van
all the members of his royal mirrors to reflect light. Leeuwenhoek created a tiny
court to move there. microscope that zoomed in
NEWTON’S REFLECTING TELESCOPE
LOUIS XIV on details that were
invisible to the naked eye.

1592–1598: The Imjin War HELMET OF IVAN IV 1547–1584: Ivan the Terrible COUNCIL OF TRENT
The Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin Ivan IV became the first tsar
commanded the Korean naval fleet (emperor) of Russia, and greatly 1545–1563:
during the Imjin War, a conflict expanded the borders of Russia to The Counter-Reformation
with Japan. He defeated invading the south and east. He was called The Catholic Church held
Japanese navies using Geobukseon Ivan the Terrible because of his three councils at Trent
warships, known as “turtle ships” short temper and the harsh (modern-day Trento) in
because of their armoured hulls. punishments he carried out. northern Italy to discuss
reforms to the Church, in
response to the spread
of the Reformation.

1526: The Battle of Panipat 1543: The Copernican Revolution COPERNICAN
The Central Asian warlord Babur Portuguese astronomer Nicolaus MODEL OF THE
invaded northern India and defeated Copernicus calculated that the Earth SOLAR SYSTEM
the Delhi Sultanate at the Battle of travelled around the Sun, challenging
Panipat. Babur and his descendants the teachings of the Roman Catholic
created the Islamic Mughal Empire,
which spread across most of India. Church that the Earth was the
centre of the Universe.

MUGHAL ARCHER

1519–1521: The Spanish 1517: The Reformation 1498–1499: Michelangelo’s Pietà
conquest of Mexico Martin Luther wrote a list of At the height of the Renaissance,
The Spanish conquistador complaints about the Roman the Italian artist Michelangelo
(“conquerer”) Hernán Cortés led Catholic Church called the produced one of his finest
an expedition to invade Mexico. 95 Theses, beginning a sculptures, the Pietà (“The
His army conquered the Aztec period of religious turmoil
civilization and destroyed its known as the Reformation. Pity”), which shows Mary
capital city, Tenochtitlán. holding the body of Christ.

LUTHER’S 95 THESES

1449–1492: Lorenzo de Medici PIETÀ
The politician Lorenzo de Medici,
known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, 1492: Voyage of Columbus
came to power in Florence in Italy. Christopher Columbus landed in the
Lorenzo was a great patron of the West Indies in the Caribbean in his
arts, and under his rule, the city search for a new sea route to Asia.
became the heart of the Renaissance. He brought back news of the lands
he visited to his patrons in Spain,
LORENZO DE MEDICI SPANISH CARAVEL inspiring many explorers to make
voyages to the Americas.

94 the age of exploration THE RENAISSANCE

The Renaissance ELEMENTS OF THE RENAISSANCE

Much of the knowledge gathered during ancient times was lost During the Renaissance, Europeans rediscovered
to Europeans in the medieval era due to wars, disease, and ancient thought and culture. However, new and
famine, and the Church and its teachings dominated society. original ideas and techniques also developed
However, from the 14th century, Europe experienced what and spread across the continent.
became known as the Renaissance, meaning “rebirth” in French.
The revival of ancient ideas Learning from
Scholars and artists revisited scientific ideas and art styles from ancient the ancients
Rome and Greece, and were also influenced by Islamic cultures from the Philosophers and scientists studied
east. New ideas and outlooks developed across Europe and challenged the works of the great thinkers and Plato and Aristotle
the traditional views of the Church. This led to new advances in art, writers of ancient civilizations, such are at the centre
literature, science, and theatre. Painters and sculptors, formerly regarded as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and of Renaissance
as artisans (craft workers), were praised for their artistic achievements. Cicero. They inspired Renaissance artist Raphael’s
philosophers to look beyond the painting The
teachings of the Church and question School of Athens.
all aspects of European society.

FLORENCE Sculpture Portraits
Renaissance artists
The Renaissance started in Renaissance sculptors, such as Donatello painted people in as
the city-state of Florence, and Michelangelo, used new techniques much detail as possible.
in modern-day Italy. In the to make their art look realistic. They
late 14th century, Florence studied the human body and its
was a wealthy city and its expressions and movements to
businessmen and merchants make their sculptures more natural.
used their money to support
artists, craftsmen, and Sculpture of David
thinkers, such as the painter Between 1501 and 1504,
and architect Giotto the sculptor Michelangelo
di Bondone and the Buonarroti carved the biblical
writer Dante Alighieri. hero David out of marble.

Architecture Florence Cathedral Lorenzo de Medici
Filippo Brunelleschi
Renaissance architects were influenced by designed the massive The Medici family were influential
the buildings of ancient Rome and Greece dome of Florence’s merchants, bankers, and politicians in
with their domes, arches, and columns. cathedral. It was Florence for more than 200 years.
Renaissance designs in turn influenced constructed without Lorenzo de Medici ruled Florence from
engineers to think of new ways to build. the use of scaffolding. 1449 to 1492 and was known as
Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was a
patron of the arts and sponsored
many artists, including Sandro
Botticelli and Michelangelo.

14 The number of years it took artist 4 members of the Medici family, at 95
Leonardo da Vinci to paint the Mona Lisa. separate times, were elected as Pope.

Vanishing point Renaissance
humanism
Perspective
Humanists believed that a
Renaissance artists developed new methods study of mankind, rather
to make their works look more realistic. They than God, should be at the
started to use perspective to add depth to centre of learning. They
scenes, making objects painted on a flat looked to texts from
surface look closer or further away. The use ancient times, especially
of light and shade also helped Renaissance in the art of persuasion,
art to look more three-dimensional. grammar, and history to
help them become useful
members of society.

Humanist literature
In Praise of Folly, by
Desiderius Erasmus,
questioned the values of
medieval society and the
teachings of the Church.

Patron Master THE NORTHERN
Wealthy patrons financially A creative mentor, the master RENAISSANCE
supported the master and helped guided the artistic styles of
to build the artist’s reputation. the studio and workroom. The Renaissance spread out of Italy and
into northern Europe during a period
known as the Northern Renaissance.
Italian masters inspired artists from
across Europe and were invited by kings
and queens to attend their royal courts.
In the mid-15th century, the printing
press, a machine that could quickly
produce books, was invented. This helped
spread the new ideas of the Renaissance.

A Renaissance workshop
Flemish artist Jan van der Straet
illustrated the busy studio of Dutch
painter Jan van Eyck in his painting
The Invention of Oil Paint, c.1590.

Apprentice
Young apprentices performed
basic tasks before learning
from the master.

Sculpture Platform Mixing colours
Sculptures and paintings were often The master sometimes stood on a Experienced apprentices ground
produced in the same workshop. platform to be at the best angle to paint. and mixed the materials for
making different colours.

Sketchers
Apprentices often sketched the
main painting in the workshop
to practise their skills.

“Painting is poetry which is

seen and not heard.”

Leonardo da Vinci, A Treatise of Painting, 1651

96 the age of exploration JOSEON KOREA

Early Korea Timeline Cannon fire
Crewed by about
Before the rise of the Joseon Dynasty in 50 marines, a Geobukseon
1392, the history of the Korean peninsula was armed on all four sides
was influenced by its ever-changing with about 26 small cannon.
relationship with the powerful Chinese In the naval battles of the Imjin War,
dynasties to its north. Local kingdoms also the warships’ firepower overwhelmed the
competed for land and power. Buddhism, Japanese fleet, which was armed only
introduced from China in 372 ce, with bows and arrows, and primitive
flourished during the period long guns known as arquebuses.
of the early kingdoms but
was later suppressed during Extra power
the Joseon era. Two sails were used during

The Three Kingdoms 670–935 windy weather, boosting
During the period of “The Three the warship’s speed.
Kingdoms”, Korea was split between BUDDHA SILLA
three rival powers: Silla and Baekje Sharp protection
in the south, and Goguryeo in the To stop enemy marines
north. Towards the end of the era, attempting to board the
the Silla Kingdom, allied with the ship, the roof was covered
Tang Dynasty of China, defeated
its rivals and unified the peninsula with metal spikes.
under Korean rule for the first time.

Goryeo Dynasty 935–1392
As the ruling Silla Kingdom broke apart with a
series of uprisings and rebellions, a new kingdom,
Goryeo, formed under Wang Geon. After years of
war, Silla and the rebelling Baekje surrendered to
Goryeo, unifying Korea once more. A long period of
peace and prosperity followed, though the country
suffered civil wars in the 12th century.

Mongol occupation 1270–1356
The rule of the Goryeo Dynasty was interrupted in
1270 by the Mongol Empire. After nearly 40 years
of Mongol attacks, the Goryeo surrendered and
were controlled by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty for
around 80 years. The Goryeo royal family remained
as puppet rulers until the 1350s, when King
Gongmin drove the Mongols out. By now,
however, the dynasty was in decline.

Oar power Rest and recovery
The Geobukseon didn’t rely on wind The lower deck was home to
power like other vessels of the time.
It was powered by a crew of around the kitchen and housed the
70 oarsmen. The oars increased the sleeping quarters.
warship’s ability to manoeuvre during
battle, meaning it could turn very
quickly and surprise enemy ships.

13 of Yi Sun-sin’s ships defeated 133 Japanese Sejong the Great’s reforms allowed people 97
warships in the Battle of Myeongnyang. of any class to work in the government.

Joseon Korea Admiral Yi Sun-sin

Lasting for more than 500 years, the rule After a brilliant career
of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897) shaped as an army officer,
many of modern-day Korea’s social and Yi Sun-sin was
cultural traditions. promoted to admiral
in the Joseon navy
After the fall of the Goryeo Dynasty in 1392, during the Imjin War
the Kingdom of Great Joseon was established by (1592–1598). He
General Yi Seong-gye, who became the first king, heroically commanded
taking the title Taejo (“Great Ancestor”). The new the Joseon fleet and
dynasty expanded its boundaries north and moved didn’t lose a single
its capital city to the city of Hanyang, known today naval battle against
as Seoul. The kings of Joseon oversaw massive the invading Japanese.
advancements in government, science, and
technology, as well as a golden age of culture and “I CAN BE APPROACHED,
education. However, after several invasion attempts BBUUT TNEVNEER VPUESRHEDC; OBEEFRRIECNEDDED;
from Japan and China in the 16th and 17th
centuries, the Joseon Dynasty entered a period of KILLED BUT NEVER SHAMED”
isolation from the outside world, when it became
known as the “Hermit Kingdom”. Yi Sun-sin, in a letter to fellow admiral Son Ko-i

The turtle ship Sejong the Great

One of the famous technological During his 32-year reign (1418–1450), the
achievements of the Joseon fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty, Sejong,
Dynasty was its warship, the revolutionized how the government ruled
Geobukseon. Known as the “turtle the kingdom, improving the lives of ordinary
ship” because of its turtle-shell people. He realized it was important for
shape, it had a protective roof and everyone to have access to education and
was armed with many cannon. It knowledge, and personally
was a formidable force at sea and created the Korean alphabet.
helped Admiral Yi Sun-sin defeat He also encouraged scientific
the Japanese during the Imjin War. research, which led to
developments
Hidden surprise in agriculture,
A layer of straw was placed astronomy,
over the protective roof to and medicine.
lure enemy boarders onto
the sharp spikes. Fire-breathing dragon
At the front of the ship
was a wooden dragon
head. This hid a cannon
or a burner that released
fire and smoke, striking
fear into the enemy and
also helping to conceal
the ship’s movements.

Hangul script

Before Sejong the Great’s reign, the kingdoms
of Korea had used classical Chinese as their
writing system. It was complex, which meant
that only the educated could read and write.
In 1446, a new alphabet was created, called
Hangul, which used 28 simple vowels and
consonants in blocks of syllables.

a g/k
h

eu

n t/l

A new way to write
The new script of Hangul was originally read
from top to bottom, though today it is read from
left to right. Consonants were based on the
shapes the mouth made when speaking them.

62398 the age of exploration THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE The number of years the
Ottoman Empire lasted.

Great sultans Murad I Bayezid I Mehmed II
Murad I conquered The son of Murad I, In 1444, after his
The Ottoman Empire was ruled Adrianople, a city Bayezid I continued father gave up the
by a leader known as a sultan. in the Byzantine his father’s conquest throne, a 12-year-old
The sultan had complete control Empire, and made it of Europe. He also Mehmed II briefly
over the empire. The role of the the capital of the defeated and united ruled for two years.
sultan normally passed from father Ottoman Empire. rival states in His father was
to son. Towards the later years of Murad expanded the Anatolia. In 1402, persuaded to return.
the empire, most of the sultan’s empire north into Bayezid I clashed After his father died,
responsibilities were given to Europe and large with the Mongol Mehmed II conquered
key government officials. areas of the Balkans. Timurid Dynasty, the Byzantine capital
suffering a major of Constantinople
defeat at Ankara. (modern-day Istanbul).

Timeline 1362–1389 1389–1402 1444–1446 / 1451–1481

The Ottoman GROWTH EUROPE
Empire OF THE
EMPIRE
In the late 13th century, Osman I, a tribal warlord, Adrianople Istanbul
conquered lands in Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey) that The Ottoman
belonged to the Byzantine Empire. With these regions Empire grew
under his control, he established the Ottoman Empire. rapidly over a
period of 200
The Ottomans raised large armies, and with their military years. It claimed Cairo
might, they quickly expanded their empire into eastern Europe, land from the
North Africa, and the Middle East. The capital of the empire Muslim empires AFRICA
was eventually moved to the city of Constantinople, which the in North Africa and
Ottomans also called Istanbul. By the 16th century, the Ottoman the Byzantine
Empire had entered a golden age under the rulership of several Empire in
inspiring leaders, who encouraged military discipline, science, eastern Europe.
art, and architecture. However, poor leadership and competition
with other powers in Europe and Asia eventually contributed to Key
the empire’s decline. The empire was dismantled in 1922 and
its central region became the Republic of Turkey. The empire in 1512
The empire in 1520
The empire in 1566
The empire in 1639

WARFARE BOOTS ARCHITECTURE
KALKAN
The Ottoman army played (SMALL SHIELD) The Ottoman Empire had
an important role in the creative architects who
rise of the empire. Cavalry designed many buildings,
units and elite troops such as mosques, palaces,
known as the Janissaries and public baths, that
helped the empire win were built in the many
many carefully planned regions they conquered.
battles. In the 15th century, Ottoman buildings were
the Ottomans became decorated with geometric
skilled gunsmiths and built designs and were made
huge cannons that were from lavish materials, such
used to besiege cities as exotic woods, mother of
during conflicts. pearl, and gold.

ZIRH GOMLEK Exquisite patterns
(MAIL-AND-PLATE-COAT) The Blue Mosque in
Istanbul was built in the
CHICHAK KILIJ 17th century. Its interior
(HELMET) (SWORD)
is decorated with
patterned tiles and
stained-glass windows.