Abnormal-Psychology-and-Life-a-Dimensional-Approach

Ethics 469

Box 15.4 ❯ Focus on Ethics

Sexual Intimacy and the Therapeutic Relationship

Psychologists are expected to follow a strict ethics code in male adult client contact, and 2 involved male psychologist
their professional practice. Almost all psychologists do so, but contact with minors. Sexual misconduct was present in 24
you might wonder what types of ethical violations are re- percent of cases opened in 2006 as well.
ferred to the American Psychological Association (APA). Each
year, the APA publishes an account of what ethical violations An overwhelming percentage of psychologists clearly com-
were reported. In 2001, 42 cases were opened before the ply with the ethics code. Some mental health professionals,
APA ethics committee. Most cases were due to loss of licen- however, inexplicably cross the line into severe misconduct.
sure in various states (n = 10), nonsexual dual relationships Most ethicists agree that touching a client—including hugs,
(n = 4) and sexual misconduct (n = 5), and inappropriate touches of the hand, and two-handed handshakes—can be mis-
professional practice in child custody cases (n = 9). Of the 10 understood. The professional relationship can be undermined if
cases involving loss of licensure, 7 were due to sexual mis- clients become confused about what message is being sent—is
conduct. Sexual misconduct was thus the leading ethical vio- a therapist a professional or a friend? Such practice is also a
lation of psychologists brought before APA. Of the 12 total “slippery slope” that can lead to even more dangerous practices
cases of sexual misconduct, 9 involved male psychologist–fe- such as meeting outside of one’s office or sending personal
male adult client contact, 1 involved female psychologist– messages. Psychologists empathize with clients and their con-
cerns but usually refrain from physical contact.

What about sexual intimacies with former clients? The eth- ciples are important to remember when you hear highly public
ics code stipulates that psychologists must wait at least 2 years psychologists such as Dr. Phil speak and dole out advice. Pay
after the end of therapy before such intimacy can take place. close attention to how often they refer to scientific literature to
Even if this does happen, a psychologist must show the client support their statements.
has not been exploited. Psychologists should generally avoid
sexual and even social contact with former clients. Most cases Research
of malpractice involve inappropriate sexual contact and, more
important, such contact is rife with potential for conflicts of Ethical guidelines such as informed consent apply to research as
interest and harm to a client (see Box 15.4). well as clinical practice. Psychologists are expected to refrain
from deceptive research unless the study is justified from a scien-
Ending Therapy tific perspective and if participants
know about important and
Important ethical guidelines still apply when a client nears the harmful aspects of the study
end of therapy. Psychologists should assist a client when she that might influence their de-
can no longer pay for services. A psychologist could make ar- cision to participate. Psychol-
rangements to lower the fee, see the client for fewer sessions, ogists engaging in research
refer her to a low-cost provider, or make alternative payment must also humanely care for
arrangements. Therapists are also expected to end treatment animals, honestly report re-
when a client is clearly no longer benefiting from, or is being sults, and give proper
harmed by, the process. Psychologists should not end therapy credit for sources of
abruptly but rather prepare clients for termination by discuss- information and
ing the issue with them in previous sessions. authorship of
publications.
Public Statements
Resolving Donna Ward/Getty Images
Psychologists often make public statements through advertise- Ethical
ments, printed materials, interviews, lectures, legal proceed- Issues Dr. Phil is a popular media psychologist. Psychologists
ings, and interactions with media. Psychologists must ensure who speak via the media are still expected to comply
that public statements are honest and not deceptive. This in- What should a with ethical guidelines.
cludes information about their training, credentials, services, psychologist do
and other public knowledge. Psychologists who provide advice if she becomes
through the media, such as through a radio program, are ex- aware of an ethi-
pected to base their statements on available scientific literature cal violation by
and practice and perhaps remind listeners that their advice a colleague? The
does not necessarily substitute for formal therapy. These prin-

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470 CHAPTER 15 | Consumer Guide to Abnormal Psychology

psychologist should first speak with the colleague to infor- Review Questions
mally address the issue. This might apply to a situation, for
example, where a colleague accidentally left a client’s file on a 1. Outline major limitations on treatment and caveats
receptionist’s desk. If the problem is very serious, however, or
cannot be addressed satisfactorily by informal means, then the one should be aware of when conducting therapy.
psychologist should refer the matter to a state licensing board
or national ethics committee. Client confidentiality must still 2. What questions apply when judging the content of a
be protected in these cases, however. If a client reveals a serious
ethical violation by a previous therapist but insists on confi- research article on treatment?
dentiality, then the client’s request must generally be honored.
Psychologists are also expected to fully cooperate in ethics pro- 3. What general ethical principles are psychologists ex-
ceedings involving themselves or others.
pected to follow?
Interim Summary
4. What general ethical principles regarding assessment
■ Treatment for mental disorders is generally but not always
effective. Ineffectiveness may be due to poor therapist- are psychologists expected to follow?
client relationship, poor choice of treatment, treatment
noncompliance, and therapist-client differences. 5. What general ethical principles regarding treatment are

■ Increased use of managed care means mental health ser- psychologists expected to follow?
vices and confidentiality are often limited.
Final Comments
■ Clinicians and researchers often differ in type of clients
seen and treatments used, which has led to a gap in clini- We have discussed in this textbook many issues related to men-
cal practice between the two. tal disorders, clients, and therapists. The symptoms and disor-
ders and problems clients face are many, but there remain basic
■ Managed care and other constraints on therapy have led ways in which people with mental disorders should be seen.
some people to seek quick fixes to problems. People with mental disorders are often ordinary people with
extraordinary problems, so remember that anyone can develop
■ Misuse of research sometimes occurs for less than hon- a mental disorder. A client should always be viewed first and his
orable purposes, so one should always consult original disorder second. Individuals with a particular mental disorder
sources of information when making clinical decisions. are always quite different, and these differences must be hon-
ored and respected. Try to avoid terms such as “schizophrenic”
■ Published research articles are sometimes flawed, so one and favor terms like “a person with schizophrenia.” People
should always judge a study according to its method- with mental disorders, especially youth, often need advocates
ological strength and applicability to the general who can work hard and ethically on their behalf. As a possible
population. future mental health professional, keep in mind you hold enor-
mous responsibility for the welfare of your clients.
■ Limitations on treatment may come in the form of nega-
tive therapist characteristics and lack of access to Thought Questions
treatment.
1. Think about television shows (e.g., The Sopranos) or films
■ Psychologists are expected to adhere to a strict code of (e.g., Ordinary People) that involve therapists and their rela-
ethics in their clinical practice, and this code is based on tionships with their clients. What strikes you as realistic or
several key themes surrounding fairness and respect. not realistic about these relationships? Why?

■ Psychologists are expected to use assessment devices 2. If you were to see a therapist, what questions would you
properly and explain limitations regarding their evalua- want to ask and what do you think the process would be
tion results. like? If you have been in therapy or are currently seeing a
therapist, what aspects of treatment have you appreciated
■ Psychologists are expected to provide informed consent most and least?
to potential clients and research participants and keep
information confidential. Confidentiality may be 3. What are advantages and disadvantages of self-help
breached with the client’s permission or under certain groups, especially in contrast to seeing a mental health
conditions. professional?

■ An important ethical question in marital and family 4. When should people be institutionalized for mental prob-
therapy is “Who is the client?” A therapist’s relationship lems? What kinds of restrictions, if any, would you place
with each party should be clarified at the outset of on people with severe mental disorders?
therapy.
5. Would you add or change anything to the ethics code that
■ Sexual intimacy with clients is unethical, and psycholo- psychologists are asked to follow? Why?
gists are advised to avoid dual relationships.

■ Important ethical guidelines also apply to termination of
therapy, public statements made by psychologists, re-
search practices, and resolving ethical issues.

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Thought Questions 471

Key Terms special education catharsis 458 insanity 462
teachers 451 prescriptive treatment 458 forensic psychology 462
clinical psychologists 450 community right to treatment 463
counseling paraprofessionals 451 right to refuse
psychotherapist 451 psychology 459
psychologists 450 self-control 455 self-help group 459 treatment 463
educational mastery 455 aftercare services 461 least restrictive
insight 455 normalization 461
psychologists 450 process variables 456 social role valorization 461 treatment 463
school psychologists 450 nonspecific factors 456 civil commitment 462 informed consent 468
psychiatrists 451 placebo effect 456 criminal commitment 462 confidentiality 468
psychoanalyst 451 therapeutic alliance 457 competency to stand dual relationships 468
psychiatric nurses 451 therapeutic alignment 457
marriage and family trial 462

therapists 451
social workers 451

Media Resources work with these individuals on a daily basis. In addition to
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Psychology CourseMate instructors via the PowerLecture DVD, the Psychology
CourseMate provides in-depth footage and corresponding ex-
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acting at home and work, and displaying—rather than just de-
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the videos also include discussions with the family members,
friends, and mental health professionals who live, love, or

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Appendix ❯

Stress-Related
Problems

Case: Ben
Normal Stress and Unhealthy Stress-Related Problems:
What Are They?
Stress-Related Problems: Features and Epidemiology
Stress-Related Problems: Causes and Prevention
Stress-Related Problems: Assessment and Treatment
What If I or Someone I Know Has a Stress-Related
Problem?
Long-Term Outcome for People with Stress-Related
Problems

473

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474 APPENDIX | Stress-Related Problems

❯ Case:
Ben

BEN IS A 47-YEAR-OLD MAN who is problems at home. Ben is forced to work pain, and headaches. Ben has gained con-
employed as a middle manager at a large extended hours and thus has less time to siderable weight during the past few
corporation. He has experienced consider- spend with his family. His relationships months because of a poor diet and little
able stress at his job during the last with his wife and children have become exercise. His blood pressure has risen
2 years, having endured downsizing of his strained in recent months. since his last visit to the doctor, which is a
staff, pay cuts, mandatory furloughs, and concern given Ben’s family history of heart
reduced benefits in the sour economy. Ben Ben was able to expertly balance his disease. After several tests, Ben’s doctor
has thus been forced to take on additional responsibilities and adjust to a new pay told him that he appears to be in the early
responsibilities, and new rumors are swirl- scale initially, but the ongoing stress of his stages of developing a stomach ulcer and
ing that his position may be cut soon. His situation has begun to take a physical toll. that he must reduce his stress or face po-
work-related stress is beginning to cause He visited his primary doctor recently and tentially more serious physical symptoms.
complained of trouble sleeping, abdominal

Normal Stress and Unhealthy and your intense stress level declines, so too do your body’s
physical reactions.
Stress-Related Problems:
In some periods of our life, however, intense stress contin-
What Are They? ues past this initial point. Some intense stressors can be
chronic, such as worries about job loss or pay cuts or a child’s
Stress is a construct that means different things. Stress can be severe illness. The body tries to increase resistance to stress in
external, meaning events in our daily lives that are taxing for us. stage 2 but, over time, physical resources to do so become de-
Examples include relationship problems, financial worries, and pleted. Over a longer period of time, a person enters the exhaus-
academic pressures. Stress can also be internal, meaning we tion phase, the third level of Selye’s model, where physical re-
perceive events as demanding and thus experience bodily sources and resistance to stress decline dramatically. This can
changes such as muscle tension, trouble sleeping, and head- set the stage for various stress-related physical problems that
aches. Ben was clearly experiencing external and internal as- we discuss here. Ben’s chronic stress and new physical prob-
pects of stress. Everyone experiences stress at some level, so lems perhaps meant he was near the end of the resistance stage
stress is normal and even adaptive. Stress can make us more or entering the exhaustion stage.
alert and can help motivate us to prepare for upcoming tasks.
Resistance to stress
Stress can obviously become excessive, however. We have all
been through times when stress was intense, such as taking fi- Alarm Resistance Exhaustion
nal exams or planning a wedding or losing someone. In most
cases, intense stress eventually dissipates as time passes and we Time
readjust to everyday living. In other cases, however, stress con-
tinues for lengthy periods and can become physically and oth- Figure A-1 ❯ Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (From David G.
erwise harmful. Ben’s ongoing and intense stress at work was
clearly leading to several maladaptive physical symptoms and a Myers, Exploring Psychology 7th ed., p. 398. Reprinted by permission.)
lower quality of life.

A popular model for understanding acute and chronic
stress and its effects on us was proposed by Hans Selye, who
referred to the general adaptation syndrome. This model of stress
consists of three stages (see Figure A-1). The first stage is
alarm, which refers to the body’s initial reaction to something
stressful. This reaction may be in the form of higher adrenaline
and cortisol, substances that allow the body to become ener-
gized and fight or flee a stressful stimulus. You may have no-
ticed during final exams that you become quite energized by
the stress of having to work so hard to study and concentrate
and balance many demands in your life. As final exams pass

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Stress-Related Problems: Features and Epidemiology 475

Stress-related physical problems have been traditionally re- intestine that can create severe abdominal pain (Murison, 2001).
ferred to as psychophysiological disorders. Psychophysiologi- Recall that Ben appeared to be in the early stages of developing
cal disorders specifically refer to organ dysfunction or physical a stomach ulcer, perhaps from his ongoing stress. Approxi-
symptoms that may be at least partly caused by psychological mately 10 percent of American adults report a physician-
factors such as stress. Dysfunction often occurs in gastrointesti- diagnosed ulcer disease, and as many as one third report having
nal, cardiovascular, immune, or respiratory systems, though an ulcer in the previous year. Ulcers appear to affect men and
other areas could be affected as well. The modern terminology women equally. Stomach ulcers appear to affect non-Whites
for these problems is psychological factors affecting a general medical more than Whites, but duodenal ulcers appear to affect Whites
condition (APA, 2000). This refers to a true medical condition that more than non-Whites (Sonnenberg & Everhart, 1996).
is influenced to some extent by a psychological factor such as
anxiety, stress, or depression. The psychological factor can affect Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) refers to a chronic gas-
the course or treatment of the medical condition. A person may trointestinal disorder involving alternating and recurrent con-
experience such intense stress that stomach problems develop stipation and diarrhea as well as abdominal pain (Drossman,
very quickly, or depression in another person may cause him to Camilleri, Emeran, Mayer, & Whitehead, 2002). The prevalence
delay visiting a physician for medical symptoms, which then of IBS in the general population is difficult to determine but is
worsen. Psychological factors can also pose additional health likely about 10 to 15 percent (Saito, Schoenfeld, & Locke,
risks, as when a fear of needles prevents someone from taking a 2002). In addition, 30 percent of people who visit a physician
needed medication. Finally, stress-related physical responses, for gastrointestinal complaints appear to have the disorder.
such as those noted above in Selye’s model, could help cause or IBS is much more common in women than men, and many
exacerbate a medical problem such as breathing difficulties. people with the disorder fear that they have cancer (Thompson,
Heaton, Smyth, & Smyth, 2000). Symptoms of IBS may be
Stress-related physical problems are often studied by health more common among Afro-Caribbean Americans than Whites
psychologists who specialize in examining the interaction of bio- (Kang, 2005).
logical, psychological, and social variables on traditional medi-
cal disorders. Health psychologists are often employed in health Headache
and human service agencies, medical settings, or universities
affiliated with a hospital. Health psychologists may intersect Stress-related problems can also result in headaches, as they
with the area of behavioral medicine, which refers to a larger mul- did for Ben. Tension headaches are most common and refer to
tidisciplinary approach to understanding the treatment and short-term mild to moderate head pain that may feel as if
prevention of medical problems that may include a psychologi- muscles are contracting, though the actual cause of tension
cal approach. Health psychology and behavioral medicine may headaches remains unclear. Chronic tension headaches are
also overlap with the area of psychoneuroimmunology, which re- unusual in the general population (3 percent), but about 20 to
fers to the study of the interaction of psychological variables 30 percent of people experience a tension headache at least oc-
such as stress on the nervous and immune systems of the body. casionally. Tension headaches are generally more common in
women than men (Rasmussen, 2001).
Stress-Related Problems:
Migraine headaches refer to chronic and severe headaches
Features and Epidemiology that can last hours to days. Migraine headaches are often con-
centrated in one area, such as one side of the head or around
We next discuss various physical problems that may be partly the eye, and many people with a migraine headache are ex-
caused or affected by psychological factors such as stress. Keep tremely sensitive to light and crave total darkness. Migraines
in mind that many physical problems can be affected by psy- are sometimes preceded by an aura, or early warning signs such
chological factors, such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, and chronic fa- as light flashes or tingling in the limbs. Migraines can be quite
tigue syndrome. We concentrate the following material on debilitating and may be associated with nausea and vomiting.
those medical problems that tend to be more common and About 6 percent of men and 12 to 15 percent of women experi-
that have a strong research base regarding contributing psy- ence migraines, and 20 percent of those with migraines experi-
chological factors. These medical problems include ulcer, irri- ence more than one episode per month (Rasmussen, 2001).
table bowel syndrome, headache, asthma, insomnia, hyperten- Migraine headaches appear to be more common among per-
sion, and coronary heart disease. sons with lower income (Lipton & Bigal, 2005). Cluster headaches
refer to a cyclical pattern of very severe head pain that can last
Ulcers and Irritable Bowel Syndrome weeks to months at a time. Cluster headaches affect about 1 in
500 persons (Russell, 2004).
Stress-related problems often affect the gastrointestinal area of
the body. Ulcers refer to inflammation or erosion of a part of Asthma
the body, and often occur in gastrointestinal areas such as the
esophagus, stomach, or duodenum (part of the small intestine). Asthma refers to a chronic respiratory disease involving in-
A peptic ulcer refers to an ulcer that occurs in the stomach or flamed or constricted airways, tightening of the bronchial
walls, and excess mucus, all of which hinders breathing. Asthma
can involve regular or occasional attacks of wheezing, cough-

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476 APPENDIX | Stress-Related Problems

ing, shortness of breath, and tightness in the chest. Asthma blood vessels to the heart) when advanced. Blood vessels may
attacks can begin suddenly and can lead to decreased oxygen become blocked when plaque and other material clog the arter-
intake, lowered alertness, chest pain, and even death. Asthma ies and slow or prevent blood flow. Coronary heart disease is
attacks can last for minutes or much longer and can be trig- the leading cause of death in the United States, accounting for
gered by allergens such as dust, animals, cold air, exercise, pol- 1 of 6 deaths per year. Prevalence rates of angina in the United
len, and tobacco smoke as well as stress (Asher et al., 2006). The States differ for women who are African American (5.4 per-
prevalence of asthma in the general population is 5.8 to cent), Mexican American (4.8 percent), and white (4.5 percent);
7.2 percent. Asthma rates are generally higher for children, these rates also differ for men who are African American
women, and African Americans compared to the general popu- (4 percent), Mexican American (2.9 percent), and white
lation. Deaths from asthma have increased 25 percent since (4.7 percent). Prevalence rates of coronary heart disease in gen-
1960, a problem that especially affects inner-city African Amer- eral in the United States also differ for women who are African
icans (Grant, Lyttle, & Weiss, 2000; Hartert & Peebles, 2000). American (7.8 percent), Mexican American (6.6 percent), and
white (6.9 percent); coronary heart disease rates also differ for
Insomnia men who are African American (7.8 percent), Mexican Ameri-
can (5.3 percent), and white (9.4 percent) (American Heart As-
Insomnia refers to difficulties falling asleep and staying asleep sociation, 2010).
during the night, as well as poor quality of sleep. Insomnia may
or may not be related to a medical condition and is often the Stress-Related Problems:
result of excessive stress or depression. Chronic insomnia can
result in excessive sleepiness during the day, irritability or Causes and Prevention
moodiness, difficulty concentrating, and poor alertness. In-
somnia can be irregular, occurring some nights but not others, The stress-related problems described here all have biological
or could last for several weeks to months at a time (Ohayon & factors that help cause the damaging symptoms. Stomach ul-
Roth, 2003). Chronic insomnia affects 9 to 12 percent of cers, for example, often involve a bacterial infection from Heli-
adults, and 20 percent of adults in later life, and occurs in cobacter pylori that requires treatment with antibiotics and
women at twice the rate for men (Espie, 2002). Insomnia is anti-inflammatory medication. In addition, genetics, poor diet,
unrelated to ethnicity but may occur more in people with less smoking, allergens, plaque accumulation, and medical prob-
education (Gellis et al., 2005). lems that affect sleep are common factors that help cause
stress-related problems. The following sections concentrate on
Hypertension psychosocial factors that often affect these medical conditions.

Hypertension refers to high blood pressure and is commonly Sociocultural Variables
identified if systolic pressure inside your blood vessels (created
when your heart beats) is greater than 140 millimeters of mer- Stress-related problems appear to manifest differently and for
cury and/or if diastolic pressure inside your blood vessels (when different reasons among people of varying ages, gender, and
your heart is at rest) is greater than 90 millimeters of mercury race, as noted earlier. A particularly strong risk factor for many
(i.e., a reading of 140 over 90, or 140/90, or greater). Pressures stress-related problems is socioeconomic status, which in-
below 120/80 are preferred (though not too low). Hypertension cludes economic resources, social standing, and education.
has few outward symptoms but is a serious risk factor for prob- People living in industrialized countries tend to be healthier as
lems affecting the heart, brain, and kidneys such as heart at- income rises, and people with lower socioeconomic status are
tack, stroke, and renal failure (Brown, Giles, & Croft, 2000). at increased risk of stress-related problems, especially coronary
Essential hypertension refers to high blood pressure caused by heart disease (Krantz & McCeney, 2002). People of lower socio-
physical and psychological factors. Hypertension affects peo- economic status may have less access to medical care, experi-
ple of different cultures quite differently, from 3.4 percent of ence poor nutrition and living conditions, engage in less
men from India to 72.5 percent of women in Poland (Kearney, physical activity and more alcohol and tobacco use, and have
Whelton, Reynolds, Whelton, & He, 2004). Approximately less control over decisions in the workplace (Krantz &
28.7 percent of Americans report hypertension, with rates espe- McCeney, 2002; Levenstein, 2000).
cially high for women (30.1 percent), African Americans
(33.5 percent), and those aged 60+ years (65.4 percent) (Hajjar Emotional Difficulties
& Kotchen, 2003).
Several physical problems appear to be related to emotional
Coronary Heart Disease difficulties such as worry, sadness, and low self-esteem. Ulcers,
irritable bowel syndrome, and pain in the head, neck, and back
Coronary heart disease refers to a narrowing of the small have long been related to stress, anxiety, depression, and lower
blood vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the heart. Coro- quality of life (Jones, 2006; Luscombe, 2000; Murison, 2001).
nary heart disease may be manifested by angina (chest pain or Pain and headache are particularly related to passive coping,
discomfort) or myocardial infarction/heart attack (blockage of fear, self-perceived poor health, poor emotional well-being, and

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Stress-Related Problems: Causes and Prevention 477

cognitive distortions about the negative consequences of pain tressed personality pattern marked by negative affectivity and
(Holroyd et al., 2000; Linton, 2000). Headaches in college stu- social inhibition. This means that some people experience in-
dents, especially women, are closely related to level of emo- creased distress across many different situations but do not
tional functioning and perception of stress (Labbe, Murphy, & express this distress in social interactions (Pedersen &
O’Brien, 1997). Denollet, 2003). People with type D personality tend to worry
excessively, experience tension and unhappiness, feel irritable
Asthma is clearly related to stress in many cases, which ex- and pessimistic, and are uncomfortable around strangers. They
acerbates autonomic function and constriction of the bron- experience few positive emotions, have few friends, and fear
chial tubes (Rietveld, Everaerd, & Creer, 2000). Asthma is rejection and disapproval from others.
linked to anxiety and depression in children and adults, espe-
cially panic symptoms. People with asthma may also be more Type D personality has been linked to several stress-related
defensive, assess asthma symptoms poorly, and manage their problems such as fatigue, irritability, depression, and low self-
symptoms poorly in more severe cases (Kolbe, Fergusson, esteem. More importantly, people with type D personality are
Vamos, & Garrett, 2002; Lehrer, Feldman, Giardino, Song, & at significantly greater risk for cardiac problems and death
Schmaling, 2002). compared to people without type D personality. The specific
reason for this link remains under study, but some evidence
Insomnia has also been linked to mood disorders such as indicates that people with type D personality who are socially
depression (Roth, Roehrs, & Pies, 2007). Kappler and Hohagen inhibited tend to have higher blood pressure reactivity to cer-
(2003) found that two thirds of people could correctly be tain stressful events. Type D personality also appears related to
viewed as having insomnia based on an examination of in- lower quality of life and feelings of exhaustion following a
creased age, conflicts with relatives, professional overload, medical procedure to address a cardiac problem (Pedersen &
housekeeping overload, illness of relatives, and social and psy- Denollet, 2003).
chiatric status. Insomnia also appears closely related to exces-
sive worry (about daily events and about not being able to Social Support
sleep), stress and life change, overarousal, and poor timing of
sleep (Espie, 2002). Social support, or one’s access to friends and family members
and others who can be of great comfort during times of trou-
Psychosocial risk factors for hypertension include worry ble, is clearly linked to several stress-related problems. Low so-
about job stability (as with Ben), feeling less competent at one’s cial and family support appears to contribute to asthma, for
job, anger, and symptoms of anxiety and depression example (Klinnert et al., 2001; Smith & Nicholson, 2001). So-
(Levenstein, Smith, & Kaplan, 2001; Rutledge & Hogan, 2002). cial support may ease the ill effects of coronary problems be-
Depression also appears to be a significant risk factor for coro- cause it helps promote medication use and compliance, posi-
nary heart disease and heart failure, especially those who also tive coping with illness-related stress, and reduced overarousal
have a strong sense of hopelessness (MacMahon & Lip, 2002). and worry (MacMahon & Lip, 2002). In contrast, social isola-
People with depression and hopelessness may engage in more tion, being unmarried, or experiencing marital distress or low
high-risk behavior such as abusing substances and exercising levels of emotional support are risk factors for coronary heart
less, and may experience greater arterial thickening and less disease. Good social support may help calm aspects of the au-
heart rate variability, which are associated with poor cardiac tonomic nervous system and reduce activation of serotonin
outcomes (Krantz & McCeney, 2002). People with depression and fear/anxiety centers in the brain such as the hypothalamic-
are also likely to experience higher levels of bereavement and pituitary-adrenal axis (see Chapter 5) that could help prevent
anxiety, which may be risk factors for cardiac problems as well hypertension and later coronary problems (Everson-Rose &
(Everson-Rose & Lewis, 2005). Lewis, 2005).

Personality Type Causes of Stress-Related Problems

Personality type may be a key psychosocial cause of some The stress-related problems described here are largely the re-
stress-related problems. The traditional focus with respect to sult of a combination of biological problems exacerbated by
personality type was type A personality, which refers to someone psychological and social factors. A biopsychosocial model reflects
who is overachieving and hostile and who aggressively and im- the idea that biological, psychological (thoughts, feelings, and
patiently tries to accomplish more tasks in less time (Everson- behaviors), and social factors combine to cause and influence a
Rose & Lewis, 2005). Early research linked people with type A medical condition. This model is similar to the diathesis-stress
personality to increased cholesterol levels, though later re- model discussed in several chapters of this book. A biopsycho-
search focused more on hostility as the key component of risk social model is particularly relevant to psychophysiological
for coronary heart disease (Krantz & McCeney, 2002). Results disorders because of the unique combination of medical and
linking type A personality in general to cardiovascular prob- nonmedical factors.
lems have been inconsistent, though impatience and hostility
have been linked to hypertension (Yan et al., 2003). Let’s consider coronary heart disease as an example. Several
physiological factors predispose people to coronary heart dis-
More recent work has focused on another personality ease, including genetics, inflammation, hormonal changes, el-
type—type D personality. Type D personality refers to a dis-

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478 APPENDIX | Stress-Related Problems

evated lipids, and restriction of arteries, among others. Several lergens (Chan-Yeung et al., 2005; Hockemeyer & Smyth, 2002).
psychological factors can, however, combine with these predis- Other psychophysiological disorders such as irritable bowel
positions to increase the likelihood of cardiac effects such as syndrome, headache, and insomnia are usually treated after a
electrical instability and blocked blood flow. These psychologi- person complains of symptoms or may be prevented by a pro-
cal factors include chronic anger, hostility, depression, and ex- gram for another disorder. A program to prevent depression,
haustion as well as poor diet, little exercise, inadequate coping, for example, may help prevent sleep problems such as insom-
and other unhealthy behaviors. Physiological and psychologi- nia (Hollon, Thase, & Markowitz, 2002).
cal factors can be worsened as well by social factors such as
isolation from others, job stress, and low socioeconomic status. Stress-Related Problems:
These factors increasingly interact over time to predispose a
person to heart attack, angina, stroke, or death (Smith & Ruiz, Assessment and Treatment
2002).
Stress-related problems require a detailed medical assessment
Other psychophysiological disorders can also be under- to determine the extent of biological causes for the conditions
stood from a similar biopsychosocial perspective. Biological as well as a course of medical treatment. Mental health profes-
predispositions can interact with stress, anxiety, and depres- sionals who specialize in psychophysiological disorders have,
sion as well as social variables to help produce ulcers and irri- however, developed an array of assessment and treatment strat-
table bowel syndrome, cause headaches or other pain, aggra- egies that focus on the psychological factors that impact these
vate respiratory problems such as asthma or sleep problems problems. Some of these strategies overlap with those dis-
such as insomnia, and raise blood pressure toward hyperten- cussed in other chapters, but some are unique to psychophysi-
sion. Think about someone who has experienced an injury and ological disorders and are summarized next.
develops chronic pain aggravated by depression, lack of social
support, and trouble sleeping. Preventing these serious and Psychological Assessment
chronic problems from developing requires a focus on several of Stress-Related Problems
different variables, and this process is illustrated next.
Psychological assessment of stress-related problems often
Prevention of Stress-Related Problems comes in the form of daily behavior records. Researchers will
ask participants to record daily symptoms such as severity of
Prevention of stress-related problems focuses on wide-ranging pain and discomfort (for ulcer and headache), bowel function
programs to improve healthy practices and reduce the preva- (for irritable bowel syndrome), blood pressure (for hyperten-
lence of these problems in the general population. Many of sion), number of hours slept (for insomnia), and respiratory
these programs focus on primary prevention of the leading distress (for asthma) (Camilleri et al., 2000; Chesson et al.,
cause of death in the United States: coronary heart disease. The 2000; Kaniecki, 2003; Robinson et al., 2003; Vasan, Larson,
American Heart Association published guidelines for prevent- Leip, Kannel, & Levy, 2001). Researchers may also focus on
ing cardiovascular disease and stroke that involve behaviors intermittent records for variables such as weight and choles-
that should begin at age 20 years. These guidelines include terol level (for coronary heart disease) (Stampfer & Colditz,
recommendations for screening for potential risk factors such 2004).
as family history, smoking, alcohol use, diet, physical activity,
blood pressure, waist circumference, cholesterol and blood Questionnaires are often administered as well. Risk assess-
glucose level, management of diabetes, and regular use of aspi- ment questionnaires assess the degree to which a person is at
rin (Pearson et al., 2002). risk for a certain psychophysiological disorder. A risk assess-
ment questionnaire for ulcer, hypertension, or coronary heart
Other prevention programs for coronary heart disease as disease, for example, might include screening questions about
well as ulcers and hypertension have focused on improving weight, diet, cholesterol level, blood pressure, exercise, stress,
lifestyle choices such as proper diet, exercise regimens, and alcohol and tobacco use, and occupation (Nanchahal, Ashton,
smoking cessation (Misciagna, Cisternino, & Freudenheim, & Wood, 2000). Other questionnaires such as the Health Assess-
2000; Whelton et al., 2002). These programs are not as effective ment Questionnaire focus on broader health-related issues such
as medications to control high levels of cholesterol and blood as pain and disability, quality of life, drug side effects, and
pressure (Ebrahim, Beswick, Burke, & Davey Smith, 2006). medical costs (Bruce & Fries, 2003). Questionnaires regarding
This may be due to lack of compliance, however. Stampfer and anxiety, somatization, and depression are also helpful for peo-
colleagues (2000) found that women who did adhere to lifestyle ple with psychophysiological disorders and were covered at
guidelines for diet, exercise, and smoking cessation dramati- length in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.
cally lowered their risk of coronary heart disease.
Other recent assessment procedures for stress-related prob-
Other primary prevention programs are tailored more spe- lems have involved more specific areas of focus. Assessment of
cifically to an individual medical condition. Prevention of pain, for example, involves not just how intense pain is but also
asthma attacks in children, for example, involves medication how the pain interferes with a person’s daily life and how a
and stress management, early breastfeeding, and avoidance of person thinks about a pain (e.g., “I can handle the pain), feels
house dust, pets, and exposure to tobacco smoke and other al-

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Stress-Related Problems: Assessment and Treatment 479

about a pain (e.g., “I am really worried about my pain”), and Table A.1 ❯ College Students Reporting Each
behaves following a pain (e.g., complaining to others, using Source of Stress
medication heavily). Pain quality may be assessed as well and
refers to specific descriptors such as sharp, aching, hot, and Category Percentage
cramping (Molton & Raichle, 2010).
INTERPERSONAL 71
Assessment measures can also target personality factors 61
related to psychophysiological disorders. Measures are avail- Change in social activities 57
able to evaluate type A and type D personality, anger, and hos- Roommate conflict 41
tility. Another personality variable that has received substantial Work with people you don’t know 36
attention from researchers is stress reactivity, which refers to in- Fight with boyfriend/girlfriend 21
creased physical responses to daily stressful events (Boyce & New boyfriend/girlfriend
Ellis, 2005). Inventories that cover key personality variables as- Trouble with parents 89
sociated with psychophysiological disorders were described in 74
Chapter 4. INTRAPERSONAL 73
71
Stressful life events are also assessed by researchers because Change in sleeping habits 65
they impact physical problems so intensely. Smyth and col- Change in eating habits 60
leagues (2008) surveyed thousands of college students to evalu- New responsibilities 39
ate which types of life events were most prevalent and stressful Financial difficulties 35
or emotionally upsetting. The researchers found that 84.5 per- Held a job 32
cent of college students experienced an adverse life event at Spoke in public 26
some time in their lives. Adverse life events primary involved Change in use of alcohol or drugs 14
death of a loved one (62.7 percent), academic issue (39.6 per- Outstanding personal achievement 13
cent), parental divorce or separation (24.4 percent), and trau- Started college 12
matic sexual experience (18.4 percent). Decline in personal health 6
Minor law violation 5
Other researchers have examined daily hassles that college Change in religious beliefs 2
students encounter, such as traffic, missing class, time pres- Death of a family member
sure, or disagreement with a friend. Brougham and colleagues Death of a friend 73
(2009) found that daily hassles were more stressful for college Severe injury 68
students than academic, family, or financial problems, espe- Engagement/marriage 24
cially among women. Ross and colleagues (1999) examined the 21
prevalence of recent stressful life events and hassles among col- ACADEMIC 21
lege students; their results are shown in Table A-1. You can see 20
that the most common stressors for college students included Increased class workload 11
such things as interpersonal conflict, sleep difficulties, public Lower grade than anticipated 3
speaking, increased workload, grades, and even breaks from Change of major
school! Search for graduate school/job 82
Missed too many classes 69
Psychological Treatment Anticipation of graduation 69
of Stress-Related Problems Serious argument with instructor 51
Transferred schools 50
As with assessment, psychological treatment for stress-related 47
problems typically accompanies medical treatments such as ENVIRONMENTAL 46
medication or surgery. Psychological treatment for stress- 42
related problems often consists of relaxation training, biofeed- Vacations/breaks 8
back, stress management, cognitive therapy, and support Waited in long line 1
groups. Note that some of these treatments, such as relaxation Computer problems
training and biofeedback, are often used in combination. Placed in unfamiliar situation
Messy living conditions
Relaxation Training Put on hold for extended period of time
Change in living environment
We discussed relaxation training in Chapter 5 as a key treat- Car trouble
ment for physical symptoms of anxiety disorders. Relaxation Quit job
training often consists of tensing and releasing different muscle Divorce between parents
groups to achieve a sense of warmth and rest. Relaxation train-
ing may also consist of diaphragmatic breathing in which a Source: Ross et al. (1999).
person practices appropriate deep breathing to achieve a
greater sense of ease and control over physical anxiety symp-

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480 APPENDIX | Stress-Related Problems

AP Photo/Chuck Liddy/The News & Observerthrobbing head pain. People with tension
headaches are encouraged to engage in EMG
Biofeedback is an essential treatment component for stress-related problems. (electromyography) feedback, which involves feed-
back about muscle contraction and physically
toms. Meditation and hypnosis are sometimes a key part of relax- relaxing to ease tension and reduce head pain
ation training as well. Meditation refers to practicing focused (Rains, Penzein, McCrory, & Gray, 2005). EMG
attention and minimizing distraction, and hypnosis refers to a biofeedback has also been used to help people
state of focused attention with heightened suggestibility. Re- relax to reduce insomnia and hypertension
laxation training has also been used extensively to reduce stress (Blumenthal, Sherwood, Gullette, Georgiades,
in people with psychophysiological disorders, especially irrita- Tweedy, 2002; Ebben & Spielman, 2009). Bio-
ble bowel syndrome, hypertension, insomnia, and headache feedback appears to be best for people who are
and other pain (Dickinson et al., 2008; Lackner, Morley, open to the approach, who cannot tolerate or
Dowzer, Mesmer, & Hamilton, 2004; Morgenthaler et al., 2006; do not respond to medication, and who have
van Tulder et al., 2000). problematic coping skills (Penzien, Rains, &
Andrasik, 2002).
Biofeedback
Stress Management
Biofeedback refers to a procedure that allows a person to
monitor internal physiological responses and learn to control Stress management refers to a collection of
or modify these responses over time. A person is attached to techniques designed to help people reduce the
one or more devices that provide feedback to the person about chronic effects of stress on a daily basis as well
his brain wave patterns, respiration rate, muscle tension, blood as problematic physical symptoms. Stress
pressure, heart rate, or skin temperature. The person can learn management can involve using relaxation
to control these responses by relaxing, using positive imagery, techniques such as those described earlier, un-
and thinking more flexibly. As the person does so, he can see on derstanding stress better, managing workload
a monitor that his physiological responses such as heart rate effectively, incorporating spirituality and em-
are easing. With extended practice, the person learns to lower pathy, improving diet and exercise regimens, practicing good
physiological arousal even without being attached to a biofeed- sleep hygiene, complying with a medication regimen, schedul-
back machine. ing recreational activities, resolving interpersonal conflicts,
and managing hostility and anger toward others (Shapiro,
Biofeedback has been used most for people with migraine Shapiro, & Schwartz, 2000). Anger management often consists of
headaches and sleep problems. People with migraine head- identifying triggers to anger, understanding what personal
aches are encouraged to engage in thermal biofeedback, which physical responses lead to anger, practicing techniques to lower
involves feedback about skin temperature and warming the physical arousal, managing social and work situations more
extremities (hands, feet) to improve blood flow and reduce effectively to reduce the chances of anger, and removing one-
self from situations where anger is building (Burns et al., 2008;
Schell, Theorell, Hasson, Arnetz, & Saraste, 2008).
Another stress management technique that has received
greater attention recently is mindfulness, which we discussed in
Chapter 5 for anxiety disorders. Recall that mindfulness refers
to greater daily awareness and acceptance of one’s symptoms
and how the symptoms can be experienced without severe
avoidance or other impairment. A person is asked to engage in
moment-by-moment awareness of her mental state including
thoughts, emotions, imagery, and perceptions. Mindfulness
may be especially useful for people with chronic pain as well as
those with intense daily stress that can aggravate most psycho-
physiological disorders (Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, &
Walach, 2004).

Cognitive Therapy

We have discussed cognitive therapy throughout this book as
an effective treatment for disorders related to anxiety, depres-
sion, and other problems. Cognitive therapy generally consists
of helping people think more flexibly and realistically about
their environment and interactions with others. Cognitive

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Long-Term Outcome for People with Stress-Related Problems 481

therapy may be useful for reducing anxiety and depression, What If I or Someone I Know Has a
which are key elements of many stress-related problems.
Stress-Related Problem?
Cognitive therapy for people with psychophysiological
disorders also involves correcting misperceptions about cer- If you suspect that you or someone you know has a physical
tain events. Edinger and colleagues (2001) helped people with problem that may be at least partly caused by stress or another
insomnia in part by correcting misperceptions about sleep psychological variable, then consultation with a physician and a
requirements, circadian rhythms, and sleep loss. This was psychologist who specializes in health issues may be best. In ad-
combined with a behavioral approach that consisted of a dition, many people do not share with their physician details
standard wake-up time, rising from bed after a period of about the stress of their lives, or the fact that they are depressed
sleeplessness, avoiding behaviors incompatible with sleep in or lack social support. But these are important factors that may
the bedroom, and eliminating napping during the day. Com- affect treatment, so share these details with your medical doctor.
bined cognitive-behavioral treatment greatly improved main- You may also wish to explore support groups or begin daily
tenance of sleep. stress management to ease physical symptoms and adhere to
sound practices such as healthy diet, sleep and exercise regimens,
Another type of cognitive therapy for this population is periods of relaxation, and resolution of interpersonal conflicts.
self-instruction training (Meichenbaum, 2009). Self-instruction
training refers to identifying negative thoughts that may oc- Long-Term Outcome for People
cur during a painful episode (e.g., “This pain is so awful”) and
replacing these thoughts with more adaptive coping ones with Stress-Related Problems
(e.g., “I have to allow my pain to escape my body and move
forward”). Self-instruction training for pain is often accom- Stress management is an effective strategy for reducing distress
panied by techniques to educate people about pain, distract as well as cardiovascular risk factors such as heart rate variabil-
oneself from pain, reduce anxiety, and have family members ity and ventricular problems (Blumenthal et al., 2005). Stress
and others reinforce active and positive coping behaviors management also helps lower long-term mortality rates among
(Hechler et al., 2010). people with cardiovascular problems such as hypertension
(Schneider et al., 2005). Stress management and relaxation
Support Groups training may be particularly useful for people with irritable
bowel syndrome and perhaps ulcer as well (Ford, Talley,
Support groups are also a key aspect of treatment for people with Schoenfeld, Quigley, & Moayyedi, 2009).
psychophysiological disorders. We discussed support groups in
different chapters but most notably in Chapter 9 for substance- Other stress-related disorders appear responsive to psycho-
related disorders. Support groups refer to meetings of people logical therapies. As noted earlier, relaxation training and bio-
who share a common problem, including a physical problem feedback are especially useful for headache. Relaxation, family
such as an ulcer. Support groups are useful for sharing infor- therapy, medication compliance, stress reduction, and educa-
mation and tips on coping, venting frustration, developing tion are particularly important for resolving asthma, especially
social support and friendships, and practicing stress manage- in children (Yorke, Fleming, & Shuldman, 2007). Insomnia is
ment and other techniques. Support groups for the stress- also commonly treated successfully using cognitive-behavioral
related problems discussed here are conducted by the Crohn’s approaches, relaxation, and sleep restriction (Morin et al.,
and Colitis Foundation of America (for ulcerative colitis), Irri- 2006). In general, long-term outcome for stress-related prob-
table Bowel Syndrome Association, National Migraine Associa- lems is good as long as medication as well as stress, depression,
tion, Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, American and related psychological variables are appropriately managed.
Sleep Association (for insomnia), and American Heart Associa-
tion (for cardiac problems).

Key Terms irritable bowel syndrome insomnia 476 type D personality 477
(IBS) 475 hypertension 476 biofeedback 480
stress 474 coronary heart disease 476 stress management 480
psychophysiological asthma 475

disorders 475
ulcers 475

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482 APPENDIX | Stress-Related Problems

Media Resources sionals who live, love, or work with these individuals on a
daily basis. In addition to lecture launcher clips for the class-
Access an integrated eBook and chapter-specific learning room that are available for instructors via the PowerLecture
tools including flashcards, quizzes, and more. In addition, DVD, the Psychology CourseMate provides in-depth footage
Psychology CourseMate features new videos from the and corresponding exercises, including projects that enable
Wadsworth Video Library that provide holistic, three- students to both relate to the individuals and define their dis-
dimensional portraits of individuals dealing with psychologi- order from a clinical perspective.
cal disorders. The segments show these individuals living
their daily lives, interacting at home and work, and display- Go to CengageBrain.com or www.cengagebrain.com/
ing—rather than just describing—their symptoms. To give a shop/ISBN/1111343764.
more complete portrait, the videos also include discussions
with the family members, friends, and mental health profes-

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Glossary

abnormal psychology The scientific study of trouble- asthma A chronic respiratory disease involving behavioral inhibition A risk factor for anxiety
some feelings, thoughts, and behaviors associated inflamed or constricted airways, tightening of the disorders involving withdrawal from things that are
with mental disorders to better understand and bronchial walls, and excess mucus. unfamiliar or new.
predict mental disorder and help those who are in
distress. asylums Places reserved to exclusively treat people behavioral perspective A perspective of abnormal
with mental disorder, usually separate from the behavior that assumes that problematic symptoms
active phase A phase of schizophrenia marked by general population. develop because of the way we learn or observe
full-blown psychotic features such as delusions and others.
hallucinations. atrophy Gradual deterioration or shrinkage of a brain
area in people with dementia. binge eating Eating an amount of food in a limited
acute stress disorder A mental disorder marked by amount of time that is much larger than most people
anxiety and dissociative symptoms following a attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A would eat in that circumstance.
traumatic experience; the disorder lasts 2 days to 4 childhood mental disorder marked by severe prob-
months and may progress to posttraumatic stress lems of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. binge eating disorder An eating disorder marked by
disorder. recurrent episodes of binge eating but no compensa-
atypical antipsychotics A newer class of drugs to treat tory behavior.
adaptive functioning A person’s ability to carry out schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders.
daily tasks that allow her to be independent. biofeedback A procedure that allows a person to
autism A pervasive developmental disorder marked by monitor internal physiological responses and learn
aftercare services Community-based services for severe impairments in social relationships and com- to control or modify these responses over time.
people with severe mental disorders to ease the munication as well as bizarre behavior patterns.
transition between hospital settings and indepen- biological model A perspective of mental disorder that
dent living. automatic thoughts Cognitive distortions of the nega- assumes that mental states, emotions, and behaviors
tive cognitive triad that are constantly repeated and arise from brain function and processes.
agonists Medications to treat substance-related disor- often associated with depression.
ders that have a similar chemical composition as an bipolar mood disorder A mental disturbance some-
addictive drug. aversion treatment A treatment for paraphilias that times characterized by depression and mania.
involves associating paraphilic stimuli with unpleas-
agoraphobia A mental disorder marked by avoidance ant stimuli. bipolar I disorder A mental disorder marked by one or
of places where one might have an embarrassing or more manic or mixed episodes.
intense panic attack. aversive drugs Medications to treat substance-related
disorders that make ingestion of an addictive drug bipolar II disorder A mental disorder marked by
alogia Speaking very little to other people. quite uncomfortable. episodes of hypomania that alternate with episodes
of major depression.
amnestic disorder A cognitive disorder marked by avoidance conditioning A theory of fear development
severe impairment in memory due to effects of sub- that combines classical and operant conditioning blood alcohol level Concentration of alcohol in the
stance use or a medical condition. with internal states such as driving or motivating blood.
factors.
amyloid cascade hypothesis A theory that genetic and body dissatisfaction Negative self-evaluation of what
environmental factors interact to produce substan- avoidant personality disorder Personality disorder one’s body looks like.
tial brain changes and dementia. marked by anxiousness and feelings of inadequacy
and socially ineptness. body dysmorphic disorder A somatoform disorder
anhedonia Lack of pleasure or interest in life marked by excessive preoccupation with some per-
activities. avolition An inability or unwillingness to engage in ceived body flaw.
goal-directed activities.
anorexia nervosa An eating disorder marked by borderline personality disorder Personality disorder
refusal to maintain a minimum, normal body weight, Axis I DSM-IV-TR diagnostic axis of major clinical marked by impulsivity, difficulty controlling emo-
intense fear of gaining weight, and disturbance in disorders that emerge and end in the life cycle. tions, and self-mutilation or suicidal behavior.
perception of body shape and weight.
Axis II DSM-IV-TR diagnostic axis of lifelong disorders breathing retraining A treatment technique for physi-
antagonists Medications to treat substance-related such as personality disorders or mental retardation. cal anxiety symptoms that involves inhaling slowly
disorders that block pleasurable effects and cravings and deeply through the nose and exhaling slowly
for an addictive drug. Axis III DSM-IV-TR diagnostic axis that highlights cur- though the mouth.
rent medical conditions relevant to understanding or
antecedents Stimuli or events that precede a behavior. treating a person’s Axis I or Axis II disorder. brief psychotic disorder A psychotic disorder marked
by features of schizophrenia lasting 1 day to 1
antisocial personality disorder Personality disorder Axis IV DSM-IV-TR diagnostic axis that highlights month.
marked by extreme disregard for and violation of the psychosocial and environmental problems relevant
rights of others and impulsive behavior. to a presenting problem. bulimia nervosa An eating disorder marked by binge
eating, inappropriate methods to prevent weight
anxiety An emotional state that occurs as a threaten- Axis V DSM-IV-TR diagnostic axis that involves a gain, and self-evaluation greatly influenced by body
ing event draws close and is marked by aversive quantitative estimate of a person’s overall level of shape and weight.
physical feelings, troublesome thoughts, and avoid- functioning.
ance and other maladaptive behaviors. case study method In-depth examination and observa-
basal ganglia Brain structures that control posture tion of one person over time.
anxiety disorder A mental disorder involving over- and motor activity.
whelming worry, anxiety, or fear that interferes with catastrophizing A cognitive distortion involving the
a person’s daily functioning. behavior genetics A research specialty that evaluates assumption that terrible but incorrect consequences
genetic and environmental influences on develop- will result from an event.
anxiety sensitivity A risk factor for anxiety disorders ment of behavior.
involving fear of the potential dangerousness of catatonic Tendency to remain in a fixed stuperous
one’s physical symptoms. behavioral assessment An assessment approach that state for long periods.
focuses on measuring overt behaviors or responses.
Asperger’s disorder A pervasive developmental catatonic behavior Unusual motor behaviors in
disorder marked by severe impairments in social behavioral avoidance test An assessment technique people with schizophrenia.
relationships and bizarre behavior but without major for anxiety disorders that measures how close one
language delay. can approach a feared object or situation. catatonic schizophrenia A subtype of schizophrenia
marked by abnormal motor symptoms.

G-1

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

G-2 GLOSSARY

category An approach to defining mental disorder by comorbidity Two or more disorders in one person. cross-tolerance Tolerance for a drug one has never
examining large classes of behavior. taken because of tolerance to another drug with a
compensatory behaviors Inappropriate behaviors to similar chemical composition.
catharsis A nonspecific factor in treatment that refers prevent weight gain.
to venting emotions and release of tension in a client. cue exposure therapy Exposure of a person to drug
competency to stand trial Whether a person can cues to help him control urges to use the drug.
central nervous system The brain and spinal cord, participate meaningfully in his own defense and can
which are necessary to process information from our understand and appreciate the legal process that is cultural-familial mental retardation Mental retarda-
sensory organs and prompt our body into action if involved. tion linked less to physical factors and more to envi-
necessary. ronmental ones such as poor language stimulation
compulsions Ongoing and bizarre ritualistic acts and parents with low intelligence.
cerebral cortex Gray matter of the brain that covers performed after an obsession to reduce arousal.
almost all of each hemisphere. These may involve checking, hand washing, ordering, culture The unique behavior and lifestyle shared by a
counting, repeating words or phrases, or seeking group of people.
childhood disintegrative disorder A developmental reassurance from others.
disorder marked by initially normal growth but then culture-bound syndromes Syndromes caused by
deterioration in functioning after age 2 years. computerized axial tomography (CT scan) A neuro- culturally shared beliefs and ideas that lead to high
imaging technique that uses X-rays of the brain to levels of stress and mental disorder.
cholinesterase inhibitors A class of drugs to treat identify structural abnormalities.
people with dementia that help increase levels of cyclothymic disorder A mental disorder marked by
acetylcholine in the brain. concurrent validity Whether current test or interview fluctuating symptoms of hypomania and depression
results relate to an important feature or characteris- for at least two years.
cirrhosis of the liver A severe medical condition where tic at the present time.
scar tissue in the liver replaces functional tissue. defense mechanisms Strategies used by the ego to
conditional positive regard An environment in which stave off threats from the id or superego.
civil commitment Involuntary hospitalization of others set conditions or standards for one’s life.
people at serious risk for harming themselves or oth- delirium A cognitive disorder marked by usually
ers or who cannot care for themselves. conduct disorder A childhood mental disorder temporary and reversible problems in thinking and
marked by antisocial conduct in the form of aggres- memory.
classical conditioning Pairing of an unconditioned sion, property destruction, deceitfulness, theft, and
stimulus so the future presentation of a conditioned serious rule violations. delusional disorder A psychotic disorder marked by
stimulus results in a conditioned response. one or more delusions without other features of
confidentiality The idea that discussions between a schizophrenia.
classification Arranging mental disorders into broad therapist and a client should not be divulged to other
categories or classes based on similar features. people unless consent is given. delusions Irrational beliefs involving a misinterpreta-
tion of perceptions or life experiences.
client-centered therapy A humanistic therapy that confounds Factors that may account for group differ-
relies heavily on unconditional positive regard and ences on a dependent variable. dementia A cognitive disorder marked by usually
empathy. chronic, progressive, and irreversible problems in
consequences Outcomes or events that follow a thinking and memory.
clinical assessment Evaluating a person’s strengths behavior.
and weaknesses and formulating a problem at hand dementia due to Parkinson’s disease A form of
to develop a treatment plan. construct validity Whether test or interview results dementia commonly associated with severe motor
relate to other measures or behaviors in a logical, problems and atrophy of the substantia nigra of the
clinical psychologists Mental health professionals theoretically expected fashion. brain.
with a Ph.D. or Psy.D. who promote behavioral
change usually via psychological interventions. content validity Degree to which test or interview dementia due to Pick’s disease A form of dementia
items actually cover aspects of the variable or diagno- marked by atrophy to the frontal and temporal lobes
codependency Dysfunctional behaviors that signifi- sis under study. of the brain.
cant others of a person with substance-related disor-
der engage in to care for and cope with the person. contingency management A behavioral treatment dementia of the Alzheimer’s type Also known as Al-
technique in which family members and friends zheimer’s disease, a severe form of dementia marked
cognitive-behavioral therapy A type of treatment reward appropriate behavior in an individual. by aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, and executive function-
that focuses on the connection between thinking ing and memory deficits.
patterns, emotions, and behavior and uses cognitive control group Those who do not receive the active
and behavioral techniques to change dysfunctional independent variable in an experiment. dependent personality disorder Personality disorder
thinking patterns. marked by extreme submissiveness and a strong need
controlled observation A behavioral assessment to be liked and be taken care of by others.
cognitive disorders Mental disorders marked by technique that involves analogue tests or tasks to ap-
severe problems in thinking and memory, especially proximate situations people face in real life and that dependent variable Variables that measure a certain
delirium, dementia, and amnestic disorder. may elicit a certain problem behavior. outcome that a researcher is trying to explain or
predict.
cognitive distortions Irrational, inaccurate thoughts conversion disorder A somatoform disorder marked
that people have about environmental events. by odd pseudoneurological symptoms that have no depersonalization disorder A dissociative disorder
discoverable medical cause. marked by chronic episodes of detachment from
cognitive perspective A perspective of abnormal one’s body and feelings of derealization.
behavior that assumes that problematic symptoms coronary heart disease Narrowing of the small blood
develop because of the way we perceive and think vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the heart. depressant A class of drugs that inhibit the central
about our present and past experiences. nervous system.
correlational study A study that allows researchers
cognitive schema Set of beliefs or expectations that rep- to make some statements about the association or detoxification Withdrawing a person from an addic-
resent a network of already accumulated knowledge. relationship between variables based on the extent to tive drug under medical supervision.
which they change together in a predictable way.
cognitive therapy A treatment technique for cognitive developmental disorder A mental disorder marked
symptoms of anxiety that involves helping a person counseling psychologists Mental health professionals by delay in key areas of cognitive, adaptive, and
think more realistically and develop a sense of con- with an M.A. or Ph.D. who help clients make choices academic functioning.
trol over anxious situations. to improve quality of life.
diagnosis A category of mental disorder defined by
cohort effects Significant differences in the expression covert sensitization A treatment for paraphilias that certain rules that outline how many and what fea-
of a disorder depending on age. involves associating imaginal paraphilic scenes with tures of a disorder must be present.
descriptions of negative consequences or unpleasant
community psychology A branch of psychology that events. dialectical behavior therapy Cognitive-behavioral
focuses on enhancing quality of life for people and treatment for suicidal behavior and related features
concentrating on their relationships with different criminal commitment Involuntary hospitalization of of borderline personality disorder.
social structures. people charged with a crime, either for determina-
tion of competency to stand trial or after acquittal by diathesis A biological or psychological predisposition
community reinforcement approach Encouraging a reason of insanity. to disorder.
person to change environmental conditions to make
them more reinforcing than drug use. cross-sectional study A developmental design examin-
ing different groups of people at one point in time.

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Glossary G-3

dimension An approach to defining mental disorder electrocardiogram A psychophysiological measure fetishism A paraphilia where the predominant focus
along a continuum. that provides a graphical description of heart rate. of sexual activity is some contact with a specific
nonliving object.
discrete-trial training A structured and repetitive electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) A procedure in
method of teaching various skills to a child with a which an electrical current is introduced to the fixation Frustration and anxiety at a psychosexual
developmental disorder. brain to produce a seizure to alleviate severe mood stage that can cause a person to be arrested at that
disorder. level of development.
disinhibition The state that occurs when alcohol
inhibits key inhibitory systems of the brain. electroencephalogram (EEG) A psychophysiological flat affect Lack of variety in emotional expression and
measure of brain activity. speech.
disorganized dimension A dimension that organizes
people with schizophrenia by the degree to which electronic diaries Electronic devices for self-moni- flooding An exposure-based therapy technique involv-
they experience fragmented speech, odd behavior, toring. ing exposure to, and eventual extinction of, one’s
and inappropriate affect. most intense fear.
emotional processing A person’s ability to think
disorganized schizophrenia A subtype of schizophre- about a past anxiety-provoking event without signifi- forensic psychology A branch of psychology involving
nia marked by odd or fragmented speech, behavior, cant anxiety. the interaction of psychological and legal principles.
and emotions.
emotional reasoning A cognitive distortion involving fragile X syndrome A genetic condition that involves
disorganized speech Disconnected, fragmented, inter- the assumption that one’s physical feelings reflect damage to the X chromosome and that often leads to
rupted, jumbled, and/or tangential speech. how things really are. mental retardation, especially in males.

disruptive behavior disorders A class of childhood endogenous opioids Chemicals produced by the body free association A psychodynamic technique in which
mental disorders that involve serious acting-out be- that reduce pain, enhance positive mood, and sup- a client speaks continuously without censorship.
havior problems and often include attention deficit press appetite.
hyperactivity, oppositional defiant, and conduct free radicals Aggressive substances produced by the
disorders. epidemiologists Scientists who study the incidence, body possibly to fight viruses and bacteria but which,
prevalence, and risk factors of disorders. in excess, can help lead to dementia.
dissociation A feeling of detachment or separation
from oneself. epidemiology The study of patterns of diseases, frontal lobe An area of the brain in front of the brain
disorders, and other health-related behavior in a that is responsible for movement, planning, organiz-
dissociative amnesia A dissociative disorder marked population of interest. ing, inhibiting behavior, and decision making.
by severe memory loss for past and/or recent events.
ethnicity Clusters of individuals who share cultural frotteurism A paraphilia where the predominant
dissociative disorder A class of mental disorders traits that distinguish themselves from others. focus of sexual activity is physical contact with an
marked by disintegration of memory, consciousness, unsuspecting person.
or identity. etiology Cause of mental disorders.
functional analysis A behavioral assessment strategy
dissociative fugue A dissociative disorder marked by exhibitionism A paraphilia where the predominant to understand antecedents and consequences of
severe memory loss and sudden travel away from focus of sexual activity is exposure of one’s genitals behavior.
home or work. to others such as strangers.
functional MRI (fMRI) A neuroimaging technique
dissociative identity disorder A dissociative disorder experiment A research method that allows scientists to that assesses brain structure and function as well as
marked by multiple personalities in a single individual. draw cause-and-effect conclusions. metabolic changes.

distal factors Causal factors that indirectly affect a experimental group Those receiving the active inde- galvanic skin conductance A psychophysiological
particular mental disorder. pendent variable in an experiment. measure of the electrical conductance of skin.

dopamine A neurotransmitter that regulates novelty- exposure-based practices Treatment techniques for gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) A neurotrans-
seeking, exploration, sociability, and movement. behavioral symptoms of anxiety that involve reintro- mitter that inhibits various behaviors, arousal, and
ducing a person to situations she commonly avoids. emotions such as anxiety.
Down syndrome A chromosomal condition often
caused by an extra #21 chromosome and which exposure treatment A behavioral technique for reduc- gender identity disorder A mental disorder marked by
leads to characteristic physical features and mental ing anxiety in which clients expose themselves to fear strong desire to be of the opposite gender and identi-
retardation. and avoided situations. fying oneself as a person of the opposite gender.

dream analysis A psychodynamic technique to access expressed emotion Family interactions characterized generalized anxiety disorder A mental disorder
unconscious material thought to be symbolized in by high levels of emotional overinvolvement, hostil- marked by constant worry about nondangerous situ-
dreams. ity, and criticism. ations and physical symptoms of tension.

dual relationships A client who is also a significant external validity Ability to generalize results from one gene therapy Insertion of genes into an individual’s
other in the therapist’s life; ethics standards dictate investigation to the general population. cells and tissues to treat a disorder.
that this practice is to be avoided.
extrapyramidal effects A group of side effects from genotype The genetic composition of an individual
dyspareunia A sexual dysfunction characterized by antipsychotic medication involving involuntary that is fixed at birth and received from one’s parents.
pain during intercourse. movements of different parts of the body.
hallucinations Sensory experiences a person believes
dysthymic disorder A mental disorder marked by a factitious disorder A mental disorder marked by to be true when actually they are not.
chronic feeling of depression and other symptoms deliberate production of physical or psychological
for at least two years. symptoms to assume the sick role. hallucinogens A class of drugs that produce psychosis-
like symptoms.
eating disorder A class of mental disorder involving family systems perspective The idea that each family
severe body dissatisfaction, weight concerns, and has its own structure and rules that can affect the histrionic personality disorder Personality disorder
eating problems as well as significant distress, exces- mental health of individual family members. marked by excessive need for attention, superficial
sive limits on activities, or increased risk for medical and fleeting emotions, and impulsivity.
problems. fear An immediate and negative reaction to imminent
threat that involves fright, increased arousal, and an hopelessness A feeling of despair often related to
eating problems Restricting eating/excessive dieting overwhelming urge to escape. severe depression and suicide.
and lack of control of eating.
female orgasmic disorder A sexual dysfunction hopelessness theory A theory of depression that
educational psychologists Psychologists typically with marked by delay or absence of orgasm during sexual people are more likely to become depressed if they
a Ph.D. who work in school settings or academia to activity. make global, internal, and stable attributions about
study and improve learning strategies for youth and negative life events.
adults. female sexual arousal disorder A sexual dysfunction
in women marked by lack of arousal during sexual humanistic model A model of abnormal behavior
ego The organized, rational component of the per- activity. that emphasizes personal growth, free will, and
sonality. responsibility.
fetal alcohol syndrome A condition caused by prena-
tal alcohol use that results in facial abnormalities
and learning problems in children.

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G-4 GLOSSARY

hypertension High blood pressure commonly identi- interpretation A method in which a psychodynamic manic episode A period during which a person feels
fied if systolic pressure is greater than 140 millime- theorist reveals unconscious meanings of a client’s highly euphoric or irritable.
ters of mercury and/or if diastolic pressure is greater thoughts and behaviors to help the person achieve
than 90 millimeters of mercury. insight. manifest content The literal meaning of a dream.

hypoactive sexual desire disorder A sexual dysfunc- interrater reliability Extent to which two raters or marijuana A drug produced from the hemp plant that
tion marked by lack of sexual fantasies or desire to observers agree about their ratings or judgments of a contains THC.
have sexual relations. person’s behavior.
marriage and family therapists Mental health profes-
hypochondriasis A somatoform disorder marked by irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) A chronic gastroin- sionals with an M.A. or Ph.D. who specialize in work-
excessive preoccupation with the fear of having some testinal disorder involving alternating and recurrent ing with couples and families.
serious disease. constipation and diarrhea as well as abdominal pain.
mastery An active treatment ingredient involving
hypomanic episode A period during which a person Korsakoff ’s syndrome A cognitive disorder marked by strong control over one’s symptoms to the point they
experiences manic symptoms but without significant confusion, memory loss, and coordination problems. are not problematic to the individual.
interference in daily functioning.
lack of control over eating A feeling of poor control masturbation training A treatment for people with
hypothalamus A region of the brain below the thala- when eating such that excessive quantities of food orgasmic disorder that involves practicing effective
mus that influences body temperature, food intake, are consumed. masturbation and stimulation to enhance orgasm.
sleep, and sex drive.
latent content The symbolic meaning of a dream’s memory training A psychological treatment for de-
hypothesis A statement about the cause of an event or events. mentia to enhance a person’s memory by repeatedly
about the relationship between two events. practicing skills relying on external cues and mne-
learned helplessness A theory related to depression monic strategies to jog memory, increasing social
id The deep, inaccessible portion of the personality that people act in a helpless, passive fashion upon interaction, and simplifying a living environment.
that contains instinctual urges. learning their actions have little effect on their over-
all environment. mental disorder A group of emotional (feelings), cog-
inappropriate affect Emotion not appropriate for a nitive (thinking), or behavioral symptoms that cause
given situation. learning disorder A limited developmental disorder distress or significant problems
marked by academic problems in reading, spelling,
incidence Rate of new cases of a disorder that occur writing, arithmetic, or some other important area. mental hygiene The science of promoting mental
or develop during a specific time period such as a health and thwarting mental disorder through edu-
month or year. least restrictive treatment A principle according to cation, early treatment, and public health measures.
which people with mental disorders should receive
independent variable A variable manipulated by a effective treatment that impinges least on their mental retardation A pervasive developmental
researcher that is hypothesized to be the cause of the freedom. disorder marked by below average intelligence, poor
outcome. adaptive behavior, and onset before age 18 years.
lethal dose Dose of a substance that kills a certain
indicated prevention Preventive intervention target- percentage of test animals. mental status examination An assessment strategy for
ing individuals at high risk for developing extensive people with cognitive disorders involving evaluation
problems in the future. Lewy bodies Clusters of alpha-synuclein proteins of appearance, mood, orientation, and odd behav-
that accumulate in the brain and can help lead to iors, speech, or thoughts.
induction defects Problems in closure of the neural dementia.
tube, proper development of the forebrain, and mesolimbic system A reward-based area in the brain
completion of the corpus callosum, all of which may lifetime prevalence Proportion of those who exhibit implicated in substance-related disorders.
lead to developmental disorder. symptoms of a disorder up to the point they were
assessed. metabolites By-products of neurotransmitters that
informant report Assessment methodology where can be detected in urine, blood, and cerebral spinal
individuals who know a person well complete ratings limbic system An area of the brain in the forebrain fluid.
of his personality traits and behavior. that regulates emotions and impulses and is respon-
sible for basic drives like thirst, sex, and aggression. migration defects Problems in cell growth and distri-
informed consent The practice of educating potential bution in the second to fifth month of pregnancy,
clients about the therapy process, especially variables limited developmental disorders A developmental which can lead to underdeveloped brain areas and
that might influence their decision to seek therapy. disorder where one area but not many areas of func- developmental disorder.
tioning are affected.
insanity A legal term that refers to mental incapacity milieu therapy An inpatient treatment approach
at the time of the crime, perhaps because a person longitudinal study A developmental design examining involving professionals and staff members encourag-
did not understand right from wrong or because she the same group of people over a long period of time. ing a person with a severe mental disorder to engage
was unable to control personal actions at the time of in prosocial and therapeutic activities.
the crime. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A neuroimaging
technique that can produce high-resolution images mindfulness A therapy technique for anxiety disorders
insight (1) An active treatment ingredient whereby a of brain structure. that emphasizes how a person can accept symptoms
client comes to understand reasons for his maladap- but still function in a given situation.
tive behavior and how to address it. (2) Understand- major depressive disorder A mental disorder often
ing the unconscious determinants of irrational marked by multiple major depressive episodes. mixed episode A period during which a person experi-
feelings, thoughts, or behaviors that create problems ences symptoms of mania and major depression.
or distress. major depressive episode A period of time, two weeks
or longer, marked by sad or empty mood most of the MMPI-2 clinical scales Subscales of the MMPI-2
insomnia Difficulties falling asleep and staying asleep day, nearly every day, and other symptoms. used to identify various problematic behaviors and
during the night as well as poor quality of sleep. personality styles.
maladaptive behavior A behavior that interferes with
intelligence tests Measures of cognitive functioning a person’s life, including ability to care for oneself, MMPI-2 validity scales Subscales of the MMPI-2 used
that provide estimates of intellectual ability. have good relationships with others, and function to identify a person’s defensiveness during testing
well at school or at work. and response sets.
internal consistency reliability Extent to which test
items appear to be measuring the same thing. male erectile disorder A sexual dysfunction in men model A systematic way of viewing and explaining
marked by difficulty obtaining and maintaining a what we observe.
internal validity Extent to which a researcher can be full erection during sexual activity.
confident that changes in the dependent variable are modeling Learning a new skill or set of behaviors by ob-
truly the result of manipulation of the independent male orgasmic disorder A sexual dysfunction in men serving another person perform the skill or behavior.
variable. characterized by delay or absence of orgasm during
sexual activity. molecular genetics Analysis of deoxyribonucleic acid
interoceptive exposure A treatment technique involv- (DNA) to identify links between specific genetic
ing exposure to, and eventual control of, physical malingering Deliberate production of physical or psy- material and mental disorders.
symptoms of anxiety. chological symptoms with some external motivation.
monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) A class of an-
tidepressant drug that inhibits monoamine oxidase,
which breaks down neurotransmitters, to increase
levels of those neurotransmitters.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Glossary G-5

mood disorder A class of mental disorders marked objective personality measures Measures of personal- personality assessment Instruments measuring differ-
by severe changes in mood toward depression and/ ity that involve administering a standard set of ent traits or aspects of character.
or mania. questions or statements to which a person responds
using set options. personality disorders Mental disorders involving dys-
mood-stabilizing drugs A medication used to help functional personality traits and associated problems
people control rapid shifts in mood. obsessions Ongoing and bizarre ideas, thoughts, im- such as relationship disturbances and impulsive
pulses, or images that a person cannot control. These behavior.
motivational interviewing A type of interview for may involve doubt, need for order, contamination,
substance-related disorders that focuses on obtain- aggression, and sexual imagery. pervasive developmental disorders A developmental
ing information and propelling a person to change disorder in which many areas of functioning are
behavior. obsessive-compulsive disorder A mental disorder affected.
marked by ongoing obsessions and compulsions last-
multidimensional family therapy A family-based ing more than 1 hour per day. phenomenological approach An assumption that
treatment approach for substance-related disorders one’s behavior is determined by perceptions of
that focuses on developing a strong parent-adoles- obsessive-compulsive personality disorder Personal- herself and others.
cent bond and correcting related problems. ity disorder marked by rigidity, perfectionism, and
strong need for control. phenotype Observable characteristics of an individual.
multisystemic treatment An intensive family- and
community-based treatment program designed to occipital lobe An area of the brain behind the parietal phenylketonuria (PKU) An autosomal recessive
address conduct-related problems in children. and temporal lobes and associated with vision. disorder that leads to buildup of phenylalanine and
possible mental retardation.
Munchausen syndrome A severe factitious disorder in operant conditioning A learning principle that behav-
which a person causes symptoms and claims he has a ior followed by positive or pleasurable consequences placebo effect A nonspecific factor in treatment involv-
physical or mental disorder. is likely to be repeated but behavior followed by ing a client’s expectation of improvement in therapy.
negative consequences is not likely to be repeated.
narcissistic personality disorder Personality disorder pleasure principle The rule of conduct by the id to
marked by grandiosity, arrogance, and a tendency to opiates A class of drugs commonly used to relieve seek pleasure and avoid pain.
exploit others. pain.
positive correlation Two variables highly related to
naturalistic observation A behavioral assessment oppositional defiant disorder A childhood mental one another such that an increase in one variable is
technique that involves observing a person in his or disorder marked by hostile and negative behavior accompanied by an increase in the other variable.
her natural environment. that includes noncompliance, argumentativeness,
anger, spitefulness, and annoyance of others. positive reinforcement Presenting a pleasant event or
negative cognitive triad Cognitive distortions involv- consequence after a behavior to increase frequency of
ing the self, world, and the future. organismic variables A person’s physiological or cog- the behavior.
nitive characteristics important for understanding a
negative correlation Two variables highly related to problem and determining treatment. positive symptoms Symptoms such as delusions and
one another such that an increase in one variable is hallucinations that are obvious and excessive.
accompanied by a decrease in the other variable. orgasmic reconditioning A treatment for paraphilias
that involves initial masturbation to a paraphilic positron emission tomography (PET scan) An
negative dimension A dimension that organizes stimulus and later masturbation to more appropriate invasive neuroimaging procedure that assesses brain
people with schizophrenia by the degree to which sexual stimuli. structure and functioning.
they experience deficit behaviors such as flat affect
and alogia. oxidative stress Damage to the brain from extensive postpartum depression A major depressive episode
exposure to oxygen and related matter. during weeks following childbirth.
negative reinforcement Removing an aversive event
following a behavior to increase frequency of the pain disorder A somatoform disorder marked by pain postpartum psychosis A mental condition marked by
behavior. symptoms that have no discoverable medical cause. psychotic symptoms in a mother following the birth
of her child.
negative symptoms Symptoms such as flat affect and panic attack A brief episode of intense fear and physi-
alogia that represent significant deficits in behavior. cal symptoms that increases and decreases suddenly posttraumatic stress disorder A mental disorder
in intensity. These symptoms are often accompanied marked by a traumatic event and the reexperiencing
neurochemical assessment Biological assessment of by worry about their dangerousness and negative of the event through unwanted memories, night-
dysfunctions in specific neurotransmitter systems. consequences. mares, flashbacks, and images. This disorder also
involves worry and physical symptoms of anxiety.
neurodevelopmental hypothesis A general etiological panic disorder A mental disorder marked by ongo-
model for psychotic disorders that assumes early ing and uncued panic attacks, worry about the predictive validity Whether test or interview results ac-
changes in key brain areas and gradual progression consequences of these attacks, and, sometimes, curately predict some behavior or event in the future.
over the life span to full-blown symptoms. agoraphobia.
premature ejaculation A sexual dysfunction in men
neurofibrillary tangles Twisted fibers inside nerve paranoid personality disorder Personality disorder marked by orgasm that occurs with very little stimu-
cells of the brain that can help lead to dementia. marked by general distrust and suspiciousness of lation or that occurs before the person wishes.
others.
neuron The basic unit of the nervous system that premenstrual dysmorphic disorder A mental disorder
comprises a cell body, dendrites, one or more axons, paranoid schizophrenia A subtype of schizophrenia marked by depressive symptoms during most men-
and terminal buttons. marked by persecutory or grandiose delusions, audi- strual periods.
tory hallucinations, and good cognitive functioning.
neuropsychological assessment Indirect measures of prescriptive treatment Assigning a specific treatment
brain and physical function by evaluating a person’s paraprofessionals Persons without advanced degrees to an individual with a specific mental health prob-
performance on standardized tests and tasks that who often work in mental health settings and assist lem or subtype of a problem.
indicate brain-behavior relationships. with assessment and treatment procedures.
prevalence Rate of new and existing cases of a condi-
neurotransmitters Chemical messengers that allow a parietal lobe An area of the brain behind the frontal tion observed during a specific time period.
nerve impulse to cross the synapse. lobe that is associated with the sensation of touch.
prevention Interventions intended to arrest the devel-
nonspecific factors General ingredients common to partial agonists Medications to treat substance-related opment of later problems.
most psychological treatments that help promote disorders that may act as an agonist or antagonist
mental health in a client. depending on how much of a certain neurotransmit- primary prevention A type of prevention targeting
ter is produced. large groups of people who have not yet developed a
norepinephrine A neurotransmitter that regulates mental disorder
certain behaviors and reactions, including those nec- pedophilia A paraphilia where the predominant focus
essary for emergency or highly arousing situations. of sexual activity is with children. primary process The irrational and impulsive type of
thinking that characterizes the id.
normalization The idea that people with mental disor- peripheral nervous system The somatic and auto-
ders in regular living environments will behave more nomic nervous system that controls muscles and process variables General ingredients common to
appropriately than those in large institutions voluntary movement, impacts the cardiovascular most psychological treatments that promote mental
and endocrine system, assists with digestion, and health in a client.
regulates body temperature.
prodromal phase An initial phase of schizophrenia
marked by peculiar thoughts and behaviors but
without active psychotic features.

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G-6 GLOSSARY

projection A defense mechanism used when a person public health model A model that focuses on promot- restricted eating/dieting Deliberate attempts to limit
attributes his or her unconscious feelings to some- ing good health and good health practices to avert quantity of food intake or change types of foods that
one else. disease are eaten.

projective hypothesis The assumption that, when purging Ridding oneself of food or bodily fluids (and Rett’s disorder A developmental disorder marked by
faced with unstructured or ambiguous stimuli or thus weight) by self-induced vomiting or misuse of initially normal growth but then deterioration in
tasks, individuals impose their own structure and laxatives or diuretics. functioning between 5 and 48 months of age.
reveal something of themselves.
quasi-experimental method A study in which an inde- reuptake A feedback mechanism that informs a neu-
projective tests Psychological testing techniques pendent variable is manipulated but people are not ron about the amount of neurotransmitter needed to
based on the assumption that people faced with randomly selected or assigned to groups. be released in the future.
an ambiguous stimulus such as an inkblot will
project their own needs, personality, conflicts, and race A socially constructed category typically based on reward deficiency syndrome The theory that some
wishes. physical characteristics. people may not be able to derive much reward from
everyday events and so resort to excesses such as
protective factor A factor that buffers one against the randomization Selecting and assigning people to drug use.
development of a mental disorder. groups so each person has the same chance of being
assigned to any one group. right to refuse treatment A principle according to
proximal factors Causal factors that more directly which clients have the right to refuse risky or uncon-
affect a particular mental disorder. rational restructuring A set of techniques to teach ventional or discomfiting treatments.
individuals to examine their assumptions about
pseudoseizures Seizure-like activity such as twitching situations or the world in general and think more right to treatment A principle according to which
or loss of consciousness without electrical disrup- realistically. clients have the right to receive treatment that pro-
tions in the brain. vides a meaningful chance of improvement in their
reaction formation A defense mechanism that oc- condition.
psychiatric nurses Specialized nurses with an R.N. curs when an unconscious impulse is consciously
who often work on inpatient psychiatric wards and expressed by its behavioral opposite. risk factor An individual, contextual, or environmen-
have training specific to mental disorders. tal characteristic correlated with an outcome or
reality orientation A psychological treatment to condition such as a mental disorder that precedes
psychiatrists Mental health professionals with an reduce confusion in people with dementia using the development of the disorder.
M.D. who often subscribe to a medical or biological constant feedback about time, place, person, and
model to treat people with mental disorders. recent events. satiety Feeling full from eating.

psychic determinism An assumption of psychody- reality principle The rule of conduct by the ego that schizoaffective disorder A psychotic disorder marked
namic theory that everything we do has meaning and defers gratification of instinctual urges until a suit- by symptoms of schizophrenia and a mood disorder.
purpose and is goal-directed. able object and mode of satisfaction are discovered.
schizoid personality disorder Personality disorder
psychoanalyst A mental health professional that regression A defense mechanism that occurs when marked by social isolation and restricted emotional
specializes in Freudian psychoanalysis to treat people a person returns to a life stage that once provided expression.
with mental disorders. substantial gratification.
schizophrenia A psychotic disorder marked by posi-
psychodynamic model A model of abnormal behavior rehabilitation Regarding substance-related disorders, tive symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations,
that assumes all mental states, emotions, and treatment involving complete abstinence, education negative symptoms such as flat affect and with-
behaviors to arise from unconscious motives and about addictive drugs and their consequences, and drawal, and disorganized behavior.
intrapsychic conflicts. relapse prevention.
schizophreniform disorder A psychotic disorder
psychoeducation A treatment technique that involves relaxation training A treatment technique for physical marked by symptoms of schizophrenia that last 1-6
educating a person about the physical, cognitive, and anxiety symptoms that may involve having a person months and do not greatly interfere with daily life
behavioral components of anxiety and how these tense and release (relax) different muscle groups. functioning.
components occur in sequence for that person.
reliability Consistency of test scores or diagnoses. schizotypal personality disorder Personality disorder
psychopathologists Professionals who study mental marked by social anxiety, paranoid fears, and eccen-
problems to see how disorders develop and continue reminiscence therapy A treatment procedure for older tric behavior, perceptions, and thoughts.
and how they can be prevented or alleviated adults with depression involving a systematic review
of one’s life and resolution of regrets. school psychologists Psychologists with an M.A. or
psychopathy Diagnostic construct related to antisocial Ph.D. who typically work in school settings to evalu-
personality disorder; psychopathy focuses on prob- repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ate youth with learning and behavioral problems.
lematic interpersonal styles such as arrogance, lack (rTMS) A procedure to treat mood disorders that
of empathy, and manipulativeness. involves rapidly changing magnetic fields. school refusal behavior A child-motivated refusal to
attend school and/or difficulties remaining in classes
psychophysiological assessment Evaluating bodily repression A defense mechanism that involves keeping for an entire day.
changes possibly associated with certain mental highly threatening sexual or aggressive material out
conditions. of conscious awareness. scientific method A set of agreed upon rules for
systematically gathering information that involves
psychophysiological disorders Organ dysfunction or residual phase A phase of schizophrenia usually after generating a hypothesis, developing a research
physical symptoms that may be at least partly caused the active phase involving peculiar thoughts and design, and analyzing and interpreting data to test
by psychological factors such as stress. behaviors similar to the prodromal phase. the hypothesis.

psychosexual stages of development A series of devel- residual schizophrenia A subtype of schizophrenia screening interview A type of assessment that helps
opmental stages marked by a particular erogenous marked by negative symptoms and odd, withdrawn clinicians obtain information about recent and
zone of the body. behavior. lifetime use of alcohol and other drugs.

psychotherapist A generic mental health professional, resilience Ability of an individual to withstand and secondary prevention A type of prevention that
or one not currently licensed as a psychologist or rise above extreme adversity. addresses emerging problems while they are still
psychiatrist. manageable and before they become resistant to
response (or ritual) prevention A treatment technique intervention.
psychotic dimension A dimension that organizes for obsessive-compulsive disorder involving exposure
people with schizophrenia by the degree to which to an obsession such as thoughts of dirty hands secondary process The rational and self-preservative
they experience delusions and hallucinations. without engaging in a related compulsion such as type of thinking that characterizes the ego.
hand washing.
psychotic disorders A class of mental disorder marked selective prevention Preventive intervention targeting
by schizophrenia and related problems. restricting behaviors Eating less overall, avoiding subgroups of people at risk for a particular problem.
foods with high calories, and engaging in excessive
psychotic prephase A phase of schizophrenia between exercise. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) A class
the prodromal and active phases involving the onset of antidepressant medication that specifically affects
of the first positive symptom of schizophrenia. serotonin levels and has fewer side effects than other
antidepressants.

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Glossary G-7

self-actualization A striving to be the best one can be. somatization A tendency to communicate distress systematic desensitization An exposure-based
through physical symptoms and to pursue medical treatment technique involving gradual exposure to
self-control An active treatment ingredient whereby help for these symptoms. feared objects or situations and relaxation/breathing
a client learns to control wayward impulses or emo- training.
tions to improve quality of life. somatization disorder A somatoform disorder
marked by medically unexplained pain and gastroin- Tay-Sachs disease A genetic condition leading to se-
self-help group An association of people who share a testinal, sexual, and pseudoneurological symptoms. vere motor and sensory disabilities as well as mental
common problem such as a mental disorder that the retardation and early death.
group tries to address. somatoform disorder A class of mental disorders
marked by medically unexplained physical symptoms temporal lobe A middle area of the brain associated
self-monitoring A behavioral assessment technique or preoccupation with some perceived body dysfunc- with auditory discrimination.
where a person observes and records his own behav- tion or flaw.
iors, thoughts, and emotions. teratogen A potentially harmful agent that affects
special education teachers Specialized teachers with fetuses during the prenatal stage and which may lead
senile or neuritic plaques Clusters of dead nerve cells an M.A. or Ph.D. who work primarily with youth to developmental disorders.
and accumulations of amyloid proteins in the brain with developmental disabilities in academic settings.
that can help lead to dementia. tertiary prevention A type of prevention aimed to
specific phobia A mental disorder marked by panic reduce the severity, duration, and negative effects of
sensate focus A treatment for sexual dysfunction that attacks surrounding, and avoidance of, objects and a mental disorder after it has occurred
helps couples reestablish intimacy while gradually situations other than those involving social interac-
rebuilding pleasurable sexual behaviors. tion and/or performance before others. test-retest reliability Extent to which a person pro-
vides similar answers to the same test items across
separation anxiety disorder A childhood mental spectator role The process of attending more to, and time.
disorder marked by extreme and developmentally worrying about, sexual behavior and performance
inappropriate distress when separation from home than the enjoyment and pleasure of sexual activity. thalamus A structure within the forebrain that relays
or close family members occurs or is anticipated. sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
standardization Administering or conducting clinical
sequential design A developmental design involving assessment measures in the same way for all exam- theory of mind An understanding of the thoughts and
aspects of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. inees. beliefs of others.

serotonin A major neurotransmitter that influences stigma A characterization by others of disgrace or therapeutic alignment A nonspecific factor in treat-
the way we process information and that regulates reproach based on an individual characteristic. ment whereby a therapist sides with a particular
our behavior and mood. individual to balance communications or power.
stimulants A class of drugs that activate the central
sex reassignment surgery A treatment for people nervous system. therapeutic alliance A nonspecific factor in treatment
with gender identity disorder that involves physical that refers to the relationship between the therapist
transformation to the opposite gender. stop-start procedure A treatment for premature ejacu- and a client.
lation that involves pinching the tip of the penis
sexual aversion disorder A sexual dysfunction marked when sexual stimulation becomes intense. thought-action fusion A risk factor for obsessive-
by active avoidance of sex or repulsion with sex. compulsive disorder involving a belief that thinking
stress External events in our daily lives that are taxing something is the same as doing it.
sexual disorder/paraphilia A mental disorder where for us as well as internal events such as perceptions
sexual behavior or fantasies involve highly unusual that external events are demanding as well as certain token economy An operant conditioning system in
activities. physical symptoms. which desired behaviors are promoted through
reinforcements.
sexual dysfunction A mental disorder involving dis- stress-induced relapse Relapse to substance abuse fol-
turbance of the normal sexual response cycle. lowing stress and a period of abstinence. tolerance The need to ingest greater amounts of a
drug to achieve the same effect.
sexual masochism A paraphilia where the predomi- stress management A collection of techniques to help
nant focus of sexual activity is a desire to be humili- people reduce the chronic effects of stress on a daily transference A key phenomenon in psychodynamic
ated. basis as well as problematic physical symptoms. therapy in which a client reacts to the therapist as if
the latter represented an important figure from the
sexual sadism A paraphilia where the predominant structured interviews A type of clinical interview that client’s past.
focus of sexual activity is a desire to humiliate. requires an interviewer to ask standardized questions
in a specified sequence. transvestic fetishism A paraphilia where the predomi-
shared psychotic disorder A delusion that develops nant focus of sexual activity is cross-dressing.
in people because of their close relationship with substance abuse Repeated use of substances to the
another person who also has a delusion. point that problems recur. tricyclic antidepressants A class of antidepressant
medication that affects different neurotransmitter
sickle cell disease A genetic condition that leads to substance dependence A maladaptive pattern of sub- systems and often comes with many side effects.
damaged red blood cells, poor oxygenation of cells, stance use defined by tolerance and withdrawal.
and potential mental retardation. type D personality A distressed personality pattern
substance intoxication A reversible condition trig- marked by negative affectivity and social inhibition.
skills training A treatment for substance-related dis- gered by excessive alcohol or other drug use.
orders involving functional analysis of drug use and typical antipsychotics A class of older drugs to treat
skills to avoid or cope with high-risk situations. substance-related disorder A class of mental disorders schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders
characterized by substance intoxication, abuse, and primarily by reducing excess levels of dopamine in
social phobia/social anxiety disorder A mental dependence and withdrawal. the brain.
disorder marked by panic attacks in, and avoidance
of, situations involving performance before others or substance use A nonmaladaptive use of alcohol or ulcer Inflammation or erosion of a part of the body
possible negative evaluation. other drug. such as the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.

social role valorization The idea that people, substance withdrawal Maladaptive behavioral unconditional positive regard An environment in
especially those with mental disorders, behave less changes that result when a person stops using a which a person is fully accepted as she is and allowed
deviantly if valued by others in their environment. particular drug. to pursue her own desires and goals.

social workers Mental health professionals with an suicide The act of killing oneself. unconscious motivation Motivation that resides
M.A. or Ph.D. who work to improve quality of life for outside conscious awareness.
people with mental disorders. superego A component of the personality represent-
ing the ideals and values of society as conveyed by undifferentiated schizophrenia A subtype of schizo-
sociocultural perspective A perspective of abnor- parents. phrenia marked by a mixture of symptoms that do
mal behavior that focuses on influences that other not clearly match other subtypes.
people, social institutions, and social forces exert on synapse A small gap between ends of neurons.
a person’s mental health. unipolar mood disorder A mood disturbance usually
syndrome Symptoms that cluster or group together marked by depression only.
somatic control exercises Treatment techniques to within individuals.
help people with anxiety disorders decrease severity universal prevention Preventive intervention targeting
of their aversive physical feelings. systematic desensitization A behavioral technique for large groups of people not afflicted by a particular
reducing anxiety in which clients practice relaxation problem.
while visualizing anxiety-provoking situations of
increasing intensity.

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G-8 GLOSSARY

unstructured interview A type of clinical interview vascular dementia A form of dementia caused by a worry A largely cognitive construct that refers to
in which clinicians ask any questions that come to cerebrovascular problem such as a stroke. concern about possible future threat.
mind in any order.
voyeurism A paraphilia where the predominant focus worry exposure A treatment technique for generalized
vaginismus A sexual dysfunction in women marked by of sexual activity is secretly watching others undress anxiety disorder involving extensive concentration
recurrent vaginal pain. or engage in sexual activity without being seen. on an anxious thought and alternatives to the worst-
case scenario.
validity Extent to which an assessment technique weight concerns A focus on, and often negative evalu-
measures what it is supposed to measure. ation of, one’s weight.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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R-1

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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