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PREFACE

This Book, the Bright Learners Series: Social Science Book-6 for Class VI has been
written in lucid language, introducing the student to various aspects of social sciences.

This book will help the students to acquire knowledge about the history of ancient
India, physical geography and regional geography of India as also social and political life
of the people of India. This book is divided into three sections – history, geography and
social & political life.

In this book, the prescribed syllabus is divided into several Units. Each unit consists of
several chapters. There are some interesting facets of each chapter that need to be
mentioned. The part Do You Know? in every chapter incorporates some extra
interesting information that the students would love to know. The section named
MEMORYZILLA! at the end of the chapters are arranged with the important facts and
points to remember. The Word Bites section at the end of every chapter briefly
explains the noticeable new words introduced in that chapter. After going through the
chapters, Test Yourself sections are planned to measure how well the concepts have
been absorbed & retained. The images and the maps will help the students to visualize
the concept that they are getting from the theoretical part of every chapter.

In Bright Learners Series: Social Science Book-6 by Purushottam Publishers, all efforts
have been made to reinforce the ideas learnt through the chapters, in a holistic
learning method. I ardently hope, the efforts to introduce this book on Social Studies in
a new way will be very effective and fruitful for classroom teaching and beyond.

I cordially invite the principals, teachers, students and their parents to keep in touch
with me and the publishers on a regular basis with your valuable comments,
suggestions and requests. You may find our contact details printed in every book and
also available on our website www.purushottam-publishers.com.

- Author

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Contents

Unit – I History 5 Chapter 18: Continents and Oceans 131

Chapter 1: All about History 13 Chapter 19: Major Landforms 137
of the Earth 143
Chapter 2: On the rail of 21 152
the Earliest People 28 Chapter 20: India: Physical Features
156
Chapter 3: From Gathering 37 Chapter 21: Climate of India
to Growing Food
44 Chapter 22: Natural Vegetation
Chapter 4: In the Earliest Cities and Wildlife of India
48
Chapter 5: What Books 54 Unit – III Social and Political Life 165
and Burials Tell Us 62 Chapter 23: Understanding Diversity 170
70 Chapter 24: What is Government?
Chapter 6: From Janapads 78 Chapter 25: Local Self-Government 175
to Mahajanapadas at Rural Level: Panchayati Raj 183
85 Chapter 26: Urban Local Self-Government
Chapter 7: New Ideas
and Great Thinkers Model Test Paper - 1 189
Model Test Paper - 2 192
Chapter 8: The First Empire Model Test Paper - 3 195
Model Test Paper - 4 198
Chapter 9: Life in Towns and Villages

Chapter 10: Contacts with Distant Lands

Chapter 11: New Empires and Kingdoms

Chapter 12: Culture and Science
in ancient India

Unit – II Geography 93
Chapter 13: The Earth 103
and The Solar System 112
Chapter 14: Latitude and Longitude 119
Chapter 15: Rotation and Revolution 125
Chapter 16: All About Maps
Chapter 17: Realms of the Earth

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UNIT-I : History

Why should we study about the past?

Primitive people transformed from hunter-gatherers to civilized human beings of
today. Throughout this journey through thousands of years, their deeds and misdeeds,
their successes and failures as also their efforts and thoughts not only help us to know
about their lifestyle, but also pave the way to our future. As Theodore Roosevelt once
said, "The more you know about the past, the better prepared you are for the future".

The past of the entire human population living in a society was not the same. The
population was divided into different social groups based on their occupation e.g.,
cattle-rearing tribes, farmers, merchants and traders, craftsmen, musicians, doctors
etc. There were variations in people’s lifestyles in different regions of the world.

What does History tell us?

To understand our present, we need to know about our past. History tells us about our
past - about our ancestors, living in different geographical regions, their great
achievements and their mistakes too.

How do we learn about our past?

Historians and Archaeologists work together to find out several sources of
information about the past through excavation and exploration methods. Sources are
of two types:

1. Archaeological Sources
2. Literary Sources

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1. Archaeological Sources:

Archaeological Sources means the materials of the ancient societies which are now
buried under the Earth’s surface. Archaeologists dig up the specified areas to excavate
the materials for their research and explore the facts of ancient societies. The following
three types of archaeological sources are considered to be important:
Material remains: The innumerable objects left by the people of the ancient period
are actually covered under the source ‘Material remains’. These include temples,
monuments, monasteries, artefacts of different types as well as pieces of pottery,
clothes, tools, utensils, toys etc. These materials give us important information about
the social, economic and political activities of the past societies as also the features of
the buildings and the chronological order of the culture of that period.

Coins: To know the name and the period of a particular ruler, coins are important
sources of information. The pictures of the kings and gods, symbols and the legends
that are depicted on the coins are the very
important sources of information of the
period in which the coin was in use.

Inscriptions: Inscription means "words or
symbols written or craved on a surface or
in a book". The Rulers of the past used
stones, metals, walls of the caves to write about their lifestyles, battles, stories etc. and

these are very useful sources for getting information
about the past societies. The oldest inscription
deciphered so far was issued by King Ashoka about 2300
years ago. These are mostly on rocks and stone pillars.

The description of the military achievements of
Samudragupta is found in Prayag Prashasti or Allahabad
Pillar Inscription. The Iron Pillar at Meharouli village
near Qutub Minar in Delhi is an example of Gupta
Inscription. Shaka ruler Rudradaman’s achievements
were recorded in Sanskrit in the Rock Inscription.

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2. Literary Sources:

Handwritten books and manuscripts written by the people of the ancient societies are
called Literary Sources. Palm leaves and barks were used to write manuscripts. The
manuscripts were written in Sanskrit, Prakrit (a language used by the ordinary people)
and also in Tamil Languages. Literary Sources are of following kinds:

Religious Texts: Through these texts we can understand about the religious beliefs
and practices of the people of the ancient India. Vedas, Puranas etc. written in Sanskrit
as also the Buddhist and Jaina texts respectively written in Pali and Prakrit are some of
the examples of Religious Texts.

The Epics: The Ramayana and The Mahabharata are two great epics written in
Sanskrit. The epics inform us about the social values of ancient times.

Secular Texts: Non-religious writings are called secular texts. Kalhana's Rajtarangini,
Kalidasa’s dramas and plays, Kautilya's Arthashastra, the Charak Samhita and the
Sushruta Samhita are some of the examples
of secular texts. Secular texts generally
contain descriptions of the lives of the kings
and different political events of that period.
These provide information with regard to
the then socio-political condition and the
status of medicine and science of the
relevant time.

The Sangam literature: The Sangam
literature that grew in South India is
considered to be an important source
material in this regard. This is a collection
of 30000 lines of poem written in Tamil
in the praise of a number of heroes of
ancient India.

Accounts of foreign travellers: From the time immemorial, several foreign travellers
like Herodotus (who is regarded as the father of history) accompanied Alexander the
Great - who invaded India about 2,400 years ago, Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang who

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visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana gifted us the valuable accounts of
their visit to India. Their accounts are also an important sources of information about
various aspects of life and society in ancient India.

Historical times and Pre-historical times:

Primitive people did not know how to write; as time passed, they gradually learnt the
art of writing and started recording important events, dates or economic transactions
that they needed to make their life easier.

 Pre-historical times refer to the period of history for which we do not have
any written records.

 Historical times mean the period of history for which we have written
records.

Historical times can further be divided into the following sub-heads:

A. Ancient Period
B. Medieval Period
C. Modern Period
In this book we will discuss about the Ancient Period of Indian history only.

What is the meaning of dates?

Dates are very important to accurately indicate the time of any significant incidence or
happening that has taken place in the past. In the study of history, the dates / years are
generally mentioned with abbreviations like B.C. or A.D. As we all know, the term B.C.
stands for Before Christ and the term A.D. for Anno Domini that means in the year of
our Lord. The birth year of Jesus Christ is considered to be the demarcating line
between the B.C. and the A.D. The year 1 B.C. is immediately followed by the year 1
A.D. as there is no existence of any zero year in the above consideration.

The use of another set of abbreviations like BCE & CE can be seen in the study of
history. BCE stands for Before Common Era and CE for Common Era.

The Geographical Framework

The history of any society depends on the geographical framework of any country. If
we study the geographical conditions of ancient India, we will be able to understand
the cause behind the prosperity of many societies and Kingdoms here. The great

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Himalayas mountains in the north side of the Peninsular India protect us from the
extremely cold Siberian winds while the oceans envelope the land around the
remaining three sides, protecting from foreign invasions. Besides these, the presence
of many rivers, fertile lands, abundant mineral resources etc. are much responsible for
the growth of many societies and Kingdoms in India.

In ancient India, most of the food-gathering communities lived in the Narmada Valley
because of the presence of natural vegetation including forest which was the home to
the various kinds of animals. Gathering foods was the only way to fulfill the need of
food for the habitants.

Crops like wheat and barley were grown in
the north-west region near the Suleman
and Kirthar hills. Pastoral community lived
in the villages. Agriculture was developed in
the north-east and near Vindhyas (Rice was
first grown here) in central India. Different
cities were developed around 2,700 B.C.
along the river Indus and its tributaries and
again around 600 B.C. along the river
Ganga / Ganges too.

 Palm-leaf manuscripts (Talapatra grantham) are manuscripts
made out of dried palm leaves. Palm leaves were used as writing
materials in South Asia and in Southeast Asia dating back to the
5th century BCE, and possibly much earlier.

 Ayurveda is the earliest school of medicine known to humans.
Charaka, the father of medicine consolidated Ayurveda 2500
years ago.

 Magadha, first ever empire of ancient India was located in the
Ganges valley.

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 Archaeological Sources means the materials of the past
societies which are buried under the Earth’s surface.

 The innumerable objects left by the people of the ancient
period are actually covered under the source ‘Material
remains’.

 To know the name and the period of a particular ruler, a coin
of that period is an important source of information.

 The oldest inscription deciphered so far was issued by Samrat
Ashoka about 2300 years ago.

 Handwritten books and manuscripts written by the people of
the ancient societies are called Literary Sources. Palm leaves
and barks were used to write manuscripts.

 The epics (e.g. The Ramayana and The Mahabharata) inform
us about the social values of ancient times.

 Secular Texts generally contain descriptions of the lives of
the kings and different political events of that period. These
provide information with regard to the then socio-political
condition and the status of medicine and science of the
relevant time.

 The Sangam literature developed in South India.
 Alexander the Great who invaded India about 2,400 years

ago, Chinese pilgrim Hiuen -Tsang who visited India during
the reign of Harshavardhana gifted us the valuable accounts
of their visit to India.
 The birth year of Jesus Christ is considered to be the
demarcating line between the B.C and the A.D.
 Magadha, first ever empire of ancient India was located in
the Gangetic Plain.

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 Inscriptions - Words or symbols craved on a surface or written in a
manuscript or book

 Epics - The epics inform us about the social values of ancient times
 B.C. - Stands for Before Christ
 A.D. - Stands for Anno Domini
 BCE - Stands for Before Common Era
 CE - Stands for Common Era

TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. What do you mean by Archaeological Sources?

2. What are Material remains?

3. What are called the Literary Sources of information?

4. In which languages the Buddhist and Jaina texts were written?

5. Name two epics.

6. Who wrote Rajtarangini?

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The description of the military achievements of Samudragupta is found
in .

2. The oldest inscription deciphered so far was issued by .

3. Chinese pilgrim Hiuen -Tsang who visited India during the reign of .

4. The year 1 A.D. immediately follows the year 1 B.C. as there is no existence of
any year in the above consideration.

5. is the first ever empire of ancient India.

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C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.
1. Shaka ruler Rudradaman’s achievements were recorded in Prakrit in the Rock

Inscription.
2. Vedas, Puranas etc. written in Sanskrit.
3. The birth year of Jesus Christ is considered to be the demarcating line between the

B.C and the A.D.
4. BCE stands for Before Christian Era.
5. To understand our Future we need to know about our past.
D. Write down the answers in brief.
1. Write a short note on the Archaeological Sources.
2. Discuss briefly about the importance of the geographical framework of any country.
3. Write a short note on the Literary Sources.

The Mauryan Empire, at its largest spread - around 250 B.C.
Source: Wikipedia

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Hunter-gatherers:

About 2 million years ago, in the pre-historic times primitive people appeared. They
were mainly hunter-gatherer because the art of food production was totally unknown

to them. They had to depend upon the
available natural resources like fruit,
vegetables, roots, honey etc., and hunting
wild animals. They were always in search of
a place where natural vegetation
sufficiently present and they settled down
there until and unless there was any
scarcity of food items in the natural
surroundings of that place.

Sources that provide information about these Primitive people:

There are several sources like fossils, rock painting, stone tools etc. which provide
information about the primitive people.

Rock painting: Primitive people once A Cave Painting
lived in caves and rock shelters. The
Rock-walls of the caves were the places
where their earliest paintings were
done. The paintings usually depict
different aspects of the life of the
primitive people. There are paintings of
hunting, dancing, music, masks and
household scenes. The depiction of
animals like bisons, tigers, lions,
elephants etc. are found in the Rock
paintings.

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Some of the popular examples of the cave paintings are found in Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujrat, Maharastra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. The
earliest traces of human life have been found in Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya
Pradesh. It is assumed that the painting is of Mesolithic Period of around 10,000 B.C.
Generally Red, White, Green and Yellow colours were used in such paintings.

Fossils : Fossils mean the remains or impressions of the pre-historic plants or animals
embedded in rocks and preserved in solidified form for millions of years. Fossils are
caused when the underground water replaces the body part of the plant or animal
from the rocks and a replica of that body
part is formed. The time of the fossils can
be calculated through carbon dating or
chemical analysis. Fossils provide
information about the existence of those
living things which have become extinct.

Stone tools: The primitive people used A fossil of a lizard
different types of tools to meet their need.

Some of such tools were made of stones.

The Historians get ideas about the life of

the early man by studying these stone

tools. Several flake tools and hand axes

have also been excavated at various sites.

The early man tried to find out a site on

the slopes of the hills where they could

Stone tools live in the caves and get the facility of
plenty of hilly stream of water and pebbles

which they could use to make tools. Such sites are called habitation-cum-factory sites.

Finding Out about Fire:

Based on some evidences it is assumed that at the end of the Palaeolithic Age early
man discovered fire. Traces of ash and hearth have been found at the site of Kurnool in
Andhra Pradesh and in Burzahom in Kashmir respectively. They knew the use of fire
before they learnt how to catch fire.

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They noticed fire when forest fire used to
occur due to lighting. Gradually they learnt
to produce fire by striking one stone with
another, or rubbing dry pieces of wood.

Ancient humans using fire Fire was very useful for them. They used
fire to protect themselves from cold and
wild animals. They also started using fire
to roast meat before eating.

Uses of tools and development of new techniques:

Stone Age:

The earliest people used stone to make various types of tools like hand axes, cleaver,
choppers, blades, Scrapers, burin etc. As they had to base on available natural
resources for their survival they
were in need of making tools.
They had no knowledge of
agriculture. They did not know
how to use metals. They used
choppers to cut or to chop fruit, vegetable, meat, bones etc. They made spears and
arrows for hunting wild animals. At first they used rough and undressed stones and

gradually they made tools by polished and
fine stone.

A large variety of stone tools have been
found.

Based on the kinds of tools and articles
used by the Primitive people Stone Age is
usually divided into three separate periods
viz.

1. Early Stone Age or Palaeolithic

2. Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic

3. New Stone Age or Neolithic

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Palaeolithic Period :

The Palaeolithic Period extends from 2 millions of years ago to about 12000 years ago.
According to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and that of the climatic
change in India the long stretch of the Palaeolithic Period can further be divided into
the following three phases:

 Early or lower Palaeolithic Period
 Middle Palaeolithic Period
 Upper Palaeolithic Period

1. Early or lower Palaeolithic Period:

It covers the greater part of the Ice age. Hand axes, cleaver, choppers were the most
specific tools of this period. Such tools have been found in Belan Valley in Mirzapur
district (U.P) and in the valley of the river Soan and Sohan (Now in Pakistan). The
climate was less humid at that time.

2. Middle Palaeolithic Period:

Flakes mainly scrapers, blades, borers were found at this time. In the valleys of the
river Soan, Narmada, and Tungabhadra some traces of this period have been found.

3. Upper Palaeolithic Period:

Burins and scrapers were the main tools of this period. The climate was warm and less
humid then. Traces of some tools of Upper Palaeolithic Period have been found in
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bhopal and Chhota Nagpur plateau.

Techniques of tool making:

It is assumed that the ancient people made tools following two methods e.g.,
1) striking two pebbles together and
2) using a piece of pebble as hammer to break another piece of stone or to remove

flakes from a piece of bone or stone.

Mesolithic Period:

The period between 10,000 B.C and 8000 B.C is called Mesolithic Period. The main
characteristics of the stone tools of this period were tiny in size usually with geometric
shape. Such stone tools were called ‘microliths’. The microliths - pointed, cresconic
blades, scrapers etc. were the tools of that period. These tools made the job of hunting

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more effective and easier as also reduced the risk of going very near to the animals.
The last phase of this period saw plain cultivation as the climatic condition was dry and
humid i.e., suitable for agricultural production. Wheat, barley, grasses grew during this
period. Besides hunting and fishing, settlements were made by a group of people
known to have developed the pastoral community at that time.

Neolithic Period:

Its beginning was in 8000 B.C. This is also
known as the New Stone Age as in this
period the earliest man used refined and
polished stones to make tools. In this age
some cultural evolutions and technological
developments were seen. The People
started to settle in villages. Besides
cultivation of corns like ragi and horse gram
they started to domesticate cattle, sheep
and goat.

They knew about making fire and making
pottery, first by hand then by the potter's wheel. They also painted and decorated their
pottery. They could also weave cotton and wool to make cloth.

An important site of this age are Burzahom
and Gufkral, Jammu & Kashmir (famous for
pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyard in
house), Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, Islampur,
Maski (a habitation-cum-factory site) in
Karnataka, Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar
(known for remarkable bone tools).

The earliest people were always in quest of
habitation sites where they could live

peacefully hiding themselves from the reach Kitchen utensils used early civilisations
of the wild animals and protect themselves from

the heat, rain and wind. They tried to live in an area rich in pebbles which they could

use to make tools. The natural caves were the appropriate sites that could satisfy their
needs of that period.

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 Primitive people knew the use of fire before they learnt how to
light a fire.

 Most of the natural caves and rock shelters of the stone age are
found near the Narmada Valley as also in the Vindhyas and the
Deccan Plateau.

 The most common method of fossilization is called
permineralization. After an organism's soft tissues decay in
sediment, the hard parts - particularly the bones - are left behind.

 Primitive people were always in search of a place where natural
vegetation was sufficiently present and they settled down there
until and unless there was any scarcity of food items in the natural
surroundings of that place.

 Fossils mean the remains or impressions of the pre-historic plants or
animals embedded in rocks and preserved in solidified form for millions
of years.

 Traces of ash and hearth have been found at the site of Kurnool in
Andhra Pradesh and in Burzahom in Kashmir respectively.

 The Palaeolithic Period extends from 2 million years ago to about 12000
years ago.

 According to the nature of the stone tools used by the people, the
Palaeolithic Period can be divided into the three phases: 1) Early or
lower Palaeolithic Period, 2) Middle Palaeolithic Period, and 3) Upper
Palaeolithic Period.

 The main characteristics of the stone tools of the Mesolithic period were
tiny in size usually with geometric shape. Such stone tools were called
‘microliths’.

 In the Neolithic period, the early man started using refined and polished
stones to make tools.

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 Fossils - the remains or impressions of the pre-historic plants or
animals embedded in rocks and preserved in solidified form for
millions of years.

 Microliths – A kind of stone tools that are tiny in size usually with
geometric shape.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.
1. What do you mean by Fossils?
2. What do you mean by habitation-cum-factory sites?
3. Write down the techniques of tool making that primitive people followed.
4. What are microliths?
5. Name two important sites of Mesolithic and Neolithic Period .

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The earliest traces of human life have been found in in Madhya
Pradesh. .

2. They noticed fire when forest fire used to occur due to Period.
Valley.
3. The last phase of period saw plain cultivation.

4. Potters started to use wheel in making earthen pots in

5. Natural caves and rock shelters are found near the

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C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.
1. Primitive people knew the utilization of metals.
2. The climate was very hot in lower Palaeolithic Period.
3. Domestication of cattle was started in Neolithic Period.
4. Maski is a habitation-cum-factory site.
5. Generally Red, Blue, Green and Yellow colours were used in rock paintings.
D. Write down the answers in brief.
1. Write a short note on the Palaeolithic Period.
2. Discuss briefly about the sources that provide information about the Primitive

people.
3. Write a short note on the Neolithic Period.

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After around 8000 B.C. the earliest people started to move from hunter-gatherer
towards pastoral. They started to domesticate animals like cows, goats, dogs etc., as
also they started to sow seeds to cultivate plants and grasses like wheat, rice etc.

Agricultural Development:

Perhaps the earliest people noticed that the seeds fell on the ground would grow up as
a sibling. Gradually they observed also the climatic factors (e.g., temperature, water
etc.) required for the growth of plants and they started agricultural practices.
To get better crops they discovered the art of preparing the ground. With a view to
taking care of the crops and plants as well as protecting them from the animals'
intervention they felt the necessity of living near the agricultural fields. Thus they
started to settle near agricultural fields.

Domestication of Animals:

Besides agriculture they started to domesticate cattle, sheep, dogs, goats, poultry etc.

These animals especially dogs were very

useful to them. Such domestic animals

were mainly used for ploughing agricultural

fields as also for their consumption at the

time of food shortage. Milk and eggs were

also used as alternative food items. Thus

domestication and herding became another

activity of the earliest people.

New Stone Age or New way of life: A cave painting by the ancient humans

As discussed earlier that the earliest people made refined and polished stone tools and
weapons in New Stone Age. Such tools were made of a specific type of stone called
basalt which could be shaped and polished according to their requirements. The tools
and weapons they made served the purposes of clearing fields, preparing agricultural
lands for cultivation and hunting animals. Mortars and pestles were used as grinder.

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The archaeologists have found some evidences indicating the Neolithic culture in India.
Some of the sites that they have excavated and the grains and bones they have
discovered in such sites are tabulated below:

Grains and bones sites:

Some evidences of ash mounds produced from burning of cow dung have been
discovered from Budhial in the Gulbarga district of Karnataka as also from Utnur and
Mahbubnagar in Arunachal Pradesh. These prove the presence of the cattle rearing
groups in the New Stone Age.

Shelters of the Neolithic people:

Grains and bones Sites
Wheat, barley, sheep, goats, cattle Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan)
Mahagara (now in U.P)
Rice and cattle Gufkral (now in Kashmir)

Wheat and lentils Chirand (now in Bihar)
Wheat, green gram, barley and ox,
buffalo Burzahom (now in Kashmir)
Wheat and lentils, dogs, sheep, cattle,
buffalo Hallur (now in Arunachal Pradesh)
Millet, cattle, pig, goats, sheep Koldihwa (now in U.P)
Paiyampalli (now in Arunachal Pradesh)
Rice, animal bones

Millet, Black gram, sheep, pig

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According to the evidences found till date, the Neolithic people lived in Houses with
mud bricks, Huts, Pit-Houses. Evidences of cooking hearths both inside and outside the
huts have been found. Pit-Houses that were dug into the ground with stairs to go down
have been discovered in Burzahom. Perhaps to have comfort in cold weather they
made such Pit-Houses. Cooking utensils made by stone and weapons made by stone
and bones have been excavated from Mehrgarh.

Customs and Practices:

No direct evidences with regard to the Customs and Practices of the Neolithic people
have been available. But the lifestyle and the work culture of the tribals who lived in

isolation are studied by the archaeologists
to understand the Customs and Practices of
the Neolithic people.

The tribals lived in villages or near forest
areas being separated from the common
people. Generally women did most of the
agricultural work; matured men conducted
all the important functions of the family.
Children were also engaged in rearing plants and cattle.

The tribals have their own tradition, customs, ideology, believes, language and work
culture and thus they differ from the common people.

Invention of wheel:

The invention of wheel was a revolutionary invention of the Neolithic Age. Potter's
Wheels were used

1) for making earthen pots to store grains and utensils for cooking rice, wheat etc.

2) for transportation purposes; and

3) for weaving clothes using cotton and other materials.

But such practices could not spread uniformly in all parts of India at the same time and
as of its result the Neolithic people took a long time to pick these practices up.

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History of Mehrgarh in the Northwest:
Mehrgarh is located near the Bolan Pass to the west of the Indus River valley .
Following information have been collected by the archaeologists at Mehrgarh site:
1) There are mud brick houses and also granaries.
2) People used artefacts made of stones.
3) Mehrgarhians were experts in medical

and dental fields and so they could cure
dental caries and remove cavities
effectively.
4) Evidences of terracotta and clay have
been found.
5) The first use of cotton in the history of
mankind has been found at Mehrgarh. The Mehrgarhians knew how to weave
fabric and use the same as a cloth.
6) Polished axes and chisels have been found.
7) Barley and wheat were grown there.

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History of Daojali Hading in the Northeast:

Daojali Hading is located at north Kachhar hills in Assam.

The archaeologists have found the following remnants from the Daojali Hading:

1) Neolithic stone and fossil wood axes, adzes, hoes, chisels, grinding slabs, querns,
mullers, handmade grey to dull red Celts

2) Round-butted axes associated with crude cord-marked or basket-marked
potsherds.

3) Rice was the main agricultural crop of that place.

4) Pottery with designs of different type was another feature of the people of Daojali
Hading.

 Evidence of oat harvesting dating to 30,600 BC has been found
in Paglicci Cave, Italy.

 Evidence of plant cultivation dating from 23,000 years ago has
been found at the Ohalo II site.

 Between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago, the ancestors of modern
cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were domesticated in Western Asia.

 There is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as
long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal (grain) production in Syria
approximately 9,000 years ago.

 Around 6000 years ago, horses first began to be domesticated in
the Eurasian steppes.

 The Mehrgarhians buried dead bodies along with their used
articles such as pitchers, ornaments etc.

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 With a view to taking care of the crops and plants as well
as protecting them from the animals' intervention they
felt the necessity of living near the agricultural fields.
Thus they started to settle in fertile plains.
Domestic animals were mainly used for ploughing agricultural
fields as also for their consumption at the time of food
shortage. Milk and eggs were also used as alternative food
items.

 The earliest people made refined and polished stone tools
and weapons in New Stone Age. Such tools were made of a
specific type of stone called basalt which could be shaped and
polished according to their requirements.

 The Neolithic people lived in Houses with mud bricks, huts,
pit-houses. Evidences of cooking hearths both inside and
outside the huts have been found.

 The lifestyle and the work culture of the tribals who lived in
isolation are studied by the archaeologists to understand the
customs and practices of the Neolithic people.

 Potter's Wheels were used 1) for making earthen pots to
store grains and utensils for cooking rice, wheat etc. 2) for
transportation purposes, and 3) for weaving clothes using
cotton and other materials.

 Pit-houses – The shelters made by the earliest people in the pits
that usually dug up.

 Burials – Burying the dead bodies in pits or graves.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Why the earliest people started to settle near agricultural fields.?

2. Why the earliest people domesticated animals?

3. From where the traces of coocking utensils have been excavated?

4. Write down the usage of Potter's Wheel?

5. In which field Mehrgarhians were experts?

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. and were also used as alternative food items.

2. and were used as grinder.

3. The traces of Wheat and lentils have been found at .

4. knew how to weave fabric and use the same as a cloth.

5. Daojali Hading is located at .

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Wheat was the main agricultural crop of Daojali Hading.

2. The people of Daojali Hading knew how to weave fabric and use the same as a
cloth.

3. Practices of Potter’s wheel could not spread uniformly in all parts of India.

4. Among the tribals men conducted all the agricultural work generally.

5. Some evidences of ash mounds produced from burning of cow dung have been
discovered from Budhial in the Gulbarga district of Karnataka.

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Write a short note on the New Stone Age.
2. Discuss briefly about the Customs and Practices of the tribals.
3. Write short notes on Mehrgarh and Daojali Hading.

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The Neolithic culture gradually spread throughout the world. The usage of metals,
wheels and agricultural practices made the life of the earliest people easier and
advanced to some extent. They formed villages, towns and cities. Around 2700 B.C.
traces of Indus Valley Civilization have been found in the bank of the River Indus. It was

an ancient civilization. It is also known as Harappan Civilization as Harappa was the first
excavated city of that civilization.

Harappa:

Harappa stands in the bank of River Ravi in West
Punjab (now in Pakistan). R.B. Dayaram Sahni first
discovered Harappa in 1921 and R.D. Banerjee
discovered Mahenjodaro (means 'Mounds of the
Dead') in 1922. Sir John Marshall, the Director-
General of the Archaeological Survey of India (1902-
1928) played a very important role in the discovery
of both Harappa and Mahenjodaro.
Stone blades, red pottery with black designs, brunt bricks, seals, beads etc., were found
from the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization covered the

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parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujrat and some parts of Western U.P.
They knew the usage of Copper, Bronze, Gold and silver but the usage of Iron was
totally unknown to them.

Town planning:

It can undoubtedly be concluded that Harappa was a planned city. The towns of
Harappa were divided into two parts:

1. Upper Part or Citadel - The Citadel was an oblong artificial platform some 30 -
50 feet high and about 400-200 yards in area. It was enclosed by a thick mud-
brick wall. Workshops, public buildings, granaries and religious buildings were
situated in Citadel.

2. Lower Part - People used to live in the lower part of the towns or cities.

Great Bath in Mahenjodaro:

In Mahenjodaro a big public bath (Great
Bath) measuring 12m by 7m and 2.4 m
deep has been found. There are two flights
of steps led from either end to the surface,
with changing room alongside. Probably
people used to bath in the Great Bath on
religious occasions.

Fire Altars:

By archaeological excavation, Fire Altars have been found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
Perhaps it was used to perform sacrifices.

Characteristics of Lower Township:
Houses:

Harappan used brunt bricks as building materials. Houses were of two or more storey
with a number of rooms and of different sizes. No window faced the streets. Every
houses had kitchen and tiled bathrooms.

The style of making houses by the Harappan gives ideas about their high level of civic
sense.

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Grid system:

The main street was around 800 m long and 100m wide. The side lanes were joined
with the main road in a systematical pattern so that a kind of grid could be formed. The
city was divided into 12 similar blocks by the Grid system.

Drainage system:

Drainage system was very good. Drains
were made of mortar, lime and gypsum
and covered with large brick slabs for easy
cleaning. This was also an example of their
good civic sense.

Lifestyle:
The Rulers:

Perhaps the highly organized city planning, usage of
precious stones and metals and import of other required
commodities were governed by the orders of the ruler of
Harappa.

But no such traces of palaces or evidences of ruler have
been found. But from Mahenjodaro a stone statue of a
man's bust wearing embroidered garments has been
discovered. There is some sort of headband that shows his position of authority. It is
assumed by the some of the Historians that the statue is must be of a priest king.

The labourer:

As the towns were very organized many people were engaged as labourers in several
occupations like town planning and building making. The labourers were an important
part of the Harappa Civilization.

Crafts:

The Harappans were engaged in making special crafts such as baked bricks, seals,
jewellery and ornaments from gold, silver, copper, bronze and shells. A large number

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of people were also engaged in other occupations like carpentry, masonry, stone
cutting and polishing beads.

Seals:

A rectangular shaped stone table containing images and
writing is called seal. It is a unique item which has been
found in large numbers at Harappa.

Scribes:

People who could write several messages and
information in the seals and other surfaces are called Scribes.

Traces of practicing terracotta have also been found there. Earthen pots made by the
potters were designed by using black and red colours.

Some people were engaged in metal works. Bronze, silver,
copper were used to make tools, weapons and other articles.
A statue of a dancing girl that has been excavated therefrom is
a sample of the Harappan art.

Stone cutting and polishing beads were the other occupations
in which a good number of people were engaged. These were
used in making jewellery and ornaments. A large number of
stone cutting and bead polishing factories have been found in
the coastal region of Gujrat.

Script:

As mentioned above Harappan knew the art of writing.
Seals and other surfaces were inscribed in such cases.
Harappan scripts were pictographic scripts. Images and
symbols were present in those scripts.

Trade and Commerce:

They practiced both internal and external trade. Trade
was carried through Barter System. The System of Weight and Measures was also
present in those days. The weights were made of limestone, steatite etc., and were

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cubical in shape. 16 was the unit of measurement (16,64,160,320).

In Lothal and Chanhudaro some bead making factories have been found.

A dockyard has been found in Lothal. Rangpur, Somenath and Balakot functioned as
seaports.

Bullock cart was used for the inland transport purposes.

Flint tool-work, shell-work, metal work, textiles, spices, handicrafts, bangle making and
pottery making were practiced. The raw materials for these activities came from the
different parts of the region and outside as well. Gold from N.Karnataka, Silver and
Lapis-lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran, Copper from Khetri and Baluchistan etc. are
some of such instances.

Agriculture:

A large number of people were
engaged in agricultural sector.
They grew several crops such as
wheat, rice, barley, peas, sesame,
mustard and linseed etc. Cotton
was first produced by the Indus
people.

They ploughed agricultural fields
with wooden plough. They stored water in reservoir or in wells to use in agricultural
fields according to the requirements. Food grains were stored in granaries.

They reared cattle, dogs, sheep, goats and buffalo etc.

Fishing and hunting wild animals were also the other ways
of food arrangements of the Harappans.

Religious life

Archaeologists have not found any temple or temple like
structure from the Indus Valley Civilization. But some
evidences prove that they worshipped mainly mother
goddess.

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A seal with a figure of three horned heads in
yogic posture have been found. It is assumed
that the image is of Pasupati Siva.

According to some scholars they worshiped
trees, plants and wild animals.

Great Bath was also an example of their religious
practices.

Fire Altars have been found at Kalibangan and Lothal. They buried the dead bodies with
some articles of their use.

History of Gujrat (Dholavira and Lothal)

A number of Harappan sites have been discovered from Gujrat. Dholavira and Lothal
were the very important sites in Gujrat from where evidences of the Harappan culture
have been found. These two places acted as the main regional centres for trading and
administration.

Dholavira:

In 1967-68 J.P Joshi discovered the site of
Dholavira which is the fifth largest
Harappan site in the Indian sub-
continent. Dholavira is located at
Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch
District of Gujarat.

Unlike Harappa and Mohenjodaro, the
city was divided into three sections –
the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. Each part was furnished with their
own defence-work, gateways, built-up areas, street system, wells and large open
spaces.

There were two unique features of Dholavira:
1. The buildings were made of stones.
2. They stored fresh water brought by rains in reservoir or channels and used these for

irrigation purposes.

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Lothal:

Lothal is situated near the village of
Saragwala (in the DholkaTaluka) in the
district of Ahmedabad of Gujrat.
Lothal is one of the most prominent cities
of the ancient Indus valley civilization,
located in the Bhal region of Gujrat.
The city was divided into six sections and each section was built on a wide platform of
unripe bricks.
It was a very important trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and
valuable ornaments.
Some specific discoveries from the excavation at Lothal include
1. an artificial dockyard
2. remains of rice husk
3. impression of clothes on some of the seals
4. evidences of direct trade with Mesopotamia.
5. a terracotta ship.
Causes of decline of the Harappan Civilization:
There are many causes of decline of the Harappan civilization so identified viz.
1. invasion of the Aryans,
2. climatic and environmental factors like earthquake, flood, drought, degradation,
3. lack of social and economic understanding.

 Mesopotamiya civilization developed on the bank of River Tigris
and Euphrates.

 Egyptian civilization developed on the bank of River Nile.
 Chinese civilization developed on the bank of River Huang-Ho.

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 Traces of Indus Valley Civilization from around 2700 B.C.
have been found on the banks of the river Indus. It was an
ancient civilization. It is also known as Harappan Civilization
as Harappa was the first excavated city of that civilization.

 Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni first discovered Harappa in 1921 .
 Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay discovered Mahenjodaro (means

Mounds of the Dead) in 1922.
 Sir John Marshall, the Director-General of the Archaeological

Survey of India (1902-1928) played a very important role in the
discovery of both Harappa and Mahenjodaro.
 In Mahenjodaro a big public bath (Great Bath) measuring 12m by
7m and 2.4m deep has been found.
 Fire Altars have been found at Kalibangan and Lothal. Perhaps it
was used to perform sacrifices.
 In 1967-68 J.P Joshi discovered the site of Dholavira which is the
fifth largest Harappan site in the Indian sub-continent.
 Dholavira is located at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch
District of Gujarat.

 Citadel -- The Citadel was an oblong artificial platform some 30 - 50
feet high and about 400-200 yards in area.

 Seal -- A rectangular shaped stone table containing images and
writing is called seal.

 Scribes -- People who could write several messages and
information in the seals and other surfaces are called Scribes.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Who discovered the cities of Harappa and Mahenjodaro?
2. Who was Sir John Marshall?
3. What do you mean by Citadel?
4. Write down the extents of the Indus Valley Civilization.
5. Who discovered the site of Dholavira?
B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. was the first excavated city of the Harappan civilization.

2. The usage of was totally unknown to the people of the Indus Valley
Civilization.

3. Fire Altars have been found at and .

4. A statue of a that has been excavated from there is a sample of the
Harappan art.

5. In and some bead making factories have been found.

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. People of the Indus Valley Civilization used to live in the upper part of the towns or
cities.

2. People of Mahenjodaro used to bath in the Great Bath on religious occasions..
3. The city of Lothal was divided into eight sections.
4. Lothal was a very important trade centre in ancient times.
5. Dholavira is the fifth largest Harappansite in the Indian sub-continent.
D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Write a short note on the town planning of the Harappan civilization .

2. Discuss briefly about the Lifestyle of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization .

3. Write short notes on Dholavira and Lothal.

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After the Indus Valley civilization a new civilization emerged which is known as the
Vedic civilization. On the term ‘Veda’ which means Knowledge, the civilization is
named as Vedic Civilization. The Vedas are also known as Shruti (to hear) as the
contents of the Vedas were passed from generation to generation only through verbal
transmission. The Vedas are of four kinds, viz. Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and
Atharva Veda. The Vedas contain only the knowledge for mankind. The Vedas are the
main source of information of this period. Aryans were the creator of this civilization.
Based on the available information the Vedic Period is divided into two parts:

1. Early or Rig Vedic Period and

2. Late Vedic Period

1 ) Early or Rig Vedic Period

Rig Veda:

It is the oldest religious text in the world. It is a
collection of hymns that were recited at the time
of sacrificial rites, religious functions and other
occasions. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns and
it is divided into 10 mandalas. The hymns are
dedicated to several Gods like Indra, Agni etc.

Sama Veda:

It is a collection of 1603 verses among which
except 99 verses all the rest verses have been
borrowed from the Rig Veda.

Yajur Veda:

The procedure for the performance of sacrifices is the main subject of Yajur Veda. It
contains mantras and proses.

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Atharva Veda:

 It is entirely different from the other three Vedas.
 It is divided into 20 khandas and 711 hymns. Most of them deal with magic.
Every Veda is divided further into four sections, viz. The Samhitas, The Brahmanas, The
Aryanakas and The Upanishads.

 The Samhita: It contains mantras.

 The Brahmanas: They explain the hymns of the Vedas in orthodox manner.
 The Aryanakas: These are the conclusions of Brahmanas. These oppose

sacrifices and emphasize in Meditation. This knowledge forms a bridge
between Karma Marg (way of work) and Gyan Marg (way of knowledge).

 The Upanishads: There are 108 Upanishads. These are called Vedanta as
these are the last phase of the Vedic Period and these reveal the final aim of
the Vedas. The various theories of creation of the Universe and explanations
of karma (doctrine of action) have been discussed here. They also condemn
the ceremonies and sacrifices.

The Aryans

There are various theories regarding the invasion of the Aryans in India. Among them
the theory of Max Muller is most accepted. According to him, Aryans were semi-
nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central
Asia. Probably they entered in 1500 B.C. through the Khyber Pass (in Hindukush
Mountain). The Aryans first settled in
Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab and
Uttar Pradesh.

The whole area in which the Aryans first
settled is known as 'the land of seven rivers
or Sapta Sindhu' (The Indus and its five
tributaries and the Swarasati).

The Aryans called them 'Dasyus'.

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Political Organization:

There were a number of big and small kingdoms at that time. Monarchical form of
Government was there. The Aryans actually belong to the tribe that was known as Jan
and their king as the Rajan. The Rajan was the protector of the tribe and he was the
leader in the battle field. He expected obedience from the clans. His seat was not
hereditary and the Rajan was selected from the clan's men. The Rajan was assisted by
two councils called Sabha and Samiti. Women attended the Sabha. The King or Rajan
was also assisted by several officers among them most important was Purohit and
Senani.

The Purohit or the priest performed various religious duties and Senani was the army
officer who played major role at the battlefield.

Social life:

Family was the basic unit of the society. The eldest male member of a family was the
head of the family and known as Grihapati. Women were also given respect and they
had the right to education. Marriage was the sacred bonding. Based on the

occupations the society was divided into
four Varnas, viz. Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Sudras.

Brahmins -- looked after religious matter

Kshatriyas -- were the warriors and gave
protection to the common people.

Vaishyas -- were the cultivators and
craftsmen

Sudras -- were the labourers who

performed menial tasks in the society.

Religion:

The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. The
most important God was Indra who played a role of warlord. Agni the fire-god was in
second position and he was the intermediary between gods and men.

The third position was occupied by Varuna the Water-god.

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Soma and Maruts were personified as the god of plants and storm respectively.
There were also some female deities like Aditi and Usha who represented the
appearance of dawn.
They did not believe in temple worship. They worshipped in the open field by chanting
the hymns and prayers.

Economy:

The Aryans mainly belonged to agricultural and pastoral community. They grew barley,
wheat, rice etc. and they rear up cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes etc. The cow was a
very important animal in the Rig Vedic Period. Barter was the medium of exchange and
the caw was the unit of exchange (gold coin like Niska and Mana were also used there).
Horses were also very important to them as the Aryans used horses in chariots. They
also used bullock-carts for the purpose of transportation.
Many people were engaged in carpentry, bronze smithy and gold smithy among other
occupations.
The usage of Iron was unknown to them.

2) Late Vedic Period

The time between the end of Rig Vedic Period and before the birth of Buddha is known
as Late Vedic Period. In this period people used iron tools to clear the land area but
previously they cleared the land by burning.

Political Organization:

Strong kingdoms were established in place of the tiny tribal settlements.
Power of the king was increased. The term rashtra indicating territory first appeared in
this period.
Women were no longer permitted to attend the assemblies (Sabha). For the protection
of the kingdom a regular army was maintained. The Senani also became more
powerful. The Priest enjoyed the high position in the society.

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Social life:

Initially the four-fold division of the society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Sudras) was based on occupations but from this period it became hereditary. Women
were also given respect but their status deteriorated than that of the earlier time.
The life of the people was generally divided into four phases or ashramas, viz.
Brahmacharya (in this phase men got education from Gurukul), Grihastha (this is the
phase of earning and getting married), Vanaprastha (men gradually moving away from
worldly attractions in this phase) and Sannyasa (men retire from their worldly life in
this last phase.). This system was known as Chaturashrama.

Chariot racing was the main sport in this time.

Religious life:

The rituals and sacrifices became more prominent and complex. Indra and Agni lost
their importance and they were replaced by Prajapati Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu. The
Priests were donated cows, clothes and other valuable articles on the special occasions
like child birth or marriage etc.

Economy:

In this period people learned the usage of Iron and hence weapons and tools were
made by iron. As mentioned above, land was cleared by the iron tools.
Land and cows became the measure of wealth and power in the society.
In this period pottery was of four types -- black and red ware, painted grey ware, black-
slipped ware and red ware (most popular).

 The popular Gayatri Mantra (attributed to Rishi Vishwamitra) is
based on a Vedic Sanskrit verse from a hymn of the Rig Veda.

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 On the term Veda which means Knowledge, the civilization is
named as Vedic Civilization. The Vedas are also known as Shruti (to
hear) as the contents of the Vedas were passed from generation to
generation only through verbal transmission. The Vedas are of four
kinds, viz. Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

 The Rig Veda is the oldest religious text in the world. It is a collection of
hymns that were recited at the time of sacrificial rites, religious
functions and other occasions.

 Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area
around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.

 The whole area in which the Aryans first settled is known as 'the land of
seven rivers or Sapta Sindhu' (The Indus and its five tributaries and the
Swarasati). The Aryans actually belong to the tribe that was known as
Jan and their king as the Rajan. The Rajan was the protector of the
tribe and he was the leader in the battle field. He expected obedience
from the clans. His seat was not hereditary and the Rajan was selected
from the clan's men.

 Based on the occupations the society was divided into four Varnas, viz.
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.

 The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as
living beings.

 The Aryans mainly belonged to agricultural and pastoral community.
 In Late Vedic Period the life of the people was generally divided into

four phases or chaturashramas viz. Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.
 In Late Vedic Period, people learned the usage of Iron; thus, weapons
and tools were made by iron.

 Hymns – Sacred verses usually written in the holy books.
 Aryans -- Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and

originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
 Grihapati -- The eldest male member of a family was the head of

the family and known as Grihapati.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Why the Vedas are known as Shruti?

2. How many types of the Vedas are there?

3. What are the Upanishads?

4. Write down the divisions of the life of the people of the late Vedic period.

5. Who was the warlord of the Aryans?

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The Rig Veda contains hymns and it is divided into mandalas.

2. The procedure for the performance of sacrifices is the main subject of Veda.

3. The Aryans called them .

4. The Rajan was assisted by two councils called and .

5. were the warriors and gave protection to the common people.

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. The Brahmanas are called Vedanta.

2. There are 801 Upanishads.

3. Soma and Maruts were personified as the god of storm and plants respectively.

4. Niska and Mana were a kind of gold coins.

5. In the phase of Vanaprastha men gradually moving away from worldly attractions.

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Write a short note on the Vedas.

2. Discuss briefly about the Aryans and also discuss about their political and social life.

3. Write short notes on political, social and economic life the people of Late Vedic
Period.

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Janapadas:

The word Janapadas literary means the lands where Jana or people set their feet.
When any region was occupied or inhabited by a tribe or Jana was called Janapada.
Kuru (U.P), Gandhara (modern Afghanistan) and Videha (Bihar) were some of the
examples of Janapadas.
‘Ashvamedha Yajna’ means sacrifice of horse which was performed in establishing a
Janapada by the Rajan or king of that territory.

Mahajanapadas:

When the Rajan or king of any Janapada extended his territory by conquering more
Janapadas or areas a Mahajanapada was formed.
Around 600 B.C. when Buddhism and Jainism were emerging there were 16
Mahajanapadas in the Northern India. Some of them were Anga (E. Bihar), Magadha
(S. Bihar), Kashi (Benaras), Kosal (Ayodhya), Vajji (N. Bihar), Malla, Avanti, Chedi,
Panchala, Gandhara, Batsya, Matsya, Kuru etc. Among them Magadha was most
powerful. Avanti, Kosal, Batsya were also very powerful.
There were also some Ganasanghas or Republics where the ruler was chosen by the

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people of the kingdom. Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Lichchhavis of Vaishali, Mallas of Pava
were some of the examples of Ganasanghas or Republics.

Taxes:

As the Rajan or the king had the duty to protect his kingdom from the external
aggression he needed to maintain a large army as also to barricade his kingdom by
fortresses. For this reasons the Rajan was in need of a lot of resources. So collection of
taxes from the prajas of the kingdom was necessary.
Farmers used to pay ⅙th of their agricultural production as tax.

The other classes of people like craftsmen, cattle - raisers, traders as well as forest
people under the kingdom had to pay duties and taxes as levied by the Rajan.

Agricultural was the basic economic activity. People ploughed fields with iron tools and
this method was more effective than that of the earlier period. In this Age
transplantation of paddy began instead of sowing its seeds. Rice, wheat, mustard,
barley, sugarcane were grown in this phase.

 In about 600 BC the earliest coins in India were issued by
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas. These were called punch-
marked coines because of punching the symbols of sun, gods
and goddesses, trees etc on the coins. Silver punch-marked coins
have been found in many parts of the world.

 Ashvamedha Yajna -- Ashvamedha Yajna means sacrifice of horse
which was performed in establishing a Janapada by the Rajan or
king of that territory.

 Ganasanghas – There were also some Ganasanghas or Republics
where the ruler was chosen by the people of the kingdom.

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 The word Janapadas literary means the lands where Jana
or people set their feet. When any region was occupied or
inhabited by a tribe or Jana was called Janapada.
Ashvamedha Yajna means sacrifice of horse which was
performed in establishing a Janapada by the Rajan or king of
that territory.

 When the Rajan or king of any Janapada extended his
territory by conquering more Janapadas or areas a
Mahajanapada was formed.
There were also some Ganasanghas or Republics where the
ruler was chosen by the people of the kingdom.

 As the Rajan or the king had the duty to protect his kingdom
from the external aggression he needed to maintain a large
army as also to barricade his kingdom by fortresses. For this
reasons the Rajan was in need of a lot of resources. So
collection of taxes from the prajas of the kingdom was
necessary.

 Agriculture was the basic economic activity.
 People ploughed fields with iron tools and this method was

more effective than that of the earlier period.
 In this age, transplantation of paddy began instead of sowing

its seeds.
 Farmers used to pay ⅙th of their agricultural production as

tax.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. What do you mean by Janapadas?

2. What do you mean by Ashvamedha Yajna?

3. What is the difference between Janapadas and Mahajanapada?

4. Where the Magadha was located?

5. Why the Rajan took taxes?

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The number of Mahajanapadas were .

2. The most powerful Mahajanapada was .

3. There were also some Ganasanghas or Republics where the ruler was chosen
by .

4. was the basic economic activity. .

5. In this Age began instead of sowing its seeds.

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. The Mahajanapadas were formed in the Southern India..

2. Lichchhavis of Vaishali was the example of Ganasanghas or Republics.

3. Rajan was in need of a lot of resources to maintain a large army as also to barricade
his kingdom by fortresses.

4. Farmers used to pay 1/8th of their agricultural production.

5. Avanti, Kosal, Batsya were very weak Mahajanapadas .

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Discuss briefly about the Janapadas and the Mahajanapadas.

2. Write short notes on the tax-system issued by the Rajan.

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Buddhism:

Goutam Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. His real name was Siddhartha and he
was also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata. He was born in 563 B.C. on the day of
Baishakhi Purnima at Lumbini in Nepal. His father was Suddhodan and mother
Mahamaya. His mother died just after 7 days of his birth. He was brought up by his
stepmother Goutami. He married Yashodhara at his 16 years of age and he had a son
named Rahul.

One day he saw an old man, a sick man, a
corpse and an ascetic. He was deeply
shocked. All these had great influence on
his mind to leave the worldly pleasure. To
find the actual meaning of the "truth" he
became a wanderer. The leaving of his
palace in search of the truth is called
Mahaviniskramana. He had been
wandering for long 6 years. After that he
came in Bihar. He used to meditate under a pipal tree near Bodh Gaya presently
situated in Bihar. At the age of 35 he got the enlightenment and realized the truth and
he became Buddha.

He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi, now in Uttar Pradesh) to his
five disciples. His first sermon is called Dharmachakrapravartana or 'Turning of the
Wheel of Law'.

He spent the rest of his life in spreading the proper education of life at many places of
the world.

When he was 80 he passed away at Kushinagar (U.P) and this was known as
Mahaparinirvana.

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The religious Doctrine of Buddha:

Buddha realised the cause of misery and also found the way of its salvation.
He told the four great truths:
1. The world is full of sorrow and misery.
2. Desire is the cause of all sorrow and misery.
3. All sorrows and miseries can be killed or ended only by controlling desires.
4. The desires can be controlled or removed by following the Eight Fold Path or the

Ashtangika Marga.

Ashtangika Marga:

The Eight Fold Paths or the Ashtangika Marga are as follows.
1. Right Understanding (Sammaditthi)
2. Right Thought (Sammasankalppa)
3. Right Speech (Sammavaca)
4. Right Action (Sammakammanta)
5. Right Livelihood (Sammaajiva)
6. Right Effort (Sammavayama)
7. Right Mindfulness (Samma sati)
8. Right Concentration (Sammasamadhi)
According to Buddha when desire ends, rebirth ends and Nirvana is attained. He
believed the Eight Fold Path or the Ashtangika Marg is the medium to attain the
Nirvana.

Scriptures:

Goutam Buddha did not mention anything about the existence of God. He discarded
the caste biases.
All his teachings were written in Tripitakas (means threefold basket) which are the
Scriptures of Buddhism. It was written in Pali language.

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