Purushottam's Bright Learners Social Science 6

The Tripitakas contain:

 Vinaya Pitaka - Rules of discipline in Buddha monasteries.

 Sutta Pitaka - It is the largest Pitaka. It contains collection of Buddha's Sermons.

 Abhidhamma Pitaka - It contains the explanation of philosophical principles of
Buddhist religion.

The doctrine of Buddhism got spread not only in India but also in the abroad. The two
Great Kings, Ashoka and Kanishka played important roles in this regard.

Jainism:

There were 24 Tirthankars in Jain traditions. Rishavanath was the first Tirthankar and
he was the founder of Jainism. But there was no authentic information about the first
22 Tirthankars. The 23rd Tirthankar was Parshawnath who was the son of king
Ashvasena of Benaras. His teachings were: Non-lying, Non-stealing, Non-injury and Non
-possession.

The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira.

Vardhman Mahavira was born in Kundagram (Distt. Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 B.C. His
father was Siddhartha who was the head of Jantrika clan. His mother was Trishla who
was a Lichchhavi Princess. He married Yashoda and he had a daughter named
Priyadarsena. At the age of 30, after the death of his parents he became an ascetic.

After 12 years of his asceticism i.e. at his 42
years of age he attained the Kaivalya
(Supreme Knowledge). He was called
Mahavira as he conquered the feelings of
pleasure and pain. He was also called Jaina
or Jitendriya and his followers were known
as Jains. He passed away at the age of 72 at
Pava near Patna (near Patna, presently in
Bihar).

To the teachings of Parshawnath, the 23rd Tirthankar he added a teaching: to follow
Brahmacharya (not to marry).

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His followers are divided into two sections viz. Digambars (who do not wear clothes)
and Swetambars (who wear only white clothes).
Mahavira also suggested three ways to attain Moksha. These three ways (1. Right Faith,
2. Right Action, 3. Right Knowledge) are known as Triratna.
Jainism was very popular during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.
Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects. Jainism got spread mainly in
western and southern India.
The followers of Jainism organized two Jain Councils, the first one of which was held at
Pataliputra in the beginning of 3rd Century B.C. and the second one at Vallabhi (Gujrat)
in the 5th Century A.D.
Mahavira was mainly the preacher of nonviolence.

 The most famous example of Jain sculpture is 70 ft high statue
on a hill top at Shravanvelgola in Karnataka.

 Goutam Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. His real name
was Siddhartha and he was also known as Sakyamuni or
Tathagata. He was born in 563 B.C. on the day of
BoishakhiPurnima at Lumbini in Nepal.

 The leaving of his palace in search of the truth is called
'Mahaviniskramana'. He had been wandering for long 6 years. After
that he came in Bihar. He used to meditate under a pipal tree near
Bodh Gaya in Bihar. At the age of 35 he got the enlightenment and
realized the truth and he became Buddha.

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 He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi) to his five
disciples. His first sermon is called 'Dharmachakrapravartan' or 'Turning of
the Wheel of Law'.

 When he was 80 he passed away at Kushinagar (U.P) and this was known
as 'Mahaparinirvana'.
According to Buddha when desire ends, rebirth ends and Nirvana is
attained. He believed the Eight Fold Path or the AshtangikaMarg is the
medium to attain the Nirvana. All his teachings were written in Tripitakas
(means threefold basket) which are the Scriptures of Buddhism.

 After 12 years of his asceticism i.e. at his 42 years of age Vardhman
Mahavira attained the Kaivalya (Supreme Knowledge). He was called
Mahavira as he conquered the feelings of pleasure and pain. He was also
called Jaina or Jitendriya and his followers were known as Jains. He
passed away at the age of 72 at Pava near Patna.

 His followers are divided into two sections viz. Digambars (who do not
wear clothes) and Setambars (who wear only white clothes).

 Mahavira also suggested three ways to attain Moksha. These three ways
 (1.Right Faith, 2.Right Action, 3. Right Knowledge) are known as Triratna.

 Mahaviniskramana -- The leaving of Goutam Buddha’s palace in
search of the truth is called Mahaviniskramana.

 Dharmachakrapravartan -- Goutam Buddha delivered his first
sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi) to his five disciples. His first
sermon is called 'Dharmachakrapravartan' or 'Turning of the Wheel
of Law'.

 'Mahaparinirvana' – The death of Goutam Buddha was known as
'Mahaparinirvana'

 Digambars – The followers of Mahavira who do not wear clothes.
 Setambars -- The followers of Mahavira who wear only white

clothes.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Who was Goutam Buddha?

2. What do you mean by 'Mahaviniskramana'?

3. What do you mean by 'Dharmachakrapravartan'?

4. Where did Goutam Buddha get the enlightenment?

5. Who was Vardhman Mahavira?

6. Where did Mahavira attained the Kaivalya?

7. What was the only teaching that Mahavira added to the teachings of Parshawnath?

8. In which language the Tripitakas were written?

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. Goutam Buddha married .

2. According to Buddha is the medium to attain the Nirvana.

3. was the founder of Jainism .

4. Mahavira passed away at the age of 72 at .

5. Jainism was very popular during the reign of .

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Goutam Buddha used to meditate under a papaya tree.

2. Vardhman was called Mahavira as he conquered the feelings of pleasure and pain.

3. Jainism got spread mainly in western and southern India.

4. The followers of Jainism organized four Jain Councils.

5. Mahavira was mainly the preacher of violence.

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Discuss briefly about the religious Doctrine of Goutam Buddha.

2. Write short notes on Jainism.

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Magadha:

Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha was the most powerful and it gradually
conquered all other Mahajanapadas. So, all the Mahajanapadas became the parts of
the Magadha Empire.

The area of Magadha included the former district of Patna, Gaya and Shahabad.
Magadha had two capitals:

1. Rajgir and
2. Pataliputra.
Rajgir was situated at the hill area. This site was rich in iron deposits. Weapons were
made with this iron.

Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of River Ganga, Gandak and Son. This site
was useful for easy transportation and communication via waterways. There was
availability of water for irrigation purposes.

From the forest area of Magadha Empire, wood for building houses, chariots and carts
could be collected.

Magadha was ruled by several rulers for many years. Now we will discuss about some
of the important rulers of Magadha Empire.

Haryanka Dynasty:

The first dynasty who ruled in Magadha was Haryanka Dynasty. Bimbisara (544 B.C. -
492 B.C.) was the actual founder of Haryanka Dynasty. He was contemporary to
Buddha. His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja). He conquered Anga ( E. Bihar ).

Ajatshatru (492 B.C.-460 B.C.), the son of Bimbisara was the next king. His capital was
Pataliputra. He annexed Vaishali and Kosala. Goutam Buddha died during his reign.

Udayin (460 B.C. - 444 B.C.), the successor of Ajatshatru also founded his capital at
Pataliputra.

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The last three kings of Haryanka Dynasty were Anuruddho, Mundo and Nagdasaka.

Sishunaga Dynasty:

By killing Nagdasaka of Haryanka Dynasty, Sishunaga founded the Sishunaga Dynasty in
Magadha. At first his capital was Girivraja and after that he changed it to Baishali.
He was succeeded by Kalasoka. The capital of Kalasoka was Pataliputra.
The destruction of the power of Avanti was the greatest achievement of Sishunaga
Dynasty.

Nanda Dynasty:

It was the first non-Kshatriya Dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda was the founder of this
Dynasty. He conquered Kalinga. Dhanananda was the last king of Nanda Dynasty. He
was very arrogant and inefficient ruler. People did not like him. Alexander the Great
invaded India during his reign.

The Mauryan Dynasty:

Chandragupta Maurya (322 B.C. - 297 B.C.):

With the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya ended the rule of Nanda Dynasty
and established his Kingdom in Magadha. His capital was Pataliputra. Chanakya was a
Brahmin guide and mentor of Chandragupta Maurya. He was also known as Kautilya
and Vishnugupta. Arthashastra was written by Chanakya.

After the death of Alexander, Chandragupta had a fight
with Seleucus Necater. He defeated him and a pact was
signed between them. According to the pact Chandragupta
added Baluchistan and Afghanistan to his kingdom and
married Helen, the daughter of Seleucus Necater.

Megasthenes, a Greek Scholar sent to the Mauryan Court
by Seleucus Necater wrote a book named Indika, which is a
good source of information of the Mauryan Empire.

Mudrarakshasa, a drama written by Vishakhadatta is also
another important source of information about Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta
adopted Jainism. He went to Shravanvelgola with Bhadrabahu, a Jain monk and died
there by slow starvation.

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Bindusara (297 B.C. - 273 B.C.):

Chandragupta's successor in the Mauryan Dynasty was his son Bindusara. He is said to
have conquered the land between two seas (i.e., Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal).
He was called Amitraghat by Greek writers. He successfully maintained the entire
Empire.

Ashoka the Great (269 B.C. - 232 B.C.):

Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka. It was written in a
Buddhist literature that Ashoka killed his 99 brothers to ascend
the throne. He was one of the greatest emperors of all times.
He conquered Kalinga in Kalinga War (described in the rock
edict-XIII). The devastating result of this war changed the mind
of Ashoka. He changed his policy from Dig Vijay to Dharma
Vijay. He adopted Buddhism (under Upagupta) after that. He
was the propagator of Buddhism in various regions of India and
the world as well.

He was the ruler who kept direct contact with the people through his inscriptions (see
pic in the facing page). His inscriptions were written in Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Armaic and
Greek languages. James Princep (1799-1840 AD), an European scholar first deciphered
the inscriptions of Ashoka. These are also most important sources of information about
Mauryan Empire.

All the successors of Ashoka were proved inefficient and weak rulers.

Brihadratha was the last king of Mauryan Dynasty. He was killed by Pushyamitra
Sunga, his commander and the founder of Sunga Dynasty, in 187 B.C.

Ashoka's Dhamma:

 Ashoka's Dhamma was inspired by the ideas of Buddhist teaching.
 Ashoka's Dhamma did not discuss about the worship of God and performance of

sacrifices. He treated all his Prajas as his sons.
 He taught to follow nonviolence and have tolerance and compassion for others in

life.
 He respected and patronized all religions.

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A large rock at Junagadh with
emperor Ashoka’s inscriptions.

Administration:

The Mauryan administration was constructed and run according to the advice and
planning of Chanakya. The king was the head of the state as also the head of the
judiciary, military and civil administration. He had a
council of ministers to assist and advise him. Amatya,
Mahamatra Adhyaksha, Senapati, Purohit were some of
the officials in his court.

The entire empire was divided into provinces with a
viceroy in each province. Ashoka appointed Dharma
Mahapatra to propagate dharma among various social
groups including women.

Ashoka established hospitals, sarais and Dharmasala
throughout his kingdom.

The City administration was under Nagaradhyaksh and the village administration was
run by a group of officers.

Social Conditions:

People lived peacefully there. The Varnas and Ashrams were in existence as in the Rig
Vedic Period. Chanakya outlined the duties of each Varna and Ashram.

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Inter-caste marriage was practiced there. The people enjoyed a cooperative and
harmonious relationship among themselves.

Economic Conditions:

Agricultural practices were the main backbone of the economy of the Mauryan empire.
Dams and water reservoirs were made to supply water for irrigation purposes. The
Sudarshana Lake established originally by the Mauryan emperors to supply water in
agricultural fields is a great example of the agricultural practices of that time.
Cattle rearing and pastures were the other economic activities of that period. Forest
resources were protected by the law of the land.
Internal and external trading of Jute products, cotton, silk etc. was done.
Taxes were also collected from the common people for the maintenance of the public
properties.

Decline of Mauryan Dynasty:

The Mauryan empire was spread over a vast region. The revenues and taxes collected
from the Mauryan empire were not sufficient for the maintenance of such a huge
kingdom. All the rulers after Ashoka were too weak and inefficient to govern the
kingdom.
The last ruler of the Mauryan Dynasty was Brihadratha. In 187 B.C. he was killed by
Pushyamitra Sunga, his commander in chief and the founder of Sunga Dynasty.

Some coins of the Mauryan empire

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 The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the
four-lion capital of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath.

 The area of Magadha included the former district of
Patna, Gaya and Shahabad.
Magadha had two capitals: 1) Rajgir and 2) Pataliputra.
The first dynasty who ruled in Magadha was Haryanka
Dynasty. Bimbisara (544 B.C. - 492 B.C.) was the actual
founder of Haryanka Dynasty.

 By killing Nagdasaka of Haryanka Dynasty, Sishunaga founded
the Sishunaga Dynasty in Magadha.

 Nanda Dynasty was the first non-Kshatriya Dynasty.
Mahapadma Nanda was the founder of this Dynasty.

 With the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya ended the
rule of Nanda Dynasty and established his Kingdom in
Magadha. His capital was Pataliputra. Chanakya was a
Brahmin guide and mentor of Chandragupta Maurya. He was
also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta. Arthashastra was
written by Chanakya.

 Chandragupta's successor in the Mauryan Dynasty was his son
Bindusara. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka.

 Ashoka conquered Kalinga in Kalinga War (described in the
rock edict-XIII). The devastating result of this war changed the
mind of Ashoka. He changed his policy from "Dig Vijay" to
"Dharma Vijay”.

 Brihadratha was the last king of Mauryan Dynasty. He was
killed by Pushyamitra Sunga, the founder of Sunga Dynasty
and his commander in 187 B.C.

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 Dhamma - It is a prakrit word which means duty; the new religion
given by Ashoka.

 Administration - The process or activity of running an organization
or function of the government.

 Rock Edict - Orders, instructions and other communications carved
on stone. This was common during Emperor Ashoka’s reign.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.
1. State the exact location of Magadha.
2. Among the ruler of Haryanka Dynasty who was contemporary to Buddha?
3. Where was the capital of Bimbisara?
4. What was the greatest achievement of Sishunaga Dynasty?
5. Who was Dhanananda?
6. Who was Chanakya?
7. What was Chanakya also known as?
8. Why is Chanakya famous?
9. Who wrote Mudrarakshasa?
10. Who won the Kalinga War?

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B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of River , and .

2. The last three kings of Haryanka Dynasty were , and .

3. Ashoka changed his policy from to .

4. first deciphered the Inscriptions of Ashoka..

5. was the last king of Mauryan Dynasty.

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Ashoka's Dhamma was inspired by the ideas of Jain teaching.

2. The site of Rajgir was rich in iron deposits.

3. Udayin annexed Vaishali and Kosala.

4. The capital of Kalasoka was Girivraja.

5. Ashoka maintained communication with his people through rock edicts.

6. Alexander the Great invaded India during the reign of Mahapadma Nanda.

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Discuss briefly about the administration, social condition and economic condition of
the society in the Mauryan empire.

2. Write short notes on the Mauryan Dynasty.

3. Describe the causes behind the decline of the Mauryan Dynasty.

4. Write a short note on Chanakya.

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Now we will discuss about the life in towns and villages. Several sources of information
in this regard have been found during archaeological excavations. Religious Books,
literature like Sangam literature, several accounts of travellers, art, coins and sculpture
are some of the sources of information.

In the 6th century B.C., villages towns and cities started to develop in the Gangetic
plain. Gradually, these spread throughout the peninsular India. Presence of fertile
soil and rivers, lakes and wells for abundant water supply, utilization of Iron technology
and human intelligence were more than sufficient to bring agricultural success. This
achievement was the main cause for the villages, towns and cities to develop and
flourish in the Gangetic Plain. This is called second urbanization. This period ended
before the beginning of the Gupta Age.

Cities:

Only agricultural economy was the backbone of the villages. Cities’ economy did not
depend only on agricultural practices; other modes of occupations were also practiced
for maintaining livelihood. This was the main difference between cities and villages. In
those days (16th century B.C.) the following three types of cities were developed.

1. Cites developed for trading purposes near the sea coasts such as Sopara and
Cochin on the Western Coast, Arikamendu on the Eastern Coast, Tamralipti and
Chandraketugarh in Bengal, Broach in Gujrat.

2. Cities developed at the religious sites such as Sarnath, Bodh Gaya, Takshashila etc.

3. Cities developed at the capitals of the kingdoms or at the Mahajanapadas such as
Pataliputra and Ujjaini.

Causes of emerging the 'Second Urbanisation':

A. Necessity of administrative headquarters:

As we have discussed in the previous chapter that the first and foremost duty of the
king was to protect his kingdom and its people from any external aggression. For that

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the king was in need of building an

administrative sector for the state

including royal court where all his officers

would work to protect the state and its

people and make plans to govern the

state. Generally the administrative

departments were situated in the capital

cities of each state and the capital city Pipphali Cava

acted as the headquarters to the state. Forts or palaces were also built by the kings for

their use. Magadha was the most powerful Mahajanapada among the 16

Mahajanapadas and gradually it became the most powerful empire with two capitals

-- Rajgriha and Pataliputra where administrative sectors were built.

B. Necessity of Agriculture:

As food is the basic requirement of every living being so the production of food was the
thing to which more importance was given by the kings. The utilization of Iron tools like
hand axes and ploughs were used to clean the forest areas and to plough the fields
respectively, new technologies, availability of water and most importantly the help and
the support of the kings increased the agricultural production at a large scale. This
significantly satisfied the food requirements of the state. To maintain the other
functions, the kings were in need of money and so they levied taxes on the farmers.
The prisoners were also engaged in the agricultural fields for more and good
production.

C. Emergence of new religions and Development of Religious Centres:

Emergence of new religions like Buddhism and Jainism influenced the mind of the
people greatly. Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar became popular as these places are
connected with several activities of Goutam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.
Gradually these places became religious centres of the Buddhists. In the same way
Vaishali, Rajgriha, Pavapuri, Shravanvelgola also became religious centres of the Jains
as Mahavira visited these places in his life on several occasions. The universities of
Nalanda and Takshashila were the educational centres of Buddhist learning. So, from
distant places many students and scholars came here and thus these two places
became popular as the Buddhist educational centres.

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D. Trading purposes:

Day by day, population had been increasing in the towns and cities due to the
migration of the people from the rural areas. The conveniences of transportation,
communication and job opportunities in the city or town areas brought the people

from the villages or rural areas.
Being trading centres, the cities
became densely populated. Lots
of people were engaged in many
non-agricultural sectors in the
cities.

Ruins of the Nalanda University Bengal, Mathura, Varanasi,
Madurai, Ujjaini and Gandhara
were the textile manufacturing
centres.

Takshashila was the main academic training centre of the Northwest section.
Pataliputra was connected with various trade routes. Tamralipti in the east and
Broach in the west were the important seaports.

In the second Urbanization phase, ceramics became very popular. Sculptural sector
was also another option in which a number of people were engaged.

Shrenis (guilds) were the associations of the craftsperson and merchants. They had
several functions.

1. Shrenis provided training, procured the raw materials and distributed the finished
products.

2. Shrenis or merchants organized trade.

3. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This
was invested and part of interest was returned or used to support religious
institutions like monasteries.

Importance of Mathura:

Mathura was a religious centre. There were Buddhist monasteries, Jain shrines in the
Mathura. It is believed that lord Krishna was born here. Mathura was located at the

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cross-roads of two major routes of communication, from the northwest to the north
and the east and from the north to the south and the conveniences of this location
made the place an economic hub.

Red sandstone made life-size image of Lord Buddha produced during the reign of
Kushan ruler Kanishka was the example of 'Mathura School of Art'.

A number of Buddhist monasteries and Jain shrines were built here.

Several Inscriptions have been found on stone slabs made by the people of all levels of
the kingdom like king, Queen, merchants, officers and craftsmen etc.

Importance of Arikamedu:

Arikamedu was located in the coastal area of Pondicherry. A massive brick structure
was found at this site.

Several kinds of Pottery like Amphore (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids
such as wine or oil), Arretine ware (stamped red-glazed pottery which was made by
pressing wet clay into a stamped mould) have been found here.

Making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass was another discovery from this
place.

Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found here.

Coins :

Coinage system was in use for trading purposes in both North and South India and it
was a significant characteristic of the period of the Second Urbanization.
In the Sangam Age, Pandyas and Cholas of Tamil Nadu used coins. Coins were of three
kinds, viz.

1. Punch-marked coins

2. Coins from the Roman Empire (2000-1700 years ago)

3. Sangam Age Tamil Coins which were Punch-marked silver, copper or lead coins
assigned to the Tamil kings.

Coins were used in the trading system. More specifically the first two kinds of coins
were mostly used.

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Pieces of red pottery from the ruins

Sangam age Tamil coins Punch-marked copper coins

Pieces of yellow pottery from the ruins

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 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) was an expensive ware
that was made at a large scale by the potters. Refined clay was
used to make NBPW. Well baked, thin but strong, well finished
glossy surface were the characteristics of NBPW.

 In the 6th century B.C. villages, towns and cities started to
develop in the Gangetic Plain. Gradually these spread
throughout the Peninsular India.

 Presence of fertile soil and River, lakes and wells for water
supply, utilization of Iron technology and human intelligence
were more than sufficient to bring agricultural success.

 In those days (16th century B.C.) the following three types of
cities were developed.

 1) Cites developed for trading purposes near the sea coasts
such as Sopara and Cochin on the Western Coast,
Arikamendu on the Eastern Coast, Tamralipti and
Chandraketugarh in Bengal, Broach in Gujrat.

2) Cities developed at the religious sites such as Sarnath, Bodh
Gaya, Takshashila etc.

3) Cities developed at the capitals of the kingdoms or at the
Mahajanapadas such as Pataliputra and Ujjaini.

 Generally the administrative departments were situated in
the capital cities of each state and the capital city acted as the
headquarters to the state to protect the state and its people
and make plans to govern the state.

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 Takshashila was the main training centre of the Northwest
section. Pataliputra was connected with various trade routes.
Tamralipti in the east and Broach in the west were the
important seaports.

 Mathura was a religious centre. There were Buddhist
monasteries, Jain shrines in the Mathura.

 Arikamedu was located in the coastal area of Pondicherry. A
massive brick structure was found at this site, where ancient
artefacts as old as 2nd century BC have been found.

 Shrenis (guilds) -- Shrenis (guilds) were the associations of the
craftsperson and merchants.

 Amphore -- Amphore was tall double-handled jars that contained
liquids such as wine or oil.

 Arretine -- Arretine ware was stamped red-glazed pottery which
was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.
1. What do you mean by Second Urbanization?
2. Write down the types of cities that were developed in 16 century BC.

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3. What was the necessity of building an administrative sector for the state?

4. Name two educational centres of Buddhist learning.

5. What was the greatest achievement of Sishunaga Dynasty?

6. What do you mean by Shrenis?

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. Rajgriha and Pataliputra were the capitals of .

2. Shravanvelgola became religious centres of the .

3. Name of two textile manufacturing centres were and .

4. Red sandstone made life-size image of Lord Buddha produced during the reign

of was the example of ' School of Art'.

5. In the Sangam Age, and of Tamil Nadu used coins.

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. The Iron tools like hand axes and ploughshare were used to clean the forest areas
and to plough the fields respectively.

2. Cities developed at the capitals of the kingdoms or at the Mahajanapadas.

3. The Second Urbanization ended before the beginning of the Gupta Age.

4. Tamralipti in the west and Broach in the east were the important seaports.

5. A massive brick structure was found at Mathura.

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Discuss briefly about the causes of emerging the 'Second Urbanisation'.

2. Write short notes on the Mathura and Arikamedu.

3. Describe the importance of the Coinage system in the period of 'Second
Urbanisation' .

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The Geographical location, the presence of resources like forests, mineral resources,
water resources in rich quantity and above all the fertile soil make our motherland
India an affluent country in each and every respect. From the time immemorial many
people (like Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and Kushanas) from different parts of the
world had been invading India for the greed of wealth.

Indian conquests by various Central Asian tribes, the spreading of Buddhism and
Jainism to the different parts of the world including India and External Trading were
the factors that made the close and widespread contacts between India and the distant
lands possible. All these brought economic prosperity and cultural enrichment to both
the sides.

Invasion of India from Northwest direction was done by Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians
and Kushanas. And gradually the Indian cultures were accepted and adapted by the
foreign dynasties and tribes.

Indo-Greeks:

Greeks or Indo-Greeks were the first among all those
who invaded India (around 200 B.C.) from the
Northwestern frontier. They were also called Bactrian
Greeks as they ruled Bactria (the region between Iran
and Afghanistan). Number of passes present in the
mountain ranges helped them to invade India.

At first a Greek ruler Demetrius II invaded India and
occupied the region extending from Kabul to Punjab.

Menander The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165
B.C. - 145 B.C.). He was also known as Milinda. His capital
was Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab.

The major contribution of the Indo-Greeks was the issue of coins which can definitely
be attributed to the kings. They were also the first to issue gold coins in India.

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The Sakas:

Indo-Greeks were followed by the Sakas. They ruled till 200 A.D.

In India the most famous Saka ruler was Rudradaman I (130 A.D. - 150 A.D.). His
achievements were written in his Junagarh inscription. This inscription recorded in
details the repairs of Sudarshana Lake in Kathiarwar. It was the first major inscription
to have been written in Sanskrit.

Sakas were defeated by Chandragupta Vikramaditya, a famous king of the Gupta
Dynasty.

The Parthians:

In the beginning of the Christian era the Parthians moved to India from Iran where they
lived originally. They occupied a small region comparable to Indo-Greeks and Sakas.

St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity in the
reign of the most famous Parthian king Gondophernes (19 A.D. - 45 A.D.).

The Kushanas:

Kushanas were one of the five clans of a tribe Yueh-chi
who lived in the Northwest of China. They were defeated
by the Hunes and moved towards India. They defeated
the Sakas in Afghanistan and started to live there.
Gradually they extended their territories to Sindh, Punjab
and the greater part of the Gangetic basin.

Kanishka (78 A.D.- 144 A.D.):

Kanishka was the most powerful and famous King of the
Kushanas. He had two capitals, 1) Purushpur and 2)
Mathura. He patronized Ashwaghosha (who wrote
'Buddhacharita'), Nagarjuna (who wrote 'Madhyamik

St. Thomas

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Sutra'), Vasumitra (Chairman of the fourth Buddhist Council), Charak (a physician, who
wrote 'Charaka Samhita').

Kanishka is celebrated in history mainly for two
reasons, viz.

1. In 78 A.D. he started an era, known as Saka Era
which is used by the Government of India.

2. He extended his whole-hearted patronage to
Buddhism. He held the fourth Buddhist Council in
Kashmir.

In his reign Buddhism spread to West and South

India. The Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh and

many Buddhist monasteries in Maharastra are the

examples of Buddhist Architecture.

A statue of Kanishka From China Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan.

Buddhism also spread to Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand etc.

The Sangam Age:

The Sangam Age was the age of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras.

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The Pandyas:

The capital of the Pandyas was Madurai. The kingdom was famous for pearls.
Megasthenes wrote that a woman ruled the Pandya kingdom.

The Pandyas were engaged in trading relationship with the Roman Empire.

The Cholas:

The kingdom of the Cholas was called Cholamandalam or Coromondal. Its capital was
Kaveripattanam. Karikala was the famous king of the Cholas. Their main source of
wealth was the trade in cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the chief trading centre of
Cholamandalam was famous for cotton trade.

The Cheras:

Vanji (also called Kerala) was the capital of the Cheras. Senguttuvan was the greatest
king of the Cheras. They too had trading relationship with the Roman Empire.

The Satavahanas:

Satavahanas were the successors of Mauryas in Deccan and the central India. The
founder of the Satavahana Dynasty was Simuk.

The most important and famous king of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra
Satakarni. In his reign the power and prestige of the Satavahana Dynasty reached at
the highest level. His capital was Paithan. From the inscription written by his mother
Gautami Balashri, all the information regarding Gautamiputra Satakarni has been
collected.

They issued lead coins.

They encouraged both internal and external trade.
They traded with Rome, Iran, Egypt, Arabia in the
West and Malaya and Myanmar in the East.

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Silk Route:

The famous Silk Route is present in Central Asia. This Silk Route started from China and
passed through the Empire of Kanishka in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and
Western Asia which formed part of Roman Empire. Kanishka controlled the famous Silk
Route.
Initially the route was used to send silk as a gift from China to the rulers of Iran and
West Asia. Gradually it became very important trade route which connects the eastern
and western world. Besides silk, things like perfumes, gemstones, porcelain, spices
were also transported for trading purposes.

Major trade routes: China’s silk route by land (red line) and India’s spice route by sea (blue line)

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 The Indo-Greeks introduced features of Hellenistic art. The
Gandhara Art was its best example.

 The Geographical location, the presence of resources like
forest resources, mineral resources, water resources in
rich quantity and above all the fertile soil make our
mother land India an affluent country in each and every
respect.

 Invasion of India from Northwest direction was done by Indo-
Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and Kushanas. And gradually the
Indian cultures were accepted and adapted by the foreign
dynasties and tribes.

 At first a Greek ruler Demetrius II invaded India and occupied
the region extending from Kabul to Punjab. The most famous
Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165 B.C. - 145 B.C.). He was
also known as Milinda. His capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot)
in Punjab.

 In India the most famous Saka ruler was Rudradaman I (130
A.D. - 150 A.D.). His achievements were written in his
Junagarh inscription.

 St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation
of Christianity in the reign of the most famous Parthian king
Gondophernes (19 A.D. - 45 A.D.).

 Kushanas were defeated by the Hunes and moved towards
India. They defeated the Sakas in Afghanistan and started to
live there.

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 Kanishka had two capitals, 1) Purushpur and 2) Mathura.
 The Sangam Age was the age of Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras.

The capital of the Pandyas was Madurai. The kingdom was
famous for pearls.
 The kingdom of the Cholas was called Cholamandalam or
Coromondal. The capital was Kaveripattanam.
 Vanji (also called Kerala) was the capital of the Cheras.
 The founder of the Satavahana Dynasty was Simuk.The most
important and famous king of the Satavahana Dynasty was
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 The famous Silk Route is present in Central Asia. This Silk
Route started from China and passed through the Empire of
Kanishka in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western
Asia which formed part of Roman Empire. Kanishka controlled
the famous Silk Route.

 Saka Era -- In 78 A.D. Kanishka started an era, known as Saka Era
which is used by the Government of India.

 Silk Route -- The famous Silk Route is present in Central Asia. This
Silk Route started from China and passed through the Empire of
Kanishka in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia
which formed part of Roman Empire.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Who first invaded India from the Northwestern frontier?
2. Who was Menander?
3. Where did the the Parthians live originally?
4. Who came to India for the propagation of Christianity in the reign of the Parthian

king Gondophernes .
5. Who wrote 'Buddhacharita' and 'Madhyamik Sutra' ?
6. Where the fourth Buddhist Council was held?
B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The major contribution of the Indo-Greeks was .

2. Sakas were defeated by .

3. Kanishka patronized and .

4. was the Chairman of the fourth Buddhist Council.

5. The Sangam Age was the age of , and .

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Uraiyur the chief centre of Cholamandalam was famous for silk trade.

2. Senguttuvan was the greatest king of the Cheras.

3. The Second Urbanization ended before the beginning of the Gupta Age.

4. From the inscription written by Gautam Buddha, all the information regarding
Gautamiputra Satakarni has been collected.

5. Kushans controlled the famous Silk Route..

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Discuss briefly about the people who invaded India from the Northwest direction.
2. Discuss briefly about the Sangam Age.
3. Write a short note on the Silk Route.

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After the Kushanas, there was no existence of a large empire in India for many years. In
the 4th Century A.D. a powerful dynasty, the Guptas emerged in North India with its
capital at Pataliputra.

Sri Gupta (275 A.D.) was the founder of the Gold coins of the Gupta era
empire. He was succeeded by
Ghatotkaccha Gupta. But not much
information about these two rulers is
known.

Chandragupta I (320 A.D.- 335 A.D.):

Chandragupta I was the first important ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He acquired the title
of Maharajadhiraj. He enhanced his power and prestige by marrying Kumara Devi,
princess of the Lichchhavi clan of Nepal.

Samudragupta (335 A.D. - 375 AD):

Samudragupta was the successor of Chandragupta I. The Prayag Prashasti (in
Allahabad) which was written by his court poet Harisen, was a great source of
information about Samudragupta. He believed in the policy of war and conquests. He is
known as the 'Napoleon' of India. He led long military campaigns to north, east and
south of India. The areas of Ganga-Yamuna-Doab region, the forest region of Vindhyas
were conquered by Samudragupta. According to the Prayag Prashasti 12 rulers of
Eastern Deccan and South India were defeated by Samudragupta.

He is said to have composed numerous poems of high merit.

Chandragupta II (380 - 413 AD):

Chandragupta II, son of Samudragupta was the next important king of this dynasty.
He was also known as Vikramaditya (According to an inscription on the iron pillar at
Meharouli in Delhi). He was a great warrior and a good administrator. He conquered
western Malwa and Gujrat from Sakas. Broach (Gujrat) and Ujjain (Malwa) were two
very important trading centres.

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He was a great patron of art and education. His court was adorned by nine gems called
the Navratna. Some of them were Kalidasa (a great poet), Amarsimha (a Sanskrit

scholar), Varahmihira (scholar of astrology and
astronomy) and Dhanvantari (a great physician).

He was the first ruler to issue silver coin.

The empire of Chandragupta II He was succeeded by Kumaragupta. After that
Skandagupta came. The later Gupta rulers were
not too efficient to maintain the stability of the
large empire for a long period. Due to
subsequent Huna invasion, the Gupta dynasty
became weak and gradually came to an end.

Administration:

The King was the head of the state. He was assisted by council of ministers. But he was
not bound to listen to the ministers. Kingship was hereditary but it did not always
mean that the eldest son of the king would be the next king.

The Guptas occupied a huge geographical area to govern, though it was not as big as
the Mauryan dynasty. The area, which was directly governed by the king, was divided
into small provinces (called 'Uparika') and each of such provinces was governed by an
officer of the king, called the Governor. The distant places were governed by the
regional rulers who accepted the emperor’s over-lordship or by the governors
appointed by the king.

The military organization was feudal in character though the king had a standing army.
The social life of the people was simple and peaceful. The position of the women
declined further. Education was limited to among some upper classes.

Nalanda University was established during the reign of Kumaragupta.

Harshavardhana:

After the decline of the Gupta dynasty, the empire got divided into smaller states. One
of such states was ruled by the Pushyabhuti family at Thaneswar. Pravakar Vardhana
was the founder of this kingdom. He was succeeded by his son Harshavardhana.

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Harshavardhana was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He shifted his capital
from Thaneswar to Kanauj. The account of Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang who visited
India during his reign, was a great source of information about Harshavardhana. His
court was adorned by Banabhatta who wrote Harshacharit, a book on Harshavardhana.
Harshavardhana himself wrote three plays,
viz. Naganada, Ratnabali, Priyadarshika. He
was defeated by Chalukya Pulakeshin II at
the bank of the River Narmada in the
Deccan Plateau. He extended his territory
from Himalaya in the North to Narmada in
the South and Bengal in the East to Punjab
in the West.

Administration:

There were some similarities between the
administration of the Harsha's reign and
that of the Guptas. The King was the head
of the state as well as the head of both Civil administration and Judicial administration.
He was assisted by a council of ministers. But he was not compelled to listen to the
ministers all the time. He had a large military force. All of his employees were paid
salary at the right time either by cash or in some cases land was also given.

Harshavardhana worshipped the Lord Shiva.

Pallavas:

The Pallavas settled their kingdom in the South India. They ruled in Northern Tamil
Nadu and in Andhra Pradesh. After the decline of the Satavahana dynasty, they
conquered the above mentioned area in South India and started to rule there.
A Pallava king named Mahendravarman was the powerful and famous King of the
dynasty. He was contemporary to Harshavardhana. He was succeeded by his son
Narasimhavarman I. He was also a great ruler and a warrior too. He defeated
Pulakeshin II.

Pallavas were later replaced by the Cholas in Tamil Nadu.

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Chalukyas:

The founder of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakeshin I. His capital was Vatapi (near
Karnataka). The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Pulakeshin II. He defeated
Harshavardhana. Hieun Tsang visited his kingdom. His court poet was Ravikirti. Aihole
Prashasti was the source of information about Pulakeshin II.

A conflict arose between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas over the controlling rights of
the fertile land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra Rivers and the port located in
that area. Finally the Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I killed the Chalukyan Pulakeshin II
and conquered his capital Badami. The Chalukyan rulers after Kirtivarman were not so
efficient and skillful in ruling the kingdom.

At the end, the Rastrakutas replaced the Chalukyas in the Deccan.

The Cholas and Chalukyas were great patrons of art and
architecture. The rich foundation of Indian (especially Dravidian)
Temple architecture was laid by the Cholas, and then enriched
further by the Chalukyas. A great number of examples still stand
tall. Want to know more? When you browse the web next time,
open any search engine & search for “Art and architecture of
south Indian kingdoms”.

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 Most of the paintings and sculptures of Ajanta and Ellora were completed
during the reign of the Chalukyas.

 In the 4th Century A.D. in North India a powerful dynasty, the
Guptas emerged with its capital at Pataliputra. Sri Gupta (275
A.D.) was the founder of the empire.

 Chandragupta I was an important ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. He
acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.

 Samudragupta was the successor of Chandragupta I. The Prayag
Prashasti (in Allahabad) written by his court poet Harisen, was a great
source of information this era. He is known as the Napoleon of India.

 Chandragupta II, son of Samudragupta was also known as
Vikramaditya. He was a great patron of art and education. His court
was adorned by nine gems called Navratna. Some of them were
Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Varahmihira and Dhanvantari.

 Pravakar Vardhana was the founder of the Pushyabhuti dynasty at
Thaneswar. He was succeeded by his son Harshavardhana.
Harshavardhana was the most famous ruler of this dynasty.
Harshavardhana himself wrote three plays, viz. Naganada, Ratnabali,
Priyadarshika. He was defeated by Chalukya Pulakeshin II at the bank
of the river Narmada in the Deccan plateau.

 The account of Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang who visited India during this
period, is a great source of information about Harshavardhana.

 The Pallavas settled their kingdom in the South India. They ruled in
Northern Tamil Nadu and in Andhra Pradesh. A Pallava king named
Mahendravarman was the most powerful King of the dynasty.

 The founder of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakeshin I. His capital was
Vatapi (near Karnataka). The most famous ruler of this dynasty was
Pulakeshin II.

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 Uparika -- The area, which was directly governed by the king, was
divided into small provinces (Called 'Uparika') and each of such
provinces was governed by an officer of the king, called the
Governor.

 Navratna -- The court of Vikramaditya was adorned by nine gems
called Navratna.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.
1. Who was the founder of the Gupta dynasty?
2. Who wrote the Prayag Prashasti?
3. Who is known as the 'Napoleon' of India?
4. Who was known as Vikramaditya?
5. Who was Harshavardhana?
6. Name the powerful and famous King of the Pallava dynasty.?
7. Where was the capital of Pulakeshin I?
8. Who was the court poet of Pulakeshin II?
9. What was the matter of conflict arose between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas?
10. Who killed the Chalukyan Pulakeshin II?

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B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The court of Vikramaditya was adorned by nine gems called .

2. Nalanda University was established during the reign of .

3. Harshavardhana himself wrote three plays, viz. , and .

4. Harshavardhana was defeated by .

5. Pallavas were replaced by the in Tamil Nadu.

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Sri Gupta acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.

2. According to the Allahabad Prashasti 12 rulers of Eastern Deccan and South India
were defeated by Samudragupta.

3. Due to Huna invasion the Gupta dynasty became weak and gradually came to an
end.

4. Harshavardhana shifted his capital from Kanuj to Thaneswar.

5. Most of the paintings and sculptures of Ajanta and Ellora were completed during
the reign of the Pallavas.

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Discuss briefly about the rulers of Gupta dynasty.

2. Write a short note on the administration of the Harshavardhana

3. Discuss briefly about the Pallavas and Chalukyas.

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Many of the kings and merchants of ancient India were great patrons of Art, Literature
and Science. During their times many major construction works were completed. The
cultural practices of that time were greatly influenced by the three most popular
religions - Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The contacts with the people of different
regions of both India and other countries had a big impact on the cultural practices of
that time. Let us study this in more detail.

Art and architecture

Starting with the organized town planning, the Great Bath, the brick structures and the

Citadel of Harappan culture, if we move

towards the later ages we will be able to

find out different examples of the art and

architecture of the historical period of

India.

The pillar with the animal figures of Ashoka

and the Sanchi Stupa, the oldest stupa

were some of the examples of cultural

practices of the Mauryan period. The site at Harappa : evidence of Town Planning

Kushan ruler Kanishka was a great patron of
Gandhara school of art. The images of Buddha and Bodhisattava in black stone
resembling the Greek sculpture were the most important contribution of Gandhara
school of art.

Kanishka also gave patronage to Mathura School of Art.

Buddha image of Bamiyan Site (now in Afghanistan) belonged to Gupta Period.
Samudragupta is represented on his coin playing the Veena was another example of
the art of Gupta Period.

Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman founded the town of Mamalapuram (Mahabalipuram)
which he adorned with beautiful rock-cut Raths or Seven Pagodas.

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Rock-cut Buildings:

Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid
natural rock.

The buildings were made based on the
same style.
There are more than 1,500 known rock cut
structures in India.
The cave temple of Ajanta Ellora Elephanta,
the Raths of Mahabalipuram, Kailash
temple of Ellora, Aihole and the Chalukyan
temple city were some of the best examples of the rock-cut buildings or architecture.

The structural Temples:

Besides applying the rock-cut architecture
in temple making, a new type of temples
i.e., structural Temples emerged. In the
Gupta Period the first temple was
established in Deogarh.
Temples with Vimana and Shikhara at the roof-top were the style of making structural

temples of the Pallavas and they built
'shore temple' at Mahabalipuram based on
this style.
The Pandya rulers of the South made
gopurams, a high wall barrier around the
temples.
Both the styles of rock-cut and structural
building were followed by the Chalukyans.

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Paintings:

As discussed earlier that the people used to
draw pictures on the walls of caves, seals
and surfaces of different natural structures.
They used to paint on earthen pots. The
paintings on the walls of Ajanta caves are
the oldest painting examples.
The main topics of their paintings were
animals, Gods, battles, dancing etc.

Vedic Literature

Vedas: Vedas are also known as Shruti (to hear) - as the contents of the Vedas were

passed down from generation to generation only through memorization and verbal
transmission. There are four Vedas, viz. Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva
Veda. Vedas contain only knowledge for mankind.

Upanishads: There are 108 Upanishads. These are also called Vedanta as these are

the last phase of the Vedic period and these reveal the final aim of the Vedas. The
various theories of creation of the Universe and explanation of karma (doctrine of
action) have been discussed here. They also condemn the ceremonial sacrifices.

Vedangas: Vedangas, a type of literature, are of six kinds, viz.

1. Shiksha that deals with pronunciation;

2. Kalpa that deals with rituals;

3. Vayakarana that deals with grammar;

4. Nirukta that deals with etymology;

5. Chhanda that deals with meter;

6. Jyotisha that deals with Astronomy.

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The Epics:

The Mahabharata, The Ramayana and The Bhagavad Gita are the major epics of India.
Sage Vyasa is considered to be the original author of the Mahabharata, and it was
written by a number of writers and poets during the period of 500 B.C --300 B.C.
The Bhagavad Gita is a part of the Mahabharata.
The Ramayana attributed to the poet Valmiki and it was written in about 1st century
A.D.
All these epics were written with a view to discussing about morality and spiritual
thinking that would help the human beings in their way of life.

Buddhist literature:

All the teachings of Buddha were written in Tripitakas (means threefold basket) which
is the Scriptures of Buddhism. It was written in Pali language.
The Tripitakas contains:
1. Vinaya Pitaka -- Rules of discipline in Buddha monasteries;
2. Sutta Pitaka -- It is the largest Pitaka. It contains collection of Buddha's Sermons.
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka -- It contains the explanation of philosophical principles of

Buddhist religion.
The doctrine of Buddhism got spread over not only in India but also abroad. Great
emperors Ashoka and Kanishka played a important roles in spreading Buddhism across
the world. Milindapanha written by Nagsena is another important Buddhist work.

Jain Literature:

The Jain scriptures are divided into several
sections like Puravas, Angas and Upangas
and these were composed by the disciples
of Mahavira. All that Mahavira preached
was orally transmitted from the teachers to

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his disciples by generation after generation. The several texts composed by the
disciples of Mahavira are called Sutras.

Besides these, Sangam literature and the books written in Dravidian languages in the
historical period were of great value. The accounts of the visitors and the poets of the
Courts of the Kings are the important sources of information.

Kautilya's Arthashastra and Kalhana's Rajtarangini of Mauryan Dynasty and
Raghuvamsham, Abhijnana Sakuntalam, Meghdootam of Kalidasa, Mricchakatika by
Shudraka, Ratnaboli by Harshavardhana and Buddhacharita by Ashvaghosha of the
Gupta Period are some of the remarkable collections of all times.

Science:

People have been developing themselves in
the field of science and technology from
the early age. Books of Sushruta (Sushruta
Samhita) and Charaka (Charaka Samhita)
on medicinal plants and medical practices
are the examples of development of
biological science.

In the field of Astronomy, people started to work from the very early Age. At first the
Sun, the Moon and the other Planets were worshipped by them as God. Gradually they
understood about the planets and their functions.

The notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero were the great
achievements in the field of mathematics.

The people in the early Age also learnt to extract the important metals (e.g. iron,
copper, gold, silver etc.) from its ores.

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 The People of the ancient India knew the usage of dyes. They
used dyes in colouring different articles like earthen pots and
clothes.

 The pillar with the animal figures of Ashoka and the
Sanchi Stupa, the oldest stupa were some of the
examples of cultural practices of Mauryan periods.

 Kushan ruler Kanishka was the great patron of Gandhara
School of Art. The images of Buddha and Bodhisattavas in
black stone resembling the Greek sculpture were the most
important contribution of Gandhara School of Art.
Kanishka also gave patronage to Mathura School of Art.

 Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman founded the town of
Mamalapuram (Mahabalipuram) which he adorned with
beautiful rock-cut Raths or Seven Pagodas.

 The cave temple of Ajanta Ellora Elephanta, the Raths of
Mahabalipuram, Kailash temple of Ellora, Aihole and the
Chalukyan temple city were some of the best examples of
the rock-cut buildings or architecture.

 Temples with Vimana and Shikhara at the roof-top were the
style of making structural temples of the Pallavas and they
built 'shore temple' at Mahabalipuram based on this style.

 Books of Sushruta (Sushruta Samhita) and Charaka (Charaka
Samhita) on medicinal plants and medical practices are the
examples of development of medicine and biological science.

 The notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero
were the great achievements in the field of mathematics.

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 Gopurams - The Pandya rulers of the South made gopurams, a high
wall barrier around the temples.

 Tripitakas - All the teachings of Buddha were written in Tripitakas
(means threefold basket) which is the Scriptures of Buddhism. It
was written in Pali language.

 Astronomy - This is a branch of science which deals with celestial objects
like star, planet, moon etc, space, and the physical universe as a
whole.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Who was the great patron of Gandhara School of Art?

2. Who gave patronage to Mathura School of Art?

3. Who founded the town of Mamalapuram?

4. Who wrote the Mahabharata?

5. Who wrote the Milindapanha?

6. Who wrote the Rajtarangini?

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The images of Buddha and Bodhisattavas in black stone resembling the Greek

sculpture were the most important contribution of .

2. Buddhacharita was written by .

3. The Jain scriptures are divided into several sections like , and .

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4. and played a great role in spreading Buddhism across
the world.

5. The Bhagavad is a part of the .

6. The ______________ and the ______________ dynasty is famous for their unique
Temple Architecture.

7. High walls built around temples were called ________________.

8. The Upanishadas are also known as ___________________.

9. Ajanta and Ellora are _________________ structures.

10. Mricchakatika was written by ________________ .

C. Write whether the following statements are true or false.

1. In the Gupta Period the first temple was established in Deogarh.

2. The Pandya rulers of the North made gopurams.

3. The Ramayana attributed to the sage Vyasa.

4. The Tripitakas were written in Pali language.

5. Arthashastra was written by Chanakya.

D. Write down the answers in brief.

1. Discuss briefly about the Art and architecture of the ancient India.

2. Write short notes on the Vedic Literature, Buddhist literature, Jain Literature.

3. Write a short note on Jain scriptures and Mahavira’s teachings.

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UNIT-II : Geography

We can see the thousands of twinkling objects in the sky of the night. Some of them
twinkle very rapidly. They are the stars. The Sun is also a star that we find in the
daytime. Some of them appear to be calm but bright. These may be the planets. The
Earth is also a planet.

The Universe:

The Universe consisting of millions of Galaxies is infinite in volume and size. A galaxy is
a huge congregation of stars held together by the
forces of gravity.

The Sun, The Moon, The Earth, all the other
Planets, Satellites, Asteroids, Comets and Meteors
are all the parts of the Universe.

Our Solar system is located in the Milky Way
Galaxy (or Akashganga). It is spiral in shape. It
consists of more than 100 billion stars rotating and revolving about its centre. The
nearest galaxy to ours is Andromeda.

The Big Bang Theory:

Among many theories on the creation of the Universe, the Big Bang Theory is the most
accepted one. According to this theory the cosmic matter (the Universe) was in an
extremely compressed state. Due to a sudden big explosion the super dense-ball
fragmented into many tiny particles and scattered throughout the space. All these
particles started revolving and rotating around each other due to gravity.

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The Solar System:

The Solar System is constituted with the Sun, eight Planets (previously nine as the Pluto
was excluded as dwarf planet) with their Satellites, Asteroids and Comets. The Sun is
at the centre of the solar system.

The Sun:

The Sun, the head of the solar family or the
solar system, is a star.
The Earth and the other planets revolve
round the Sun because of its gravitational
pull. The Sun is made up of Hydrogen and
Helium.
The surface temperature of the Sun is about 6000 °C while at the centre it is

1,50,00,000 °C.
The star nearest to the Earth is the sun and
that is why it appears to be larger and
brighter.
The distance between the Earth and the
Sun is 15,00,00,000 km.
The light travels at a great speed of about
3,00,000 kilometers per second and still takes about 8 minutes to reach us from the
Sun.
The diameter of the Sun is about 109 times of the diameter of the Earth.

The Stars:

There are billions and billions of stars in the sky but only a little number of stars (about
2000 stars) can be seen with the naked eye on a clear moonless night.
Stars are very big in size. They appear small because of the very long distance.

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Stars are the extremely hot heavenly bodies (like the Sun) with huge mass of hot
gases and have light of their own. Stars are
made up of vast clouds of hydrogen gas,
some helium and dust.

The Pole Star (or North star) lies
immediately above the North Pole of the
Earth. The Indian name of Pole Star is a
Dhruva Tara. Unlike other stars, Pole Star
appears to be stationary in the sky and
does not change its position at all. It helps
to indicate the north direction during the
night.

A group of stars is called a Constellation. Stars in the constellation are connected by
imaginary lines to form different shapes. e.g., Ursa Major or the Great Bear of North
sky.

The Planets:

Planets are the heavenly bodies that move around the Sun. Planets do not have own
light and they receive light from the Sun.

There are 8 Planets in the solar system. Viz. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are made up of solid material while the others are
made up of gaseous materials.

Mercury is the nearest planet and Neptune is the farthest planet to the Sun.
Earth takes approximately 365 days for its one revolution around the Sun. The time of
one revolution for Mercury is 58.68 days. As for Venus and Mars it is 224.7 and 687
days respectively.

Most of the planets have one or more satellites which revolve round the planets.

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Earth has one satellite. Moon is the only satellite of the Earth.

The Earth: Our Unique Planet

The Earth is the fifth largest planet among the eight planets of the solar system. It is
the third nearest planet to the Sun too. The presence of life in the Earth gives it a
unique feature. It is also known as Blue Planet as it appears blue from the satellite due
to presence of water in 2/3rd area of the Earth.
The Life supporting factors of the Earth are:
1. Presence of Water
2. The Atmosphere of the Earth is suitable for the

living beings.
3. The temperature of the Earth is also suitable for supporting the life forms.
Earth completes one rotation on its own axis in 24 hours.
Earth completes one revolution around the Sun in 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and 45
seconds.
There is a term Oblate Spheroid is used to describe the actual shape of the Earth. The
term "Oblate" means a little oblong appearance and the term "Spheroid" means
almost a sphere but not a perfect sphere. The diameter of the Earth from its North Pole
to its South Pole is approximately 12,714 km (the shortest diameter) while its
equatorial diameter is approximately 12,756 km (the longest diameter). The
difference between the two is not so big, but it does not make the Earth a sphere in
true sense.
The Moon is the Earth’s only one natural satellite.

Satellites:

The heavenly bodies that revolve around their respective planets are called Satellites.
Like the planets, satellites also reflect light which they receive from the Sun. Each
planet may have one or more satellite. The Earth has one satellite i.e., the Moon while

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Mars has two satellites and the Jupiter 63 satellites.

The Moon:

The moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite.

1. As the Earth moves round the Sun, the Moon revolves round the Earth.
2. The moon has no light of its own. It reflects light which it receives from the Sun.
3. It is the nearest to the Earth (only 384,400 kilometers away). That is why it looks big

to us.
4. The Moon spins on its axis almost exactly in the time it takes to journey around the

Earth, i.e. eastward in 27.3 days. So the same side of the Moon always faces the
Earth.
5. The tides seen on the oceans of the Earth are the result of the gravitational pull of
the Moon.

Phases of the Moon:

When the moon comes between the Earth and
the Sun, it becomes invisible for its face turned
towards the Earth remains in darkness while
the hidden side receives sunlight. This time is
known as “New Moon”. A few days later, when
the Moon advances along its orbit and the Sun
begins to light up the side turned towards the
Earth a thin crescent moon is seen in the
western sky. As the sunlight advances across the Moon’s disc the crescent grows larger
and in some days the whole disc becomes visible. This time is known as “Full Moon”.
After the “Full Moon” the Moon gets
smaller and smaller till it becomes invisible
once again. The Moon takes 29 ½ days, a
lunar month to go through these phases,
or changes of shape.

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Asteroids:

The asteroids are the tiny fragments of matter, much smaller than planets. These go
round the Sun. Generally the asteroids are found between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter. Asteroids were created due to the explosion of a planet millions of years ago.

Meteors:

Asteroids collide with each other and form tiny fragments. Some of the fragments
enter into the Earth’s atmosphere are called Meteors. Meteors shower can be seen
when several Meteors fall together in a short period of time. Sometimes any large
Meteor falls on the Earth’s surface and creates crater which is called meteorite.

Comets:

Comets are heavenly bodies with a head and long tail and
made up of dust and frozen ice. It appears in the sky after
a long period of time. Halley’s Comet appears in the sky
after every 76 years.

A huge crater formed by a meteorite impact

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 Neil Armstrong was the first human being who stepped on the
surface of the moon on 29th July 1969.

 Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma was the first Indian who went
into the space.

 The Universe consists of millions of Galaxies is infinite in
volume and size. A galaxy is a huge congregation of stars
held together by the forces of gravity.
The Sun, The Moon, The Earth, all the other Planets,
Satellites, Asteroids, Comets and Meteors are all the parts of
the Universe.

 According to the Big Bang Theory, the cosmic matter (the
Universe) was in an extremely compressed state. Due to a
sudden big explosion the super dense-ball fragmented into
many tiny particles and scattered throughout the space. All
these particles started revolving and rotating around each
other due to gravity.
The 'Solar System' is constituted with the Sun, eight Planets
(previously nine as the Pluto was excluded as dwarf planet)
with their Satellites, Asteroids and Comets. The Sun is at the
centre of the Solar System.

 The Sun, the head of the solar family or the solar system, is a
star. The Earth and the other planets revolve round the Sun
because of its gravitational pull.

 Stars are the extremely hot heavenly bodies (like the Sun)
with huge mass of hot gases and have light of their own. Stars
are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen gas, some helium and
dust.

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