BICENTENNIAL
SCIENTIFIC
JOURNAL
BICENTENNIAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL
AUTOR:
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DEL ALTIPLANO
ESCUELA DE POSGRADO
Av. Floral 1153, Puno.
Editor – Director: Dr. Mario Silva Dueñas
Comité editorial:
- JAVIER BELTRÁN MAMANI LARICO
- ORLANDO FRANK CAMACHO ESPINOZA
- SANDRA ALINA PALLI QUISPE
Equipo de redacción: • ARCAYA HUACASI, MIGUEL
• PALLI QUISPE, SANDRA ALINA
• DUEÑAS VILLAFUERTE, KARINA • ARO HUANACUNI, YESSICA
• MAMANI MAMANI, ADRIAN RAMON • MAMANI ARRAYA, DAVID EDISON
• MAQUERA LUPACA, CARLOS AMIDEY • JUAREZ MACHACA, EDWIN
• QUISPE SANDOVAL, CARLOS DANIEL • FERREL CHUMPE, LONNY
• BELTRAN SARAYA, ELIZABETH IRENE • HUARGAYA QUISPE, SANDRA IMELDA
• MOCHICA MAMANI, ELMER • HUANCA DURAN, EFRAIN
• MAMANI LARICO, JAVIER BELTRÁN • SUCARI RAMOS, NOEMI
• SANCHEZ GARCIA, JOSEPH JULIANO • MAMANI GUTIÉRREZ, MERCEDES
• MAMANI CANAZA, SIMON ORLANDO • RAMOS QUISPE, WASHINGTON JOEL
• HUAYCANI MAMANI, YOVANA YANET • MARAZA VILCANQUI, NAIN
• QUISPE HUANCA, LUZ MILANIA • QUINTEROS ARENAS, AMY ROSWET
• CAMACHO ESPINOZA, ORLANDO FRANK • DIAZ FLORES, LUDY STEEF
• INGALUQUE RODRIGUEZ, KARINA • LIMA KACHA, FERBER CANCIO
AMANDA
• YUCRA LAURA, HEBER
1a Edición noviembre de 2021
Tiraje: 100 ejemplares
Hecho el depósito legal en la Biblioteca Nacional del Perú Nº 2021-13307
Se terminó de imprimir en noviembre de 2021 en:
LUCERO IMPRESIONES
RUC 10411509015
De Antonia Ccama Quispe
Av. Floral Nº 1025 – Puno
Cel. 921 431042
La información contenida en este documento puede ser reproducida total o parcialmente, mencionando los crédi-
tos y las fuentes de origen respectivas.
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DEL ALTIPLANO
ESCUELA DE POSGRADO
AUTORIDADES UNIVERSITARIAS
RECTOR:
Dr. Paulino Machaca Ari
Vicerrector Académico:
Dr. Mario Serafin Cuentas Alvarado
Vicerrector de Investigación:
Dr. Ariel Rogelio Velazco Cárdenas
AUTORIDADES DE LA ESCUELA DE POSGRADO
DIRECTOR DE LA ESCUELA DE POSGRADO
Dr. Vladimiro Ibañez Quispe
COORDINADOR DEL PROGRAMA DE IDIOMAS
Dr. Renzo Favianni Valdivia Terrazas
EQUIPO DE REDACCIÓN:
Dueñas Villafuerte, Karina Palli Quispe, Sandra Alina
Mamani Mamani, Adrian Ramon Aro Huanacuni, Yessica
Maquera Lupaca, Carlos Amidey Mamani Arraya, David Edison
Quispe Sandoval, Carlos Daniel Juarez Machaca, Edwin
Beltran Saraya, Elizabeth Irene Ferrel Chumpe, Lonny
Mochica Mamani, Elmer Huargaya Quispe, Sandra Imelda
Mamani Larico, Javier Beltrán Huanca Duran, Efrain
Sanchez Garcia, Joseph Juliano Sucari Ramos, Noemi
Mamani Canaza, Simon Orlando Mamani Gutiérrez, Mercedes
Huaycani Mamani, Yovana Yanet Ramos Quispe, Washington Joel
Quispe Huanca, Luz Milania Maraza Vilcanqui, Nain
Camacho Espinoza, Orlando Frank Quinteros Arenas, Amy Roswet
Ingaluque Rodriguez, Karina Amanda Diaz Flores, Ludy Steef
Yucra Laura, Heber Lima Kacha, Ferber Cancio
Arcaya Huacasi, Miguel
INDEX OF CONTENT
1. THE PRINCIPLE OF TRUST IN CRIMINAL LAW ...................................... 11
Dueñas Villafuerte, Karina
2. CAUSES OF DELAYS IN THE EXECUTION OF PUBLIC ROAD
INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS............................................................... 19
Mamani Mamani, Adrian Ramon
3. JORGE BASADRE GROHMANN'S EDUCATION WITH SOCIAL
INCLUSION AND DEMOCRATIC APPROACH.......................................... 31
Maquera Lupaca, Carlos Amidey
4. UNIVERSITY HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY .. 43
Quispe Sandoval, Carlos Daniel
5. SUSTAINABLE URBAN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS (SUDS): AN
ALTERNATIVE FOR THE RAINWATER MANAGEMENT ......................... 55
Beltran Saraya, Elizabeth Irene
6. THE EFFICIENCY OF RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE MEETING OF
GOALS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORKS BY DIRECT
ADMINISTRATION IN THE REGION OF PUNO........................................ 67
Mochica Mamani, Elmer
7. NEOLIBERALISM AND COVID - 19 AND EFFECTS ON MUNICIPAL
GOVERNMENTS........................................................................................ 77
Mamani Larico, Javier Beltrán
8. ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE
PROCEDURE OF CLAIM IN FÚNCIÓN TO THE RELATIONSHIP OF
CONSUMPTION......................................................................................... 85
Sanchez Garcia, Joseph Juliano
9. NETWORK MONITORING SYSTEM BASED ON THE SNMP PROTOCOL
FOR THE INFORMATIC AREA OF THE PUBLIC MINISTRY - PUBLIC
PROSECUTOR'S OFFICE PUNO 2015..................................................... 93
Mamani Canaza, Simon Orlando
10. BENEFITS OF THE LEAN CONSTRUCTION PHILOSOPHY IN THE
CONSTRUCTION SECTOR..................................................................... 107
Huaycani Mamani, Yovana Yanet
5
11. PROGRESS IN THE RECOVERY OF HISTORICAL MEMORY IN PERU,
AFTER THE INTERNAL ARMED CONFLICT.......................................... 121
Quispe Huanca, Luz Milania
12. TOWARDS THE CONSTRUCTION OF PHILOSOPHICAL AND LEGAL
BASES TO FOUND AND REFUND THE ANDEAN CONSTITUTIONALISM
AS A NEW SCHOOL OF LAW ................................................................. 133
Camacho Espinoza, Orlando Frank
13. URBAN PLANNING AS AN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT TOOL IN
PERU ....................................................................................................... 147
Ingaluque Rodriguez, Karina Amanda
14. THE IMPORTANCE OF STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION IN
WAREHOUSE MANAGEMENT IN LOCAL EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT UNITS OF THE PUNO REGION ................................... 161
Yucra Laura, Heber
15. IMPACT FACTORS OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC APPLICABLE IN THE
CONSTRUCTION SECTOR IN THE PUNO REGION IN 2020............... 171
Arcaya Huacasi, Miguel
16. INFLUENCE OF THE DANCES OF THE PUNO REGION ON THE
STRESS LEVEL OF THE WORKERS OF THE PISCIFACTORIAS OF
THE ANDES COMPANY IN TIMES OF COVID-19.................................. 183
Palli Quispe, Sandra Alina
17. EFFECTS OF THE MINIMUM LIVING WAGE ON THE LABOR MARKET
IN PERU................................................................................................... 191
Aro Huanacuni, Yessica
18. IMPACT OF THE LAVAJATO CASE (ODEBRECHT - PERU) ON THE
PRODUCTIVITY AND SERVICE LEVEL OF THE ROAD MANAGEMENT
AND CONSERVATION PROJECT BY SERVICE LEVELS OF THE ROAD
CORRIDOR PE-34H, PE-34I, PE-34V ..................................................... 203
Mamani Arraya, David Edison
19. REMOVAL OF THE ORGANIC AND PATHOGENIC LOAD FROM
DOMESTIC WASTEWATER IN THE FILTERS PERCOLATOR IN ZONE
MOUNTAIN BROW – SANDIA 2019........................................................ 213
Juarez Machaca, Edwin
6
20. THE PRINCIPLE OF OPPORTUNITY IN THE CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
CODE ....................................................................................................... 225
Ferrel Chumpe, Lonny
21. APPRECIATION OF EXTINCT DANCES OF THE DISTRICT OF
PUCARÁ................................................................................................... 235
Huargaya Quispe, Sandra Imelda
22. MUSICAL TEACHING PROCESS IN INSTRUMENTAL TECHNIQUE
WORKSHOPS .......................................................................................... 245
Huanca Duran, Efrain
23. IMPACT ON THE QUALITY OF LIFE RELATED TO ORAL HEALTH
ACCORDING TO THE SELF-PERCEPTION OF ADOLESCENTS FROM
STATE SCHOOLS IN THE CITY OF JULIACA, 2021 .............................. 255
Sucari Ramos, Noemi
24. THE PRESCRIPTION AND ITS IMPACT ON THE COLLECTION OF TAX
INCOME IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF SAN ROMAM JULIACA PERIOD
2019.......................................................................................................... 269
Mamani Gutiérrez, Mercedes
25. ANALYSIS OF THE DETERMINANTS OF THE TRADE BALANCE IN
PERÚ 2001-2018...................................................................................... 277
Ramos Quispe, Washington Joel
26. PERCEPTION OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE IN TEACHERS
AND ADMINISTRATIVES AT THE PRIMARY LEVEL............................. 287
Maraza Vilcanqui, Nain
27. PROPOSAL FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE WASTE OF ELECTRICAL
AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT IN CATEGORY III, IN THE UNIVERSITY
CITY OF THE ANDEAN UNIVERSITY NÉSTOR CÁCERES VELÁSQUEZ
.................................................................................................................. 299
Quinteros Arenas, Amy Roswet
28. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BALANCED SCORECARD AT
THE ANTONIO RAIMONDI INSTITUTION IN THE PROVINCE OF EL
COLLAO – 2019 ....................................................................................... 311
Diaz Flores, Ludy Steef
7
29. CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE COMPOST
(MSWC) FROM SELECTED CITIES A CASE STUDY FROM INDIA FOR
SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION.................................................................. 321
Lima Kacha, Ferber Cancio
8
PRESENTATION
he Language Program in the Post-Grade School of the National
University of the Altiplano, contributes to the teaching and up-
dating of the English language, in order to promote the
publication of scientific research works carried out by graduate students.
on different areas of knowledge applied to the reality of the region. Social,
environmental and economic conflicts begin to appear with emphasis in
this century. Therefore, research is needed to help solve these problems.
The participants in the course have committed themselves to actions that
lead to contribute knowledge to science and bet on an integrated approach
to address social, economic and environmental areas. The papers re-
searched in this book develop general topics that need knowledge,
including topics on environment, medicine, social responsibility, culture
and agriculture, which offers a holistic theoretical framework and its ap-
plication to recommend changes in institutional policies, social and
environmental benefits for our country. Finally, the text is the result of a
continuous research process undertaken by an interdisciplinary team of
professionals from different areas of the Puno region, who contribute their
scientific work in various areas of human knowledge.
Dr. Mario Silva Dueñas
English Teacher
9
THE PRINCIPLE OF TRUST IN CRIMINAL LAW
Dueñas Villafuerte, Karina
ABSTRACT
In Criminal Law you can find a series of important principles for its application,
among them is the principle of trust. This principle is used to establish the re-
sponsibility of people in those crimes that present several stages in their execution
and basically maintains that, if the required duty of care has been followed, it can
be expected that others will also do so, since there are no reasons to assume oth-
erwise.
Keywords: Duty of care, imputation, principle, principle of trust, responsibility.
INTRODUCTION
In order to properly apply the criminal laws, it is necessary to delimit the areas of
competence of the various intervening parties in the crime, especially in those
cases in which there are various stages.
Villavicencio (2007), points out that Peruvian criminal law has been under-
going an interesting evolution in terms of criminal imputation criteria, therefore,
in this work, we proceed to review some of these trends linked to objective im-
putation, starting from the known causality as a presupposition of this imputation
and then introduce ourselves into the specific problem of the lines that the na-
tional doctrine and jurisprudence have been accepting.
Bacigalupo (1998) in principle, the idea that human behavior causes a result
and that the result that comes from it will have legal-criminal significance, is what
guides the determination of causality. To classify a conduct to a legal type, it is
necessary to check the relationship between this conduct and the typical result,
thereby confirming that one is the realization of the other, that is, that there is a
sufficient relationship between them.
11
Karina Dueñas Villafuerte
De La Cuesta (1996) only in a few infractions does this problem arise, mainly
in homicides, injuries, fires. Therefore, the role of causality should not be over-
estimated. Thus, once the causal relationship between the action and the typical
result has been verified, the second step will consist of attributing the result to
said action. As we can see, the first step consists of a verification, where the
causal relationship will be verified, from a natural point of view; the second step
will be to verify a legal link between the action and the result. This second aspect
is nothing more than "the normative judgment of the objective imputation", in
relation to crimes of result.
Hurtado (2005) Previously, causality was raised as a problem outside the
scope of type theory. Peruvian authors systematically located causality as an ele-
ment of action, but at present, the identification of the causal relationship as a
presupposition of the objective type is dominant. criminal types in their entirety,
which means that the causal capacity of man's acts has also been considered, and
therefore not just any "causation" of a result is typical, but only the "causations"
that form an "inseparable" part of unfair behavior » (Quintero 2000).
Feijoo (2009) The principle of trust is based on the fact that other subjects are
also responsible and can be trusted, in a lawful behavior on the part of said sub-
jects.
In other words, the principle of trust holds that, if there are no reasons to
suppose that others will act contrary to the law, it does not have to be assumed
otherwise as long as one respects and follows the same rules.
Thus, we have that in the Supreme Execution, relapse in Appeal for Nullity
1446-2006 Ica, of July 19, two thousand and seven, it was established that:
Villa (2009) “That, in relation to the defendant Guerrero Tejada, this Colle-
giate considers that it is not proven that in his actions in the commission that he
integrated he has been little diligent, but that it was developed within the param-
eters of the principle of trust, that it exempts him from legal or objective
imputation due to the dissolution of the dangerous activity or due to the disap-
pearance of the overcoming of the permitted risk —by virtue of which the normal
man expects others to act in accordance with the legal mandates, within his com-
petence ".
As can be seen, through said resolution it was revealed that the person acted
correctly within the scope of their competence and, therefore, no responsibility
can be attributed to them.
Likewise, in the Appeal for Nullity No. 1666-2006 Arequipa, dated July 25,
two thousand and seven, it referred to:
12
THE PRINCIPLE OF TRUST IN CRIMINAL LAW
"That, in proceedings it has been proven that the aforementioned purchase
order number zero zero six hundred and eighty-seven was not prepared by the
aforementioned defendant, since this document had already been prepared by the
procurement, supply and administrative support areas, as stated It verifies in the
signature and consigned stamps, then it goes to the warehouse where the defend-
ant signs confirming the receipt of the merchandise, it continues its journey to
logistics to end up in the accounting department where the respective check is
drawn.
This chain of activities, in which each body is responsible for the functional
segment that is attributed to it, generates, according to the objective imputation
criterion, the principle of trust, by which each person responds for their own acts
and roles and trusts that the other bodies duly perform the function of their com-
petence.
In this sense, the defendant cannot be accused of having prepared a false doc-
ument (purchase order), since this function is not within the scope of its
competence, limiting itself to endorsing the document already prepared for the
purpose of entering the merchandise. to the warehouse, so the acquittal is ar-
ranged by law”.
In this case, the principle of trust is applied inasmuch as the person acted in
compliance with his functions, and did so diligently, not being responsible for
subsequent actions that he could not control because they were outside his com-
petence but that constituted the crime subject to the resolution.
THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT
THE TRUST PRINCIPLE
The principle of trust, explains the German teacher Jakobs (1997), means that
it is authorized or accepted that the person trusts the correct behavior of others
within the development of a socially accepted risky activity, which is carried out
in a collective or organized way.
Jakobs, after highlighting that the person lives in society through roles, af-
firms that the objective imputation, specifically the principle of trust, is nothing
but the verification of who is the guarantor, not everything concerns everyone,
but the guarantor concerns what results from the bankruptcy of your collateral;
and this applies to both commission and omission. For the teacher, the principle
of trust “grants freedom of action despite the danger of a negative outcome, since
another person has to respond to this danger. The principle of trust enables the
division of labor through a division of responsibilities”.
13
Karina Dueñas Villafuerte
The German teacher Claus Roxin (1997), establishes the application of the
principle of trust to those socially admitted risky activities that are governed by
the rule of the division of labor.
Panta (2016), the Trust Principle is understood as the activity carried out by
a person or persons, who respect the necessary duty of care, trusting that others
will behave prudently, as long as there are no reasons to think otherwise. That is,
if the person has duly respected and acted prudently, it is reasonable, based on
the principle of trust, that others will do the same because there are no reasons
that lead them to behave differently.
This principle is very interesting to apply in our current societies, since it
assumes that when the subject acts confident that others will act within the limits
of the permitted risk, the conduct cannot be criminally charged. Thus, if, for ex-
ample, the driver who respects motor vehicle traffic signs expects others to do so
as well and if someone crosses the road at‚ “red light” and an accident occurs
with injuries to people, they will not be affected. chargeable. This principle is
required only if the trusting subject has to answer for the causal course itself, even
if another leads him to harm through faulty behavior. We believe that this princi-
ple of trust is not only limited to the duty of care proper to reckless crimes, as it
is also possible in malicious crimes. In Peruvian jurisprudence, this principle is
applied in the case of the carrier using a false property card: “the defendant acted
according to the principle of trust, a filter of the objective imputation that ex-
cludes any responsibility or typical attribution of a crime, since it implies a
limitation to predictability, requiring, as a presupposition, a proper conduct in law
and that it does not have to count on the fact that its conduct may produce a typical
result due to the legal behavior of another. This filter allows society to trust that
third parties will act correctly, therefore, we are not obliged to carefully review
their actions, since this would generate a decrease in economic transactions and
the development of society. The defendant has limited himself to developing his
conduct in accordance with the parameters of his role as freight forwarder driver,
there was in him the normative expectation that his employer had correctly pro-
cessed the false property cards; consequently, the crime of improper documentary
falsification cannot be objectively imputed to the defendant, even more so, if it
has not been proven that the defendant had knowledge of the falsification of the
property cards, which would lead to the inapplication of the aforementioned filter
".
A division of labor is necessary so that “the participants do not have to control
all the possibilities of influence, but only determined ones, and these only with
undivided attention”. This being the case, the possibility of allowed trust would
decline, for example, when the competent person lacks knowledge of the rules or
the ability to follow them, or when it is the function of a participant to compensate
14
THE PRINCIPLE OF TRUST IN CRIMINAL LAW
for the faulty behavior of others. It has practical importance in the face of constant
anonymous contacts, where the consequences of our actions depend on people
we do not know and on dangerous activities or jobs that are based on a distribu-
tion of functions for social benefit. "The principle of trust not only enables
anonymous contacts, but also allows the organization of a common task without
it being impeded by the fear of being answered for faulty acts of others."
FORMS OF MANIFESTATION OF THE TRUST PRINCIPLE
García (2007), the principle of trust can be manifested in the following ways:
FULFILLMENT OF DUTIES
In this first case, the action of the person does not produce any effect if the
person or persons acting next fulfill the duties provided for them or perform cor-
rectly.
In other words, it will not be possible to impute responsibility to the person
who acted following the rules that had to be respected and it was verified that the
action that originated the crime or punishable conduct was carried out by the per-
son who had to act next and did not do it properly. The impossibility of
controlling a situation that is not in the scope of one's own function is verified.
It is understood that the first-person acts trusting that whoever succeeds him
in the line of activities will do so appropriately because there are no reasons to
think otherwise (for example, because he is a person specialized for this purpose).
PREPARATION
Likewise, the principle of trust is manifested when the person acts relying on
the instructions or prior preparation established by a third party.
In this case, there is a regulation or prior preparation that must be followed
because it is trusted that it was done properly and therefore is correct.
As a consequence of this, the person who follows or who acts within the
framework of said preparation, cannot be held responsible, for having acted
within the framework of a previous preparation that he believed to be correct.
LIMITS
Benavente (2012) within the framework of application of the principle of
trust, there are special circumstances that limit said principle, which can be clas-
sified into three:
15
Karina Dueñas Villafuerte
• When the other person does not have the capacity to be responsible or to be
exempted from their responsibility. This can occur due to lack of preparation
(for example, training or studies required to carry out certain activities).
• When the mission of one of the intervening parties consists of compensating
the failures that eventually another commits. In this situation, the person
whose function was to correct errors or detect them in order to solve them and
avoid their consequences, in this case of a criminal nature, cannot be exempted
from responsibility.
• When it is evident a behavior that defrauds the expectations on the part of one
of the intervening parties. As noted above, provided there is no reason to think
otherwise, third parties can be relied upon to act with due diligence. However,
if the existence of evident circumstances is verified from which the existence
of a risk or the possibility of committing a crime (being more specific) could
be established, the intervening party cannot be exempted from responsibility.
TRUST PRINCIPLE: IS IT OWNED BY THE GUILT OR THE DOLO?
The principle of trust is usually understood as a principle specific to negligent
crimes, however, it could also be applicable in cases of malicious crimes, specif-
ically when the agent acts with full knowledge of the risks that such action entails.
Panta (2016) This principle must govern both fraud and guilt, in the first case
to analyze fraudulent actions, but for its normative analysis, the Institute for the
Prohibition of Return must be applied. This is due to the fact that by means of the
principle of trust, it is not possible to extract the grounds to assess the authorship
and participation in a crime. A person can organize his own behavior in a respon-
sible way on the assumption that others will behave respecting the existing rules.
Therefore, this principle will be applicable to the existence of a plurality of people
who interact in an organized manner, and whose organization bears certain levels
of risk.
CONCLUSIONS
The principle of trust is violated by the existence of a danger that could have
been foreseen by the agent or, where appropriate, was noticed by the agent and
nevertheless decided to ignore it. The principle of trust is based on the impossi-
bility of controlling each one of the acts of third parties, since it is trusted that
they will act diligently as there are no reasons that allow to deduce otherwise or
that there is the risk of the commission of a fact classified as a crime in the Penal
Code.
16
THE PRINCIPLE OF TRUST IN CRIMINAL LAW
The principle of trust is manifested when a person has acted diligently and
can presume that others will do the same, because there is no obvious risk or
sufficient reasons that allow thinking otherwise. Likewise, the principle of trust
is manifested when a person has acted within the framework of a situation previ-
ously prepared by a third party. In this case, the person acts trusting that his
performance is correct. Establishing the scope of competence is essential for the
application of the principle of trust. Only in this way will it be possible to define
whether the person could have had control over the events that gave rise to the
commission of the crime. Although it is a classic institute of fault liability, the
principle of trust can also be applied in malicious crimes, when the person acts
aware of the existence of a risk.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
Bacigalupo (1998) Principios de derecho penal, parte general, 5ª edición Akal,
Madrid, p. 172. Cfr. Muñoz Conde/García Arán: Derecho penal, parte gene-
ral, 2ª edición, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia, p. 242.
Benavente, H (2012). La normativización del concepto de omisión y la aplicación
de los criterios de imputación objetiva: su intercambiabilidad con la acción
en Imputación Objetiva. IDEMSA, Lima.
Claus R. (1997). Derecho Penal. Parte General, Tomo I, Fundamentos. La Es-
tructura de la Teoría del Delito, Traducción de la 2º edición alemana, Páginas
362 a 365, Editorial CIVITAS, Madrid, España.
De La Cuesta A. (2002) Tipicidad e imputación objetiva, X, Tirant lo Blanch,
Valencia, 1996, p. 108; Muñoz Conde/García Arán, 1996, p.242; Velásquez
Velásquez: Manual de derecho penal. Parte general, Temis, Bogotá, p. 263.)
Feijoo, B. (2009) Imputación objetiva en el Derecho penal económico y empre-
sarial. Indret: Revista para el Análisis del Derecho. N° 2, 2009.
García, P (2007). Derecho Penal Económico Parte General. Segunda Edición.
Grijley, Lima.
Günther J (1997), Derecho Penal. Parte General. Fundamentos y Teoría de la
Imputación, 2º edición, pp. 223-226, Marcial Pons Ediciones Jurídicas S.A.,
Madrid, España.
Hurtado P. J (2005) Manual de derecho penal, Parte general 3ª edición, Lima, pp.
420 y ss.; Peña Cabrera: Tratado de derecho penal. Estudio programático de
la parte general, 3ª edición, Grijley, Lima, 1997, pp. 302 y ss.; Villa Stein:
Derecho penal. Parte general. Editorial San Marcos, Lima, 1998, pp. 218 y
ss.; Bramont–Arias Torres, L. M: Manual de derecho penal. Parte general.
17
Karina Dueñas Villafuerte
Editorial Santa Rosa, Lima, 2000, p. 133; Bramont Arias, L. A: Código penal
anotado, 4ª edición, Lima, 2001, p. 34.)
Panta C, D. (2016) Algunas observaciones al principio de confianza dentro de la
Teoría de Imputación objetiva: Problema de autonomía y repercusiones nor-
mativas. Fecha de consulta:
https://www.unifr.ch/ddp1/derechopenal/articulos/a_20080526_55.pdf
Quintero O (2000) Manual de derecho penal. Parte general. 2ª edición, Aranzadi,
Navarra, p. 319.)
Villa S, J. (2009) El funcionalismo en el Derecho Penal. Revista Oficial del Poder
Judicial, Año 3, Nº 5, p. 37
Villavicencio T., F (2007) Derecho penal, Parte general, Grijley, segunda reim-
presión, Lima, pp. 291 y ss).
18
CAUSES OF DELAYS IN THE EXECUTION OF PUBLIC
ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
Mamani Mamani, Adrian Ramon
ABSTRACT
One of the main priorities of developing countries is to invest in road infrastructure
works. The execution, commissioning and maintenance of these projects, within
their planned deadlines, are positive indicators, thus also generating economic
growth. During execution, many of the road projects suffer delays due to various
factors specific to each country, causing negative impacts directly on the cost and
time established postponing development goals. The continuous delays that have
been affecting road projects, make it necessary to identify, classify the causes and
factors that originate it, in this way propose strategies and actions to minimize
these impacts. The objective of this review is to publicize the main causes of the
delays that have been occurring in road infrastructure projects in the last ten years.
To explore the methodologies used by the authors, in the research carried out in
different parts of the world, of the causes of delays, their identification and classi-
fication by importance. Due to the diversity of the origin and degree of importance
of the causes of delays in the execution of public road infrastructure projects, it is
concluded that the sources of these causes and their incidence are different for each
country. Being a recurrent problem that affects public investments in the transport
sector in developing countries such as Peru, the implementation of the risk man-
agement methodology is proposed in order to achieve efficiency in public road
infrastructure projects.
Keywords: Causes of delays, risk management, road infrastructure.
INTRODUCTION
One of the characteristics of developing countries is that they have deficits in
terms of their road infrastructure, with governments allocating the largest percent-
age of their Gross Domestic Product to the transport sector; investments that in
turn will contribute to economic growth. These projects, due to their high costs,
time and number of activities, are also susceptible to variations, which become
evident during the execution stage. Obstacles and difficulties from different
19
Adrian Ramon Mamani Mamani
sources are frequent in road projects, resulting in cost overruns and time overruns.
The uncertainties associated with the execution of these projects may converge in
events or situations that cause delays or the appearance of restrictions. Being fre-
quent to find as causes of delays, deficiencies in the preparation of the technical
file, bad bidding process; due to regulatory, environmental, social, archaeological,
legal, economic or factors outside the contracting parties, etc. Road projects of the
rehabilitation and improvement type are necessary works to open up a better road.
They are also the ones that concentrate the greatest uncertainty as they impact new
areas with environmental or social implications due to the expectations and inter-
ests of various sectors in the area of influence or properties affectations.
In view of these frequent problems, which are reflected in cost overruns and
time overruns in public road infrastructure works, several authors have conducted
studies on the causes of delays, showing that these cases occur mainly in projects
in developing countries. The studies reviewed group the causes according to their
origin and their degree of impact on the projects, being different for each country.
Kamanga & Steyn (2013) studied seventy two causes of delays, grouped into
six categories related to consultants, clients, constructors, projects, resources, and
external; finding that in the road projects of the government of Malawi there are
ten main causes of delays. The first three being: fuel shortages, insufficient cash
flow / contractor difficulties, and shortage of foreign exchange for imports. Aziz
& Abdel-Hakam (2016) studied two hundred and ninety-three causes of delays,
grouped into fifteen factors, finding five main causes of delays in road construction
in Egypt. According to the ranking by their importance these were: owner's finan-
cial problems, equipment shortage, contractor's inadequate experience, material
shortage, and equipment failure. Amare et al. (2017) identified sixty five causes
of recurrent delays in road projects in Ethiopia. From the analysis of the survey to
the contractors, consultants and owners of the project; they found that the builder
is responsible for 40% of these causes, followed by the owner with 26.15%, the
consultant with 23.08% and jointly they are responsible for 10.77%. The four main
causes of delays were: poor financial control of the project, difficulties in project
financing by the contractor, type of tender and adjudication of the project (lowest
bid), as well as poor management of the work and supervision of the contractor. In
the research by Mejía et al. (2020) based on the review of fourteen papers, corre-
sponding in equal numbers to developing countries in Africa and Asia. They found
that critical causes of delays are associated with financing problems from the pub-
lic project owner. They proposed three groups of recommendations to address the
most influential delays, based on differentiated ranges of their Gross Domestic
Product and Global Competitiveness Index. To the first group, attention to issues
derived from financing and equipment / materials. To the second group, attention
to mitigating causes related to external influence, planning issues and capacity in
20
CAUSES OF DELAYS IN THE EXECUTION OF PUBLIC ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
contract management. To the last group mitigate causes related to change manage-
ment, design issues, site management, project characteristics and workforce/labor
issues.
In Latin America, problems stemming from delays in public road infrastructure
works are also recurrent. It is important to know the causes that generate these
delays in order to control and minimize the negative effects on project costs and
deadlines. According to Hernandez (2018) taking as a basis the study by Aziz &
Abdel-Hakam (2016) found that in the City of Villavicencio in Colombia the two
most important causes of delays are the construction control line permit and occu-
pational injuries. Moreno & Villa (2020) found that land acquisition and special
permits as well as materials are the two main causes of delays in the Colombian
Caribbean region.
In Peru, there are no specific papers on the causes of delays in public road
infrastructure works; however, it is common to find these problems in projects with
adverse consequences in terms of cost and time. According to Bonifaz &
Fasanando (2021), 75 % of the concessioned highway projects in Peru have pre-
sented time overruns. It is also frequent the occurrence of events or unmanageable
situations outside the parties to the contract, which cause delays and can lead to
stoppages during the execution of road projects, whether these are due to expro-
priation of land, social issues, climatic factors, etc. According to a publication of
the Comptroller General of the Republic (a) (2021), it reports that in Peru as of
December 31, 2020, 359 public works were paralyzed for a total contracted amount
of 7,434 million soles. Similarly, in another report of the Comptroller General of
the Republic (b) (2021), it finds that the causes of the paralyzed works were: breach
of contract (103 works), arbitration processes derived from controversies (20
works), lack of mandatory documents (5 works), weather conditions (5 works),
defective technical file (4 works), among others. According to the study by the
Comptroller General of the Republic (c) (2013) regarding the result of the arbitra-
tion processes followed to the public administration by the private investor, it
reveals that the State lost 70% of the total arbitrations in the period 2003-2013, and
52% of the arbitrations correspond to the execution of works. Also being the main
controversies for time extensions, general expenses and liquidation of work con-
tracts. It also shows that the Special Project for National Transportation
Infrastructure (PERT) belonging to the Directorate Provías National of the Minis-
try of Transportation and Communications of Peru (Provias Nacional MTC-
PERÚ) is the public entity with the highest number of arbitrations. These anteced-
ents demonstrate the serious deficiencies that have been occurring in the execution
of public road infrastructure projects. If we do not propose changes for its effi-
ciency, the development goals will continue to be impacted. Being the transport
sector in the last ten years, the one with the highest investment with respect to the
21
Adrian Ramon Mamani Mamani
other public sectors, the effects of these delays also represent great economic losses
to the State.
In view of these unfavorable results, the Government of Peru has been direct-
ing its efforts towards the implementation of development plans aimed at the
efficiency of public investment and achieving sustainable development. According
to the publication of the Ministry of Economy and Finance (2019) the creation of
the National Infrastructure Plan for Competitiveness (PNIC) aims to prioritize pro-
jects in various public sectors, in order to cover the deficit in quality infrastructure
compared to developed countries. Also mentioning that these are executed within
their planned deadlines, it also announces that the transportation sector composed
of railways, highways, airports and ports is the one that requires the greatest long-
term investment of 160, 958 million soles. Which represents 44 % of the total in-
vestment in infrastructure required by the other important public sectors such as
water, sanitation, telecommunications, electricity, education, health and hydraulic.
Being the roads, a component of the road infrastructure associated with the
transport sector and this one with the highest demand for long-term investment.
The implementation of these public works within their scheduled deadlines, with
quality, control of environmental and social aspects, will bring with it the eco-
nomic growth of Peru. Therefore, it is important that these projects have continuity
during the execution and end in their scheduled times, being necessary the perma-
nent control of the threats to the time factor. The objective of this review is to raise
knowledge of the importance of the main causes of delays that occur in public road
infrastructure works, review the methodology used by the various authors, in their
identification and classification by importance. Also propose the use of risk man-
agement methodology, to reverse the adverse effects arising from the causes of
delays and achieve efficient public road infrastructure projects.
THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT
Methods of data collection and classification of causes of delays
There are several factors that contribute to the causes of delays, which affect
the success of road projects. These include, for example, errors in the technical
file, the tender process, interferences, the economic, social and political context of
each country, etc. By identifying and classifying the causes of delays that occur in
road works, we will be able to propose strategies and actions to minimize the ad-
verse effects on road projects.
From the review to the research carried out by the various authors in different
countries, shows that their methodology is based on statistics, the collection of
information from executed projects, the preparation of a structured questionnaire,
which covers most of the causes of delays in road projects and direct interviews or
22
CAUSES OF DELAYS IN THE EXECUTION OF PUBLIC ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
surveys. Likewise, they collect the opinion of expert judgment to order or expand
the questions referred to the sources of the delays, which have not been taken into
account in previous papers or which are particular to each country. Being the in-
terviewees professionals, consultants, contractors and public entities with
experience in road construction.
To know the degree of importance of these causes of delays, the formula of the
Relative Importance Index (IIR) is applied, in which each cause is weighted ac-
cording to the rating given by the interviewees in a range of 1 to 5 (Scale of Likert),
being very important the value of (five) to less important (one). Likewise, to de-
termine the degree of similarity in the answers obtained from the different points
of view by pairs of interviewed groups, of the importance of the causes of delays,
use is made of Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (Rs). Which varies from
perfect negative correlation (-1), no correlation (zero) to perfect positive correla-
tion (+1). With the results obtained, the authors classify the causes of the delays
and their importance at a global level or by groups.
Table 1 shows the formulas used by the various authors to order, classify and
interpret the results from the cloud of causes of delays in public road infrastructure
projects. Table 2 shows the classification of the causes of delays in five developing
countries, which differ in terms of their origin and importance. Specifying that the
first two causes in all countries have an IIR greater than 80% and of these five
countries, it is Malawi that has the main cause of delay (fuel shortage) with the
greatest impact. Soumphonphakdy et al. (2020) in Laos, studied fifty-three causes
of delays, grouped into eight main sources: project, owner, contractor, consultant,
design, workers, materials and equipment, and external; as well as being comprised
of three groups of respondents: consultants, contractors and public entities. They
found that the importance of the causes from the point of view of the consultant
and the public entity, have a correlation Rs of +0.831, being very good; this is
explained because the consultant is the on-site representative of the public entity.
While in the group of contractor and public entity have a correlation Rs of +0.474
and between contractor and consultants a Rs of +0.465, being a relatively good
correlation.
23
Adrian Ramon Mamani Mamani
Table 1. Formulas used for the classification of the causes of delays
Name Formula Description Application Authors
= ∑5 1 W= Weight given to
each factor by re-
spondents, ranging
Relative Im- from 1 to 5. Level of im- Aziz & Abdel-
portance portance
X= Frequency of Hakam
Index (RII) responses within Degree of (2016), Sou-
each factor Similarity
Spearman's = 1 − 6∑ 1 2 mphonphakd
Rank Corre- 3 A= Number of y et al.
− weights
lation N= Total number of (2020),
Coefficient responses Amare et al.
(Rs) d= difference in (2017),
rank classification Kamanga &
between two inter-
viewed parties Steyn (2013)
and Hernan-
n= number of ques-
tions on the causes dez (2018).
of delays
Source: Authors indicated
24
CAUSES OF DELAYS IN THE EXECUTION OF PUBLIC ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
Table 2. Top five causes of delays in developing countries
Egypt 1 Laos 2 Ethiopia 3 Malawi 4 Colombia 5
Causes IIR Causes IIR Causes IIR Causes IIR Causes IIR
Owner's financial 0.886 Contractor's 0.842 Poor financial 0.906 Fuel shortages 0.853 Construction con- 0.828
problems cash flow control of the trol line permit
project
Shortage of equip- 0.824 Delinquent pay- 0.815 Difficulties in fi- Cash flow insuffi- Occupational in- 0.800
ment ment by the nancing the 0.855 ciency/contractor' 0.821 juries
owner project by the
contractor. s difficulties
Difficulties in the Type of tender Shortage of for- Design errors
financing of the and award pro- eign currency for made by design-
Inadequate Con- 0.816 project by the 0.771 ject (lowest bid) 0.851 0.800 0.771
tractor Experience imports ers (due to
contractor. of materials and unfamiliarity with
local conditions
equipment and environment)
Slow payment Design changes
procedures by the owner or
Financial prob- Poor construction adopted by the the supervisor
lems related to management and customer, when during construc-
Shortage of mate- 0.814 0.751 contractor over- 0.839 0.753 0.685
rials the owner tion
sight making payments
on account
Equipment Failure 0.813 Insufficient 0.708 Selection of inap- 0.824 Insufficient equip- 0.747 Poor site man- 0.685
equipment and propriate ment agement and
vehicles for the contractors oversight by con-
job tractor
Source: (1) Aziz & Abdel-Hakam (2016), (2) Soumphonphakdy et al. (2020), (3)
Amare et al. (2017), (4) Kamanga & Steyn (2013), (5) Hernandez (2018)
Perspectives for the efficiency of public road infrastructure projects
As we have seen from the review of scientific articles, the causes of delays in
road infrastructure projects have different origins, as well as different classifica-
tions and quantities for each country, which directly affect costs and delivery
times. It is important to classify these causes and their sources in order to be able
to anticipate and reduce their adverse effects on road infrastructure projects.
With the identification, classification and evaluation of the causes of delays
will help us to prioritize and anticipate strategies and actions to mitigate their ef-
fects on public road infrastructure works. Faced with the uncertainties inherent in
these types of projects and recurring incidences of these causes affecting projects,
it is necessary the application of risk management, based on the methodology con-
tained in the PMBOK guide of the Project Management Institute (2017). The main
causes of the delays identified and classified in the previous section are also asso-
ciated with potential project risks.
25
Adrian Ramon Mamani Mamani
Risk management comprises five processes consisting of identification, anal-
ysis, response planning, assignment of responsible parties for each risk and
monitoring. Its purpose is to anticipate and plan strategies and actions for the con-
trol and mitigation of foreseeable risks that may occur according to the
characteristics of the work, the socio-environmental environment and the situation
of each country. The relative importance of the risk is obtained from the product
of the probability of occurrence and the impact on the project, these impacts are
on possible effects on cost, time, scope and quality. Table 3 shows the risk classi-
fication levels, in the very high range, the response will be compulsorily planned,
if it is moderate, it will be permanently monitored, and if it is low it is neglected,
but monitoring will be performed.
Table 3. Range of risk values
Description Level
Risk
Very high [0.24 - 0.72]
Probability Moderate [0.08 - 0.18]
Low [0.005-0.07]
Very high= 0.90
High= 0.70
Moderate= 0.50
Low= 0.30
Very low= 0.10
Impact Very low= 0.05
Source: PMBOK Guide Summary Low= 0.10
Moderate= 0.20
High= 0.40
Very High= 0.80
The initial stage of risk management, which is identification, is supported by
the review of the background of similar projects, expert judgments and statistics.
They are also complemented with the study of the causes of delays in road infra-
structure works analyzed in the previous section, these main causes of delays being
associated with the foreseeable risks of occurring in the projects. In Peru there is a
directive of the Supervisory Body of State Contracting (OSCE) for risk manage-
ment, which is mandatory for public entities within the scope of State contracting
regulations. This directive cites as examples eleven types of risks due to errors or
deficiencies in design, construction, land expropriation, geological/geotechnical,
interference, environmental, archaeological, permitting and licensing, force
26
CAUSES OF DELAYS IN THE EXECUTION OF PUBLIC ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
majeure, regulatory or normative, construction accidents and damage to third par-
ties. It is important to add that in the case of road works that connect several
localities in their area of influence, social conflicts are frequent, so it is necessary
to include this risk in all road projects.
The risk analysis is subdivided into qualitative and quantitative. In the first, the
risks identified are prioritized according to the results shown in Table 3, which are
based on the probability of occurrence and the impact of their materialization, al-
lowing resources to be directed to manage those with the greatest threat. The
quantitative analysis evaluates the combined effect of all risks on the project ob-
jectives, mainly on costs, time and quality. The response planning stage details the
strategies and actions to address the risk exposure, indicating the resources and
activities that will reduce the threats to the project objectives. Having the option to
choose four strategies according to the characteristics of the risk such as mitigate,
avoid, accept and transfer. Risk assignment defines who is directly responsible for
carrying out the actions established in the response planning stage. Here the project
stakeholders, entity, supervisor, contractor or others; assume to manage the as-
signed risks. As a recommendation, it is necessary to consider more project
stakeholders, such as representatives of environmental organizations, local author-
ities, civil society, etc. In the monitoring, all the assigned responsible, assume the
commitment to take timely actions in the face of each one of the predictable risks
of occurring or the mitigation of their materialization. Likewise, given that road
works are of considerable duration, it will be taken into account update the risks,
being the construction supervisor directly responsible for their administration.
The application of the risk management methodology in public projects in Peru
was included in the normative as of 2017. The number of risks associated with
road construction in our environment is considerable, and it is important to manage
them in order to minimize their impacts. In order to comply with the management
of these risks, it is proposed that a contingency budget be included in the technical
files in the event that any of the identified risks materialize, as well as to be able
to carry out control and mitigation actions.
In Peru, the risks associated with errors or deficiencies in the technical file are
frequent, so more time and budget should be allocated to the pre-investment stage,
mainly in the preparation of the Studies, in order to avoid design changes and un-
derestimate the costs and time of the Projects; in this way, the technical and
economic offers will also be more reliable. Road projects involve several parties
with different points of view and interests, and it is necessary to include potential
social conflicts in risk management. Likewise, it is important to design sustainable
projects, taking into account the balance with the environmental and social envi-
ronment, as well as the generation of economic development. It is also
recommended to include in the management of predictable risks of occurrence,
27
Adrian Ramon Mamani Mamani
more actors from civil society, local and governmental agencies, in order to
achieve efficiency in public road infrastructure projects.
CONCLUSIONS
Public road infrastructure projects are linear works, covering large areas of
land, which involve socio-environmental and economic impacts on their surround-
ings during their execution; they also require considerable deadlines and
investment amounts, which are susceptible to changes. Being one of its purposes
to serve as access and connection of productive and commercial markets, its im-
portance also lies in the fact that it is one of the main sectors that generate economic
growth. However, deviations in the deadlines and costs of these projects are com-
mon in developing countries, representing high economic losses and
postponements of the planned goals. In order to control these variations, it is nec-
essary to identify and classify the causes of the delays that have been occurring in
road infrastructure projects. It will also allow to prevent and propose strategies that
lead to the reduction of these deficiencies that generate delays, cost overruns and
at the same time serve as a continuous learning tool in these types of future pro-
jects.
The existing deficit in road infrastructure in Peru demands that in the long term,
state investment policies will continue their efforts in this important sector, which
in turn will contribute to economic growth. In the last decade, road projects have
not been showing the expected results, and unless improvements are made in the
management of all stages, they will continue to generate losses for the State. There-
fore, road infrastructure projects must show efficiency, quality and sustainability
throughout their life cycle, facing the challenges of the uncertainties that exist in
the construction process and the environment where it is developed. In order to
prevent the negative effects of delays, we propose the use of the risk management
tool in public projects at the national, regional and local levels, which will allow
us to make timely strategic decisions in the face of adverse effects on deadlines
and costs.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
Amare, Y., Quezon, E. T., & Busier, M. (2017). Causes of delays during construc-
tion phase of road projects due to the failures of contractor, consultant, and
employer in Addis Ababa City Road Authority. International Journal of Sci-
entific & Engineering Research, 8(3), 15–25.
Aziz, R. F., & Abdel-Hakam, A. A. (2016). Exploring delay causes of road con-
struction projects in Egypt. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 55(2), 1515–
1539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2016.03.006
28
CAUSES OF DELAYS IN THE EXECUTION OF PUBLIC ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
Bonifaz, J. L., & Fasanando, A. (2021). Asociaciones Público-Privadas versus
Obra Pública: una comparación para el caso de redes viales en Perú y la
Región. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo. https://publica-
tions.iadb.org/publications/spanish/document/Asociaciones-publico-
privadas-versus-obra-publica-Una-comparacion-para-el-caso-de-redes-
viales-en-Peru-y-la-region.pdf
Contraloría General de la República (a). (2021). La Reforma del Control Guber-
namental en el Perú: Balance al trienio de su implementación. Lima, Perú.
https://doc.contraloria.gob.pe/prensa/libros/LA_REFORMA_DEL_CON-
TROL_GUBERNAMENTAL.pdf
Contraloría General de la República (b). (2021). Informe Ejecutivo Semestral de
Gestión: Enero - Junio, 2021. Lima, Perú. https://doc.contraloria.gob.pe/doc-
umentos/Informe_semestral_ene_jun_2021.pdf
Contraloría General de la República (c). (2013). El Arbitraje en las Contrataciones
Públicas durante el periodo 2003-2013. http://doc.contraloria.gob.pe/estu-
dios-especiales/estudio/Estudio-Arbitraje-Online.pdf
Hernández, B. P. (2018). Ponderación de factores que influyen en los retrasos de
los proyectos viales en Colombia: Caso de estudio Villavicencio [Trabajo de
Grado, Universidad Santo Tomás]. https://repository.usta.edu.co/han-
dle/11634/15743
Kamanga, M. J., & Steyn, W. J. V. D. M. (2013). Causes of delay in road construc-
tion projects in Malawi. Journal of the South African Institution of Civil
Engineering, 55(3), 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-
5479.0000096
Mejía, G., Sánchez, O., Castañeda, K., & Pellicer, E. (2020). Delay causes in road
infrastructure projects in developing countries. Revista de La Construccion,
19(2), 220–234. https://doi.org/10.7764/RDLC.19.2.220
Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas. (2019). Plan Nacional de Infraestructura
para la Competitividad. Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas, Gobierno Del
Peru. https://www.mef.gob.pe/con-
tenidos/inv_privada/planes/PNIC_2019.pdf
Moreno, A. A., & Villa, L. A. (2020). Análisis de Variables Causantes de retrasos
y sobrecostos de Obras Viales en la Región Caribe [Trabajo de Grado, Uni-
versidad de la Costa]. https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/handle/11323/6917
Project Management Institute. (2017). A Guide to the Project Management Body
Of Knowledge - PMBOK GUIDE (6 ta).
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Soumphonphakdy, B., Nakamura, S., Okumatsu, T., & Nishikawa, T. (2020).
Causes of Delays in Road Construction Projects in Laos. Global Journal of
Researches in Engineering, 20(3), 19–32.
https://doi.org/10.34257/gjreevol20is3pg19
30
JORGE BASADRE GROHMANN'S EDUCATION WITH
SOCIAL INCLUSION AND DEMOCRATIC APPROACH
Maquera Lupaca, Carlos Amidey
ABSTRACT
The objective was to analyze the rich philosophy of the historian who specialized in
the republican era and who had a democratic approach, starting with the elections and
including women as part of the Peruvian democratic system, he was able to perceive
the need to promote inclusive education by providing educational access to adults
through literacy training, From his first emblematic work La multitud, la ciudad y el
campo en la historia del Perú, published in 1929 when he was 26 years old, to the
publication of his last work Elecciones y centralismo en el Perú in 1980, he was and
continues to be considered a transcendental reference for all social science researchers
interested in the history of the contemporary Republic. His documented work is a kind
of permanent and endless spring that nourishes new researchers, his socio-historical
essays are the ones that best philosophically interpret the Peruvian present, key to un-
derstand its validity and intellectual transcendence. The methodology is development
an analysis of the life and work of Jorge Basadre Grohmann. I consider is a way of
access to research on the commemoration of the bicentennial of the Independence of
Peru in 2021; this work focuses on the philosophical dimension of the republican
thought of Jorge Basadre. The results show an analysis at his particular time of our
republican life where women did not have full exercise of citizenship and adults did
not have access to education in a state of republican government of our country. Jorge
Basadre Grohmann is one of the most influential Peruvian intellectuals of his time who
contributed to the affirmation of the nationality with his thought and work in inclusive
education, he considered pertinent to a democratic idea of creating an educational
change with the actors of the educational system themselves when he was nominated
as Minister of Education, so that both school teachers and parents were part of the
educational reform. This constitutes that the country has always been governed by the
economic power groups, and with the current government it is more evident in how
the democratic system of our country is.
Keywords: Identity, independence, promise, republic, social.
31
Carlos Amidey Maquera Lupaca
INTRODUCTION
The republic of Peru between 1956 and 1962 had Dr. Manuel Prado y
Ugarteche as president, who won the elections with 45.5% of the votes against
36.7% obtained by Fernando Belaunde Terry (Contreras 2015), for the first time
in Peruvian elections women participated, both to elect and to be elected (Palacios,
2005), although only women of legal age who could read and write could vote.
One of the first actions of the government was the creation of the commission for
agrarian reform and housing, whose objective was to present a project to solve the
problems of agrarian reform and housing and to propose convenient measures to
raise the living standards of the population (Moreyra, 1974). In Puno, there was an
extreme concentration of agrarian property in the hacienda system, resulting from
land dispossession and giving rise to serious social problems where, once again,
the rulers' contempt for the indigenous class was evident. The democratic approach
starts from the elections by including women as part of the Peruvian democratic
system, but this process was subject to the condition of knowing how to read and
write; and from this we can deduce that Jorge Basadre Grohmann could perceive
the need to promote an inclusive education by providing educational access to
adults through literacy.
According to INEI (2007) regarding the economic situation: During this pe-
riod, the national economy registered an average annual growth of 4.6%. Foreign
investment promotion laws were maintained, as well as freedom of exchange and
prices; however, public works policies led to growing fiscal deficits. The most dy-
namic economic activities were those linked to exports, such as fishing (35.6%)
and oil and mineral extraction (10.9%), while government services grew at an av-
erage annual rate of 5.0%. On the other hand, construction contracted by -2.5%
annual average, which was reflected in the lower dynamism of investment in this
period, (p. 18).
Rendering to Warleta (1957), Jorge Basadre Grohmann was the Minister of
Education from 1956 to 1958: Among his first actions, on August 2, 1956, he is-
sued a decree ordering an inventory of the national educational reality throughout
the Republic of Peru, which involved a thorough study of the state of education in
the country, mainly comprising the student and the school population, the educator,
school work, teaching materials, school premises, school relations with the com-
munity, as part of the objectives achieved by the educational reform proposed as
of August 2, 1956, Among the objectives achieved by the educational reform based
on the results of the inventory, a literacy and education plan was developed for
adolescents and adults, and differentiated plans and programs were prepared for
rural primary education, taking into account monolingual rural communities
(Quechua and Aymara); bilingual communities, Castilianized communities and
silvicultural or oriental groups (p. 81).
32
JORGE BASADRE GROHMANN'S EDUCATION WITH SOCIAL INCLUSION AND DEMOCRATIC APPROACH
Despite all these apparent improvements in the education system, it could well
be argued that the Peruvian education system has perpetuated division and domi-
nation. The system is the product of a constant introduction of foreign ideas and
technology. These foreign models, however, did little to alter the Spanish heritage
of a system geared toward the perpetuation of an elite "upper class" culture, since
the socio-economic base on which the elite relied remained unchanged (Bizot
1976).
The responsibility assumed as Minister of Education by Jorge Basadre
Grohmann, substantial changes were made in reference to the desire to include in
the educational access to those who up to that moment in Peruvian history had not
been included, and a diagnostic study of the educational system was begun in order
to project an implementation of change.
THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT
Labor Ministerial (1945 and 1956-1958)
Jorge Basadre was The Minister of education on two occasions. The first in
1945, fleetingly (five months), retaining the position of director of the national
library, during the government of President Manuel Bustamante y Rivero (Sota,
2003). In 1945, in spite of the fleeting nature of his administration, he took time to
take some measures in favor of education. He created the Council of Popular and
Municipal Libraries as the body in charge of promoting national library develop-
ment based on the progress achieved in the reconstruction of the national library
and the action of the national school of librarians. The measure could not be im-
plemented since, upon his departure from the ministry, it would be repealed
(Castro, 2012), this year he was appointed as honorary professor of the national
university of Colombia, he founded the Peruvian association of librarians, of which
he is its first president.
The creation of popular and municipal libraries, the author, established educa-
tional inclusion for us, even though it has not been implemented, however, the
initiative would be welcomed later with the creation of municipal libraries as a
function of the municipal authorities until today, so now we have school libraries
and classroom libraries that are an efficient tool to cultivate reading habits in our
students, who spend their school work for fourteen years from kindergarten to high
school. The promotion of culture for Jorge Basadre Grohmann is a way of educa-
tional inclusion, because this way we would have students who have access to
study, culturization and above all access to new knowledge, since at that time the
book was the only instrument for access to information. Thus, in 1945 he created
the council of popular and municipal libraries as the body responsible for promot-
ing national library development based on the progress achieved in the
33
Carlos Amidey Maquera Lupaca
reconstruction of the national library and the action of the national school of librar-
ians (Castro, 2012).
Educational Reality Inventory
In his second ministerial period in 1956-1958, he implemented the inventory
of the educational reality that constitutes the first knowledge of the educational
reality, the problems that afflict and for his intervention with a view to solving the
educational system, but with a national and systematic look (it is not a copy of
foreign experiences, but an authentic construction), it starts from the same reality
to give a look towards the future. In our opinion, this implementation is a sure start
towards educational inclusion, since it will allow knowing the differences between
the institutions of a country that is opening towards educational democratization
and, according to Castro (2012): Basadre executed a series of important measures
aimed at integrally reforming education on the basis of a thorough knowledge of
the educational reality of the country. With this objective in mind, he carried out
the first "inventory of the educational reality", an ambitious and unprecedented
project that materialized in record time thanks to the mobilization of the national
teaching profession, and its results made it possible to identify in figures the heart-
breaking deficiencies and shortcomings of the Peruvian educational system. To
reverse this situation, it proposed a new education law and a national education
plan prepared from the "bottom up" and with a multisectoral approach, thanks to
the information provided by the aforementioned inventory and the intervention of
a top-level multidisciplinary team. However, the approval of this ambitious plan
encountered problems in the Congress of the Republic, which, in the end, would
deprive the country of one of the most serious reforms it had ever planned to carry
out in the field of education. For this reason, the proposed comprehensive reform
was limited to several important but partial projects in relation to the comprehen-
sive plan, such as the reform of secondary education, the creation of the school
guidance system, the educational supervision system, among other actions based
on a philosophy that had the learner at its center. Likewise, in the specific field of
libraries, important measures were also approved, such as the creation of a council
of popular and school libraries within the administrative structure of the Ministry
of Education, and from there, the implementation of a library policy in favor of the
educational and cultural development of the country. In 1956 he was decorated
with the magisterial palms, decorated by the government of the German federal
republic with the order of merit in the degree of grand cross first class. Unfortu-
nately, for health reasons and for "other reasons" that Basadre himself (1971)
offered to explain "someday", on October 14, 1958, from the United States, he was
forced to resign his appointment as Minister of Education, this time not to return
to public office.
Likewise we have Warleta (1957) who states: Jorge Basadre Grohmann by
34
JORGE BASADRE GROHMANN'S EDUCATION WITH SOCIAL INCLUSION AND DEMOCRATIC APPROACH
resolution appoints a coordinating commission for the inventory of the national
educational reality, presided over by the director of secondary education, the same
that had the very important mission of analyzing and tabulating the response of the
teachers through the coordinating office of the inventory, and thus centralize all
the work done through the directorates of the ministry, and is in turn responsible
for the formulation of the final report, these forms covered the following aspects:
schools and colleges, the learner and the school population, teaching staff, school
work, didactic material, relations of the school with the community, financing of
education, (p. 81).
The national educational inventory is the first work of analysis and diagnosis
on the educational reality carried out within the framework of a scientific method
(Sota, 2003) and constitutes a modification of the educational policy, the restruc-
turing of the Peruvian educational system, testing modifications in the different
educational levels in terms of the educational curriculum. By supreme decree of
October 4, 1956, the development of the literacy and education plan for adoles-
cents and adults was established as an integral part of our educational system
(Warleta, 1957).
The plan implemented by Jorge Basadre Grohmann is a plan that transcends
education, according to Warleta (1957): Starting in 1957, and as part of the national
education system, a literacy and education plan for adolescents and adults is de-
veloped, which pursues not only the learning of the Spanish language and the
mastery of reading and writing, but also pursues the defense of health, civic and
patriotic education, the promotion of family and neighborhood economy, the im-
provement of housing, recreation, the improvement of community services and
institutions, and moral and religious education, consequently a more dignified life
(p. 82). Basadre, with this work, discovered another constant in official Peruvian
educational policy: the concealment of reality (Sota, 2003).
Literacy and Adult Education
Literacy and adult education was implemented gradually, starting from the city
of Lima and then expanding to the rural area; when we talk about a gradual imple-
mentation we are facing a of an absence that precedes, that is to say that in some
places of our country education would not have arrived, then there was an illiterate
population and therefore Jorge Basadre Grohmann is forced under his own princi-
ple to include educational access to the illiterate scenario population and also to
provide education to adults; Let us remember that at present, regular basic educa-
tion is for minors, and to take such a scenario to the ministerial era of the author
under study would be a reality where there are illiterates and adults who would not
have had access to one of the educational levels, since there is unofficial data by
oral transmission of the ancestors that having completed primary school was a
35
Carlos Amidey Maquera Lupaca
privilege, having completed secondary school was a light and even with completed
secondary school one could exercise the teaching profession, because for this, ac-
cording to Warleta (1957) when referring to the literacy and education plan for
adolescents and adults, he states: "The literacy and education plan for adolescents
and adults is a plan for the literacy and education of adolescents and adults: The
literacy and education plan for adolescents and adults will be carried out progres-
sively in three consecutive stages. The first initiation campaign will be carried out
in 1957, with the pilot school for literacy and education of adolescents and adults,
which operates in a suburban area of Lima, as a center of experimentation. The
second intermediate campaign will be carried out in 1958 and 1959; and the third
extension campaign will begin in 1960, with a permanent projection into the future
(p. 82). From literacy and adult education as a new planning, education was con-
sidered not as an end but as a social process, being education for Basadre
fundamental for the transition to a democratic society; education as a process has
to do with the Peruvian historical process. Education was a privilege only for a
certain group of Peruvian society and for others it had been alien, an unfulfilled
dreamed thirst that had been a sleeping leaf in the sleep of the just (Zapata, 2007).
Rural schools and inclusive education
In Basadre's ministerial period, rural schools were centralized in educational
nuclei, the groups were consolidated with a certain number of homogeneous area
schools around a central one that functions as a pilot; such centralization seeks a
positive improvement in educational access and quality, it is emphasized that edu-
cation should be a guiding axis of the person in a dignified manner, because the
country was submerged to the gamonal latifundia and there is talk of building one's
own patriotism. The rural school is considered as the fruit of the yearnings and
ideals of the communities themselves, which should study and understand their
cultural patterns, become a dynamic field of action, and promote a dignifying en-
vironment for the personality, where it can find and develop national civism.
Continuing with the postulate that characterizes Jorge Basadre Grohmann, we
speak of rural education; From long ago to the present time, there have been types
of educational institutions such as urban and rural, the author prioritized his atten-
tion to rural schools, with the intention of modernizing them, this word encloses a
whole plan that will allow us to fully understand the topic of educational inclusion,
because when talking about inclusion Basadre refers to equal opportunities, equal
opportunity to the topic of educational quality and based on a democratic approach
when taking importance to the participation of the actors, being our point of view
it is necessary to take into account Prado (1957) when he refers to the topic of rural
school: For Basadre, the rural school needed to modernize itself concretely in two
fundamental aspects: both in its spirit and in its matter; to identify itself with the
concerns and vital urgencies of the rural man and, by strengthening its links with
36
JORGE BASADRE GROHMANN'S EDUCATION WITH SOCIAL INCLUSION AND DEMOCRATIC APPROACH
the home and the whole community, to make them act together in favor of the
education of children, adolescents and adults, thus practicing the postulate of mak-
ing every school a home and every home a school. In this way, the democratic
essence of the regime must be invigorated in its double action of educating for
democracy and encouraging an educational democracy.
We understand that Basadre perceived Peruvian education as mostly rural, but
the educational policy was not implemented according to that reality and it was not
an inclusive education for all Peruvians, an education for Peruvians that had not
taken as a priority the participation of Peruvians in relation to their education.
Therefore, there was a social scenario to the educational issue with characteristics
of rural education that did not take into account its particularity and therefore it
was of utmost urgency that rural education should return to the national reality,
based on experimental findings of social, anthropological and pedagogical charac-
ter, also based on a plan of systematic expansion.
In today's terms we would speak of inclusive education or educational access
with equal opportunities for those who, due to political situations of the state, did
not have the opportunity to receive educational services. Thus, we quote Prado
(1957) to refer to adult education in a democratic environment: The creation of 68
school nuclei and 101 pre-vocational schools, which make up the rural education
program in the highlands, are also the subject of important reforms. These schools,
in collaboration with the home and the entire community, promote the education
of children and adults in an environment of democratic life; they stimulate cohe-
sion and solidarity efforts in the use and increase of services, in the foresighted use
of resources and in the acquisition of knowledge and skills that allow the exercise
of a conscious and useful citizenship.
Perhaps the solidarity effort of the same population can be summarized in the
famous phrase that was in the primary educational institutions "The people did it
in such and such a year", this phrase enclosed the active participation of the com-
munity itself in the construction of the infrastructure and the efforts were assumed
by the authorities and as a sample survives throughout history until today the an-
niversaries of the educational institutions.
In addition, we could highlight in the author's thinking on the issue of cultural
inclusion, this occurs with the creation of bilingual institutions, where students can
learn from their own language, with which they express their experiences, their
way of conceiving nature, the way of relating to the environment around them, the
importance of duality in mathematics linked to the complementarity of opposites.
Having another way of thinking that encloses the language of children, with the
creation of bilingual institutions undoubtedly offers a framework of linguistic in-
clusion and through it a cultural inclusion in education.
37
Carlos Amidey Maquera Lupaca
According to Prado (1957) regarding the creation of bilingual institutions: To
the aforementioned can be highlighted the creation of the 45 bilingual schools and
the teacher training center, for natives of the jungle, with headquarters in Yarina-
cocha, which operates in accordance with the ministerial resolution of April 30,
1957. These, as well as the 12 rural schools of the jungle, will consolidate their
organization and operation thanks to the work of the coordination of jungle educa-
tion created by supreme resolution of January 3, 1957, and also highlights the
supply of equipment and materials that allow the most effective and enthusiastic
action of the Catholic missionaries, whose altruistic evangelical action exalts the
government, as well as that carried out by foreign scientists and specialists who
collaborate in the cultural reintegration of Amazonian Peru. With the purpose of
intensifying popular education and its diffusion, the ministerial period of
Grohmann implemented plans for the use of the Quechua and Aymara languages
as work instruments.
Educational Reforms at the Secondary Level
At the secondary level one of the innovations that could be considered as a
democratic approach is regarding tutoring, for us it constitutes a form where the
teacher performs a series of activities that facilitate and guide the learning of their
students, since the tutor is basically a connoisseur who tutors and explains the
learning difficulties of the students, who understands and seeks solutions or adopts
them to the possibilities of the students at the secondary level. This implies a learn-
ing management with the active and committed participation of educational agents,
bringing learning to a democratic approach.
We could also deduce that the author sought the effectiveness of the secondary
level in the face of the problems that arose upon reaching that level, since going
from the primary to the secondary level constitutes one of the great emotional
changes that is to study with a single teacher to study with different teachers for
each area, then we are facing a concrete situation of inclusion by reducing the dif-
ferences that may have existed and thus generating equal opportunities.
According to Warleta (1957): In secondary education, by supreme decree of
March 15, 1957, the project for the reform of secondary education was approved
gradually and experimentally, indicating its goals and objectives, establishing its
duration, division and content of studies; implementing the tutorial system,
through advisory teachers and the linking of students with school services, giving
a trial character to the study plans for the first year of secondary education. This
prudent requirement has also established the decongestion of the programs from
the second to the fifth year. At the end of the five years, a "completed secondary
school" certificate is obtained, which qualifies for admission to any institution of
higher education. This project also provides for the implementation of a program
38
JORGE BASADRE GROHMANN'S EDUCATION WITH SOCIAL INCLUSION AND DEMOCRATIC APPROACH
of orientation and guidance of the student, which aims to "assist the individual,
through counseling, to help him/her in the formation of habits, interests, activities
and ideals". This orientation shall be developed in the following areas: health and
physical growth; home and family relations; use of free time; personality; school
work; social, civic and moral life; and vocational orientation.
Regarding technical and higher education, the reform implemented by Basadre
was oriented in an inclusive manner in the sense that he sought to make students
aware of the environment in which they develop, by knowing their own environ-
ment they become more competent to face circumstances and offer solutions; and
through which he sought to contribute to the socioeconomic growth of the country
and this is undoubtedly a form of educational inclusion, since the student is part of
society or prepares to be part but also as an agent that contributes to the develop-
ment of the country with the knowledge acquired.
Thus, in the message to the nation of July 28, according to Prado (1957): to
respond to the demands of the times and develop in accordance with the methods
of modern pedagogy and the needs of industry; to the integral formation of the
personality of the student and his preparation in the chosen specialty; promoting
knowledge of the environment, its resources and its needs in such a way as to con-
tribute effectively to the socioeconomic progress of the country. The curriculum
consisted of five years, divided, as in regular secondary school, into two cycles:
the first, of three years, called the basic cycle; and the second, of two years, called
the specialization cycle. In both cycles, cultural and technical education was given
in parallel, from the first year to the fifth year of studies, graduating the knowledge
taught in a methodical way for each school year. The agricultural education schools
have undergone a substantial change, both in general or cultural instruction, as well
as in vocational and technical education. With the reform implemented by Jorge
Basadre Grohmann, the philosophy and general principles of secondary education,
those of technical education and those of agricultural vocational education have
been taken into account, focusing on the preparation of the new agricultural youth
to become good farmers and efficient citizens. The new plans and programs, in
addition to being adapted to the individual needs of the students, are broad and
flexible, and give importance to the study of agricultural machinery; to the educa-
tion of young and adult farmers, through short-term courses; to farm management
and the creation of student associations. The foundations have been laid for the
organization and operation of associations of future farmers and it was hoped that
in the next few years they would be working in all the schools of this type. Com-
mercial education was divided into two cycles: basic vocational cycle, of three
years' duration in daytime and four years' duration in evening and night schools;
and specialization cycle, of two years' duration in both daytime and evening and
night schools. In keeping with the spirit of this reform, commercial education aims
39
Carlos Amidey Maquera Lupaca
to train merchants, accountants, clerks and businessmen capable of successfully
performing in the country's economic and administrative activities.
The Teacher and the Democratic Approach
According to Basadre, the fundamental actor of any change in the Peruvian
educational system depends on the teacher himself, because according to his mean-
ing, the one who can bring about a change is the actor himself as a connoisseur of
the deficiencies and their possibilities; these gestures of change must be carried
out in the pedagogical field and its pedagogical possibilities, therefore it will be
necessary to provide all the necessary pedagogical tools that may allow a reform
of the teacher for the teacher. From this we can say that teachers are important
actors of a teacher reform.
As said by Prado (1957): The context of the situation of the teaching profession
had the following data: 50.19% of primary teachers and 55.09% of secondary
teachers lacked pedagogical studies and, in addition to this major deficiency, there
was a lack of professional unity in the prior preparation of the trained element. In
view of this, Jorge Basadre Grohmann proposed the teacher training plan that op-
erated in summer in departments such as Lima, Arequipa, Cuzco, Trujillo,
Huancayo, Cajamarca and Puno, specialization courses for first class teachers in
important fields such as: psycho-pedagogy, educational activities, school organi-
zation and administration, education of mentally handicapped children, school
supervision, didactics and plans and programs, pre-vocational education, infant
education, school journalism, family education, learning levels and fundamental
education.
CONCLUSIONS
Jorge Basadre Grohmann is one of the most influential Peruvian intellectuals
of the twentieth century and the one who has contributed most to the affirmation
of nationality with his thinking and work in inclusive education, creating rural ed-
ucational centers and reaffirming the importance of literacy for young people and
adults. He always maintained an optimistic vision of Peru, a multifaceted author
of vast intellectual production, in which his works as a bibliographer, historian,
essayist and librarian stand out, all indissolubly linked by the historical destiny of
Peru. His ideas and proposals in politics, education, culture and social sciences in
general, constitute permanent lines of orientation and inspiration in the inclusion
of groups that had been excluded from access to education, so that today we con-
tinue to speak of inclusive education, not only as access but as an education that
meets the needs and context of the students.
Basadre had a democratic idea of creating an educational change with the ac-
tors of the system themselves, so that both school teachers and parents were part
40
JORGE BASADRE GROHMANN'S EDUCATION WITH SOCIAL INCLUSION AND DEMOCRATIC APPROACH
of the educational reform: the first from the contribution of data for an educational
diagnosis, to the qualitative improvement training for professional development in
various subjects, and the other part in assisting with the construction of institutions
with unskilled labor, this constitutes the participation of the whole community in
the search for educational access that is projected to the universalization of the
same with characteristics of relevance and identity.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
Bizot, J. (1976). La reforma de la Educación en el Perú. Experiencias e Innovacio-
nes en Educación N° 16, 12
http://www.amigosdevilla.it/archivoit/documentos/VES_DOC_07_1976.pdf
Castro, C. (2012). Aportes al estudio de la bibliotecología peruana: vida y obra
de Jorge Basadre Grohmann [Tesis Doctoral, Universidad Complutense de
Madrid]. file:///C:/Users/Core%20i3/Downloads/T33827%20(1).pdf
Contreras, C. (2015). Perú. Mirando hacia dentro (1930-1960). Barcelona: Tau-
rus.
INEI. (2007). Panorama de la Economía Peruana 1950 - 2015
https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digita-
les/Est/Lib1359/inde x.html
Moreyra, C. (1974). Segundo periodo: 1956-1962. Manuel Prado político y go-
bernante. Lima: Autoedición.
Palacios, R. (2005). Historia de la República del Perú [1933-2000]. Lima: Em-
presa Editora El Comercio S. A.
Prado, M. (1957). Mensaje del Presidente Constitucional del Perú, Doctor Manuel
Prado Y Ugarteche, al Congreso Nacional, el 28 de julio de 1957, 27-56
https://www.congreso.gob.pe/Docs/participacion/museo/congreso/files/men-
sajes/1961- 1980/files/mensaje-1957.pdf
Sota, J. (2003). El Pensamiento Educativo de Jorge Basadre Ghohman. Grandes
Educadores Peruanos. file:///C:/Users/Core%20i3/Down-
loads/pdfslide.tips_grandes-educadores- peruanospdf%20(1).pdf
Warleta, E. (1957). La Reforma de la Educación en el Perú. Revista de Educación.
Madrid, 65, 81 - 83. http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/revista-de-educa-
cion/dam/jcr:cb35ad14-4b9c- 4e4c-b63b-
ed1b81edb76c/1957re65informacionextranjera-pdf.pdf
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Carlos Amidey Maquera Lupaca
Zapata, J. (2007). Pensadores de la Educación Peruana del siglo XX. Piura, 57-66
https://es.slideshare.net/jczapata/pensadores-de-la-educacin-peruana-del-si-
glo-xx
42
UNIVERSITY HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE
KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY
Quispe Sandoval, Carlos Daniel
ABSTRACT
The general objective is to reflect on the challenges of the university in the
knowledge society, review the changes and innovations that must be included in
higher education in the current context. Emphasizing the importance of scientific
research as a source of knowledge production. For which the search for infor-
mation on the subject was carried out in the database of scientific journals: Sciencie
Direct, Redalyc, Elsevier. The information was stored on the Mendeley platform,
which is a software that allowed us to organize and manage the bibliographic cita-
tions of the papers. The present study concludes that the University as an
innovative institution is one of the greatest generators of knowledge in today's so-
ciety, which makes it the main actor for the transformation and development
processes of today's society. For this, analysis and research are necessary to be true
agents of social change, that is, real managers of knowledge. To build an Infor-
mation Society centered on the person, inclusive and oriented to development, in
which everyone can create, consult, use and share information and knowledge, so
that people, communities and peoples can use their possibilities in promoting their
sustainable development and improving their quality of life.
Keywords: Knowledge, globalization, society, technology, university,
INTRODUCTION
In the current world scenario, knowledge exposes its social value as an eco-
nomic resource that promotes the development of nations, facilitating the solution
of scientific, technological and social problems, impacting on the problems related
to poverty, health and education of the general population (Lizardo, 2004), so the
world enters a globalization process where it is intended to take advantage of the
talents of all humanity to produce and create the society of the future (Moreno &
Velázquez, 2012). The fact that the University is one of the greatest generators of
knowledge in today's society makes it an important actor called upon to lead, in
large part, for the transformation and development processes of today's society.
43
Carlos Daniel Quispe Sandoval
The University as an institution that creates, preserves, transmits and disseminates
knowledge and culture, is forced to actively participate in the creation of viable
solutions for the problems, materials and knowledge that afflict society today
(Catelly, 2011).
The idea of a national technical university is by no means new or unique (found
all over the world), what makes the projects here considered exceptional, is the
way in which they are articulated together with a unique outward understanding of
the domestic space. These advances also have the power to illustrate how seem-
ingly global ideas are incorporated differently in broader regimes of government
(Koch, 2014).
THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT
The knowledge society is a broad community of people who are dependent on
each other and each of its members works equitably and their experience is an
important contribution to the achievement of individual and common ends (Tur-
coane, 2012).
Today, education is called to forge a liberating practice in the student so that
he consciously and objectively accepts the challenges of the world and can trans-
form it through reflection and action (Zulia, 2010). This statement allows us to
conclude that the individual must have the freedom and power to seek and generate
knowledge (Del Canto, 2011). From a historical perspective, knowledge is coming
to occupy the place it occupied, first by human power and then by machines (Jerez,
2013). In this concept, it is important in the process of capturing, processing and
communicating the necessary information derived from the Declaration of Princi-
ples of Geneva, which affirms that it is a priority to build an Information Society
centered on the person, inclusive and oriented to development, in which everyone
can create, consult, use and share information and knowledge, so that individuals,
communities and peoples can use their possibilities in promoting their sustainable
development and improving their quality of life (Cervantes, 2007)
In our opinion, far from restricting what knowledge is and how it is learned
here, knowing is an itinerary that each and every one of us travels to get closer to
the truth (Mínguez & Hernández, 2013). Thus, we have, on the one hand, the pro-
posals of those who see the possibility of creating national innovation systems,
while for others, the insertion of Latin America in this technological network
simply leads to stress, loss of meaning and hopelessness, in the end, the path, rather
than towards liberation, leads us towards technological slavery (Rivera &
Rodríguez, 2008). We talk more and more about knowledge management, learning
organization, or lifelong education. The contribution shows the need for develop-
ment of human sources in the globalized world (Antošová & Csikósovoá, 2012).
44
UNIVERSITY HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY
Currently, universities must plan a design of university services that allows the
different agents of the university community to access information (info-accessi-
bility) in an appropriate way. The accessibility of face-to-face and electronic
services is essential to guarantee the integration of people with functional diversity
in the university context, favor their professional development and improve their
participation in the characteristic services of the knowledge society (Catalunya,
2008). Therefore, it would be recommended that for knowledge management in
universities and organizations in the knowledge society, or in its transit, the instru-
mental and strategic logic - represented by ICT Information and Communication
Technologies - is articulated (Fainholc, 2006). The use of new ICTs as instruments
to stimulate and provide more efficient individual and organizational learning.
It is widely considered that university education is also ethical and civic train-
ing (Bara & Buxarrais, 2014). In this regard, an important point in teacher training
has to be the development of personality towards attitudes and personality profiles,
such as completing the same methods and professional knowledge, skills and abil-
ities (Ciolan et al., 2014)
In this sense, it will be necessary to build the inertias of the traditional Latin
American University that filter into virtual processes, especially in terms of inter-
culturality policies (one of the most determining cultural policies: by reinforcing
prejudices, by establishing colonialist evidence, or by silencing); At the same time
that the impact of these policies is perhaps the most deaf, but the one that plunges
us the most into the impossibility of our own project, into political and economic
unfeasibility (Grosso et al., 2004). Public relations have been developed and con-
solidated on the basis of parameters that in the current knowledge society have
become widespread and have even acquired an enormous role. This fact places the
disciplines of persuasive communication in a very advantageous position to adapt
to the challenges posed by today's society, but at the same time it poses a serious
threat to those companies and professionals in the sector that do not carry out this
adaptation or that do not do it properly (Lalueza, 2006).
The university must promote the construction of knowledge, guarantee to ad-
vance and progress, enable discrepancy as a search path and creativity and
investigation of new solutions, help teachers to become explorers of knowledge
more than simply transmitters of data, promote students to stop being the intelli-
gent part of the university setting to begin to be active collaborators in the search
and development of knowledge (Gómez, 2004). Consequently, the expansion and
promotion of reflective practices in open learning design carries prospects for ad-
vancing professional maturity. This fact should be reflected in learning and
teaching approaches, in innovative and sustainable learning designs, and in the
safety of self-analysis and third-party analysis (Koroivulaono, 2014).
45
Carlos Daniel Quispe Sandoval
The culture of the school has an influence on the behavioral intention to use
ICT in knowledge exchange (Yassin & Ashaari, 2013). For virtual education, the
challenges facing the knowledge society lie mainly in the ability that face-to-face
and distance educational institutions have on symbolic power and their teaching,
not only what is presented as “politically correct” but also their analysis and re-
search for be true agents of social change, that is, real knowledge managers.
Another great challenge is to be able to democratize knowledge, encompassing
larger social groups, which, due to their limited purchasing power or ignorance of
the use of ICT, are excluded. It is urgent that through State policies supported by
the new revolutionary force of mass media such as the Internet, a cultural transition
to the knowledge society is assumed (Sinisterra, 2008). This new framework that
configures the knowledge society places new demands on the educational systems
and therefore also on the university, since every time education must respond with
more quality to social demands. Educational institutions must change to the same
extent as the societies in which they are established. Changes are imposed by social
demands, and not the other way around (Pons, 2010). However, a semi-face-to-
face, but virtualized model has remained the dominant form, by adding digital in-
structional resources, interaction on platforms and delivery of work with face-to-
face learning evaluations, as a strategy to increase the quality of teaching pro-
cesses, beyond the preponderance of low interaction and the existence of flat
didactic resources. However, the use of videoconferences with Skype and multi-
ple-choice evaluation systems are advancing, which are favored by the new
versions of the Moodle platform, which has become the generalized basis of virtual
learning environment, in the form of the new digital classroom (Rama, 2014).
Some experiences of the European Union can be used for the relevant system
and networks, the beginning of these great changes cannot wait because thanks to
them, especially many Latin American countries, they can achieve positive
changes towards truly democratic and knowledge societies. Failure to act quickly
and effectively in the university system could imply a serious loss of its prestige
and public confidence and even open the way for the emergence of new alternative
forms of learning (Casas & Stojanovic, 2005). Knowledge exchange is not only
the transfer of knowledge and skills between faculty members (Songsangyos,
2012).
The professional scheme assigned to the dynamics of university functioning
has resulted in negative aspects related to the high emphasis given to the teaching
function and the scant attention to research activities, with a consequent low level
of production in this area; the bureaucratic and clientelistic management of admin-
istrative management (Lizardo, 2004) and the knowledge society understood as a
system where inequalities of access to technologies are deepened, among others,
makes the university reality increasingly complex, demanding the transformation
46
UNIVERSITY HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY
of the Teaching, research and extension functions, to adapt to the needs of a glob-
alized and constantly changing world, the university missionary trio are functions
that do not receive the same treatment in the legal regulations that govern higher
education. (Vega & Villegas, 2009), and the role that ICTs have for the university,
not only as tools for technological change but also for organizational transfor-
mation in the areas of services, teaching, research and dissemination of knowledge,
constitutes a modifying action of no return, which commits all members of the
academic community. Efficient use of the Internet is seriously affected by the lack
of training and updating processes for Full Time Teachers (PTC). It is clear that
there is a great need to acquire the necessary skills and abilities to take advantage
of the benefits that the network offers. (Velandia et al., 2012), the perspective on
human development elaborated by the theory of cognitive structural modifiability
in which man is considered as an organism open to change as long as there is a
mediating action is adaptable to the proposed notion of curriculum at work since
this supposes a process of political and sociocultural formation contextualized in a
medium that, as already explained, corresponds to that of the knowledge society
characterized by permanent change, crisis and profound transformations (Aven-
daño & Parada, 2013). The study reveals that the majority of teacher candidates
believe that people are less aware of environmental problems. In this sense, it may
be the result of teacher candidates being more aware of environmental problems at
the national level (Sadik & Sadik, 2014). The reason for the lack of interest in the
teaching career is not only financial. The frustration also comes from the poor in-
itial teacher training the graduates possess. The psychopedagogical courses are
theoretical. Very little time is devoted to didactics and the practice of teaching is
organized rather formally. Students tend to avoid it, as they feel that it does not
help them too much (Singer & Sarivan, 2011).
The capacity of knowledge gives a significant influence for the success of the
implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning (Candra, 2012) The role of sci-
ence and research in the development of knowledge represent the foundations of
the total knowledge of modern science, to mitigate the consequences that obstruct
the development of the holistic project knowledge society it is necessary to estab-
lish efficient emergency plans, so the creation of the holistic project knowledge
society due to the great importance of strategic global publications for survival
manages to unite the knowledge society project-oriented and project-oriented ho-
listic society (Žarković et al., 2014).
The practical use and integration of the educational reform projects pro-
grammed by the Charter of Education and Training (2000-2010) was significantly
reduced to a linear / static approximation mode and is made to work in the absence
of a theoretical model and of experimental / participatory context. The main ad-
vantage of the application of a reform would allow, by the introduction of
47
Carlos Daniel Quispe Sandoval
alternative spaces for reflection and communication, the participation of socio-
economic and political activities in the general socio-educational interest, the an-
choring of teaching staff in culture participatory and civic and the promotion of its
new rationalization of institutional work and teaching (Miloudi et al., 2014).
Most teacher candidates believe that people are less aware of environmental
issues, in this sense it may be a result of teacher candidates being more aware of
environmental issues at the national level. The research study shows that the
teacher candidates consider themselves with a positive attitude in terms of envi-
ronmental thinking, therefore, the reason for which no significant difference was
found between the knowledge and attitudes of the teacher candidates of the envi-
ronment in terms of gender and class could be the fact that teaching practices in
classrooms are not effective enough to the chance of attitudes.
(97.6%) of the teachers surveyed consider that one of the missions of the uni-
versity is to train students in a comprehensive way, in a (92.9%) they consider
transmitting the deontological codes of each profession and the (95.2%) state that
they contribute to the construction of a fairer society, the results of the survey car-
ried out in institutions on the European continent both in the south and in the north,
regarding the components proposed by the new university of the knowledge soci-
ety, we can indicate that the comprehensive training of students is significant and
important. Bara & Buxarrais (2014), report that 97% aims to train students in a
comprehensive way, which involves not only imparting new information but also
taking into account all the processes of human development related to new tech-
nology.
The knowledge society necessarily involves the fact that the University is one
of the greatest generators of knowledge in today's society, making it an important
actor called upon to lead, to a large extent, the processes of transformation and
development of today's society, the University as a creative, preserving, transmit-
ting and disseminating institution of knowledge and culture, is forced to actively
participate in the creation of viable solutions for the problems, materials and
knowledge that afflict society today (Montoya, 2009) .
The fact that the University is one of the greatest generators of knowledge in
today's society makes it an important actor called upon to lead the transformation
and development processes of today's society, as it is forced to actively participate
in the creation of viable solutions for the problems, materials and knowledge that
afflict society today (Suárez, 2009). Universities must plan a design of university
services that allows the different agents of the university community to access in-
formation (info accessibility) in an appropriate way (Martínez, 2008). It is urgent
that through State policies supported by the new revolutionary force of mass media
(such as the Internet, for example), a cultural transition to the knowledge society
48
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