Учебно- методическое пособие по английскому языку по профессиям\ специальностям металлообработки

Специальные пренадлежности Special requirements
Цанговый патрон Collet chuck
Комбинированный оправки для Combined mandrels for attachment cutters
насадных фрез
Переходные втулки Adapter bushings
Короткий сверлильный патрон Short Drill chuck
Патрон с гидрозажимом Cartridge with hydraulic clamp
Патрон с термохажимом Cartridge with thermal clamp
удлинители extension cords

№1 Translate the text.Write down a list of technical words from the text.For the selected
words, make a morphemic analysis of the word.

A chuck is a specialized type of clamp used to hold an object with radial symmetry, especially a
cylinder. In a drill, a mill and a transmission, a chuck holds the rotating tool; in a lathe, it holds
the rotating workpiece.
Chucks commonly use jaws to hold the tool or workpiece. The jaws (sometimes called dogs) are
typically arranged in a radially symmetrical pattern like the points of a star. Jawed chucks may
require a wrench-like device called a chuck key to be tightened or loosened, but other jawed
chucks may be tightened or loosened by hand force alone, offering convenience at the expense
of gripping force. Chucks on some lathes have jaws that move independently, allowing them to
hold irregularly shaped objects. More complex designs might include specially shaped jaws,
greater numbers of jaws, or quick-release mechanisms.
Instead of jaws, a chuck may use magnetism, vacuum, or collets, which are flexible collars or
sleeves that fit closely around the tool or workpiece and grip it when squeezed.

№2 Translate the text.Make a list of questions for the text.Select and underline
complex sentences

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A self-centering chuck, also known as a scroll
chuck,[1] uses dogs (usually called jaws), interconnected via a scroll gear (scroll plate), to hold
onto a tool or workpiece. Because they most often have three jaws, the term three-jaw chuck
without other qualification is understood by machinists to mean a self-centering three-jaw chuck.
The term universal chuck also refers to this type. These chucks are best suited to grip circular or
hexagonal cross-sections when very fast, reasonably accurate (±0.005 inch [0.125 mm] TIR)
centering is desired.

Sometimes this type of chuck has four or six jaws instead of three. Four-jawed chucks are
primarily useful for gripping square or octagon material, while six-jawed chucks hold thin-
walled tubing and plastic materials with minimum distortion.

There are also independent-jaw (non-self-centering) chucks with three jaws, but they offer few
advantages and are very rare.

There are hybrid self-centering chucks that have adjustment screws that can be used to further
improve the concentricity after the workpiece has been gripped by the scroll jaws. This feature is
meant to combine the speed and ease of the scroll plate's self-centering with the run-out
eliminating controllability of an independent-jaw chuck. The most commonly used name for this
type is a brand name, Set-Tru. To avoid undue genericization of that brand name, suggestions for
a generic name have included "exact-adjust".[citation needed]

Three-jaw chucks are often used on lathes and indexing heads.

№3 Put the verbs in brackets in the required tense forms and translate the sentences into
Russian.

1. Albert Einstein (to be) bom in Germany. When he was 12, he (to begin) his study mathematics
and physics. Later he (to continue) his studies at the University. 2 Enstein (to present) his theory
of relativity in 1905. His famous equation (to say) that energy (to equal) mass times the square of
the speed of light. The great discovery (to surprise) the scientists of the world. 3. The people of
our great country (to produce) many geniuses such as Lomonosov, Mendeleyev, Lobachevsky
and others. Now our country (to have) a great number of brilliant scientists in all fields of
science. Scientists (to make) researches in all fields of science of knowledge. 4. Your experiment
(not to give) good results until you (to change) the speed of die reaction. 5. Any square (to have)
four right angles. 6. The square of two (to be) four.

№4 Make up the sentences using the following Predicates.

1.... was boiling ..., 2.... had been lifted ..., 3.... discovered..., 4. ... will

be delivered ..., 5. ... has been working ..., 6. ... has stopped....

№5 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the Predicates.

1. It takes the Earth 24 hours to rotate round its axis. 2. It takes 540 calories to change one gram
of boiling water at 100 °C into steam at the same temperature. 3. It takes about 80 calories to

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change one gram of ice at 0 °C into water at the same temperature. 4. Nothing moves faster than
light. It takes light only one second to move 300,000 kilometres. 5. How long does it take you to
get home from the Institute? It took me 2 hours to make the last experiment. 7. It will take you
about 2 hours to go by air from Kiev to London.

№6 Translate!

Self-centering three-jaw chuck and key with one jaw removed and inverted showing the teeth
that engage in the scroll plate. The scroll plate is rotated within the chuck body by the key, the
scroll engages the teeth on the underside of the jaws which moves the three jaws in unison, to
tighten or release the workpiece.

№7 Form nouns using the suffixes and translate them into Russian. -ity: equal, human,
activ(e), relativ(e), productiv(e)

-ness: thick, black, great, rough -ancy: const(ant)

-ence: differ(ent), depend(ent), pres(ent)

-ency: effici(ent), depend(ent)

-age: us(e), pass, break, leak

№8 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the Predicates depending on the
meaning of Subject.

1. New methods were developed as a result of this experimental work. 2. Very high speed
developed when the jet engines appeared.3.New power plants without propellers were developed
in order to drive airplanes at sonic and supersonic speeds. 4. In this chapter equations are
developed for microscopic quantities. 5. Transistor oscillations can be used for the same
purposes as vacuum tubes only frequency and temperature limitations are met. 6. Several general
requirements should be met to match transistor stages in an amplifier.

№9 Translate the terms (Participle I + noun) into Russian.
Pattern: actuating mechanism
механизм --- какой? приводит в действие

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Русский термин: приводной механизм.
1. actuating pressure 5. reacting region
2. actuating cylinder 6. detecting element
3. translating system 7. adding element
4. halving circuit 8. alternating current
№10 Form the Adjectives using suffixes and translate them into Russian.
-ic: period, metr(e), atmospher(e)
-al: physic(s), natur(e), experiment, mathematics)
-able: valu(e), change, measur(e), compar(e)
-ant: import, resist
-ent: differ, insist
-ive: effect, act
-ful: help, wonder, use, power
-less: base, help, power, motion, weight.
№11 Translate the text.Underline all simple sentences in the text.

A drill chuck is a specialised self-centering, three-jaw chuck, usually with capacity of 0.5 in
(13 mm) or less, and rarely greater than 1 in (25 mm), used to hold drill bits or other rotary tools.
This type of chuck is used on tools ranging from professional equipment to inexpensive hand and
power drills for domestic use.
Some high-precision chucks use ball thrust bearings to reduce friction in the closing mechanism
and maximize drilling torque. One brand name for this type of chuck, which is often genericized
in colloquial use although not in catalogs, is Super Chuck.
A pin chuck is a specialized chuck designed to hold small drills (less than 1 mm (0.039 in) in
diameter) that could not be held securely in a normal drill chuck. The drill is inserted into the pin
chuck and tightened; the pin chuck has a shaft which is then inserted into the larger drill chuck to
hold the drill securely. Pin chucks are also used with high-speed rotary tools other than drills,
such as die grinders and jig grinders.

54

Top: an assembled keyless chuck. This type of chuck is tightened by twisting the body using
firm hand pressure only. While convenient, this feature can cause the chuck to tighten too much
when high torque is applied. Bottom: the widely used keyed type of drill chuck with its key. The
arbor is shown separately to the right. These chucks require a toothed key to provide the
necessary torque to tighten and loosen the jaws. When the key is turned its teeth mate with teeth
on the chuck, turning an internal screw which in turn moves the threaded jaws in or out along a
tapered surface. The taper allows the jaws to clamp drill shanks of a range of diameters. The end
view shows the three small jaws that slide within the body.

Two pin chucks. The top one is assembled, the lower one shows the body and nose cap
assembled with the collet piece below it.
№12 Translate the text. Make up 5 questions to the text.

Independent four-jaw chuck, with the jaws independently set. The key is used to adjust each jaw
separately.

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An older and larger 4 jaw chuck. Note how it is able to grip an irregularly cut piece of used
metal. Though not found on small chucks it is common for larger chucks (the one in the second
photo was made around 1900 and is 24" in diameter) to have many of the features of a faceplate.
The jaws are stepped on one side and full height for gripping on the other and are reversible.
Generally the jaws are usable for holding either outside as shown here, or inside as in gripping
the inside of a pipe.

On an independent-jaw chuck, each jaw can be moved independently. Because they most often
have four jaws, the term four-jaw chuck without other qualification is understood by machinists
to mean a chuck with four independent jaws. The independence of the jaws makes these chucks
ideal for (a) gripping non-circular cross sections and (b) gripping circular cross sections with
extreme precision (when the last few hundredths of a millimeter [or thousandths of an inch] of
runout must be manually eliminated). The non-self-centering action of the independent jaws
makes centering highly controllable (for an experienced user), but at the expense of speed and
ease. Four-jaw chucks are almost never used for tool holding. Four-jaw chucks can be found on
lathes and indexing heads.

Self-centering chucks with four jaws also can be obtained. Although these are often said to suffer
from two disadvantages: inability to hold hex stock, and poor gripping on stock which is oval,
only the latter is true. Even with three jaw self centering chucks, work which is not of uniform
section along the work (and which is not free of spiral or 'wind') should not be gripped, as the
jaws can be strained and the accuracy permanently impaired.

Four-jaw chucks can easily hold a workpiece eccentrically if eccentric features need to be
machined.

№13 Write out new words A spider is a simple, relatively

inexpensive, limited-capability version of an independent-jaw chuck. It typically consists of a

ring of metal with screw threads tapped radially into it, in which screws (hex cap, socket hex

cap, or set screws) serve as independent jaws. Spiders can serve various purposes:

 As auxiliary features that complement the main lathe chuck:
o To hold the bar or workpiece at the back end of the spindle bore and support it
concentrically, so that it resists wobbling or whipping while the spindle is turning.
Gun barrels and oil pipes are examples of workpieces that benefit.
o To hold the bar or workpiece at the tailstock end (thus serving as a steady rest) or
following the tool (thus serving as a follower rest).

 In place of the main lathe chuck (for particular workpieces that can benefit—for example,
in some gunsmithing work)

А) find the equivalent of a sentence from the text

Паук - это простая, относительно недорогая версия патрона с ограниченными
возможностями с независимой челюстью.

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№14 . Translate the following international words.
Radio, genius, human, priority, demonstrate, contribution, physical, chemical, university,
laboratories, problem, electromagnetic, communication, operation, apparatus, progress,
transmission, music, vision, signals, television, meeting, industry, period, centre, radar,
telecontrol, telemetric systems, electronic microscopes.
№15 Translate the following word combinations.
1.а deflecting pointer; 2. the deflection of rays; 3. to point the direction; 4. a point on the
diagram; 5. a thermometer’s scale; 6. reading of the scale; 7. actual reading of the scale; 8.
negative terminals; 9. connected with negative terminals; 10. to disturb the deception; 11. to
disturb radio communication; 12. air disturbances; 13. a turning armature; 14. an iron armature;
15. a magnetic coil; 16. through this distance; 17. through the field; 18. turns of a coil.
№16 Make up sentences, using the following word groups: “for the most part” , “in excess
of ” , “ as a whole”.
№17 Forms the words using the prefixes and translate them into Russian.
to construct, construction, to use, to take, to name,
to create, to group, to equip, production

№18 Translate the text.Separate the selected sentence into parts of speech.

Chuck with six jaws

1.For special purposes, chucks are available with six or eight jaws. These are usually of the self-
centering design, and may be built to very high standards of accuracy. However, it is a
misconception that such chucks necessarily offer more precision in holding solid workpieces
than conventional three-jawed self-centering chucks. Indeed, hot-rolled or other imperfectly
round workpieces may "teeter" insecurely between opposing jaws of scroll chucks having even
numbers of jaws, in the same manner that a four-legged stool teeters on a rough floor while a
three-legged stool never does. The primary purpose of six- and eight-jawed chucks is to hold

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thin-walled tubing with minimum deformation. By having twice as many clamping points, a
six-jaw chuck induces less than half as much clamping distortion in a thin-walled workpiece,
compared to a three-jawed chuck.

Two-jaw chucks are available and can be used with soft jaws (typically an aluminium alloy) that
can be machined to conform to a particular workpiece. It is a short conceptual leap from these to
faceplates holding custom fixtures, wherein the part is located against fixed stops and held there
with toggle clamps or toe clamps.

2. Many chucks have
removable jaws (often the top part is removable leaving the base or 'master jaw' assembled with
the scroll), which allows the user to replace them with new jaws, specialised jaws, or soft jaws.
Soft jaws are made of soft materials such as soft (unhardened) metal, plastic, or wood. They can
be machined as needed for particular setups. The typical interface between the master jaw and
the removable jaw is a matching pair of serrated surfaces, which, once clamped by the mounting
screws, cannot allow relative slipping between the two parts.

№19 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the different functions "would”.

1.If the temperature of the liquid should be raised, a large supply of more swiftly moving
molecules is provided. 2. Obviously, a flying machine should be stable. 3. It is necessary that
fuel lines should be protected against heat. 4. The thermonuclear reaction should not be
confused with the nuclear reaction such as takes place in the atom bomb. 5. It should be noted
that a multiple-step rocket always has a greater take-off mass than a single-step rocket. 6. A
molecule of water is the smallest possible particle of water. If we should divide the molecule we
no longer have water.

№20 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the different functions “should".

1.Heat would be absorbed until the temperature of the absorbing body attains that of the heat. 2.
Probably the early users of telephones never dreamed that there would be a wireless telephone. 3.
It would be useful to remember that the greater the vacuum, the more efficient the rocket
becomes. 4. If the Earth stayed in one place of its orbit, day and night would not change in
length. 5. If a “short-circuit” occurs at any place in a circuit, a very large current is caused to
flow, and this would heat up the connecting wires. 6. The earliest experiments in flight with
heavier-than-air machines were all based upon the conception, that result would be obtained by
imitating the motions of bird.

№21 Translate. Write out and transcribe the new vocabulary according to the text.Make a
crossword puzzle out of new words.

A collet, one type of chuck, is a sleeve with a (normally)
cylindrical inner surface and a conical outer surface. The collet can be squeezed against a
matching taper such that its inner surface contracts to a slightly smaller diameter, squeezing the
tool or workpiece whose secure holding is desired. Most often this is achieved with a spring
collet, made of spring steel, with one or more kerf cuts along its length to allow it to expand and
contract. An alternative collet design is one that has several tapered steel blocks (essentially

58

tapered gauge blocks) held in circular position (like the points of a star, or indeed the jaws of a
jawed chuck) by a flexible binding medium (typically synthetic or natural rubber). The Jacobs
Rubber-Flex brand is a name that most machinists would recognize for this type of collet chuck
system.

Regardless of the collet design, the operating principle is the same: squeeze the collet radially
against the tool or workpiece to be held, resulting in high static friction. Under correct
conditions, it holds quite securely. Almost all collet chucks achieve the radial squeezing motion
via moving one or more male-female pairs of tapered (conical) surfaces axially, which produces
the radial squeezing in a highly concentric manner. Depending on the collet design, it can be
either pulled (via a threaded section at the rear of the collet) or pushed (via a threaded cap with a
second taper) into a matching conical socket to achieve the clamping action. As the collet is
forced into the tapered socket, the collet will contract, gripping the contents of the inner cylinder.
(The axial movement of cones is not mandatory, however; a split bushing squeezed radially with
a linear force—e.g., set screw, solenoid, spring clamp, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder—
achieves the same principle without the cones; but concentricity can only be had to the extent
that the bushing's diameters are perfect for the particular object being held. Thus only in
toolroom contexts, such as machine tool tooling creation and setup, is this common.)

One of the corollaries of the conical action is that collets may draw the work axially a slight
amount as they close. Collet chuck systems that make no provision to prevent this draw-in are
often called draw-in collet chucks, in contrast to systems which circumvent this movement,
usually by pushing the tapered closing ring toward the collet rather than pulling the collet into
the ring. Such non-draw-in types are often called "dead-length" or "non-draw-in" collet chucks.
Draw-in is not always a problem, but avoiding it can be helpful on some work where failing to
account for it might result in inaccuracy on part overall length, shoulder lengths, etc.

Collets are most commonly found on milling machines, lathes, wood routers, precision grinders,
and certain handheld power tools such as die grinders and rotary tools. There are many different
systems, common examples being the ER, 5C, and R8 systems. Collets can also be obtained to fit
Morse or Brown and Sharpe taper sockets.

Typically collets offer higher levels of precision and accuracy than self-centering chucks, and
have a shorter setting up time than independent-jaw chucks. The penalty is that most collets can
only accommodate a single size of workpiece. An exception is the ER collet which typically has
a working range of 1 mm (about 0.04 in).

Collets usually are made to hold cylindrical work, but are available to hold square, hexagonal or
octagonal workpieces. While most collets are hardened, "emergency" collets are available that
can be machined to special sizes or shapes by the user. These collets can be obtained in steel,
brass, or nylon. Step collets are available that are machinable to allow holding of short
workpieces that are larger than the capacity of normal collets.

№22 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the different meanings: "because
"— потому что, ибо ”, “because of "— через, благодаря тому что, из-за ”.

1. Because our sense of temperature is not very reliable temperature measurements of our body
must be made with accurate thermometers. 2. The energy, which an object has its motion
because is called kinetic energy. 3. Because of the relative complexity of plasma accelerator
configurations, experiments are needed to determine the design of suitable plasma drive devices.
4. The problem of power generation from fusion reactors is very difficult because of he

59

difficulty of containing plasma. 5. Because the neutron is neutral the positive charge on the
nucleus does not affect it.

№23 Translate. Compose questions to the text
Diagram of an SDS chuck

Developed by Bosch in 1975 for hammer drills, the SDS System uses an SDS Shank which is a
cylindrical shank with indentations to be held by the chuck.[2] A tool is inserted into the chuck by
pressing in, and is locked in place until a separate lock release is used. The rotary force is
supplied through wedges that fit into two or three open grooves. The hammer action actually
moves the bit up and down within the chuck since the bit is free to move a short distance. Two
sprung balls fit into closed grooves, allowing movement whilst retaining the bit. SDS relies on a
tool having the same shank diameter as the chuck; there are four standard sizes:
SDS Quick

A 6 mm shank with two open grooves held by the driving wedges and two closed
grooves held by locking balls. This is the newest size for the Bosch Uneo series and takes
concrete drill up to 10 mm.[3]
SDS-Plus
A 10 mm shank with two open grooves held by the driving wedges and two closed
grooves held by locking balls. This is the most common size and takes a hammer up to
4 kg. The wedges grip an area of 75 mm2 (0.116 sq in) and the shank is inserted 40 mm
into the chuck.
SDS-top
A 14 mm shank similar to SDS-plus, designed for hammers from 2 to 5 kg. The grip area
is increased to 212 mm2 (0.329 sq in) and the shank is inserted 70 mm. This size is
uncommon.[4]
SDS-max

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An 18 mm shank with three open grooves and locking segments rather than balls. It is
designed for hammers over 5 kg. The wedges grip an area of 389 mm2 (0.603 sq in) and
the shank is inserted 90 mm.[5]

Many SDS drills have a "rotation off" setting, which allows the drill to be used for chiselling.
The name SDS comes from the German steck, dreh, sitzt (insert, twist, fits). German-speaking
countries may use Spannen durch System (Clamping System), though Bosch uses Special Direct
System for international purposes.[6]

№24 Translate the following words, pay attention to the meaning ■ of prefixes “over-, inter-,
under- ”.

over-

inter-

under-
to overestimate

to intercharge

to underestimate

to overcharge

to interact
to undercharge
to overvalue

to intermix

to undervalue

to overheat

international
to undergo
to overcool

interstellar

to understand

to overload

the interchange

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underground

to overpay

interconnection

№25 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the functions “to have, to be ”.

1. All modem direct-current dynamos have more than two poles. 2. A number of ingenious
methods have been devised for observing atomic collisions. 3. In a actual gas not all atoms have
the same speed, some travel more slowly and others more rapidly than the average. 4. After
bullet has come to rest in the block, both block and bullet have the common velocity V. 5. When
aircraft are in flight they have of course from time to time to report their position. 6. The Earth is
supposed to have a shape similar to the shape of a ball.

№26

Commercial production machining now makes use of increasingly advanced chucks which have
not only indexable positioning but also indexable clamping.[7] Both functions are typically
hydraulically controlled. The clamping is often done with each pair of jaws consisting of one
fixed jaw and one movable jaw (hydraulically actuated), thematically similar to advanced milling
vises. This method of clamping brings the high precision and repeatability of such vises to a
chucking application. Such chucks offer the centering precision of traditional independent-jaw
chucks with the chucking speed and ease of traditional three-jaw self-centering scroll chucks.
They have expensive initial cost (compared with traditional chucks), but such initial cost pays for
itself and then lowers ongoing marginal costs in commercial production-run environments.

It is also possible nowadays to build CNC chucks in which the position and clamping pressure of
each jaw can be precisely controlled with CNC, via closed-loop positioning and load monitoring.
In essence, each jaw is one independent CNC axis, a machine slide with a leadscrew, and all four
or six of them can act in concert with each other. Although this idea is conceptually interesting,
the simpler chucking systems mentioned in the previous paragraph are probably a marketplace
winner over this alternative for most applications, because they supply the same capabilities via a
simpler, less expensive solution.

Used for holding ferromagnetic workpieces, a magnetic chuck consists of an accurately centred
permanent magnet face. Electromagnets or permanent magnets are brought into contact with
fixed ferrous plates, or pole pieces, contained within a housing. These pole pieces are usually
flush with the housing surface. The part (workpiece) to be held forms the closing of the magnetic
loop or path, onto those fixed plates, providing a secure anchor for the workpiece.

Commonly used for holding silicon wafers during
lithography processes, an electrostatic chuck comprises a metal base-plate and a thin dielectric
layer; the metal base-plate is maintained at a high-voltage relative to the wafer, and so an

62

electrostatic force clamps the wafer to it. Electrostatic chucks may have pins, or mesas, the
height of which is included in the reported dielectric thickness; a design by Sandia National
Laboratory uses a patterned silicon-dioxide dielectric to form the pins.[8]

A vacuum chuck is primarily used on non-ferrous
materials, such as copper, bronze, aluminium, titanium, plastics, and stone. In a vacuum chuck,
air is pumped from a cavity behind the workpiece, and atmospheric pressure provides the
holding force. Vacuum produces a hold down pressure of 14.7 psi (101 kPa) at sea level,
decreasing at higher elevations where the atmospheric pressure is lower. The decrease in holding
pressure is roughly 0.5 psi per 1000' above sea level.[citation needed]
№27 Translate the following stable expressions into Russian.

And there we go ...

The idea of it...

The case stands ...

More to the point...

By all means...

None any too ...

Can I help you ...

This is it...

Certain as the rising sun ..'.
№28 Read it.Make a text plan.Translate the text. Sort the highlighted sentences by
composition.

He original forms of workholding on lathes were between-centers holding and ad hoc fastenings
to the headstock spindle. The spike-style centers still used on wood lathes represent an ancient
method. Ad hoc fastening methods in centuries past included anything from pinning with
clenching or wedging; nailing; lashing with cords of leather or fiber; dogging down (again
involving pinning/wedging/clenching); or other types. Faceplates have probably been around at
least since the era of medieval clock-makers.
The Jacobs type chuck, with three converging splines or jaws, is perhaps the most usual
design. This one is tightened with a key, but some types may be sufficiently tightened by hand

63

Tooling similar to today's chucks seems likely to have evolved from faceplate work, as
workers using faceplates for repetitive work began to envision types of clamps or dogs for
the faceplate that could be opened and closed in more convenient ways than repeated total
disassembly and reassembly. A chock was originally just a lump of wood. However, by 1703 it
could be "… Chocks, belonging to the Screw-Mandrel". By 1807 the word had changed to the
more familiar 'chuck: "On the end of the spindle … is screwed … a universal Chuck for holding
any kind of work".

In late 1818 or early 1819 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and
Commerce awarded its silver medal and 10 guineas (£10.50 – equivalent to £814 in 2020[11]) to
Mr. Alexander Bell for a three jaw lathe chuck:

The instrument can be screwed into … the mandrel of a lathe, and has three studs projecting
from its flat surface, forming an equi-lateral triangle, and are capable of being moved equably to,
or from, its centre.

It is not clear how they were moved "equably" whether by a scroll or some other means.
Later in 1819 the same body awarded a further silver medal to Mr. T. Hack for a four jaw chuck.
In the United States Simon Fairman (1792–1857) developed a recognisable modern scroll chuck
as used on lathes.The patent refers to the technicalities of assembly, he does not claim invention
of the scroll ("convolute grooves"). His son-in-law Austin F. Cushman (1830–1914) developed
the ideas and sold chucks through his business, Cushman Industries.

№ 29. Translate the following words with the prefixes: semi-, trans-, non-.

semiconductor n

semicircle n

semimonocoque adj semiautomatic adj

non-conductor n

non-essential adj

non-standard adj

nondurable adj

transatlantic adj

transoceanic adj

transcontinental alj

30. Translate the following word combinations and make up the sentences using them.

64

Industrial purposes, the application of electrical energy, the invention of electronic devices,
considerably enlarged, has, it possible to solve, currents, the problem of obtaining high-
frequency, are the basis, of radioengineering, television, and other branches, of modem
engineering.

№31 Translate the sentence.Fill in the table with the words from the sentence. The

Jacobs type chuck, with three converging splines or jaws, is perhaps the most usual design. This

one is tightened with a key, but some types may be sufficiently tightened by hand.

сходиться
конструкция
затягивать
ключ

№ 32 Insert words into sentences.

Arthur Irving Jacobs (1858–1918)

At the ____of the 20th century, Arthur Irving Jacobs _______the modern drill chuck.
_____bruising his knuckles on one of the old-fashioned spanner adjusted drill chucks, he
developed a chuck in which the jaws moved axially in inclined slots. His patent of 1902 details
the mechanism.[ The term_____ clearly did not originate with him, but his new type of drill
chuck long ago displaced any earlier types that lacked the angled jaw movement and outer sleeve
now found on all common____ chucks.
Start, developed, аfter,drill chuck, drill
№33 Translate!

Lathe is still the most important machine-tool. It produces parts of circular cross-section by
turning the workpiece on its axis and cutting its surface with a sharp stationary tool. The tool
may be moved sideways to produce a cylindrical part and moved towards the workpiece to

65

control the depth of cut. Nowadays all lathes are power-driven by electric motors. That allows
continuous rotation of the workpiece at a variety of speeds. The modern lathe is driven by means
of a headstock supporting a hollow spindle on accurate bearings and carrying or a faceplate
either a chuck, to which the workpiece is clamped. The movement of the tool, both along the
lathe bed and at right angle to it, can be accurately controlled, so enabling a part to be machined
to close tolerances. Modern lathes are often under numerical control.

Пояснения к тексту:

circular cross-section – круглое сечение

a cylindrical part – цилиндрическая часть

continuous rotation - непрерывное вращение

1. Найдите соответствующие ответы на вопрос и напишите их в той
последовательности, в которой заданы вопросы:

1. What parts can be made with lathes?

2. How can the cutting tool be moved on a lathe?

3. How is the workpiece clamped in a lathe?

4. Can we change the speeds of workpiece rotation in a lathe?

5. What is numerical control of machine tools used for?

А) The tool may be moved sideways

Б) It produces parts of circular cross-section

В) Driven by electric motors allows continuous rotation of the workpiece at a variety of speeds

Г) А faceplate either a chuck, to which the workpiece is clamped.

Д) Сan be accurately controlled, so enabling a part to be machined to close tolerances.

2. Закончите предложения, выбрав соответствующие варианты
1. Lathe is…
А) driven by means
Б) often under numerical control
С) the most important machine-tool
2. It produces…

66

А) parts of circular cross-section

Б) The movement of the tool

С) The tool may be moved sideways

3. Modern lathes are…

А) the most important machine-tool

Б) often under numerical control

С) driven by means of a headstock

3. Найдите в правой колонке русский эквиваленты английских слов и
словосочетаний

1. the depth of cut А. поворачивать деталь вокруг ее оси
2. circular cross-section Б. современный токарный станок
3. Modern lathe С. цифровое управление
4. numerical control Д. глубина резания
5. turning the workpiece on its axis Е. детали круглого сечения

№34 Translate!

Quenching is in a heat treatment when metal at a high temperature is rapidly cooled by
immersion water or oil. Quenching makes steel harder and more brittle, with small grains
structure.

Tempering is a heat treatment applied to steel and certain alloys. Hardened steel after quenching
from a high temperature is too hard and brittle for many applications and is also brittle.
Tempering, that is re-heating to an intermediate temperature and cooling slowly, reduces this
hardness and brittleness. Tempering temperatures depend on the composition of the steel but are
frequently between 100 and 650 °C. Higher temperatures usually give a softer, tougher product.
The colour of the oxide film produced on the surface of the heated metal often serves as the
indicator of its temperature.

Annealing is a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is cooled slowly. After
cooling the metal again becomes malleable and ductile (capable of being bent many times
without cracking).

All these methods of steel heat treatment are used to obtain steels with certain mechanical
properties for certain needs. •

Пояснения к тексту:

annealing - обжигание •

67

steel heat treatment - стальная термическая обработка
ductile - гибкий

1. Найдите соответствующие ответы на вопрос и напишите их в той
последовательности, в которой заданы вопросы:

What can be done to obtain harder steel?
А) Tempering is a heat treatment applied to steel and certain alloy
Б) Quenching makes steel harder and more brittle, with small grains structure
В) Higher temperatures usually give a softer, tougher product

What makes steel more soft and tough?
А) Higher temperatures usually give a softer, tougher product
Б) Quenching makes steel harder and more brittle, with small grains structure
В). Annealing is a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is cooled slowly

What makes steel more malleable and ductile?
А) Annealing is a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is cooled slowly
Б) Higher temperatures usually give a softer, tougher productс)
В) Quenching makes steel harder and more brittle, with small grains structure

What can serve as the indicator of metal temperature while heating it?
А) Tempering is a heat treatment applied to steel and certain alloys
Б) . Hardened steel after quenching from a high temperature is too hard and brittle for many
applications and is also brittle
В) The colour of the oxide film produced on the surface of the heated metal often serves as the
indicator of its temperature.

What are the methods of steel heat treatment used for?
А) All these methods of steel heat treatment are used to obtain steels with certain mechanical
properties for certain needs. •
Б) Annealing is a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is cooled slowly
В) Higher temperatures usually give a softer, tougher product

68

2. Закончите предложения, выбрав соответствующие варианты

Quenching is…

А) rapidly cooled by immersion

Б) a heat treatment when metal at a high temperature is rapidly cooled by immersion in water or
oil.

С) a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is cooled slowly

Tempering is…

А) a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is cooled slowly

Б) re-heating to an intermediate temperature and cooling slowly, reduces this hardness and
brittleness.

В) a heat treatment applied to steel and certain alloys

Annealing is…

А) too hard and brittle for many applications and is also brittle

Б) a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is cooled slowly

В) rapidly cooled by immersion water or oil.

3.Найдите в правой колонке русский эквиваленты английских слов и
словосочетаний

1. высокая температура А. small grains structure
2. индикатор температуры Б. cooling
3 .охлаждение С high temperature
4.мелкозернистая структура Д. indicator of temperature.
5. обработка Е. treatment

№35 Insert the missing word combinations.Translate!

__________standards are used to standardize the definitions, requirements, and test methods
used for the performance evaluation of chucks. Selection of the standard to be used is an
agreement between the supplier and the user and has some significance in_____________. In the
United States, ASME has developed the B5.60 Standard entitled Workholding Chucks: Jaw-
Type Chucks, which establishes requirements and methods for specifying and testing the
performance ____________used primarily in turning operations.

National and international

69

of workholding chucks
the design of the chuck
№36 Fill in the sentences with the words from the box
elatives son daughter wife husband parents brother-in-law,sister-in-law nephew niece
grandson granddaughter

All the people here are _________.
2. Luke is Dave and
Maggie’s _______.
3. Karen is Dave and Maggie’s ________.
4. Maggie is Dave’s ________.
5. Dave is Maggie’s ________.
6.
Elsie and Alf are Maggie’s_______.
7. Dave is Paul’s _______.
8. Jane is Maggie’s _______.
9. James is Maggie’s _______.
10. Karen is P
aul’s ______.
11. Luke is Elsie’s ______.
12. Jessica is Elsie’s _____

70

1.3 Измерительный инструмент

Штангельциркуль цеховой Caliper shop
Caliper workshop lightweight design
Штангельциркуль цеховой облегченная
micrometer
конструкция Micrometer with digital indicator
Micrometer with digital readout device
микрометр
Ceramic Positional measuring stand
Микрометр с цифровым индикаторм
Shtangenreysmas
Микрометрвнутромер с цифровым Digital shtangenreysmas
Reysmas
отсчетным устройством roulette
Roulette with a magnet
Керамическая презиционная Laser rangefinders
Manual LED Strobe Light
измерительная стойка Voltage indicator
Digital dynamometer device
Штангенрейсмус Caliper Control Kit
Magnifier with backlight
Цифровые штангенрейсмусы Mantis with flexible tripod
Lynx LED
Рейсмас Measuring video Microscope CNC
Digital magnifying device
рулетка Magnetic Spherical table
Flexible Endoscope
Рулетка с магнитом Ultrasonic measuring device
altimeter
Лазерные дальномеры Shtangenglubinometers
Calibration plates
Ручной светодиодный стробоскоп prism
stand
Индикатор напряжения square
angle meter
Цифровой динамометрический прибор Marking tool
level
Набор для контроля штангенциркулей roulette
rangefinder
Лупа с подсветкой chronometer
scales
Mantisс гибким штативом tachometer
Voltage indicator
Светодиод Lynx

Измерительный видиомикроскоп CNC

Цифровой увеличительный прибор

Магнитный сферический стол

Гибкий эндоскоп

Ультразвуковой измерительный прибор

высотомер

Штангинглубинометры

Поверочные плиты

призма

стенд

угольник

углометр

Разметочный инструмент

уровень

рулетка

дальномер

хронометр

весы

тахометр

Индикатор напряжения

71

№1 Translate the text into Russian.Write down the main information in the text.Compose
questions to the text.

Micrometers (otherwise known as micrometer screw gauges) are essential measurement tools
used by mechanical engineers, machinists and workers in other technical trades. They enable
workers to take extremely fine measurements, which may be displayed in either imperial or
metric formats.
Micrometers allow for a greater degree of measuring accuracy than alternative tools, such as dial
calipers and vernier calipers. They are available in digital, dial, and vernier styles. The term
'micrometer' can be traced back to neoclassical Greece and literally translates as ‘small measure.’
Different types of micrometers have measuring ranges of between 25mm and 1 inch. This
translates to the incremental metric measurements of 0-25mm, 25-50mm, 50-75mm and so on.
The imperial versions are equal to 0-1 inches, 1-2 inches, 2-3 inches etc. Boxed micrometer sets
can also be used for the purpose of taking micrometer readings across a wide range of sizes.

In order to understand how a micrometer works, you should first consider the key components of
the tool. Analysis of the components should also further your understanding of how to read a
micrometer.

Micrometer frames are c-shaped and ensure the optimum positioning of the anvil and barrel.
Frames may take a variety of shapes and sizes, allowing for desirable functionality of the
micrometer. The hub-shaped frame is ideal for taking highly accurate measurements in confined
spaces.

72

The micrometer anvil should be noticeably shiny. It should ensure that the spindle gravitates
towards the object, which is firmly secured. The anvil will be kept in consistent contact with the
part and may chip unless a high level of care is taken. Quality models typically come complete
with carbide-tipped micrometer anvils, which allow for an extended tool-life.

The round micrometer sleeve or barrel is kept securely in place and features the linear scale. It is
also quite common for vernier markings to be found on this part of the micrometer. This scale
allows highly accurate measurements to be taken in degrees of .0001.

The spindle micrometer locking nut is a particularly helpful feature when it comes to
maintaining awareness of the measurement and securing the spindle for small lot gauging. Some
micrometers come complete with lock nuts, while others have locking levers. Where possible, it
is advisable to choose the locking lever variety due to the relative ease of use and maintenance.

73

Situated next to the measuring faces, the micrometer spindle is projected towards the anvil as a
direct result of contact with the thimble.

You should gently apply pressure from the thumb in order to turn the micrometer thimble. This
part features graduated markings, which should be easy to read.

The micrometer ratchet stop can be found on the end of the handle and it restricts the amount of
pressure by enabling movement at a calibrated torque.

74

Micrometers feature a calibrated screw, or thread, which is located within the spindle and allows
for the device's exceptional levels of measuring accuracy. The screw within the micrometer is
used for the conversion of particularly small distances for measurement. The spindle can be
moved by turning the ratchet knob or thimble until there is light contact between the spindle and
anvil. Each 360-degree turn of the spindle has the effect of adjusting the space between the
measuring displays by 0.05 in metric and 0.025 inches in imperial.

The thread pitch of the needle has a direct bearing on the level of measuring precision. The
spindle is machine-screwed to a very high level of accuracy, with the object being measured
positioned directly between the spindle and anvil. Some micrometers feature differential screws,
which allow for particularly great levels of measuring accuracy.

It is highly important to maintain the stability of any object that you are measuring with a
micrometer. The object should be kept parallel to the anvils and a consistent level of pressure
should be applied when taking the measurement.

The integrated ratchet thimble will ensure a high level of measuring accuracy, with this key part
functioning as an integrated torque wrench. The process should continue with the turning of the
ratchet handle until a repeated clicking is heard. This will provide the assurance of taking the
measurement with a consistent level of torque.

Digital micrometers feature electrical circuits, which allow for digital measurement and
exceptionally accurate readings. The measurement will be displayed clearly on the LCD screen.

Micrometers are
specially designed for the measurement of very small objects. They allow for the highly precise
measurement of any item that fits between the anvil and spindle. Standard types of micrometers
can be used for the fine measurement of items under one inch in length, depth, and thickness.
However, there are some advanced models that allow more precise measurements to be taken.
There is also the option of investing in anvil micrometers for the measurement of diversely
shaped and sized objects. Portability, ease of use, and measuring consistency are just a few of the
key micrometer advantages.

75

There are various different types
of micrometer available, each suited to varying uses and applications. Outside micrometers are
one of the most widely used varieties, but inside and depth micrometers are alternatives which
may be more appropriate for use in certain scenarios. Below are some of the most common types
of micrometers:

Ball micrometers have spherical anvils.
They are used for purposes such as measuring the thickness of walls and establishing the
distances between holes and edges. As opposed to tube micrometers, the ball variety can be used
to correctly identify the measurement of alternative rounded surfaces.

Integrated with decoders for the effective identification of distance, these micrometers present
measurements in a digital format.

This type of micrometer comes complete with matching narrow tips, or blades.They are
particularly helpful when it comes to the measurement of specifically shaped objects, such as
those with O-ring grooves.

76

Designed to measure the thickness of tubes, tube micrometers feature cylindrical anvils which
are located perpendicular to the spindle. They allow for quick and accurate measurements when
compared with alternative tools.

These come complete with interchangeable anvils, which may be flat, spherical, spline, disk,
blade, point, or knife edge. You may be expected to use universal micrometers featuring modular
components, which allow for outside, mic depth, or alternative functionality.

Otherwise known as the thread mic, this tool features a specially designed set of thread-shaped
tips for successful identification of the screw thread diameter.

Particularly well suited to measuring the
thickness of tubes, micrometer limit mics come complete with two anvils and two spindles,
functioning as effective snap gauges. The gaps correspond directly to the upper and lower
tolerance levels.

77

Commonly featuring a three-anvil head in combination with a solid base, bore micrometers are
ideally suited to the accurate measurement of inside diameters. They are particularly helpful
when it comes to the measurement of objects situated around machine fluids and coolants.

Bench micrometers offer extremely high levels of accuracy and are typically used during
workplace inspections. They allow for measurement up to somewhere in the region of 20
millionths of an inch, with a repeatability of around a quarter of a millimetre.

Purpose-made for external measurement, V
micrometers come complete with small V-blocks for the anvil. They are ideally suited to the
measurement of circle diameter, with equidistant separation of three points. This allows for the
effective measurement of three-flute end-mills and twist drills.

Micrometers are the ideal tool for the measurement of cylindrical and spherical shaped objects.
In order to use a micrometer, you should follow these steps:

1. Take time to acquaint yourself with the main technical terms
2. Clean the micrometer, using a soft cloth to remove any marks and debris from between

the anvil and spindle
3. Begin by positioning the item being measured next to the anvil. It is important to keep the

object stable and avoid any scratching. You may control the micrometer with your free
hand, or alternatively, there is the option of using a stationary vise, leaving both of your
hands free for control of the micrometer
4. Spin the ratchet anti-clockwise, ensuring that the 0 mark on the thimble is positioned in
accordance with the sleeve scale. Keep twisting until the spindle is within close contact
of the object; three clicks is a good guide
5. The thimble lock should be applied while the micrometer is within close proximity of the
object. It should be possible to adjust the spindle as required. Once you are confident that
the micrometer has fulfilled its function you can remove the object, taking care to avoid
scratching the anvil and spindle surfaces
6. Finally, record the reading, ensuring that the spindle is kept stable

The following sections will give you more information on how to read specific types of
micrometers:

78

When using a metric micrometer, It is necessary to acquaint yourself with the number scales
that are displayed on the micrometer thimbles. It is common for the top line of the sleeve to
feature millimetres, with the line below that featuring half millimetres.

The reading of the metric micrometer should begin with recording the number of millimetres. An
initial reading of 7 would correspond to 7mm. Each half mark on the thimble should be taken
into account. This means carefully reading the lower bar and correctly identifying the
corresponding number of 0.01mm.

Using a micrometer integrated with the vernier scale, the reading should be taken from the sleeve
index line. This allows for precise readings, within 0.001mm. The initial reading should be taken
from the sleeve. The measurements are likely to be featured in intervals of 0.25 millimetres or
0.025 inches.

The next step is to take the reading from the thimble. These measurements are likely to be
featured in 0.1 millimetre or 0.01-inch intervals. The final reading should be taken from the
vernier scale, which you will find on the sleeve, directly adjacent to the first set of graduations.

The vernier micrometer reading is displayed in the format of 0.001 mm or 0.0001 inches,
establishing the size of the object with extreme accuracy.

You should be aware that fluctuations in temperature are likely to adversely affect the
micrometer reading. Remember not to keep your micrometer in your pocket or within a working
environment with excessive heat levels.

The spindle of an imperial micrometer features graduated levels of 40 threads per inch. Each
turn results in movement of the spindle around an axis of 0.0025 inches, which equates to the
area between adjacent graduations on the sleeve.

There are 25 graduations on the thimble, meaning that the measurements can be divided the
corresponding number of times. The visible reading corresponds directly to the number of whole
divisions that are featured on the sleeve scale, multiplied by 25. This means that the resulting
diameter is displayed in thousandths of an inch.

This section details how to convert your micrometer result into another measurement unit.

79

The quickest and easiest way to convert micrometers (um) to millimetres is to divide by 1000.
An alternative method is to move the decimal point three units to the left of the original figure.

There are 25,400 micrometers to every inch, with 1 metre being equivalent to 1,000,000
micrometers. You should also be aware that each micrometer equals 3.9×10e-5 (with e meaning
to the power of).

1um is equivalent to 0.0001cm (otherwise written as10e-4).

To make sure that your micrometer returns accurate data, you will need to ensure that your tool
is kept calibrated.

Standard one-inch micrometers have readout divisions of 0.001 inch and an accuracy level of
±0.0001 inch. However, you must ensure that both the micrometer and the object being
measured are at room temperature for this high level of accuracy.
The micrometer reading test will involve the measurement of guide blocks in order to ascertain
the desirable accuracy. If such a gauge block is known to be 0.75000 ±0.00005inch then the
micrometer should give a reading of 0.7500 inch. If the corresponding measurement is 0.7503 or
more, then the micrometer will be deemed to be out of calibration.
If you want to avoid such calibration issues then you must take an exceptional level of care,
carefully cleaning, using, and storing the micrometer for continued use. It might be necessary to

80

perform micrometer adjustment and recalibration in some instances. However, adjustment won’t
be sufficient when it comes to correcting issues such as the micrometer being misshapen or of
the incorrect size. Repair will be necessary for such instances.

The following steps explain how to calibrate a micrometer and adjust it to zero.

 Before proceeding to calibration, it is necessary to ensure that the tool is working
effectively and that there aren’t any binding or related issues. You should clean the anvils
and make sure that the reading is set to zero

 The next step will be to check the micrometer at a range of test points using gauge blocks
or alternative standards with high levels of accuracy. A variety of readings should be
taken at each test point. The tolerance level of the particular micrometer should be taken
into account when writing down the readings

 It is highly likely that your micrometer features a small pin spanner. This should allow
for the turning of the sleeve in relation to the barrel, ensuring the optimum repositioning
of the zero line in relation to the thimble markings

 You can expect to find a small hole in the sleeve, designed for acceptance of the
spanner’s pin. In following this calibration process, you will have the assurance of
avoiding the non-zero error, which may otherwise occur when the jaws are shut. You are
advised to repeat the zeroing process a few times for the assurance of micrometer
accuracy

If the zero mark on the thimble does not correspond with the datum line on the main scale then
there will be a zero error. The reading on the main scale should also equal zero.

The micron is a measurement of one-millionth of a metre, while the micrometer is a measuring
tool featuring a calibrated screw.

Micrometer accuracy may be considered in relation to two key factors - the accuracy of the
screw thread (or digital scale), and any process errors. The expected accuracy of a micrometer as
established using the Vernier scale is 0.01mm.

Micrometers and Vernier calipers are both commonly used to establish the sizes of different
objects. However, there is some contrast between the efficiency and usage of each of these tools.
Calipers might be used to establish physical dimensions, interior measurements, exterior

81

measurements and depths. However, micrometers are generally used for more specific purposes
such as measuring exterior or inside dimensions. The expected accuracy of Vernier calipers is
typically between ±0.001, with the accuracy of micrometers generally being ±0.00005.
For more information, check out our complete guide to calipers.
The least count of a manually operated micrometer is 0.01mm. The least count of a digital
micrometer is 0.001mm.
The micrometer symbol as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is μm. The
micrometer is an SI derived unit of length which equals 1×10−6 metre (SI standard prefix
"micro-" = 10−6), equivalent to one-millionth of a metre or one-thousandth of a millimetre.
1 micro is equivalent to 1,000 nanos.

82

1.4.Шлифовальный интсрумент

Слесарные напильники hand file

Специальные напильники special files

Напильники для заточки пил saw doctor

рашпили rasp-file

напильный filed

рифленый fluted

Алмазные напильники Diamond files

Ручки для напильников File handles

Твердосплавные HSS-борфрезы Carbide HSS burrs

Гравировальные борфрезы Engraving burrs

Алмазная головка Diamond head

Шлифовальная головка grinding head

Полировочная головка polishing head

Абразивные ленты Abrasive belts

наконечники tips

Нетканные материалы Nonwovens

бруски bars

холст canvas

Обдирочные круги Roughing wheels

Алмазные круги diamond circles

Волокнистые круги fibrous circles

Лепестковые круги petal circles

Шлифовальные круги grinding wheels

Полировочный инструмент polishing tool

Технические машинные кордщетки Technical machine brushes

Ручные полотна Handmade canvases

Ножовочные полотна Hacksaw blades

Сабельные полотна Saber blades

Коронки по металлу Crowns for metal

Дисковые пилы по дереву Circular saws for wood

Ручные пилы Hand saws

Набор напильников универсальный Universal file set

Абразивная шкурка с расширенным Abrasive paper with extended grit size

диапазоном размеров зерна range

Керамическое зерно ceramic grain

Шлифовальные тарелки Sanding pads

Цилиндрическая щетка для удаления Cylindrical wire deburring brush

заусенцев из проволоки

Трубные щетки с хвостиком Tube brushes with tail
Алмазный отрезной диск Diamond cutting disc
Малогабаритное борфрезы Small-sized burrs

83

Эльборовые шлифовальные головки Elbor grinding heads
Шлифовальная система Sanding system
Круги Bristleдля специальной очистки Bristle discs for special cleaning

№1 translate the text! Write down new combinations of technical words.

File (tool)

A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It is common in
woodworking, metalworking, and other similar trade and hobby tasks. Most are hand tools, made
of a case hardened steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with one or
more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth. A narrow, pointed tang is common at one
end, to which a handle may be fitted.[1]

A rasp is a form of file with distinct, individually cut teeth used for coarsely removing large
amounts of material.[2]

Files have also been developed with abrasive surfaces, such as natural or synthetic diamond
grains or silicon carbide, allowing removal of material that would dull or resist steel files, such
as ceramic.

№2 Translate the text. Compose questions to the text.

While conditions leading to poor adhesion have been well investigated, methods for addressing
the problems have not. The main adhesion enhancer used on railway networks world wide is
sand. Sanding is used in train operations to improve adhesion in both braking and traction. In
braking it is used to ensure that the train stops in as short a distance as possible. It usually occurs
automatically when the train driver selects emergency braking. Sanding in traction, however, is a
manual process. The train driver must determine when to apply the sand and how long the
application should last.

84

The sand is supplied from a hopper mounted under the train. Compressed air is used to blow
the sand out of a nozzle attached to the bogie and directed at the wheel–rail contact region (see

following figure). In most systems the sand is blown at a constant flow rate, but some can

provide a variable flow rate.

While sanding is effective and easy to use, it can potentially cause complex and costly problems
relating to both rolling stock and track infrastructure. Sand application has been shown to
increase wear rates of both wheel and rail materials by up to an order of magnitude. Maintenance
of sanders and control of sand build-up around track adhesion trouble spots are also issues that
require particular attention.

Very high positive friction modifiers to enhance the coefficient of friction to 0.4 – 0.6
are available, but are really only in the development stage. There are a number of different
products available, but most involve a solid stick of material that is applied directly to the wheel
tread.

During autumn, when leaf fall occurs, leaf mulch is compressed in the wheel – rail contact
andforms an extremely hard layer on the rail surface. This layer can cause adhesion loss
problems, as already mentioned, but is also extremely hard to remove. A number of methods are
used including using high pressure water-jets and blasting with Sandite (a mixture of sand and
aluminum oxide particles), and a new system has now been developed that involves using a high
power laser to burn away the layer. All of these, however, in the U.K., are applied by
maintenance trains, of which there are very few, and gaining track access is extremely difficult.
Water-jets and Sandite also have knock-on effects, which may be detrimental to the track
infrastructure.

№3 Choose the correct answer in the test.

Вариант 1 Вариант 2

1. They ______ tennis at the sports ground two 1. My brother _______his face every

days ago. morning.

 a/ play  a/ are washing
 b/plays  b/ washes
 c/is playing  c/ wash

85

 d/ played  d/ is washing

2. We _______ TV now. 2. What ____ you ___ here now?

 a/ is watching  a/do ___do
 b/ watch  b/ does___doing
 c/ are watching  c/ is ___does
 d/ watches  d/ are ___doing

3. He _____ often_____in the swimming pool. 3. Mary _______coffee 10 minutes ago.

 a/don’t swim  a/ drink
 b/ isn’t swimming  b/ is drinking
 c/didn’t swim  c/ drank
 d/doesn’t swim  d/ drinks

4. She is eating vegetables ___. 4. We clean teeth_______.

 a/ yesterday  a/every morning
 b/ usually  b/now
 c/now  c/yesterday
 d/every day  d/tomorrow

5. We had an English lesson ________. 5. Where ____Tom and Nick yesterday ?

 a/now  a/is
 b/last Tuesday  b/be
 c/usually  c/were
 d/every day  d/are

6. I __________ history lessons every day. 6._______he _____exercises three days
ago?
 a/didn’t have
 b/isn’t had  a/Do – did
 c/don’t have  b/Is – doing
 d/doesn’t has  c/Does – do
 d/Did – do
7. Lena ____prepares her homework at home.
7. We went to the cinema ____.
 a/ yesterday
 b/ now  a/last week
 c/always  b/every day
 d/ last week  c/now
 d/usually

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8. I _____get up at 7 o’clock. 8. He ______his face at a quarter past
seven.
 a/last week
 b/now  a/washes
 c/often  b/is washing
 d/yesterday  c/washed
 d/wash
9. He ______his face at a quarter past seven.
9. I _____ to bed at ten o'clock yesterday.
 a/washes
 b/is washing  a/went
 c/wash  b/go
 d/are washing  c/goes
 d/goed
10. Нe (to play) volleyball.
10. She (to write) a letter.
 a/ now
 b/ usually  a/ every week
 c/ yesterday  b/ last week
 d/ every day  c/ now
 d/ yesterday
11. He_______ football now.
11. Mary _______coffee yesterday.
 a/ played
 b/ played  a/ drink
 c/ is playing  b/ is drinking
 d/ play  c/ drank
 d/ drinks
12. I ______my homework every day.
12. We _______a Zoo tomorrow.
 a/ has – done
 b/ have - do  a/ visit
 c/ has – did  b/will visit
 d/ have – done  c/has visit
 d/visited
№4
Вариант 1 Вариант 2
1. We __аlready___ TV . 1. What ____ you ___ yesterday?

 a/ is watching  a/do ___do
 b/ watch  b/ do___doing
 c/have watched  c/ did ___do
 d/ watches  d/ are ___doing

87

2. He _____in the swimming pool every day. 2. Mary often______coffee .

 a/don’t swim  a/ drink
 b/ isn’t swimming  b/ is drinking
 c/hasn’t swum  c/ drank
 d/doesn’t swim  d/ drinks

3. She has ____eaten vegetables. 3. He is cleaning teeth_______.

 a/ yesterday  a/every morning
 b/ usually  b/now
 c/now  c/yesterday
 d/just  d/tomorrow

4. They ______ tennis at the sports ground two 4. Мy sisters _______their faces every

days ago. morning.

 a/ play  a/ has washed
 b/will play  b/ washes
 c/is playing  c/ wash
 d/ played  d/ is washing

5. I ________ Maths lessons every day. 5. _______he already____exercises?

 a/didn’t have  a/Do – did
 b/isn’t had  b/Has – done
 c/have  c/Does – do
 d/doesn’t has  d/Did – do

6. We are having an English lesson ________. 6. Where ____Tom and Nick now ?

 a/now  a/is
 b/last Tuesday  b/be
 c/usually  c/were
 d/every day  d/are

7. I _____get up at 7 o’clock. 7. He ______his face at a quarter past
seven.
 a/tomorrow
 b/next week  a/washes
 c/often  b/is washing
 d/yesterday  c/now
 d/will wash

8. Lena is helping her mother about the 8. We went to the cinema ____.
house____.

 a/last week

88

 a/ yesterday  b/just
 b/ now  c/now
 c/always  d/usually
 d/ last week

9. She ___already____the dishes. 9. He___ just ___to bed.

 a/washes  a/went
 b/is washing  b/has gone
 c/has washed  c/have gone
 d/will wash  d/goed

10. He___ just____ hockey . 10. Mary ____tea yesterday.

 a/ played  a/ drink
 b/ has played  b/ is drinking
 c/ is playing  c/ drank
 d/ will play  d/ drinks

11. I ___already____ my homework. 11. We _______a Zoo tomorrow.

 a/ do  a/ visit
 b/ have do  b/will visit
 c/ has did  c/has visit
 d/ have done  d/visited

12. Open the brackets: 12. Open the brackets:
They (to play) tаg.
She (to write) a test.
 1. now
 2. usually  1. every week
 3. yesterday  2.last week
 4. already  3.now
 4.just

№5 Вариант 2
Вариант 1 1. We _____a Zoo tomorrow.
1. I ___already my homework.
 a/ visit
 a/ do  b/will visit
 b/ have do  c/has visit
 c/ has did  d/visited
 d/ have done
2. I _________ him tomorrow.
2. She ___________ every day.

89

 a/dances  a/ do not see
 b/is dancing  b/have not seen
 c/have danced  c/will not see
 d/will dance  d/did not see

3. Where__ you__ now? 3. What___ you __ yesterday?

 a/are – going  a/do – do
 b/do – go  b/is – doing
 c/is – going  c/did – do
 d/have – gone  d/will – do

4. Look! Mary____ exercises. 4. What ______your friend____ tomorrow?

 a/do  a/did – do
 b/is doing  b/will – do
 c/will do  c/is – doing
 d/did  d/have – do

5. ___she___ tomorrow? 5. Where__ you___ yesterday?

 a/Does – dance  a/do – go
 b/Did – dance  b/will – go
 c/Will – do  c/is – going
 d/Has – done  d/did – go

6. They ____TV now. 6. You ___ to the park every day.

 a/watches  a/ went
 b/is watching  b/is going
 c/watched  c/go
 d/are watching  d/has gone

7. They_____ play tаg. 7. She writes a test ________________.

 a/ now  a/ every week
 b/usually  b/last week
 c/yesterday  c/now
 d/already  d/just

8. What ___ he ____ at 3 o’clock yesterday? 8. They _____when mother came.

 a/went  a/were going
 b/goes  b/will go
 c/were going  c/have gone
 d/was going  d/was going

90

9. They ______to the South. 9. I ______ the stars at night.

 a/ go to use  a/saw
 b/ used to go  b/see
 c/did go  c/ used to see
 d/went use  d/did see

10. How _______ is the corridor? 10. Mike’s trousers are too _______.

 a/ strength  a/ warmth
 b/ length  b/ long
 c/ long  c/width
 d/wide  d/strong

11. When Andrew came home, his mother 11.The Greens _____to St. Petersburg at 8

____ dinner. o’clock yesterday.

 a/cooks  a/ was sailing
 b/will cook  b/ sails
 c/was cooking  c/were sailing
 d/were cooking  d/will sail

12. When I was a child I ____ a lot. 12. When he was young he_________ a lot.

 a/swims  a/travelled
 b/swam  b/used to travel
 c/used to swim  c/were travelling
 d/did swim  d/travel

№6 Describe the pictures in English

№7 Insert the missing letters and translate the vocabulary

91

c.ram.c gr.in
Sa.di.g p.ds
C.lindri.al w.re debu..ing bru.h
T.be bru.hes with t.il
D.amo.d cu..ing di.c

Test №8

1. Have you ever visited other countries? - Yes, I... to Italy and France.

a) was c) had been

b) have been d) would be

2. I feel really tired. We ... to the party last night and have just returned home.

a) went c) had seen

b) has gone d) was going

3. At the beginning of the film I realized that I ... it before.

a) see c) had seen

b) saw d) have seen

4. When the bus stopped in the small square, Helen ... her magazine and didn't realized at first

that she had arrived at her destination.

a) read c) was reading

b) reads d) had read

5. My sister's son ... in tomorrow's race, because he is too young. They do not allow riders under

sixteen.

a) won't ride c) wouldn't ride

b) shan't ride d) doesn't ride

6. A beautiful bridge ... in our city. It will be finished next year.

a) builds c) is being built

b) is built d) has been built

7. It has been raining for two hours. I hope it ... raining soon.

a) stops c) would stop

b) shall stop d) stop

8. Television has many advantages. It keeps us informed about the latest news, and also ...

entertainment at home.

a) provide c) is provided

b) provides d) provided

9. On the other hand television ... for the violent behaviour of some young people, and for

encouraging children to sit indoors, instead of doing sports.

a) blames c) is blamed

b) blamed d) would blame

10. Some millionaires have lots of money and ... what to do with it.

a) don't know c) won't know

b) didn't d) knows

11. How ... at college? You didn't say much about it in your last letter.

a) do you get on c) will you get on

b) are you get on d) are you getting on

12. When you ... in this city again? - In a month.

a) arrive c) have you arrived

b) arrived d) will you arrive

13. Every time that I miss the bus, it means that I ... walk to work.

a) has to c) had to

b) have to d) could

14. Every time when I missed the bus, I ... to return home late.

a) must c) can

92

b) had d) may

15. That was great! It was ... meal you have ever cooked.

a) good c) best

b) better d) the best

16. This exhibition is ... interesting than the previous one.

a) little c) least

b) less d) the least

17. We saw ... good film last night. The film was about the love of a girl to her cat and dog.

a) a c) -

b)the d) an

18. Everybody agrees that ... happiness is very important in the life of people.
a) - с) а

b) the d) many

19. In the past people lived in ... harmony with the environment.

a) a c) the

b) an d) -

20. When they arrived ... the station, they rushed to the platform not to miss the train.

a)to c)in

b) at d) for

Test 9

1. When you ... older, you'll change your mind about this.

a) will grow c) have grown

b) grow d) grew

2. By the time the police get there, the burglars ... .

a) vanish c) will have vanished

b) will vanish d) vanished

3. As soon as the taxi arrives, I ... you know.

a) let c) had let

b) have let d) will let

4. My friend has been writing to me for years already, but he never ... a photo.

a) sends c) will send

b) has sent d) sent

5. Why are you busy packing? - My train ... in two hours, so we'll leave the house in an hour.

a) is leaving c) leaves

b) will be leaving d) left

6. When was this building finished? - They say it ... by the end of last year.

a) had been finished c) will be finished

b) was finished d) finishes

7. I thought that I ... my key and was very glad when I found it.

a) lose c) had lost

b) lost d) was losing

8. What's the matter? You look upset. Last week I lost my scarf and now I just ... my gloves.

a) lost c) had lost

b) have lost d) lose

9.1 ... for this bank for five years already but I have decided to change my job.

a) am working c) have been working

b) has worked d) worked

10. Martin said that he ... the tickets the next day.

a) bought c) will buy

b) had bought d) would buy

11. The house opposite our college .,., that's why we are using the back entrance at present.

a) pulls down c) is being pulled down

93

b) is pulled down d) pulled down

12. You ... an umbrella when you left the house, didn't you?

a) have c) had had

b) was having d) had

13. By the time we got to the cinema the film ... .

a) will begin c) had begun

b) would begin d) began

14. Is there anything I ... do to help you?

a) can c) am to

b) may d) as to

15. The last film I saw was ... frightening than this one.

a) little c) least

b) less d) the least

16. Someone is calling you. Will you answer ... phone?

a) a c) -

b) the d) these

17. To tell the truth I don't like ... pair of trousers that I bought last month.

a) those c) that

b) this d) a

18. Whose house is it? - It's ... .

a) my c) her

b) mine d) our

19. Today is ... cold than yesterday. So, I'm wearing my

shorts.

a) little c) least

b) less d) the least

20. "Come home ... Christmas Day, we'll be waiting for you", my mother always says to me.

a)in c) -

b) on d) at

№9 Use the proper form of the Infinitive, Participle or Gerund in the following sentences.
1. (Not, know) the language and (have) no friends in the
city, he found it hard (get) a job. 2.1 am (look) forward to (see) you in our town.
3. When we came home, we found the door (lock).
4. The day (be) fine, we decided (have) a rest out of town.
5. The manager objected to our (make) private calls on his phone.
6. Is there anything worth (read) in your home library?
7. I want to have a new dress (make) for the New Year's party.
8. Would you like me (turn) down the radio a bit? - No, it's all right. I am used to (work) with a
radio on.
9. The success of Byron's poems gave him every right (say), "I woke up one morning (find)
myself famous".
10. In England if you want a milkman (leave) you milk in the morning, remember (put) a milk
bottle outside your door.
11. I enjoy (listen) to music, but I don't like (listen) to people (talk) about it.
12. My parents think I am not capable of (earn) my own living, but I am going (prove) that they
are wrong.
13. Do you feel like (dine) out or would you rather (have) dinner at home?
14. Your hair needs (cut). - I will have it (do) tomorrow.
15. It's for me (decide) where (work) after (graduate) from London University.
16. This sportsman is known (take) part in the last Olympic Games.

94

17. When would you like (start)? ~ Oh, let's wait till it stops (rain), otherwise we'll get soaked
(walk) to the bus station.
18.1 want you (tell) me what you know about this accident.
19. We saw smoke (rise) from the chimney and were glad that somebody was (wait) for us.
20. On (see) my friend I stopped (read) a book and put it away (talk) to him.
21.1 always try (come) in quietly, but my mother always hears me (go) upstairs.
22. Would you mind (keep) quiet for a moment? I'm trying (fill) in this form.
23.1 remember (go) to school for the first time and (be) frightened by everything I saw there.
24. When (plant) these flowers take care (not, damage) the roots.
25. Before trains were (invent) people used (travel) on horsebacks or in stage coaches.
26. Jane meant (buy) an evening paper, but she didn't see anyone (sell) them.
27. He was (charge) with (receive) and (sell) (steal) goods.
28. My father wasted the whole afternoon (try) (repair)his car.
29. My sister avoids lonely streets because she is afraid of (rob).
30. (know) London is (know) the contrasts of a big industrial city.
31. Do you happen (know) his address? - His address seems (lose) long ago.
32. She doesn't seem (know) anything about his (leave) abroad.
33. It's for our boss (take) the final decision on this problem.
34. If (ask), he will tell you a lot of interesting about his life in England.
35. She insisted on the telegram (send) at once.
36. One should be careful when (cross) the street.
37. The text (translate) for tomorrow's lesson is rather difficult for me.
38. While (translate) this article I came across many unknown words.
39. We watched the children (jump) from the window and (fall) into snow.
40. After (spend) two days (argue) about where (go) for our holidays, we decided (not, go)
anywhere.

№10Choose the most suitable form:
1. (Being tired, tired) we couldn't continue (working, having worked) in the laboratory.
2. I have never heard (she, her) (playing, to play) the
piano. 3.1 like films (showing, shown) the lives of famous people.
4. In Britain she had a lot of problems as she wasn't used to (drive, driving) on the left.
5. My friend wants (I, me) (to help, helping) him with the translation of an English article.
6. I don't usually carry my passport with me. I'm afraid of (losing, to lose) it.
7. (Not knowing, not having known) many words, I had (to use, using) a dictionary while
(translating, being translated) the text.
8. She avoids (expressing, to express) her opinion in public. She prefers (keeping, to keep)
silence.
9. Would you mind (answering, to answer) a few questions? - I'd rather you stopped (asking, to
ask) silly questions.
10. He finished (writing, to write) the letter with the words "I'm looking forward to (seeing, see)
you."
11. The books (written, writing) by L.Tolstoy are (read, reading) with great interest.
12. I'm sorry (to bother, bothering) you, but I need (to talk, talking) to you.
13'. I'm sorry (for being, to be) late. I was delayed by the traffic.
14. The article (typing, being typed) will be published in the
local newspaper.
15. (Pass) the last exam, one of the students suggested (going, to go) to the pub in the evening. _
16. I'm sorry (hearing, to hear) that you've lost your job.
17. She is a very interesting person. I always enjoy (talking to talk) to her.
18. If you cross the street without (look, looking), you risk (being, having been) knocked down.
19. He is trying to sell his car but nobody is interested (in buying, to buy) it.

95

20. I live only a short way from here, so it's not worth (taking, to take) a taxi (get) home.
№11 Insert the correct numbers of the translated sentences into the table

Unskilled work of an engineer leads to the
discharge of industrial run-off into rivers,
negative precipitation to the atmosphere
after production at the factory, excessive
noise, radiation from ionizing sources, and
contamination from radioactive substances
The environmental engineer acts as an
organizer of industrial and domestic run-off
production.
All engineering activities are differentiated
by functions, types and industries.
Such actions set in motion the development
of engineering as a holistic subspecies.
The static engineer solves not only the
design tasks in creating the structure of the
technical branch, including architectural
structures, but also in metalworking, static
machines equipped with an internal
combustion engine, radio engineering units
and systems.
For this reason, individual species were
divided into engineering subspecies that are
capable to dividing the duties of one person
into several.

1.Пo этoй пpичинe oтдeльныe виды были pacпpeдeлeны нa пoдвиды инжeнepии,
cпocoбныe paздeлить oбязaннocти oднoгo чeлoвeka нa нeckoльkих.

2.Инжeнep-koнcтpykтop peшaeт нe тoльko koнcтpykтopckиe зaдaчи в coздaнии cтpykтypы
тeхничeckoгo oтвeтвлeния в тom чиcлe cpeди apхитekтypных cтpoeний, нo и в
meтaллooбpaбoтke, пpoekтиpoвaнии maшин, ocнaщeнных двигaтeлem внyтpeннeгo
cгopaния, paдиoтeхничeckих aгpeгaтoв и cиcтem.

3.Пoдoбныe дeйcтвия пpивoдят в движeниe paзвитиe инжeнepии, kak цeлocтнoгo пoдвидa.

4.Вcя инжeнepнaя дeятeльнocть диффepeнциpyeт пo фyнkцияm, видam и oтpacляm.

5.Инжeнep-эkoлoг выcтyпaeт в kaчecтвe opгaнизaтopa пpoизвoдcтвa пpomышлeнных и
бытoвых oтхoдoв.

6.Нekвaлифициpoвaннaя paбoтa инжeнepa пpивoдит k cбpocy пpomышлeнных oтхoдoв в
pekи, нeгaтивныe ocaдkи в aтmocфepe пocлe выpaбoтkи maтepиaлoв нa зaвoдe, чpeзmepнaя
шymнocть, излyчeниe oт иoнизиpyющих иcтoчниkoв, зaгpязнeниe paдиoakтивныmи
вeщecтвamи.

№12 Translat!

96

Болгарский токарный станок ZMM CU325 предназначен для выполнения токарных
работ - точение конусов и нарезание резьб.

97

1.5 Ручной инструмент

Комбинированные гаечные ключи Combination wrenches
Socket wrenches
Торцовые ключи Sets of end heads
extension cords
Наборы торцовых головок adapters
rattles
удлинители funnels
hinges
переходники Torque wrenches
probes
трещетки indicators
screwdrivers
воронки Straight slot
Phillips Screwdrivers
шарниры Special screwdrivers
multimeter
Динамометрические ключи Impact Screwdrivers
Screwdriver inserts
пробники Drive handles
Tool Kits
индикаторы Bags, boxes, suitcases for tools

отвертки Boxes for assortment parts
A set of end heads
Прямой шлиц Rattles with small teeth
End heads with magnet
Крестовые отвертки Electronic torque wrench
Torque wrench with setting scale
Специальные отвертки
Short screwdriver
мультиметр Tool Holders
Bits for screwdrivers
Ударные отвертки Service case for tools , mobile

Отверточные вставки Waterproof suitcase with laptop bag

Приводные рукоятки Plastic tool boxes
Calibration certificates
Наборы инструментов

Сумки , ящики, чемоданы для

инструмента

Ящики для ассортиментных деталей

Набор торцевых головок

Трещетки с мелкими зубьями

Торцовые головки с магнитом

Электронный динамометрический ключ

Динамометрический ключ с

установочной шкалой

Короткая отвертка

Держатели инструмента

Биты для отверток

Сервисный кейс для инструментов ,

передвижной

Водонепронецаемый чемодан с сумкой

для ноутбука

Пластиковые ящики для инструментов

Калибровочные сертификаты

98

№1 Выполните технический перевод текста. Perform a technical translation of the
text.Разбейте текст на смысловые части .Break the text into semantic parts

The earliest documented screwdrivers were used in the late Middle Ages. They were probably
invented in the late 15th century, either in Germany or France. The tool's original names in
German and French were Schraubenzieher[2][3][4] (screwpuller) and tournevis (turnscrew),
respectively. The first documentation of the tool is in the medieval Housebook of Wolfegg
Castle, a manuscript written sometime between 1475 and 1490.[5] These earliest screwdrivers
had pear-shaped handles and were made for slotted screws (diversification of the many types of
screwdrivers did not emerge until the Gilded Age). The screwdriver remained inconspicuous,
however, as evidence of its existence throughout the next 300 years is based primarily on the
presence of screws.

Screws were used in the 15th century to construct screw-cutting lathes, for securing breastplates,
backplates, and helmets on medieval jousting armor—and eventually for multiple parts of the
emerging firearms, particularly the matchlock. Screws, hence screwdrivers, were not used in full
combat armor, most likely to give the wearer freedom of movement.[further explanation needed]

The jaws that hold the pyrites inside wheellock guns were secured with screws, and the need to
constantly replace the pyrites resulted in a considerable refinement of the screwdriver. The tool
is more documented in France, and took on many shapes and sizes, though all for slotted screws.
There were large, heavy-duty screwdrivers for building and repairing large machines, and
smaller screwdrivers for refined cabinet work.

The screwdriver depended entirely on the screw, and it took several advances to make the screw
easy enough to produce to become popular and widespread. The most popular door hinge at the
time was the butt-hinge, but it was considered a luxury. The butt-hinge was handmade, and its
constant motion required the security of a screw.

Screws were very hard to produce before the First Industrial Revolution, requiring the
manufacture of a conical helix. The brothers Job and William Wyatt found a way to produce a
screw on a novel machine that first cut the slotted head, and then cut the helix. Though their
business ultimately failed, their contribution to low-cost manufacturing of the screw ultimately
led to a vast increase in the screw and the screwdriver's popularity. The increase in popularity
gradually led to refinement and eventually diversification of the screwdriver. Refinement of the
precision of screws also significantly contributed to the boom in production, mostly by
increasing its efficiency and standardizing sizes, important precursors to industrial manufacture.

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Slotted screws Robertson screw Phillips screw head

The jaws that hold the pyrites inside wheellock guns were secured with screws, and the need to
constantly replace the pyrites resulted in a considerable refinement of the screwdriver. The tool
is more documented in France, and took on many shapes and sizes, though all for slotted screws.
There were large, heavy-duty screwdrivers for building and repairing large machines, and
smaller screwdrivers for refined cabinet work.

The screwdriver depended entirely on the screw, and it took several advances to make the screw
easy enough to produce to become popular and widespread. The most popular door hinge at the
time was the butt-hinge, but it was considered a luxury. The butt-hinge was handmade, and its
constant motion required the security of a screw.

Screws were very hard to produce before the First Industrial Revolution, requiring the
manufacture of a conical helix. The brothers Job and William Wyatt found a way to produce a
screw on a novel machine that first cut the slotted head, and then cut the helix. Though their
business ultimately failed, their contribution to low-cost manufacturing of the screw ultimately
led to a vast increase in the screw and the screwdriver's popularity. The increase in popularity
gradually led to refinement and eventually diversification of the screwdriver. Refinement of the
precision of screws also significantly contributed to the boom in production, mostly by
increasing its efficiency and standardizing sizes, important precursors to industrial manufacture.

Canadian P.L. Robertson, though he was not the first person to patent the idea of socket-head
screws, was the first to successfully commercialize them, starting in 1908. Socket screws rapidly
grew in popularity, and are still used for their resistance to wear and tear, compatibility with hex
keys, and ability to stop a power tool when set. Though immensely popular, Robertson had
trouble marketing his invention to the newly booming auto industry, for he was unwilling to
relinquish his patents.

Meanwhile, in Portland, Oregon, Henry F. Phillips patented his own invention, an improved
version of a deep socket with a cruciform slot, today known as the Phillips Screw. Phillips
offered his screw to the American Screw Company, and after a successful trial on the 1936
Cadillac, it quickly swept through the American auto industry. With the Industrial Revival at the
end of the Great Depression and the upheaval of World War II, the Phillips screw quickly
became, and remains, the most popular screw in the world. A main attraction for the screw was
that conventional slotted screwdrivers could also be used on them, which was not possible with
the Robertson Screw.

Gunsmiths still call a screwdriver a turnscrew, under which name it is an important part of a set
of pistols. The name was common in earlier centuries, used by cabinetmakers, shipwrights, and
perhaps other trades. The cabinetmaker's screwdriver is one of the longest-established handle
forms, somewhat oval or ellipsoid in cross-section. This is variously attributed to improving grip
or preventing the tool rolling off the bench. The shape has been popular for a couple of hundred
years. It is usually associated with a plain head for slotted screws, but has been used with many
head forms. Modern plastic screwdrivers use a handle with a roughly hexagonal cross-section to
achieve these same two goals, a far cry from the pear-shaped handle of the original 15th-century
screwdriver.

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