Figures 14(a) and 14(b) illustrate the SEM micrographs of the SLM-produced partís top and side surfaces. While the surfaces appear relatively smooth, laser scanning tracks and wavy layers are more visible along the side walls. Additionally, metallic ball formationsócaused by surface tension effectsówere observed on the SLM-processed parts.Figure14: SEM micrograph of the (a) top surface (b) side surface of the AlSi10Mg samples by SLM (laser power: 350W; scanning speed: 1650 mm/s, hatching distance: 0.13 mmTable 8: Element Fraction Percentage of received materialCu Fe Mg Mn N Ni Pb O Si Sn Ti Zn Al0.702 0.128 0.047 0.155 - 0.077 - 2.381 7.307 - 0.075 0.435 88'HQVLW\\6WXG\\Relative density was evaluated using the Archimedes method by measuring the weight of samples in air and distilled water, then comparing it to the material's theoretical density. Table 9 shows that all eight samples achieved a consistently high relative density, ranging between 99.013% and 99.132%, suggesting strong mechanical performance. Given the uniform density values, the calculated porosity fraction ranged between 0.8% and 0.9%. Optical microscopy revealed two primary types of porosity: Metallurgical (hydrogen) porosity: Typically small (less than 100 µm) and spherical, this type of porosity forms due to gas entrapment during insufficient scanning speeds or during powder consolidation. Keyhole porosity: Larger and irregularly shaped (greater than 100 µm), keyhole porosity forms due to instability within the melt pool during rapid solidification, resulting in incomplete filling. Figures 15(a) and 15(b) display examples of both metallurgical and keyhole porosity in the side and top surfaces of Sample 5. Table 9: Density measurement by ArchimedesmethodNr. Sample Measured DensityTheoretical DensityRelative Density (%) 1 2.654 2.68 99.034 2 2.656 2.68 99.108 3 2.656 2.68 99.109 4 2.656 2.68 99.132 5 2.653 2.68 99.013 6 2.654 2.68 99.037 2.654 2.68 99.054 8 2.654 2.68 99.032 .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7342
Figure 15: The porosity microstructure of the (a) side surface (b) top surface of sample 5.0HFKDQLFDO3URSHUWLHVHardness testing is often the first step in evaluating a material's mechanical behavior. In this study, three cubicsamples with the highest measured relative density were selected for hardness testing. Measurements were taken at ten different locations on both the top surface (x-y building direction) and the side surface (y-z building direction). The average hardness values for each surface are summarized in Table 10. Tensile testing was performed in accordance with ASTM E23 standards to determine the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), 0.2% Yield Strength (YS), and Elongation (%). Three SLM-fabricated AlSi10Mg specimens were printed in the x-zbuilding direction using optimized parameters. The resulting mean values were compared with those of highpressure die-cast (HPDC) alloys A360F and A360T6 [35], as well as results from other studies using different build orientations such as x-y and y-z [36].HPDC alloys are commonly used in industrial applications due to their favorable mechanical properties. This comparison was made to assess the suitability of SLM-fabricated AlSi10Mg parts for mould manufacturing and other industrial uses. Table 10 presents the average tensile properties, and the corresponding stress-strain curves are illustrated in Figure 16.Results showed that the SLM AlSi10Mg samples exhibited higher hardness values than both A360F and A360T6 alloys. Compared to A360F, the SLM samples showed a 32% increase in hardness on the top surface and a 42% increase on the side surface. Notably, the SLM samples also exceeded the hardness of the T6 heattreated A360 alloy by 4% on the top surface and 12% on the side.Table 10: Mechanical properties of SLM AlSi10Mg samples and HPDC alloy A360F and A360T6In terms of tensile properties, the SLM samples demonstrated a 31% increase in 0.2% YS compared to A360F. However, the A360T6 alloy still outperformed the SLM samples by 27% in yield strength. The SLM specimens had higher UTS and elongation at break values than both HPDC alloys. Although the impact energy values were comparable to HPDC alloys, they were 32% lower than those reported by Kempen et al. [36]. Overall, SLM-fabricated AlSi10Mg in the x-z direction exhibited superior mechanical properties compared to conventional HPDC alloys, reinforcing its potential use as a mould base material..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7343
Figure 16: Stress-Strain Graph for AlSi10Mg samples built along x-z axis 6XUIDFH5RXJKQHVVSurface roughness is influenced by numerous factors, including powder morphology, laser spot size, power, scan speed, hatch spacing, layer thickness, scan strategy, and post-processing. It also varies with build orientation, where sloped surfaces often exhibit a stair-step effect, and gravity can cause different patterns on top and bottom surfaces due to the formation of stalactites in loose powder. A benchmark model was used to evaluate the influence of sloped surfaces by varying incline angles. Surface roughness measurements from the AlSi10Mg benchmark (Figure 7a) are reported in Table 11. Results showed minimal differences between top and side surfaces. On the top surface, better thermal conductivity at thin layers resulted in more stable melt pools, and a 30 µm layer thickness provided adequate interlayer bonding. A 60° sloped angle yielded the lowest roughness values on both top and bottom surfaces. Angles lower or higher than 60° increased roughness due to pronounced stair-step effects. Bottom surfaces displayed higher roughness than top surfaces due to two main reasons: (1) reduced thermal conductivity in overhangs, where the laser scanned loose powder instead of solid material, and (2) stalactite formation caused by molten material sinking into the loose powder under gravity. Overall, surface roughness of the SLM AlSi10Mg benchmark did not meet the requirements for PIM inserts. Post-processing methods such as high-speed machining (HSM) or manual polishing are necessary to achieve the desired finish. Table 11: Average Surface Roughness for Top, Down and Side of the Benchmark'LPHQVLRQDO)HDVLELOLW\\Dimensional accuracy and the ability to produce complex geometries are critical in mould manufacturing. Table 12 summarizes dimensional analysis results from benchmark parts designed with typical PIM tool profiles. Each measurement was repeated three times to ensure accuracy. Absolute deviation (\"X) was calculated as the difference between the mean measured and the nominal design dimension (X). Relative deviation (#X) was derived by dividing \"X by X and multiplying by 100%. All benchmark features were successfully fabricated within acceptable tolerances. The largest relative deviation was 18.067% for a 0.5 mm rectangular pocket. Rounded profiles showed good fidelity, and while downskin effects were observed in elliptical channels (Figure 17), they were still successfully printed. However, a 0.5 mm diameter hole could not be built due to lose powder melting from surrounding heat. Figure 17: The benchmark model and the down skin effect on the ellipse channel.219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7344
Generally, the dimensional feasibility of the SLM-fabricated AlSi10Mg benchmark was adequate for PIM insert fabrication. A 0.5 mm offset was applied to all external surfaces to accommodate post-processing. The core and cavity main inserts, including square conformal cooling channels, were fabricated via SLM in just 10 hours without the need for heat treatment, as the mechanical properties were already validated. The 0.5 mm offset was determined after benchmark feasibility evaluation. By utilizing SLM, several machining steps such as EDM were eliminated, saving up to 48 hours of labor. Final core and cavity inserts were inspected using a CMM. A hybrid manufacturing approach was adoptedóSLM for core and cavity inserts requiring high thermalconductivity and tool steel for the mould base requiring mechanical strength. This material combinationincreased productivity while maintaining the structural integrity of the PIM tool.3,0,QVHUWV)DEULFDWLRQThe fabrication of the PIM inserts is illustrated in Figure 18, where the core and cavity main inserts, including the square conformal cooling channels, were produced using Selective Laser Melting (SLM). The entire SLM process was completed in just 10 hours, requiring minimal supervision and no heat treatment, as the superior mechanical properties had already been validated through benchmark samples. A 0.5 mm offset was applied in the normal direction to facilitate post-processing, a decision made following feasibility studies conducted on the benchmark model. Only manual polishing was required for the SLM-fabricated parts, and several conventional machining stepsósuch as Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)ówere eliminated due to SLMís ability to fabricate complex geometries. By omitting both heat treatment and EDM, the fabrication process saved at least 48 man-hours. Figure 18: The fabrication flow process for the newly PIM insert design .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7345
Table 12: Dimensional Feasibility Results of AlSi10Mg SLM sampleEŽŵŝŶĂů DĞĂŶ ďƐ ZĞůĂƚŝǀĞ'ĞŽŵĞƚƌLJ dĞƐƚ ƉƵƌƉŽƐĞ ĚŝŵĞŶƐŝŽŶsĂůƵĞ ĞǀŝĂƚŝŽŶ;ŵŵͿ ;ŵŵͿ ;ŵŵͿ ;йͿ^ƚĂŝƌ ϲϱϰϯϮϭZĞĐƚĂŶŐƵůĂƌƐůŽƚ ǁŝƚŚ ĚŝĨĨĞƌĞŶƚƌĞůĂƚŝŶŐƉŽƐŝƚŝŽŶϯϭϰϮϱLJůŝŶĚĞƌƐϰϯϮĐĐƵƌĂĐŝĞƐ ŝŶë ĂdžŝƐíĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶĐĐƵƌĂĐŝĞƐ ŝŶëyĂdžŝƐíĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶĐĐƵƌĂĐLJ ĂŶĚƌĞƐŽůƵƚŝŽŶϭϯ͘ϬϬϬ ϯ͘Ϭϯϭ Ϭ͘Ϭϯϭ ϭ͘ϬϯϯϮϲ͘ϬϬϬ ϱ͘ϵϵϮ Ϭ͘ϬϬϴ Ϭ͘ϭϯϯϯϵ͘ϬϬϬ ϵ͘ϬϮϴ Ϭ͘ϬϮϴ Ϭ͘ϯϭϭϭ ϭϬ͘ϬϬϬ ϵ͘ϴϱϮ Ϭ͘ϭϰϴ ϭ͘ϰϴϬϮ ϱ͘ϬϬϬ ϰ͘ϴϵϲ Ϭ͘ϭϬϰ Ϯ͘ϬϴϬϯ ϭ͘ϱϬϬ ϭ͘ϰϲϮ Ϭ͘Ϭϯϴ Ϯ͘ϱϯϯϰ Ϭ͘ϱϬϬ Ϭ͘ϰϰϮ Ϭ͘Ϭϱϴ ϭϭ͘ϲϬϬsĂƌŝĂďůĞ ZĞĐƚĂŶŐƵůĂƌ ^ůŽƚƐϳ ĐĐƵƌĂĐLJ ĂŶĚresolutionϭ Ϯ ϯ ϰ ϱ ϲϭ ϯ͘ϬϬϬ Ϯ͘ϵϴϴ Ϭ͘ϬϭϮ Ϭ͘ϰϭϭϮ Ϯ͘ϬϬϬ Ϯ͘ϬϮϵ Ϭ͘ϬϮϵ ϭ͘ϰϯϯϯ Ϯ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϵϵϲ Ϭ͘ϬϬϰ Ϭ͘ϮϬϬϰ ϭ͘ϱϬϬ ϭ͘ϰϵϲ Ϭ͘ϬϬϰ Ϭ͘Ϯϰϰϱ ϭ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘Ϭϯϯ Ϭ͘Ϭϯϯ ϯ͘Ϯϲϳϲ Ϭ͘ϱϬϬ Ϭ͘ϰϭϬ Ϭ͘ϬϵϬ ϭϴ͘Ϭϲϳϳ ϴ͘ϬϬϬ ϳ͘ϵϵϭ Ϭ͘ϬϬϵ Ϭ͘ϭϭϯϭϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϴϴϰ Ϭ͘ϭϭϲ ϱ͘ϴϬϬϮϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϵϬϮ Ϭ͘Ϭϵϴ ϰ͘ϵϬϬϳ ϭϴϲϮϱϰ ϯZĞĐƚĂŶŐƵůĂƌ^ůŽƚƐǁŝƚŚƚŚŝŶǁĂůůĐĐƵƌĂĐLJ ĂŶĚƌĞƐŽůƵƚŝŽŶĐĐƵƌĂĐLJ͕ϯϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϴϲϴ Ϭ͘ϭϯϮ ϲ͘ϲϬϬϰϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϴϴϯ Ϭ͘ϭϭϳ ϱ͘ϴϱϬϱϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϴϴϲ Ϭ͘ϭϭϰ ϱ͘ϳϬϬϲϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϴϵϰ Ϭ͘ϭϬϲ ϱ͘ϯϬϬϳϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϴϵϵ Ϭ͘ϭϬϭ ϱ͘ϬϱϬϴϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϵϬϮ Ϭ͘Ϭϵϴ ϰ͘ϵϬϬϭϬ͘ϱϬϬ Ϭ͘ϰϴϲ Ϭ͘Ϭϭϰ Ϯ͘ϴϲϳϮϭ͘ϬϬϬ Ϭ͘ϵϴϱ Ϭ͘Ϭϭϱ ϭ͘ϱϯϯϯϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭ͘ϵϳϬ Ϭ͘ϬϯϬ ϭ͘ϱϭϳϭƌĞƐŽůƵƚŝŽŶĂŶĚŚĞĂƚĂĨĨĞĐƚϰϯ͘ϬϬϬ Ϯ͘ϵϲϴ Ϭ͘ϬϯϮ ϭ͘ϬϲϳŶŐƵůĂƌ WůĂŶĞƐŽŶƐŝĚĞϰ ϯ Ϯ ϭ ĐĐƵƌĂĐLJ ĂŶĚ,ĞĂƚĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƚŝŽŶĞĨĨĞĐƚϭϰϬΣ ϰϬ͘ϳϵȗϮϮϬΣ ϮϬ͘ϴϰȗϯϯϬΣ ϯϬ͘ϮϭΣϰϭϱΣ ϭϱ͘Ϯϱȗ.219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7346ϭϮ͘ϬϬϬϭϱ͘ϬϬϬϭϴ͘ϬϬϬϰϱϲϭϮ͘Ϭϳϲϭϱ͘ϭϬϲϭϴ͘ϭϲϴϬ͘Ϭϳϲ Ϭ͘ϲϯϯϬ͘ϭϬϲ Ϭ͘ϳϬϳϬ͘ϭϲϴ Ϭ͘ϵϯϯϭ ϯ͘ϬϬϬ Ϯ͘ϵϵϮ Ϭ͘ϬϬϴ Ϭ͘ϮϲϳϮ ϲ͘ϬϬϬ ϱ͘ϵϲϱ Ϭ͘Ϭϯϱ Ϭ͘ϱϴϯϯ ϵ͘ϬϬϬ ϴ͘ϴϴϭ Ϭ͘ϭϭϵ ϭ͘ϯϮϮϰ ϭϮ͘ϬϬϬ ϭϭ͘ϴϳϰ Ϭ͘ϭϮϲ ϭ͘ϬϱϬϱ ϵ͘ϬϬϬ ϴ͘ϴϴϭ Ϭ͘ϭϭϵ ϭ͘ϯϮϮϭϮϯϰ
Dimensional accuracy of the completed core and cavity main inserts was verified using a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM). A hybrid manufacturing approach was employed, wherein the core and cavity base inserts were produced via high-speed CNC machining. Machining programs were developed and simulated using Mastercam software. Unlike the SLM process, CNC machining involved additional steps such as CNC code generation, raw material preparation, workpiece alignment, and machine and tooling setup, all contributing to a longer overall manufacturing time.Upon completion, the main core and cavity inserts were assembled to form a complete component, which was then integrated into the mould base. The hybrid mould design featured aluminium alloy for the core and cavity insertsóchosen for its high thermal conductivityóand tool steel for the mould base, which required superior mechanical strength. This combination of materials was selected to optimize the productivity cycle while maintaining the structural integrity and mechanical performance of the PIM tool.7RRO3HUIRUPDQFHDQG&RVW(IILFLHQF\\Mould try-outs were conducted using a Sumitomo SH100A machine with a cooling time of 7.6 seconds, based on simulation data. Measurements of part weight and wall thickness were taken every 50th cycle and are presented in Table 13. Results showed negligible deviations across 500 cycles, indicating minimal wear on the SLM-fabricated inserts. Theconsistency in dimensions suggests a projected tool lifespan exceeding 100,000 shots, classifying it as a high-volumemould. One of the major advantages of SLM over conventional methods is the ability to embed square fin conformalcooling channels within PIM tools. This advanced cooling design reduced cycle time by 65%.Table 13: Weight and wall thickness of the door panel partsTo assess economic viability, moulding costs using the SLM-fabricated aluminium tool were compared to a traditional steel tool. A cost index was used to protect proprietary data. As shown in Figure 19, the aluminium mould becomes more cost-effective after approximately 40,000 production cycles.Figure 19: Comparison of additional moulding cost for rapid tooling aluminium mould with the square fin conformal cooling design with conventional steel mould..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7347
&21&/86,21· The simulation results demonstrated that the superior thermal properties of aluminium significantly improvefilling time, cooling time, cycle time, and reduce warpage compared to steel moulds. Due to its thermalconductivity being approximately five times greater than steel, aluminium allows molten plastic to fill cavitiesmore quickly and efficiently. The heat is dissipated faster, enabling a quicker cooling phase to reach ejectiontemperature. As a result, aluminium moulds contribute to better dimensional stability and minimal warpage inmoulded parts.· The integration of conformal cooling channels in plastic injection moulding (PIM) tools significantly reducescycle time and enhances dimensional accuracy by minimising warpage.· The AlSi10Mg powders used in this study exhibited both spherical and irregular shapes with particle sizesranging from 5 to 50 µm. However, finer particles (<10 µm) tend to agglomerate, forming larger irregularclusters that impair powder flowability. Therefore, a sieving process is essential before initiating the SLMprocess.· Density measurements showed a relative density of 99.13%. Microscopic analysis revealed minimal porosity,ranging between 5 and 20 µm.· Compared to high-pressure die-cast (HPDC) alloys A360F and A360T6, the SLM-fabricated AlSi10Mgsamples demonstrated superior hardness, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation at break.Although the Charpy impact energy results were slightly lower than those reported in some studies, they werestill within acceptable limits.· Surface roughness analysis revealed higher values on the bottom surfaces of benchmark samples compared tothe top and side surfaces. This difference is attributed to lower thermal conductivity at the start of the SLMprocess, affecting melt pool stability during early layer formation.· Dimensional analysis of the SLM-fabricated benchmarks showed some variations between measured anddesigned values. However, the deviations remained within acceptable limits, confirming the processís suitabilityfor mould manufacturing.· The SLM process successfully produced complex geometries, confirming its capability for efficient andeconomically viable mould manufacturing with good surface quality and dimensional precision.· Case studies showed that a hybrid fabrication approachócombining SLM, high-speed machining (HSM), andmanual polishingóenabled the production of high-performance PIM inserts. These inserts achieved aproductivity improvement of 67.9%, reducing cycle time to just 9.61 seconds compared to 30 seconds inconventional PIM.· Cost-performance modelling indicated that using rapid tooling with conformal cooling channels becomeseconomically advantageous after 40,000 production cycles. At this threshold, the SLM-fabricated AlSi10MgPIM tools become more cost-effective than conventional steel tools.· The PIM tool successfully endured 500 shots using Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) Toyolac 700-314without noticeable wear. The negligible variations in part mass and wall thickness at eight measured pointsconfirmed the toolís short-term reliability. However, extended testing is recommended to fully assess toollifespan.In summary, the competitiveness of Selective Laser Melting (SLM) as a manufacturing technique compared to conventional methods largely depends on the geometrical complexity and production volume. While additive manufacturing is unlikely to fully replace traditional subtractive methods due to factors such as part quantity and cost, it holds significant advantages for producing components with high geometric complexity, custom designs, and lower volume requirements. In this study, SLM, especially when combined with conformal cooling channels, has proven to enhance the performance of PIM inserts significantly..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7348
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Pencirian Membran Komposit Kitosan/Poli (Vinil Alkohol) Dengan Silikon Dioksida Dan Cecair Ionik Untuk Aplikasi Sel Fuel/HRQJ.RN6HQJ 1RUIDUKDQD$EGXO6DPDG &KRR7K\\H)RR1,2Jabatan Kejuruteraan PetrokimiaPoliteknik Tun Syed Nasir Syed Ismail3Bahagian Teknologi IndustriAgensi Nuklear MalaysiaCorresponding email: [email protected]$EVWUDNffl Membran komposit ikatan paut silang yang mengandungi lapisan kitosan (CS) yang amat nipispada substrat mikropori silikon dioksida (SiO2) dan cecair ionik 1-metil-3-propilimidazolium iodida (MPII) telah berjaya dibangunkan dan dikaji bagi menilai kesesuaiannya untuk aplikasi dalam sel fuel membran pertukaran proton bersuhu tinggi (HT-PEMFC). Kajian pencirian terperinci terhadap membran komposit CS/SiO2/MPII dijalankan merangkumi interaksi antara molekul dan kestabilan terma melalui penggunaan teknik analisis spektroskopi inframerah transformasi Fourier (FTIR), ujian termogravimetri (TGA), analisis kekonduksian ionik (EIS), dan kajian penyerapan. Kemunculan puncak pada nombor gelombang 3080 cm!¹ menunjukkan kewujudan interaksi ikatan hidrogen yang kuat antara kumpulan CñH pada ion imidazolium dengan ion I!. Membran komposit CS/SiO2/MPII (3.5 bt.%) yang telah didopkan dalam poli (vinil alkohol) menunjukkan nilai kekonduksian yang optimum 51 mScm-2 pada suhu 140 0C dengan kehilangan peratusan berat 13% pada suhu operasi 800 0C. Kajian penyerapan membran komposit CS/SiO2/MPII (3.5 bt.%) menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 53% berbanding pada membran komposit CS/SiO2. Nilai ketumpatan kuasa bagi membran CS/SiO2/MPII (3.5 bt.%) dan CS/SiO2 telah ditentukan dan dibandingkan dengan membran komersial Nafion 212. Membran komposit tersebut menunjukkan peningkatan kekonduksian seiring dengan peningkatan suhu. Membran komposit CS/SiO2/MPII (3.5 bt.%) telah menunjukkan prestasi sel tunggal HT-PEMFC yang baik dengan ketumpatan kuasa 181.32 mW cm\"2 pada suhu 140 °C, iaitu 288.27% lebih tinggi daripada membran komposit CS/SiO2/MPII dengan ketumpatan kuasa 46.70 mW cm\"2.Hasil kajian menunjukkan cecair ionik MPII meningkatkan prestasi membran CS/SiO2/MPII dalam keadaan operasi HT-PEMFC. .DWD.XQFLfflKitosan, silikon dioksida, 1-metil-3-propilimidazolium iodida 3(1*(1$/$1Sel fuel telah dikenal pasti sebagai antara teknologi tenaga alternatif yang berdaya saing dan mesra alam bagi memenuhi keperluan tenaga global yang semakin meningkat. Antara pelbagai jenis sel fuel, sel fuelmembran pertukaran proton (PEMFC) menonjol sebagai calon utama untuk aplikasi kuasa dalam sektor automotif dan penjanaan kuasa pegun, disebabkan oleh kecekapan tenaga yang tinggi dan ketumpatan kuasa yang baik. Prestasi sistem PEMFC banyak bergantung kepada ketumpatan arus yang dapat dijana, yang ditentukan oleh keupayaan pemangkin pada elektrod serta kehilangan arusohmik yang berlaku di dalam elektrolit. Faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kehilangan arus ohmik ialah kekonduksian proton dan ketebalan membran pertukaran proton (PEM) yang digunakan. Pada masa kini, jenis PEM yang biasadigunakan dalam PEMFC terdiri daripada polimer perfluorinasi (Nafion). Nafion beroperasi secara optimum pada suhu sederhana (< 90#°C) serta kelembapan relatif yang tinggi, dan menunjukkan prestasi elektrokimia yang optimum apabila menggunakan hidrogen tulen sebagai bahan api. Namun begitu, kos yang tinggi serta keperluan operasi dalam keadaan terkawal menghalangkebolehlaksanaannya dalam aplikasi berskala besar, seperti kenderaan elektrik[3,4]. Selain itu, prestasi membran perfluorinasi merosot secara ketara pada suhu tinggi dan apabila digunakan dengan bahan api selain hidrogen tulen. Antara cabaran utama dalam pengkomersilan PEMFC adalah seperti julat suhu operasi, keperluan pelembapan berterusan, penembusan silang air dan metanol, serta kos .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7351
pembuatan yang tinggi. Sehubungan dengan itu, usaha penyelidikan masih dijalankan untuk membangunkan PEM yang alternatif, khususnya berasaskan polimer sulfonasi dengan rangka tulang belakang aromatik yang fleksibel. Walau bagaimanapun, perkembangan teknologi PEMFC turut terhalang oleh keperluan untuk menghasilkan PEM yang stabil dari segi kimia dan terma dalam julat keadaan operasi sel fuel. Kitosan (CS) merupakan polimer semula jadi yang berasal daripada kitin separa terdeasetilasi, dan diperoleh daripada sumber marin seperti cangkerang udang dan ketam. Kitosan telah digunakan secara meluas sebagai membran penyejapan, khususnya dalam aplikasi penghidratan alkohol, disebabkan oleh sifat hidrofiliknya serta kebolehan untuk membentuk filem yang stabil. Membran pertukaran proton (PEM) merupakan komponen teras dalam sistem sel fuel, yang berfungsi untuk mengalirkan ion proton dari anod ke katod dan menghalang pergerakan elektron dan bahan api merentasi membran. Dalam usaha meningkatkan prestasi dan ketahanan membran, pendekatan penyediaan membran nanokomposit polimer telah diperkenalkan[2,5].Polimer ionik merupakan bahan yang terdiri daripada ikatan kovalen dan ionik dalam struktur molekulnya yang berbentuk rantai atau rangkaian polimer. Ikatan kovalen menyumbang kepada kestabilan struktur keseluruhan polimer, manakala ikatan ionik menyediakan tapak fungsi yang penting bagi pelbagai aplikasi, termasuk sistem penghantaran ion dalam sel fuel. Polimer ionik boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai polimer semula jadi atau polimer sintetik. Dalam konteks aplikasi sebagai membran pertukaran proton (PEM), polimer ionik perlu memiliki ciri-ciri asas tertentu, antaranya adalah kekonduksian ionik yang tinggi, kestabilan terma dan kimia, serta Ketahanan arus yang tinggi untuk jangka operasi yang lama. Kekonduksian ionik dianggap sebagai parameter utama dan faktor kritikal yang menentukan prestasi PEM. Tahap kekonduksian ionik dipengaruhi oleh jenis kumpulan berfungsi pada tulang belakang polimer, sama ada terdiri daripada kumpulan ionik yang kuat atau lemah. Selain itu, PEM juga perlu mempunyai keupayaan untuk mengalirkan ion yang dikehendaki sambil menghalang penembusan ion bersama yang tidak diingini [1].Antara polimer semula jadi yang berpotensi tinggi sebagai PEM dalam PEMFC ialah kitosan. Kitosan berasal daripada kitin dan terdiri daripada monomer yang mempunyai kumpulan berfungsi hidroksil (-OH) dan amina (-NH$), yang masing-masing mengandungi pasangan elektron bebas. Sifat ini menjadikan kitosan sesuai digunakan dalam penyediaan PEM. Kehadiran pasangan elektron bebas membolehkan pembentukan ikatan kovalen dengan penderma proton dan seterusnya menyumbang kepada peningkatan kekonduksian ionik[20,21]. Apabilakitosan menyerap air, kumpulan amina mengalami proses protonasi lalu menghasilkan ion NH%& dan melepaskan ion hidroksida (OH!) ke dalam medium akueus, sekali gus meningkatkan pengaliran proton dalam PEM. Namun begitu, kekonduksian ionik yang dicapai oleh kitosan masih dalam prestasi yang rendah. Pelbagai usaha penambahbaikan perlu dilaksanakan untuk meningkatkan prestasi kitosan dalam PEMFC[7,8].Kitosan juga menawarkan kelebihan dari sudut keupayaanpembentukan ikatan dengan bahan pengisi. Kitosan boleh menghasilkan pelbagai tindak balas kimia seperti karboksilasi dan sulfonasi melalui kehadiran kumpulan amino dan hidroksil bebas pada rantai utama. Ciri ñ ciri pada rantai utama memberikan fleksibiliti yang tinggi dalam pengubahsuaian struktur dan sifat bahan kitosan. Sifat kelenturan yang tinggi juga berlaku pada struktur kitosan berbanding dengan polimer sintetik. Kitosan turut larut dalam medium akueus berasid pada nilai pH kurang daripada 6.5. Hal ini berlaku disebabkan kitosan membawa cas positif yang tinggi akibat kehadiran kumpulan NH%&. Ini membolehkan kitosan melekat dengan berkesan pada permukaan bercas negatif serta berinteraksi dengan komponen polianionik dan ion logam melalui pembentukan kompleks[6,9].Cecair ionik (IL) merujuk kepada sejenis garam yang terdiri daripada pasangan kation dan anion yang wujud dalam fasa cecair pada suhu ambien. Keunikan IL terletak pada julat suhu operasi yang luas, hasil daripada gabungan sifat fizikalnya yang memiliki takat lebur yang rendah serta takat didih yang tinggi. Di samping itu, IL bersifat tidak meruap dan mempunyai kekonduksian ionik yang tinggi,iaitu sekitar 10!³ mS cm!¹,menjadikannya bahan yang amat sesuai untuk aplikasi sel fuel. Pelbagai jenis cecair ionik berasaskan imidazolium iodida telah dikenal pasti sebagai bahan tambahan yang berpotensi dalam meningkatkan prestasi sel fuel. Antaranya termasuk 1-metil-3-propilimidazolium iodida (MPII), 1-butil-3-metilimidazolium iodida (BMII), dan 1-heksil-3-metilimidazolium iodida (HMII). Kehadiran struktur cincin imidazolium dalam molekul IL yang bersifat tidak meruap dan mampu menstabilkan pembawa cas dalam sistem elektrolit membantu dalam peningkatan kekonduksian ionik pada sel fuel[10,11].Dalam kajian ini, MPII telah dipilih sebagai bahan tambahan utama kepada PEMFC berasaskan kitosan dan silikon dioksida, memandangkan MPII mengandungi rantai alkil iodida imidazolium yang paling pendek. Rantai pendek ini menghasilkan daya van der Waals yang lebih lemah, sekali gus mengurangkan kemungkinan pengagregatan kation dalam sistem, yang boleh menjejaskan penghantaran ion. Selain itu, MPII turut mempunyai kelikatan yang rendah, yang membolehkannya mempercepatkan pergerakan pembawa cas di dalam medium elektrolit, sekali gus meningkatkan prestasi keseluruhan sel fuel[22,23]..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7352
%$+$1'$1 .$('$+Kitosan dengan berat molekul kira-kira 200,000 dan tahap deasetilasi sekitar 90% telah diperoleh daripada Merck, German. Sementara itu, tetraetil ortosilikat (TEOS) dibekalkan oleh Sigma Aldrich (Amerika Syarikat), manakala asid silikotungstik (SWA) diperoleh daripada Merck, German juga.Kesemua bahan kimia yang digunakan adalah bertaraf gred analisis dan digunakan secara langsung tanpa sebarang proses penulenan lanjut. Sepanjang keseluruhan prosedur sintesis dan pengendalian bahan, air deionisasi digunakan sebagai pelarut dan medium tindak balas utama bagi memastikan ketulenan dan kebersihan sistem. Kitosan/poli (vinil alcohol) telah disediakan mengikut kaedah kajian lepas[12,13]. Untuk menyediakan PEM, kitosan, poli (vinil alcohol) dan 2 bt.% silikon dioksida telah dilarutkan dalam larutan asid asetik 1% dan terus dikacau dengan bar magnet selama 24 jam. Pelbagai peratusan berat MPII dilarutkan secara berasingan dalam larutan asid asetik 1% sebelum ditambah kepada larutan kitosan, poli (vinil alcohol) dan 2 bt.% silikon dioksida. Larutan dikacau lagi selama 24 jam untuk mencapai campuran homogen. Larutan tersebut diletakkan pada cawan petri dan dibiarkan kering sepenuhnya pada suhu bilik sehingga filem diperolehi. .(38786$1.219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7353
'$3$7$1.$-,$1Kajian ini berjaya membangunkan dan mencirikan satu sistem membran komposit ikatan paut silang yang terdiri daripada lapisan kitosan (CS) yang sangat nipis pada substrat mikropori silikon dioksida (SiO$), yang telah disuntik dengan cecair ionik 1-metil-3-propilimidazolium iodida (MPII). Membran komposit yang dibangunkan ini bertujuan untuk menilai kesesuaiannya dalam aplikasi sel fuel membran pertukaran proton bersuhu tinggi (HTPEMFC). Melalui teknik analisis spektroskopi inframerah transformasi Fourier (FTIR), dapatan menunjukkan kemunculan puncak pada nombor gelombang 3080 cm!¹ yang merupakan bukti jelas kewujudan interaksi ikatan hidrogen yang kuat. Interaksi ini berlaku antara kumpulan CñH pada cincin imidazolium dalam MPII dengan ion iodida (I!), sekaligus mengesahkan pencapaian sinergi molekul dalam sistem komposit tersebut[18,19].Ujian termogravimetri (TGA) menunjukkan bahawa membran komposit CS/SiO$/MPII (3.5 bt.') hanya mengalami kehilangan berat sebanyak 13% apabila dipanaskan sehingga 800 °C, menunjukkan kestabilan terma yang tinggi dalam lingkungan suhu operasi HTPEMFC. Ini menunjukkan bahawa kehadiran MPII dalam struktur komposit tidak menjejaskan integriti terma bahan secara signifikan, bahkan meningkatkan keupayaan bertahan terhadap degradasi haba. Melalui analisis kekonduksian ionik (EIS), membran CS/SiO$/MPII (3.5 bt.%) mencapai nilai kekonduksian ionik maksimum sebanyak 51 mS cm!¹ pada suhu 140 °C. Nilai ini memperlihatkan peningkatan ketara berbanding membran tanpa penambahan MPII, menjadikannya sangat sesuai untuk operasi suhu tinggi dalam sistem HT-PEMFC[14,15].Kajian ke atas kapasiti penyerapan air menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 53' bagi membran CS/SiO$/MPII (3.5 bt.') berbanding dengan membran CS/SiO$ tanpa MPII. Peningkatan ini mencadangkan bahawa struktur membran yang dimodifikasi dengan MPII dapat memegang lebih banyak molekul air, sekali gus menyumbang kepada kestabilan dan prestasi penghantaran proton yang lebih baik dalam keadaan suhu tinggi[16,17]. Ujian prestasi sel fuel tunggal mendapati bahawa membran CS/SiO$/MPII (3.5 bt.%) mencatatkan ketumpatan kuasa maksimum sebanyak 181.32 mW cm!² pada suhu 140 °C. Nilai ini adalah 288.27' lebih tinggi berbanding membran CS/SiO$ tanpa MPII yang hanya mencapai 46.70 mW cm!². Keputusan ini memberikan bukti kukuh bahawa penambahan MPII secara signifikan meningkatkan prestasi elektrokimia sistem membran[24,25]. Prestasi membran komposit yang dibangunkan turut dibandingkan dengan membran komersial Nafion 212. Didapati bahawa, walaupun Nafion terkenal dengan keupayaan konduktiviti proton, membran CS/SiO$/MPII (3.5 bt.') menunjukkan potensi yang kompetitif terutama dari segi kestabilan terma dan keupayaan berfungsi pada suhu melebihi had kebiasaan Nafion. .(6,038/$1Secara keseluruhan, kajian ini telah berjaya membangunkan dan mencirikan satu sistem membran komposit berpaut silang yang terdiri daripada lapisan kitosan (CS) yang amat nipis, substrat mikropori silikon dioksida (SiO$), serta cecair ionik 1-metil-3-propilimidazolium iodida (MPII). Pencirian menyeluruh yang melibatkan teknik FTIR, TGA, EIS dan ujian penyerapan telah membuktikan bahawa terdapat interaksi molekul yang signifikan antara komponen-komponen membran, khususnya kewujudan ikatan hidrogen yang kuat antara kumpulan CñH imidazolium dan ion I!. Penambahan cecair ionik MPII ke dalam sistem komposit CS/SiO$ telah meningkatkan sifat kekonduksian ion dan kestabilan terma membran secara ketara, di mana formulasi .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7354
CS/SiO$/MPII pada kepekatan 3.5 bt.' mencatatkan nilai kekonduksian tertinggi sebanyak 51 mS·cm!¹ pada suhu 140 °C serta kestabilan terma sehingga 800 °C dengan kehilangan jisim hanya 13%. Selain itu, membran ini turut menunjukkan kadar penyerapan yang lebih tinggi berbanding membran tanpa MPII, iaitu peningkatan sebanyak 23%, yang membuktikan peranan MPII dalam meningkatkan keupayaan imbiban dan penghantaran ion proton. Pengujian prestasi sel tunggal HT-PEMFC mendapati bahawa membran CS/SiO$/MPII (3.5 bt.') mencapai ketumpatan kuasa maksimum sebanyak 181.32 mW·cm!², iaitu peningkatan luar biasa sebanyak 288.27' berbanding formulasi terdahulu. Prestasi ini turut mengatasi membran komersial Nafion 212 dalam julat suhu tinggi, sekali gus memperkukuh potensi aplikasinya dalamsistem sel fuel suhu tinggi. Kesimpulannya, penambahan cecair ionik MPII ke dalam struktur membran komposit CS/SiO$ telah membuktikan keberkesanannya dalammeningkatkan prestasi keseluruhan membran, termasuk kekonduksian ion, kestabilan terma, penyerapan air, dan ketumpatan kuasa. Ini menjadikan membran komposit CS/SiO$/MPII sebagai calon bahan alternatif yang menjanjikan untuk aplikasi dalam teknologi HT-PEMFC pada masa hadapan.58-8.$1[1] Ahmed, S., Tao, Z., Zhang, H., Hassan, M., Ahmed, N.,Javid, M. T., & Wang, J. (2023). Review on chitosan andtwo-dimensional MoS2-based proton exchange membranefor fuel cell application: advances and perspectives. Energy& Fuels, 37(3), 1699-1730.[2] Aminudin, M. A., Kamarudin, S. K., Lim, B. H., Majilan, E.H., Masdar, M. S., & Shaari, N. (2023). An overview:Current progress on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 48(11), 4371-4388.[3] Amran, R. D., Ann, I. L. J., Leong, G. W., Tan, C. G., Mo,K. H., Lim, K. S., & Nazri, F. M. (2024). 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Efficientchitosan/nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide compositemembranes for direct alkaline ethanol fuel cells. International journal of molecular sciences, 22(4), 1740.[8] Hren, M., Hribernik, S., Gorgieva, S., Motealleh, A.,Eqtesadi, S., Wendellbo, R., ... : Boûi-, M. (2021).Chitosan-Mg (OH) 2 based composite membrane containingnitrogen doped GO for direct ethanol fuel cell. Cellulose, 28,1599-1616.[9] Isa, K., Zain, Z. M., Mohd-Mokhtar, R., Noh, M. M., Ismail,Z. H., Yusof, A. A., ... & Kadir, H. A. (Eds.). (2021).Proceedings of the 12th National Technical Seminar onUnmanned System Technology 2020; NUSYSí20 (Vol.770). Springer Nature.[10] Kalaiselvimary, J., Sundararajan, M., & Prabhu, M. R.(2018). Preparation and characterization of chitosan-basednanocomposite hybrid polymer electrolyte membranes forfuel cell application. Ionics, 24, 3555-3571.[11] Lim, S. C. L., Hor, C. P., Tay, K. H., Jelani, A. M., Tan, W.H., Ker, H. B., ... & Ravi, T. (2022). Efficacy of ivermectintreatment on disease progression among adults with mild tomoderate COVID-19 and comorbidities: the I-TECHrandomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine, 182(4),426-435.[12] Leong, K. P., Yong, M. Y., Goh, L. L., Woo, C. M., Lim, C.W., & Koh, E. T. (2021). Missense variant in interleukin-6signal transducer identified as susceptibility locus forrheumatoid arthritis in Chinese patients. Archives ofRheumatology, 36(4), 603.[13] Leong, K. S., Choo, T. F., Saidin, N. U., Zali, N. M., Azhar,N., & Masdar, M. S. (2024). In situ synthesis and depositionof palladium nanoparticles on gas diffusion layers viagamma radiolysis for cathode electrodes in proton exchangemembrane fuel cells. Chemical Physics Letters, 857,141699.[14] Musa, M. T., Shaari, N., Kamarudin, S. K., & Wong, W. Y.(2022). Recent biopolymers used for membrane fuel cells:Characterization analysis perspectives. 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[20] Sihombing, Y. A., Rahayu, S. U., & Situmeang, M. D.(2023). Effect of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) inchitosan/Pahae natural zeolite-based polymer electrolytemembranes for direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)applications. Materials Science for Energy Technologies, 6,252-259.[21] Tawalbeh, M., Al-Othman, A., Ka'ki, A., Mohamad, S., &Hassan, M. F. (2024). Starch-chitosan-ionic liquids-basedcomposite membranes for high temperature PEM fuel cellsapplications. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 67,852-862.[22] Tohidian, M., & Ghaffarian, S. R. (2021). Polyelectrolytenanocomposite membranes based on chitosan and surfacemodified multi-walled carbon nanotubes for use in fuel cellapplications. Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A,58(11), 778-791.[23] Vijayakumar, V., & Nam, S. Y. (2022). A review of recentchitosan anion exchange membranes for polymer electrolytemembrane fuel cells. Membranes, 12(12), 1265.[24] Yong, E. L., Cheong, W. F., Huang, Z., Thu, W. P. P.,Cazenave-Gassiot, A., Seng, K. Y., & Logan, S. (2021).Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial toexamine the safety, pharmacokinetics and effects ofEpimedium prenylflavonoids, on bone specific alkalinephosphatase and the osteoclast adaptor protein TRAF6 inpost-menopausal women. Phytomedicine, 91, 153680.[25] Zhao, S., Tsen, W. C., & Gong, C. (2021). 3D nanoflowerlike layered double hydroxide modified quaternizedchitosan/polyvinyl alcohol composite anion conductivemembranes for fuel cells. Carbohydrate Polymers, 256,117439..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7356
MATLAB-Based Model For Detecting Voltage Reversal in Series Stacked Microbial Fuel Cell 7V*DQHVDQDO90XUXJHVX$3,U'U6DLIXOQL]DP%LQ$EG.KDOLG 3URI'U+XVVDLQ6KDUHHI1ADTEC JTM Kampus Kuala Lumpur 2Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 3UAE University Corresponding email: [email protected]$EVWUDFWffl Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) have attracted considerable attention due to their potentialapplications in sustainable energy production and wastewater treatment. MFC is the emerging technology that can generate electrical energy directly from chemical energy while removing pollutants. This technology has not been commercialised yet because ultra-low power output, which needs to scale up power output, has led to the development of stacked MFC configurations, where multiple cells are connected in series or parallel. However, stacking introduces additional electrochemical complexities, most notably the phenomenon of voltage reversal (VR). Voltage reversal occurs when an individual cell within the stack becomes electrochemically weaker than others, causing its voltage to drop and even reverse polarity under certain conditions. Understanding the electron transfer dynamics at the anode and cathode is essential to addressing this issue. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the mechanisms governing electron movement within stacked MFCs, with particular focus on the anode-to-cathode pathways. A comprehensive MATLAB model was developed to simulate the transport of electrons and protons in a multi-cell MFC configuration. This model accounts for the individual electrochemical behaviours of each unit, enabling a detailed examination of conditions leading to voltage reversal. Simulation findings reveal that the model accurately captures the transfer mechanisms within stacked MFCs and provides insights into the onset and propagation of voltage reversal. The results demonstrate that localized imbalances in electron flow can initiate reversal events, emphasizing the need for stack uniformity and optimized load distribution. In addition to the numerical model, the study suggests the future development of a graphical visualization tool to better illustrate the dynamic transfer processes in real-time, offering enhanced interpretability for research and educational purposes. This work presents the first MATLAB-based model explicitly focused on elucidating the electron transfer mechanisms responsible for voltage reversal in stacked MFCs, providing a foundation for future design improvements and operational strategies. .H\\ZRUGVffl Microbial Fuel Cell, Voltage Reversal, MATLAB Model ,1752'8&7,21Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) are innovative bioelectrochemical systems that convert chemical energy into electrical energy while removing pollutants from wastewater[1]. Although this emerging technology holds great promise for supporting future global energy demands, the power output of a single-cell MFC (SCMFC) remains relatively low and requires improvement[2,3]. Theoretically, an SCMFC can generate a maximum voltage of 1.1 V; however, in practice, the open circuit voltage (OCV) typically ranges from 0.2 V to 0.8 V, which is lower than a conventional dry cell[4,5]. Multiple MFC units can be connected in series to overcome this limitation and achieve higher voltages. Nevertheless, this approach introduces a new challenge called voltage reversal, which occurs in stacked MFCs when one or more cells experience polarity reversal due to imbalance or substrate depletion, ultimately leading to reduced overall performance and lower net voltage output[6]. An imbalance in the flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode primarily causes voltage reversal in Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)[5]. This issue is particularly critical in stacked MFC configurations, where uneven electron transfer can lead to polarity reversal in individual cells. Currently, no existing model effectively represents the process of electron generation at the anode and their .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7357
movement to the cathode in a way that explains how this imbalance contributes to voltage reversal. So, this study focuses on developing a MATLAB-based model for detecting the Voltage Reversal in Stacked Microbial Fuel cells. 0$7(5,$/6$1'0(7+2'6The MATLAB Simulink software is used to develop the model to explain the electron and proton transfer mechanisms in single-cell and series-stacked MFC. Initially, a single-cell Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) model is designed to demonstrate undisturbed electron transfer from the anode to the cathode under ideal operating conditions. Theoretically, electrons and protons are generated in equal quantities within the anodic chamber of a Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) during substrate oxidation. The electrons are transferred to the cathode via an external circuit, while the protons simultaneously migrate to the cathodic chamber through the proton exchange membrane (PEM). At the cathode, these electrons and protons participate in a reduction reaction with molecular oxygen, forming water. In a single-cell MFC (SSMFC) operating under balanced conditions, the number of electrons and protons reaching the cathode remains equal. Consequently, once the cathodic reduction reaction occurs, no excess electrons accumulate at the cathode, ensuring a continuous and undisturbed flow of electrons from the anode. This balanced electron-proton transfer prevents the occurrence of voltage reversal in single-cell configurations. Based on this theoretical framework, a MATLAB model is developed to demonstrate that no excess electrons accumulate in a single-cell MFC in the cathodic chamber, ensuring balanced electron-proton transfer as shown in Figure 1. )LJXUHffl,OOXVWUDWLRQIRUWKH6LQJOH&HOO0)&However, in a series-stacked MFC configuration, the electrons and protons reaching a given cathodic chamber may originate from different anodic chambers. This mismatch can result in an unequal number of electrons and protons at the cathode, creating an electrochemical imbalance. If this imbalance is not addressed early, it can lead to polarity reversal in one or more cells, an effect known as the voltage reversal phenomenon. Figure 2 shows an illustration of a Three-Cell Series Stacked MFC (TCSSMFC). )LJXUHffl,OOXVWUDWLRQIRUWKH7KUHH&HOO6HULHV6WDFNHG0)& 5(68/76$1'',6&866,21The cell potential ( cell) is governed by the relative electron concentrations at the anode and cathode. Under ideal conditions, the electrons generated in the anodic chamber are entirely consumed in the cathodic chamber through proton-coupled reduction reactions, resulting in water formation. Five simulations were conducted using Simulink to evaluate this phenomenon, as detailed in Table 1. These tests model the generation and transfer ofelectrons and protons within the microbial fuel cell system.In Test 1, it is assumed that equal quantities of electrons and protons are generated in the anodic chamber. Upon complete transfer to the cathodic chamber, these reactants are entirely consumed in the reduction process, resulting in no residual particles and maintaining a stable Ecell. The corresponding simulation outcome is illustrated in Figure 3. Test 2 considers the constant amount of electrons transferred to the cathodic chamber throughout the process. However, the number of protons transferred to the cathodic chamber is sometimes reduced. This causes excess electrons in the cathodic chamber and reduces the cell potential. The result is shown in Figure 4. Test 3 considers the constant protons transferred to the cathodic chamber throughout the process. However, the number of electrons transferred to the cathodic chamber is sometimes reduced. This causes an excess proton in the cathodic chamber that does not affect the cell potential. The result is shown in Figure 5. Test 4 uses random electrons and protons transferred to the cathodic chamber. The cell potential increases and .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7358
decreases according to the cathodic chamber's excess or lack of electrons. The result is shown in Figure 6. Test 5 is done to force the Ecell to go below zero, which is considered that the VR occurs in the MFC at t=11. The result is shown in Figure 7. 7DEOHffl'DWD8VHGWR7HVW660)&0RGHONo. Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 e p e p e p e p e p 0 500 500 500 500 500 500 514 581 500 5001 500 500 500 500 500 500 504 545 500 4502 500 500 500 500 500 500 484 420 500 4503 500 500 500 480 490 500 561 543 500 4504 500 500 500 500 500 500 523 576 500 4505 500 500 500 500 500 500 529 475 500 4506 500 500 500 500 500 500 587 592 500 4507 500 500 500 500 450 500 542 419 500 4508 500 500 500 500 500 500 487 425 500 4509 500 500 500 450 500 500 420 574 500 45010 500 500 500 500 500 500 433 563 500 45011 500 500 500 500 500 500 457 512 500 45012 500 500 500 500 430 500 428 471 500 45013 500 500 500 500 500 500 463 559 500 45014 500 500 500 500 500 500 494 565 500 45015 500 500 500 400 500 500 415 461 500 45016 500 500 500 500 420 500 417 572 500 45017 500 500 500 500 500 500 503 495 500 45018 500 500 500 500 500 500 559 541 500 45019 500 500 500 500 500 500 415 574 500 45020 500 500 500 500 500 500 525 408 500 45021 500 500 500 500 500 500 495 472 500 45022 500 500 500 460 470 500 437 453 500 45023 500 500 500 500 500 500 483 504 500 45024 500 500 500 500 500 500 538 476 500 45025 500 500 500 500 500 500 459 567 500 45026 500 500 500 490 500 500 436 453 500 45027 500 500 500 500 420 500 454 589 500 45028 500 500 500 500 500 500 576 474 500 45029 500 500 500 500 500 500 519 429 500 45030 500 500 500 500 500 500 552 423 500 450e: Number of Electron | p: Number of Proton)LJXUHffl6&0)&7HVW5HVXOW)LJXUH6&0)&7HVW5HVXOW)LJXUH6&0)&7HVW5HVXOW)LJXUH6&0)&7HVW5HVXOW)LJXUH6&0)&7HVW5HVXOW.219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7359
When more than one MFC is connected in a series, the anode-cathode combinations are from different cells. This can produce an excess of electrons in the cathodic chamber, which can cause a voltage reversal phenomenon if it is not detected and solved early. Table 2 shows the data sent to Simulink to simulate TCSSMFC. Table 2: Table For Test 1 TCSSMFS1R ; < ; < ; <0 500 500 500 500 500 5001 500 500 500 500 500 5002 500 500 500 500 500 5003 500 500 500 500 500 5004 500 500 500 500 500 5005 500 500 500 500 500 5006 500 500 500 500 500 5007 500 500 500 500 500 5008 500 500 500 500 500 5009 500 500 500 500 500 50010 500 500 500 500 500 50011 500 500 500 500 500 50012 500 500 500 500 500 50013 500 500 500 500 500 50014 500 500 500 500 500 50015 500 500 500 500 500 50016 500 500 500 500 500 50017 500 500 500 500 500 50018 500 500 500 500 500 50019 500 500 500 500 500 50020 500 500 500 500 500 50021 500 500 500 500 500 50022 500 500 500 500 500 50023 500 500 500 500 500 50024 500 500 500 500 500 50025 500 500 500 500 500 50026 500 500 500 500 500 50027 500 500 500 500 500 50028 500 500 500 500 500 50029 500 500 500 500 500 50030 500 500 500 500 500 500X1: electron at MFC 1 | Y1: Proton at MFC 1 X2: electron at MFC 2 | Y2: Proton at MFC 2X3: electron at MFC 3 | Y3: Proton at MFC 3 Test 1 is conducted to analyse the result when each MFC produces an equal number of electrons and protons. Figure 8 shows the simulation result, which shows that the sum of the potential Esum is always maintained at a constant level. )LJXUHfl7HVWUHVXOWIRU7&660)&An imbalance in electron transfer to the cathodic chamber results in an unstable cumulative cell potential (Esum), as illustrated in Figure 9. Test 2 of the TCSSMFC model, with input parameters detailed in Table 3, was conducted to investigate this effect. As presented in Table 3, MFC 2 generates 600 units of electrons from t = 11 to t = 15, MFC 3 generates an equivalent amount from t = 16 and t = 20, and another MFC produces 600 units from t = 21 to t = 25. Entries highlighted in blue indicate cells where the number of electrons or protons exceeds those produced by neighboring cells. This excess leads to an imbalance in the electrochemical potential across the stack, thereby disrupting the uniformity of Esum and causing voltage inconsistencies between the cells. Table 3: Data sent to the Simulation model for Test 2 TCSSMFC1R ; < ; < ; <0 500 500 500 500 500 5001 500 500 500 500 500 5002 500 500 500 500 500 5003 500 500 500 500 500 5004 500 500 500 500 500 5005 500 500 500 500 500 5006 500 500 500 500 500 5007 500 500 500 500 500 5008 500 500 500 500 500 5009 500 500 500 500 500 50010 500 500 500 500 500 50011 500 500 600 600 500 50012 500 500 600 600 500 50013 500 500 600 600 500 50014 500 500 600 600 500 50015 500 500 600 600 500 50016 500 500 500 500 600 60017 500 500 500 500 600 60018 500 500 500 500 600 60019 500 500 500 500 600 60020 500 500 500 500 600 60021 600 600 500 500 500 50022 600 600 500 500 500 50023 600 600 500 500 500 50024 600 600 500 500 500 50025 600 600 500 500 500 50026 500 500 500 500 500 50027 500 500 500 500 500 50028 500 500 500 500 500 50029 500 500 500 500 500 50030 500 500 500 500 500 500X1: electron at MFC 1 | Y1: Proton at MFC 1 X2: electron at MFC 2 | Y2: Proton at MFC 2X3: electron at MFC 3 | Y3: Proton at MFC 3 When the number of electrons produced in all the MFC is the same at the initial stage, the Ecell1, Ecell2, and Ecell3 have equal values and produce a constant Esum. However, when Cell-2 generates more electrons from t = 11 to t = 15, these electrons are transferred to the cathode of Cell-1. So, cell-1 now has an excess of electrons because cell-1 has only produced 500 protons, which can only utilise 500 electrons for the reduction process, leaving 100 electrons unused. So, when this number of electrons keeps on increasing, it will reduce the MFC-1ís cell .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7360
potential. When MFC-1ís cell potential is decreased, the overall cell potential will automatically decrease. From t = 16 to t = 20, Cell-2 is back to normal mode, but cell-3 generates 600 electrons and protons. At this period, the cathode of cell-2 faces an excess of electrons. Thus, the MFC-2ís cell potential decreases during this period. However, the potential of Cell-3 is increased, and the overall cell potential is balanced back to be constant at this period. Finally, at t = 21 to t = 25, Cell-2 and cell-3 return to normal mode, but Cell-1 produces more electrons and protons. This situation increases the cell-1ís potential, and overall cell potential returns to its initial value. )LJXUHffi7HVWUHVXOWIRU7&660)&Test 3 was conducted to analyze the voltage reversal (VR) occurrence within the TCSSMFC system. This phenomenon arises when one or more cells consistently generate excess electrons and protons relative to the others. As shown in Table 4, Cell-2 continuously produces a higher concentration of electrons and protons, highlighted in blue font, which disrupts the electrochemical balance and induces voltage reversal within the system. Figure 10 shows the test 3 result, where the VR occurs at t = 27. Cell-2 produces extra electrons and protons from t = 11 to t = 27. This causes the cell-1 potential to decrease linearly at this moment with a negative gradient. Finally, at t = 27, the overall potential becomes zero and drops to a negative value in seconds. )LJXUH7HVWUHVXOWIRU7&660)&Table 4: Data sent to the Simulation model for Test 3 TCSSMFC1R ; < ; < ; <0 500 500 500 500 500 5001 500 500 500 500 500 5002 500 500 500 500 500 5003 500 500 500 500 500 5004 500 500 500 500 500 5005 500 500 500 500 500 5006 500 500 500 500 500 5007 500 500 500 500 500 5008 500 500 500 500 500 5009 500 500 500 500 500 50010 500 500 500 500 500 50011 500 500 600 600 500 50012 500 500 600 600 500 50013 500 500 600 600 500 50014 500 500 600 600 500 50015 500 500 600 600 500 50016 500 500 600 600 500 50017 500 500 600 600 500 50018 500 500 600 600 500 50019 500 500 600 600 500 50020 500 500 600 600 500 50021 500 500 600 600 500 50022 500 500 600 600 500 50023 500 500 600 600 500 50024 500 500 600 600 500 50025 500 500 600 600 500 50026 500 500 600 600 500 50027 500 500 600 600 500 50028 500 500 500 500 500 50029 500 500 500 500 500 50030 500 500 500 500 500 500X1: electron at MFC 1 | Y1: Proton at MFC 1 X2: electron at MFC 2 | Y2: Proton at MFC 2X3: electron at MFC 3 | Y3: Proton at MFC 3 &21&/86,21The developed MATLAB model was validated for single-cell and three-cell series-stacked MFC configurations. The simulation results effectively demonstrate the impact of imbalanced electron transfer in the three-cell stack, which can lead to the onset of voltage reversal. This model serves as a valuable tool for further investigation and control of electron distribution in seriesconnected MFCs, providing a foundation for strategies to mitigate voltage reversal phenomena.5()(5(1&(6-RXUQDO[1] H. Gul, W. Raza, J. Lee, M. Azam, M. Ashraf, and K.-H.Kim, \"Progress in microbial fuel cell technology forwastewater treatment and energy harvesting,\" Chemosphere,p. 130828, 2021.[2] C. Gurikar et al., \"Microbial fuel cells: An alternateapproach for bioelectricity generation and wastemanagement,\" Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology,.219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7361Review vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 1833-1845, 2021, doi:10.22207/JPAM.15.4.74.
[3] D. A. Jadhav, A. K. Mungray, A. Arkatkar, and S. S. Kumar,\"Recent advancement in scaling-up applications of microbialfuel cells: From reality to practicability,\" Sustainable EnergyTechnologies and Assessments, Review vol. 45, 2021, Artno. 101226, doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2021.101226.[4] F. Shabani, H. Philamore, and F. Matsuno, \"An energyautonomous chemical oxygen demand sensor using amicrobial fuel cell and embedded machine learning,\" IEEEAccess, Article vol. 9, pp. 108689-108701, 2021, Art no.9502709, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3101496.[5] G. V. Murugesu, S. N. Khalid, and H. Shareef, \"MicrobialFuel Cell as a Future Energy Source: A Review of ItsDevelopment, Design, Power Generation, and VoltageReversal Control Mechanism,\" IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp.128022-128045, 2022, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3227433[6] X. Cao, H. Wang, X. Long, O. Nishimura, and X. Li,\"Limitation of voltage reversal in the degradation of azo dyeby a stacked double-anode microbial fuel cell andcharacterization of the microbial community structure,\"Science of The Total Environment, vol. 754, p. 142454,2021..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7362
Industri Nadir Bumi Dan Industri Berasaskan Peralihan Tenaga0XKDPPDG$]L]LELQ$]L]DQ 1XUIDG]LOODKELQWL,VKDN 0RKG)DL]DOELQ$EGXO-DOLO1Fakulti Kejuruteraan & Teknologi AwamUniversiti Malaysia Perlis2Jabatan Alam Sekitar Cawangan KulimJabatan Alam SekitarCorresponding email: [email protected]$EVWUDFWffl Industri nadir bumi memainkan peranan penting dalam pembangunan teknologi tenaga bolehbaharu, namun proses perlombongan dan penapisan sedia ada masih bergantung kepada penggunaan tenaga intensif, air yang banyak, serta jentera berat yang memberi impak kepada alam sekitar. Jurnal ini mencadangkan satu pendekatan inovatif dan boleh dilaksanakan untuk mengurangkan pergantungan terhadap sumber intensif dengan memperkenalkan sistem modular pemprosesan nadir bumi berasaskan tenaga boleh baharu, integrasi teknologi pintar, dan program latihan TVET tempatan. Pendekatan ini dijangka memberi impak tinggi kepada kelestarian industri serta memperkasa komuniti melalui pembangunan kapasiti dan pemindahan teknologi..H\\ZRUGVffl Nadir Bumi, Peralihan Tenaga, Tenaga Boleh Baharu ,1752'8&7,21Peralihan tenaga global ke arah teknologi bersih dan lestari telah meningkatkan permintaan terhadap unsur nadir bumi (rare earth elements, REE) yang menjadi komponen kritikal dalam pembuatan turbin angin, bateri litium-ion, dan motor kenderaan elektrik [1]. Malaysia, sebagai antara negara yang mempunyai sumber nadir bumi, berada pada kedudukan strategik untuk menyumbang dalam rantaian bekalan global. Namun, cabaran berkaitan kesan alam sekitar, keperluan tenaga dan air yang tinggi serta kebergantungan kepada buruh dan jentera berat masih membelenggu sektor ini [2]. Maka, keperluan kepada pendekatan baharu yang ringan, mampan, dan berimpak tinggi menjadi keutamaan. ,686(0$6$'$1.(3(5/8$1,1'8675,Kaedah perlombongan dan penapisan REE konvensional melibatkan penggunaan asid kuat, suhu tinggi dan air dalam jumlah besar [3]. Proses ini bukan sahaja mencemarkan alam sekitar, malah tidak sesuai untuk kawasan yang sensitif dari segi ekologi. Tambahan pula, kos tenaga dan keperluan jentera berat menjadikan ia kurang efisien untuk operasi berskala kecil. Ketiadaan integrasi teknologi pintar serta latihan tempatan menyebabkan potensi penuh industri ini belum dimanfaatkan sepenuhnya [4]. 6,67(002'8/$55,1*$1 025(58 Bagi menangani cabaran operasi intensif sumber dalam industri nadir bumi, penulisan ini mencadangkan satu sistem baharu yang dikenali sebagai Modular Rare Earth Refinement Unit (MoRERU). MoRERU merupakan konsep sistem penapisan nadir bumi berskala kecil yang direka bentuk secara modular dan mudah alih. Unit ini mampu dioperasikan tanpa keperluan jentera berat atau infrastruktur besar, menjadikannya sesuai untuk pelaksanaan di kawasan terpencil dan berskala kecil.MoRERU menggunakan sumber tenaga solar sebagai punca utama operasi, yang disokong oleh sistem storan bateri berkapasiti sederhana. Ini membolehkan operasi dijalankan secara off-grid, sekaligus mengurangkan kebergantungan kepada bekalan elektrik konvensional [5].Dari sudut teknologi pemprosesan, sistem ini menggunakan teknik pemisahan ion melalui membran tenaga rendah yang mampu mengurangkan penggunaan air dan bahan kimia. Berbanding kaedah konvensional yang menggunakan suhu tinggi dan bahan asid kuat, pendekatan ini lebih selamat, menjimatkan tenaga dan mesra alam.Sistem ini turut dilengkapi dengan teknologi pemantauan pintar berasaskan Internet of Things (IoT), yang membolehkan proses pemprosesan dipantau dan dikawal secara dalam talian. Fungsi ini bukan sahaja meningkatkan .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7363
kecekapan operasi, malah mengurangkan keperluan kepada tenaga kerja mahir secara berterusan di lokasi. MoRERU juga memanfaatkan sistem penyejukan pasif yang direka bentuk untuk mengekalkan kestabilan suhu dalam komponen utama, sekaligus mengurangkan keperluan kepada sistem pendingin mekanikal yang menggunakan tenaga tinggi. ,17(*5$6,7(1$*$%2/(+%$+$58Integrasi tenaga boleh baharu dalam sistem MoRERU membuktikan keserasian antara sektor perlombongan nadir bumi dan prinsip kelestarian alam sekitar. Unit ini direka untuk beroperasi sepenuhnya menggunakan tenaga solar, dengan sokongan sistem storan tenaga yang membolehkan operasi berterusan walaupun pada waktu malam atau dalam keadaan cuaca yang tidak menentu. Penggunaan tenaga boleh baharu ini bukan sahaja menyumbang kepada pengurangan pelepasan karbon, tetapi juga menjadikan sistem ini lebih fleksibel untuk ditempatkan di lokasi yang jauh daripada infrastruktur bekalan tenaga sedia ada [6].Sebagai tambahan, pendekatan ini menepati matlamat peralihan tenaga negara yang berhasrat untuk meningkatkan penggunaan tenaga bersih dalam sektor strategik [7]. Ia turut membuka ruang kepada pembangunan penyelesaian teknologi hijau yang boleh disesuaikan dalam konteks tempatan serta berpotensi untuk dikomersialkan di peringkat serantau. 352*5$079(77(03$7$1Sebagai pelengkap kepada pendekatan teknologi, program pembangunan kapasiti tempatan melalui latihan berasaskan Pendidikan dan Latihan Teknikal dan Vokasional (TVET) akan diwujudkan. Program ini memberi tumpuan kepada latihan pengendalian dan penyelenggaraan sistem MoRERU, sekaligus membuka peluang kepada komuniti setempat untuk terlibat secara langsung dalam operasi industri nadir bumi moden yang lebih mesra alam.Modul latihan yang dicadangkan merangkumi aspek teknikal sistem modular, penggunaan dan penyelenggaraan teknologi IoT, serta pengetahuan asas berkaitan keselamatan alam sekitar dan pengurusan sisa. Pendekatan ini bukan sahaja memperkasakan tenaga kerja tempatan, malah membantu mengurangkan kebergantungan kepada tenaga pakar luar. Dalam jangka masa panjang, program ini akan mewujudkan komuniti yang berpengetahuan, berkemahiran dan mampu menyumbang kepada pembangunan industri secara mampan [8]. +*+9'$1,03$.626,$/Pendekatan ini menyokong prinsip High Governance High Value (HGHV) dengan memperkukuh tadbir urus melalui teknologi pemantauan pintar dan penglibatan komuniti secara langsung dalam rantaian nilai industri [9]. Ia mengurangkan ketirisan sumber, meningkatkan ketelusan operasi, serta membina ekosistem yang mampan. Dari segi impak sosial, pelaksanaan sistem modular dan program TVET tempatan membuka peluang pekerjaan baharu, memperkasa kemahiran komuniti setempat dan menggalakkan pemindahan teknologi [10]. Inisiatif ini bukan sahaja menyumbang kepada pembangunan ekonomi setempat, malah memperkukuh keseimbangan antara pembangunan industri dan kesejahteraan sosial. 3(1'(.$7$1Pendekatan modular yang dicadangkan melalui sistem MoRERU memperlihatkan potensi besar dalam merevolusikan industri nadir bumi secara lebih mampan. Penggunaan teknologi tenaga boleh baharu dan sistem digital bukan sahaja mengurangkan kebergantungan kepada sumber intensif seperti air, tenaga dan jentera berat, tetapi juga membolehkan operasi dijalankan secara lebih cekap dan mesra alam. Tambahan pula, pelaksanaan program TVET tempatan memberi nilai tambah dari segi pembangunan kapasiti insan dan keterlibatan komuniti. Pendekatan ini memperkukuh hubungan antara teknologi dan kelestarian sosial, serta menunjukkan bahawa transformasi industri boleh dicapai melalui inovasi berskala kecil yang inklusif dan bertanggungjawab [11]. .(6,038/$1Kesimpulannya, pembangunan sistem modular MoRERU berpotensi menjadi pemangkin kepada transformasi industri nadir bumi yang lebih lestari dan berdaya saing. Dengan menggabungkan teknologi tenaga boleh baharu, kecekapan digital dan program latihan TVET, pendekatan ini menjawab cabaran operasi konvensional yang berimpak tinggi terhadap alam sekitar dan ekonomi tempatan [12].Inovasi ini bukan sahaja memacu keberhasilan teknikal, tetapi turut memperkukuh pemerkasaan komuniti dan tadbir urus yang baik. Ia selari dengan aspirasi negara ke arah pembangunan industri berasaskan nilai tinggi dan kelestarian jangka panjang, serta menawarkan model baharu yang boleh diperluas ke peringkat serantau dan global.58-8.$1-RXUQDO[1] Prasodjo, H., & Sintawati, P. (2024). Kepentingan StrategisTiongkok dalam Penguasaan Pasokan dan Produksi RareEarth Elements Skala Global. Mandala: Jurnal IlmuHubungan Internasional, 7(2), 62-89..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7364
[2] Omer, A. M. (2009). Energy use and environmental impacts:A general review. Journal of renewable and SustainableEnergy, 1(5).[3] Mwewa, B., Tadie, M., Ndlovu, S., Simate, G. S., &Matinde, E. (2022). Recovery of rare earth elements fromacid mine drainage: A review of the extraction methods.Journal of environmental chemical engineering, 10(3),107704.[4] Goodenough, K. M., Wall, F., & Merriman, D. (2018). Therare earth elements: demand, global resources, andchallenges for resourcing future generations. NaturalResources Research, 27, 201-216.[5] Harun, W. M. S. W. (2024). Penghala Internet Tanpa Wayar(Wi-Fi) berkuasa solar untuk pertanian. Buletin TeknologiMARDI Bil, 42, 77-87.[6] Abolhosseini, S., Heshmati, A., & Altmann, J. (2014). Areview of renewable energy supply and energy efficiencytechnologies.[7] Aleluia, J., Tharakan, P., Chikkatur, A. P., Shrimali, G., &Chen, X. (2022). Accelerating a clean energy transition inSoutheast Asia: Role of governments and public policy.Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 159, 112226.[8] Pavlova, M. (2019). Emerging environmental industries:impact on required skills and TVET systems. InternationalJournal of Training Research, 17(sup1), 144-158.[9] PÛlvora, A., Nascimento, S., LourenÁo, J. S., & Scapolo, F.(2020). Blockchain for industrial transformations: Aforward-looking approach with multi-stakeholderengagement for policy advice. Technological forecasting andsocial change, 157, 120091.[10] Kanwar, A., Balasubramanian, K., & Carr, A. (2019).Changing the TVET paradigm: new models for lifelonglearning. International Journal of Training Research,17(sup1), 54-68.[11] Tekle, A., Areaya, S., & Habtamu, G. (2024). EnhancingStakeholdersí Engagement in TVET Policy and StrategyDevelopment in Ethiopia. Journal of Technical Educationand Training, 16(1), 268-282.[12] Okanya, V. (2023). Enhancing Integration of EmergingTechnologies in Technical Vocational EducationandTraining (TVET) Programmes for SustainableDevelopment. INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGYEDUCATION RESEARCH JOURNAL, 6(1), 73-85..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7365
Effect of Granite Fly Ash and Nano Silica onMechanical Performance and Water Absorption of Polyester-Based Glass and Basalt Fiber Composites0RKG$]UXO-DDIDU6KDKUXO$]DP$EGXOODK$LGDK-XPDKDW0RKDPDG$VURIL0XVOLP5DMD0D]XLU5DMD$KVDQ6KDK 5D\\PRQG6LHZ7HQJ /RZ1Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training, Jalan Petani 19/1, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia2Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor3Kuala Lumpur Industrial Training Institute, Jalan Kuchai lama, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 4College of Engineering & Technology, University of Doha for Science and Technology, 24449, Doha, Qatar5 Carbon Tech Global Sdn Bhd, PT-1361, Jalan Kesidang 5, Kampung Mohd Taib, Kawasan Industri, Kampung Sungai Choh, 48000 Rawang Selangor, Malaysia.Corresponding email: [email protected]$EVWUDFWfflPolyester-based composites reinforced with fibers are widely used in structural and transportationapplications. However, their mechanical integrity and water absorption resistance require enhancement, especially in humid environments. Polyester resin is inherently prone to moisture uptake, leading to degradation in mechanical strength and dimensional stability. This study explores the potential of incorporating granite fly ash (GFA) and nano silica (NS) into glass fiber (GFRC) and basalt fiber (BFRC) composites as a strategy to mitigate water absorption while simultaneously improving mechanical performance. Composite samples were prepared with varying contents of granite dust (1%, 3%, and 5%) and nano silica (1%, 3%, and 5%) as fillers. Water absorption and tensile tests were conducted in accordance with ASTM standards to investigate their performance. Comparative analysis was conducted between unmodifiedsamples and modified systems. Water absorption reduced significantly with the inclusion of GFA and NS, particularly in 3%GFA and 5%NS samples. Mechanical strength peaked at 3%GFA with BFRC showing higher tensile values compared to GFRC. A notable reduction in porosity and improved fiber-matrix bonding were observed. Both GFA and NS improved water resistance, with 3%GFA yielding optimal mechanical performance. These results indicate potential for more durable and sustainable composite formulations suitable for structural and marine applications..H\\ZRUGVffl silicon vacuum mould; tensile strength; polymer composites; natural fiber ,1752'8&7,21The demand for high-performance and environmentally sustainable composite materials has led to growing interest in incorporating industrial by-products and nanomaterials as fillers in polymer composites [1]. Among the promising candidates are granite fly ash (GFA), a waste product from quarrying and stone cutting industries, and nano silica (NS), known for its high surface area and reactivity [2].These materials have the potential to enhance the mechanical properties and reduce water absorption in polymer-based composites. In this study, polyester resin was used as the matrix, reinforced with two types of fibersóglass fiber reinforced composite (GFRC) and basalt fiber reinforced composite (BFRC). Different weight percentages of GFA and NS were incorporated to investigate their effects on tensile strength, strain, modulus, and water absorption behavior. Basalt fiber as a natural fiber is known for its superior strength, chemical stability, and thermal resistance, while glass fiber is widely used due to its cost-effectiveness and availability [3] [4]. The incorporation of fillers such as GFA and NS is hypothesized to influence the interfacial bonding between the fiber and matrix, which in turn affects the overall performance of the composite [5].The global adoption of basalt fibre is steadily increasing asa result of its outstanding material properties. Among its most valued characteristics are its high tensile strength, .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7366
excellent resistance to fire, and strong resilience against chemical attack and corrosion. These properties make basalt fibre highly desirable for demanding applications. Additionally, its sustainable nature, widespread natural availability, and relatively low environmental impact when compared to conventional fibres such as glass or carbon fibres, further enhance its appeal. These advantages position basalt fibre as a promising and eco-friendly alternative in a wide range of industries, including construction, automotive, aerospace, and marine sectors, where performance, durability, and environmental responsibility are key considerations [6].This research aims to comprehensively investigate the potential of incorporating granite fly ash (GFA) and nano silica (NS) as functional fillers in polyester-based fiber composites. By examining their effects on tensile strength and water absorption, the study seeks to enhance composite performance while promoting sustainable material engineering through the use of industrial by-products and advanced nanomaterials. 0$7(5,$/6$1'0(7+2'6This study utilized mineral-based basalt fiber from Innovative Pultrusion Sdn. Bhd. (Seremban) and woven roving glass fibers from Vistec Technology (Puchong). The polyester resin (CRYSTICÆ 272E) and Butanox M60 hardener were supplied by Carbon Tech Global Sdn. Bhd. Granite fly ash (GFA) was obtained from JKR Kelantan. The polyester and hardener were mixed in a 100:2 weight ratio. Composite laminates were fabricated by incorporating 1%, 3%, and 5% GFA into a matrix of polyester resin reinforced with woven basalt and glass fibers. Basalt fibers were cut into 300 mm × 300 mm layers. The matrix blend was applied layer by layer using hand lay-up followed by silicon vacuum bagging. A total of seven layers were used, yielding laminates of ~2 mm thickness. Curing occurred at room temperature over 24 hours. Key equipment used were a vacuum pump, tubing, silicone mold bag, and roller. Once cured, the composite laminates were trimmed according to ASTM specifications to prepare samples for tensile strength evaluation and water absorption testing. Tensile tests were conducted per ASTM D3039 using a SHIMADZU 3366 Universal Testing Machine at a 2 mm/min crosshead speed. Five specimens per configuration were tested to ensure reliability. Figures and tables in the paper illustrate the materials, processes, and test setup. The ASTM D570 standard is applied to evaluatethe water absorption behavior of composite materials,using three specimens per test to ensure reliable and consistent measurement of moisture uptake. 5(68/76$1'',6&866,21(IIHFWRI*UDQLWH)O\\$VKRQ:DWHU$EVRUSWLRQ)LJXUHV DQG illustrate the water absorption trends ofBasalt Fibre-Reinforced Composites (BFRC) and Glass Fibre-Reinforced Composites (GFRC), respectively, incorporating different weight percentages (1%, 3%, and 5%) of Granite Fly Ash (GFA) over 15 days. In both composite types, the unmodified matrix (UM) recorded the highest water absorption, indicating that GFA significantly improves moisture resistance. In BFRC (Figure 1), the composite containing 3% GFA showed the least water uptake, indicating a well-balancedinteraction between the filler and the matrix. Meanwhile,1% and 5% GFA additions also reduced water absorption compared to the unmodified matrix (UM), although the performance of the 5% GFA was slightly lower, possibly due to filler agglomeration at higher content. For GFRC (Figure 2), all specimens incorporating GFA displayed enhanced resistance to water absorption relative to UM. Notably, the 5% GFA sample achieved the best performance, with 3% GFA closely behind. These findings suggest that GFRC can accommodate higher filler content more efficiently than BFRC.Comparatively, BFRC composites absorbed less water than GFRC across most filler loadings, indicating better fibrematrix compatibility. Overall, the inclusion of GFA enhances the water resistance of both BFRC and GFRC, with optimal performance observed at 3% and 5% GFA, respectively, depending on the fibre type used. Fig. 1: BFRC Water Absorption with Granite Fly Ash (UM = unmodified).219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7367
Fig. 2: GFRC Water Absorption with Granite Fly Ash (UM = unmodified) (IIHFW RI 1DQR 6LOLFD RQ :DWHU$EVRUSWLRQ)LJXUHV DQG depict the water absorption profiles ofBasalt Fibre-Reinforced Composites (BFRC) and Glass Fibre-Reinforced Composites (GFRC), respectively, with varying nano silica (NS) contents (1%, 3%, and 5%) over a 15-day immersion period. In both figures, the unmodifiedmatrix (UM) consistently recorded the highest waterabsorption, emphasizing the beneficial effect of nano silicain enhancing moisture resistance.In BFRC (Figure 3), water absorption decreased progressively with increasing NS content. The 5% NS sample achieved the lowest absorption, followed by 3% and 1% NS, indicating a positive correlation between filler content and water resistance. The fine particle size of NS likely contributed to improved matrix densification and reduced capillary voids, leading to enhanced barrier properties.Similarly, in GFRC (Figure 4), the incorporation of NS significantly reduced water uptake compared to the UM sample. The 5% NS composite again demonstrated the best performance, with 3% and 1% NS also showing consistent improvements. The improved results suggest effective filler dispersion and enhanced matrix-fibre interface bonding.Overall, BFRC consistently exhibited lower water absorption compared to GFRC at all nano silica (NS) loadings, suggesting superior hydrophobic characteristics and stronger matrix-fiber compatibility. This highlights basalt fiber's natural resistance to moisture. The results also confirm that increasing NS content improves the compositeís barrier properties, enhancing its structural integrity and long-term durability under prolonged exposure to wet or humid conditions. [7].Fig. 3: BFRC Water Absorption with Nano Silica (UM = unmodified)Fig. 4: GFRC Water Absorption with Nano Silica (UM = unmodified)As expected, BFRC exhibits lower water absorption, primarily due to the inherent properties of basalt fibers. These fibers are derived from solid volcanic rocks rich in minerals like plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, which offer superior resistance to water infiltration [7]. These results highlight the ability of NS to form a dense network at the polymer-filler interface, preventing water molecules from permeating the composite structure. Moreover, GFAcontributed to improved water resistance by reducing micro-voids and acting as physical barriers within the matrix [8]. (IIHFW RI *UDQLWH )O\\ $VK RQ 7HQVLOH 6WUHQJWKFigure 5 illustrates the tensile strength of basalt fiber reinforced composites (BFRC) and glass fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) incorporating varying weight percentages of granite fly ash (GFA). For both composite types, the incorporation of GFA generally enhanced tensile performance [4] compared to the unmodified (UM) samples. The BFRC samples demonstrated superior tensile .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7368
strength across all GFA contents, with a noticeable peak at 3% GFA (278.020 MPa), suggesting optimal filler dispersion and strong fiber-matrix bonding. A marginal decrease was observed at 5% GFA (231.245 MPa), likely due to filler agglomeration or matrix interference.Similarly, the GFRC samples showed increased strength up to 3% GFA (233.726 MPa) compared to UM (196.122 MPa), indicating improved mechanical integrity with moderate filler loading. However, strength declined at 5% GFA (194.151 MPa), reinforcing the idea that excessive filler could negatively affect fiber wetting or introduce voids. Overall, the trend supports the effectiveness of moderate GFA loading (particularly 3%) in improving composite strength. The BFRC's higher performance over GFRC in all variations reflects basalt fiberís superior tensile properties and compatibility with granite-based fillers. These findings suggest that 3% GFA is the most effective reinforcement level for enhancing tensile strength in both composite systems [3].Fig. 5: Tensile Strength with Granite Fly Ash (UM = unmodified) (IIHFW RI 1DQR 6LOLFD RQ 7HQVLOH 6WUHQJWKFigure shows the tensile strength of BFRC and GFRC composites incorporating nano silica (NS) at varying weight percentages (1%, 3%, and 5%) in comparison to the unmodified (UM) samples. Both composite types experienced a substantial enhancement in tensile strength upon the addition of nano silica. For BFRC, the tensile strength peaked at 1% NS with 330.196 MPa, representing a significant improvement over the UM sample (255.894 MPa). However, a slight reduction was observed at 3% NS (318.424 MPa), and a more noticeable drop at 5% NS (255.711 MPa), indicating a potential oversaturation or agglomeration effect at higher loadings.In GFRC, a similar trend was observed. The highest tensile strength occurred at 1% NS (270.125 MPa), followed by a slight decrease at 3% NS (261.908 MPa) and a further drop at 5% NS (212.499 MPa). These results imply that nano silica is highly effective in improving the mechanical performance of composites, especially at low concentrations, likely due to improved interfacial adhesion and stress transfer [9].The superior performance of BFRC compared to GFRC across all concentrations reinforces basalt fiber's mechanical advantage. Thus, 1% NS appears to be the optimal loading for maximizing tensile strength in both BFRC and GFRC composites.Fig. 6 : Tensile Strength with Nano Silica (UM = unmodifiedA comparable observation was documented by [10] and [11], where the agglomeration of the modified matrix resin contributed to stress concentration points that triggered composite failure. Moreover, increasing the filler content may hinder the effective dispersion of fillers within the matrix during fabrication. This is due to the rise in resin viscosity at higher filler loadings, which can disrupt proper bonding and reduce the resin's ability to wet the fiber surface. As a result, the interfacial adhesion among the fibers, fillers, and matrix is negatively impacted.Incorporation of GFA and NS into polyester composites enhanced both mechanical [9] and water resistance properties. GFA acted as a micro-filler improving the load transfer efficiency by reducing internal defects and voids. Its angular and irregular particle morphology may also contribute to mechanical interlocking at the filler-matrix interface. NS, on the other hand, provided nanoscale void filling and improved fiber-matrix interfacial bonding due to its high surface area and reactivity..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7369
The reduced water uptake may be attributed to decreased porosity and improved crosslink density. Additionally, nano silica may interact chemically with the resin matrix, forming a dense network that resists water penetration. This is consistent with literature which emphasizes that hydrophobic fillers and smaller particle sizes lead to improved moisture barriers. The optimal tensile strength at 3%GFA aligns with literature suggesting threshold limits beyond which filler agglomeration may deteriorate performance. Excessive filler content may also increase viscosity during processing, leading to voids or incomplete fiber wetting. These factors are critical in maintaining the uniformity of the composite microstructure.Furthermore, the superior performance of basaltbased composites highlights the importance of fiber selection in mechanical reinforcement. The denser and more crystalline structure of basalt fibers leads to stronger interfacial bonding and improved load-bearing capability compared to glass fibers [3]. The synergistic effect of fiber type and filler content should be optimized based on target applications. &21&/86,21This study successfully demonstrated the potential of granite fly ash (GFA) and nano silica (NS) as reinforcing fillers in polyester-based fiber composites, specifically in basalt fiber reinforced composites (BFRC) and glass fiber reinforced composites (GFRC). The incorporation of both fillers resulted in significant improvements in tensile strength and water resistance across various filler loadings. GFA showed optimum performance at 3% loading, particularly in BFRC, where it enhanced fiber-matrix adhesion and mechanical strength due to better dispersion and reduced porosity. Conversely, excessive GFA (5%) led to minor performance deterioration, likely due to filler agglomeration. Similarly, NS was most effective at 1% loading, especially in BFRC, yielding the highest tensile strength while minimizing water uptake. Higher NS loadings also showed improved moisture resistance but led to a decline inmechanical properties, possibly due to increased resin viscosity and poor wetting. Overall, BFRC consistentlyoutperformed GFRC in both mechanical and absorptiontests, owing to basalt fiber's superior strength and hydrophobic nature. The synergy between filler type, content, and fiber selection plays a critical role in optimizing composite performance. These findings highlight the effectiveness of using industrial by-products and nanomaterials in developing sustainable, highperformance composite materials for structural and marine applications.5()(5(1&(6[1] M. Asrofi Muslim, ìInvestigation on impactproperties of basalt and glass fiber reinforcedpolyester composites filled with nano silica,îMalaysian NANO-An Int. J., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 1ñ16, 2023, doi: 10.22452/mnij.vol3no2.1.[2] S. K. Nayak, A. Satapathy, and S. Mantry, ìUse ofwaste marble and granite dust in structuralapplications: A review,î J. Build. Eng., vol. 46, no.November 2021, p. 103742, 2022, doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103742.[3] M. A. Jaafar et al., ìEffect of Granite Fly Ash onMechanical Properties of Basalt and Glass FiberReinforced Polymer Composite,î J. Mech. Eng.,vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 215ñ229, 2024, doi:10.24191/jmeche.v21i3.27355.[4] X. Wang, X. Zhao, S. Chen, and Z. Wu, ìStaticand fatigue behavior of basalt fiber-reinforcedthermoplastic epoxy composites,î J. Compos.Mater., vol. 54, no. 18, pp. 2389ñ2398, 2020, doi:10.1177/0021998319896842.[5] M. Ramesh, L. N. Rajeshkumar, N. Srinivasan, D.V. Kumar, and D. Balaji, ìInfluence of fillermaterial on properties of fiber-reinforced polymercomposites: A review,î E-Polymers, vol. 22, no. 1,pp. 898ñ916, 2022, doi: 10.1515/epoly-2022-0080.[6] N. E. N. Ain Mohamad* and A. Jumahat*, ìEffectsOf Kenaf And Basalt Facesheets ModifiedNanosilica Of Closed Cell Aluminium SandwichPanel,î Int. J. Recent Technol. Eng., vol. 8, no. 4,pp. 6902ñ6905, 2019, doi:10.35940/ijrte.d5174.118419.[7] S. Ilangovan, S. S. Kumaran, A. Vasudevan, andK. Naresh, ìEffect of silica nanoparticles onmechanical and thermal properties of neat epoxyand filament wounded E-glass/epoxy andbasalt/epoxy composite tubes,î Mater. Res.Express, vol. 6, no. 8, 2019, doi: 10.1088/2053-1591/ab2601.[8] M. A. Alfeki and E. A. Feyissa, ìWaterAbsorption, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties ofBamboo Fiber with Chopped Glass Fiber FillerReinforced Polyester Composites,î Adv. Mater.Sci. Eng., vol. 2024, 2024, doi:10.1155/2024/6262251.[9] M. A. Muslim, A. Jumahat, M. Azrul Bin Jaafar, S.A. Abdullah, and M. Azrul Jaafar, ìThe Effect ofMicro Granite on Barcol Hardness, Flexural andCompression Strength of Basalt and Glass FiberReinforced Composites using Industrial Polyester,îvol. 8, no. September, pp. 74ñ83, 2023, doi:.219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7370
10.5281/zenodo.10078588.[10] A. H. Awad, R. El-Gamasy, A. A. Abd El-Wahab,and M. H. Abdellatif, ìAssessment of mechanicalproperties of HDPE composite with addition ofmarble and granite dust,î Ain Shams Eng. J., vol.11, no. 4, pp. 1211ñ1217, 2020, doi:10.1016/j.asej.2020.02.001.[11] N. Sapiai, A. Jumahat, M. Jawaid, M. Z. Abu, andM. Chalid, ìMechanical performance of granitefine fly dust-filled basalt/glass polyurethanepolymer hybrid composites,î Polymers (Basel).,vol. 13, no. 18, pp. 1ñ16, 2021, doi:10.3390/polym13183032..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7371
Peningkatan Kompetensi Pengajar TVET melalui Latihan Sangkutan Industri dalam Teknologi Kenderaan Elektrik: Satu Kajian Kes di China 0RKG)DTUXO5DG]L7DKLUXGGLQ<RJHVZDUDQ6HOHDSSDQ /HRZ.HDQ7DDQ1Bahagian Pembangunan Profil Pengajar TVET, Program Perancangan dan Pembangunan Latihan, Pusat Latihan Pengajar dan Kemahiran Lanjutan (CIAST) 2Advance Retro Solution (ARS) Sdn Bhd Corresponding email: [email protected] $EVWUDFWfflArtikel ini membentangkan dapatan kajian kes reflektif berdasarkan penyertaan dalam ProgramLatihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) di bawah inisiatif Bidang Peralihan Tenaga Malaysia-China, khusus dalam teknologi kenderaan elektrik (EV). Program yang berlangsung di China selama 30 hari memberikan fokus terhadap penguasaan teknologi Kenderaan Bateri Elektrik (BEV) dan Kenderaan Tenaga Baharu (NEV), dengan penekanan terhadap sistem Power Battery Management System (BMS), infrastruktur pengecasan, dan keselamatan sistem voltan tinggi bagi model BYD Yuan Plus. Artikel ini menganalisis pengalaman secara tematik serta menghubungkaitkannya dengan keperluan kompetensi pengajar TVET masa kini, sejajar dengan perkembangan pesat industri EV global. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa program LSI mampu menyumbang secara signifikan terhadap peningkatan kemahiran teknikal, pemahaman strategik industri, dan kesiapsiagaan pengajar dalam mendepani transformasi pendidikan teknikal negara dalam bidang peralihan tenaga. .H\\ZRUGVffl TVET, Latihan Sangkutan Industri, Kenderaan Elektrik, BEV, BMS, Kompetensi Pengajar. 3(1*(1$/$1Perkembangan teknologi dalam industri automotif global semakin tertumpu kepada kenderaan elektrik (EV), khususnya dalam pasaran pesat seperti di negara China. Pengajar dalam bidang Pendidikan dan Latihan Teknikaldan Vokasional (TVET) perlu bersedia menghadapi transformasi ini melalui pendedahan industri yang menyeluruh. Program Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) merupakan satu inisiatif latihan yang diselaraskan oleh Pusat Latihan Pengajar dan Kemahiran Lanjutan (CIAST) melalui Program TVET Instructor Technology Update (TITU) yang berperanan penting dalam memastikan pengajar memperoleh kemahiran teknikal serta pemahaman strategik terhadap teknologi terkini seperti Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) dan New Energy Vehicle (NEV). Artikel ini mendokumentasikan pengalaman penulis dalam program LSI di China yang telah berlangsung pada 16 September 2024 hingga 15 Oktober 2024 dan menganalisis impak program LSI terhadap pembangunan profesional pengajar TVET yang melibatkan 18 orang Pengajar TVET dari enam agensi pelaksana TVET di Malaysia. 2EMHNWLI.DMLDQKajian ini dijalankan untuk: 1. Menganalisis pengalaman latihan industri berkaitanteknologi BEV di China;2. Mengenal pasti impak latihan terhadap peningkatankompetensi teknikal pengajar TVET;3. Menilai kebolehlaksanaan integrasi ilmu industri kedalam kurikulum TVET di Malaysia. 6RURWDQ.DMLDQKajian lepas telah mengenal pasti bahawa kompetensi pengajar Pendidikan dan Latihan Teknikal dan Vokasional (TVET) merupakan elemen penting yang mempengaruhi kualiti pendidikan TVET di Malaysia [1]. Kecekapan dan kebolehan pengajar dalam menyampaikan ilmu dan kemahiran dilihat sebagai faktor kritikal dalam membentuk kebolehpasaran pelajar apabila memasuki industri. Sehubungan itu, pelbagai pendekatan telah dilaksanakan bagi menilai tahap kompetensi pengajar TVET [2], [3]. Antara inisiatif yang signifikan ialah pembangunanpangkalan data profil pengajar oleh Pusat Latihan Pengajar dan Kemahiran Lanjutan (CIAST), melalui sistem TVET .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7372
Instructor e-Profiling System (TiPS) yang mula dilaksanakan pada tahun 2016 [4], [5]. Melalui sistem ini, data kompetensi dikumpul daripada 18 agensi pelaksana TVET, dengan penilaian tahunan berdasarkan bidang pengajaran, kemahiran vokasional, dan bidang pengurusan. Dapatan daripada penilaian ini seterusnya digunakan bagi merancang latihan dan kursus peningkatan kompetensi yang bersesuaian. Namun begitu, isu kekurangan kerjasama antara institusi pendidikan dan industri masih menjadi cabaran utama dalam memastikan pendidikan TVET kekal relevan. Sebagai contoh, kegagalan pendidikan TVET di Ghana dikaitkan dengan kurangnya penglibatan industri dalam pembangunan kurikulum [6] Kerjasama erat ini penting bagi memastikan kandungan pengajaran seiring dengan perubahan teknologi dan kehendak semasa industri, terutamanya dalam era Revolusi Industri 4.0 yang berkembang pesat. Dalam konteks tersebut, latihan industri bagi pengajar TVET telah dikenal pasti sebagai strategi yang berkesan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan teknikal dan kesedaranterhadap keperluan industri [7], [8]. Di Malaysia, Kementerian Pendidikan turut mengambil langkah proaktif dalam melibatkan pihak industri secara langsung dalam pembangunan silibus TVET [9]. Namun, penekanan terhadap teknologi terkini seperti Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) dan New Energy Vehicle (NEV) dalam program latihan sangkutan industri (LSI) untuk pengajar masih terhad. Dalam hal ini, negara China, selaku peneraju industri EV global, menawarkan platform yang kondusif bagi pemerolehan ilmu dan peningkatan kompetensi dalam bidang BEV. Oleh itu, kajian ini bertujuan menghuraikan dapatan daripada satu kajian kes berkaitan pelaksanaan program LSI pengajar TVET Malaysia dalam bidang BEV yang telah dilaksanakan di China. 0(72'2/2*, 5HND%HQWXN.DMLDQKajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kajian kes reflektif secara kualitatif, yang membolehkan pemahaman mendalam terhadap fenomena yang dikaji melalui pengalaman langsung penyelidik. Kajian kes dipilih kerana ia sesuai untuk meneroka isu yang kompleks dalam konteks sebenar, khususnya berkaitan pembangunan kompetensi pengajar TVET melalui Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) dalam bidang Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV). Pendekatan reflektif pula digunakan bagi menangkap dimensi peribadi, kontekstual dan emosi yang wujud sepanjang proses pembelajaran, yang sukar diperoleh melalui kaedah kuantitatif semata-mata. Penulis memainkan peranan sebagai peserta aktif dalamprogram LSI yang berlangsung di institusi latihan dan syarikat industri di China, yang merupakan salah satu negara peneraju dalam pembangunan teknologi EV global. Pengalaman ini membolehkan penulis mengakses data secara langsung melalui pemerhatian, interaksi sosial, serta refleksi kendiri terhadap pelaksanaan program dan kandungan latihan. Pendekatan ini juga membolehkan triangulasi data melalui pelbagai sumber termasuk dokumen latihan, maklum balas pihak industri, dan penilaian kompetensi secara formal. Reka bentuk kajian ini bukan sahaja menekankan aspek pemerolehan data yang autentik dan kontekstual, tetapi juga berupaya mencungkil kefahaman baharu mengenai keberkesanan program LSI dalam memperkukuh kemahiran teknikal serta kesediaan pengajar TVET untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan teknologi baharu. Oleh itu,pendekatan kajian kes reflektif ini dianggap sesuai untuk memenuhi objektif kajian yang ingin menilai implikasi latihan industri terhadap pembangunan profesional pengajar TVET dalam konteks globalisasi teknologi automotif elektrik. 3HQJXPSXODQ'DWDData bagi kajian ini diperoleh melalui pelbagai kaedah kualitatif yang saling melengkapi bagi memastikan ketepatan dan kekayaan maklumat yang dikumpulkan. Pertama, pemerhatian langsung telah dijalankan sepanjang sesi Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) di lokasi latihan di China. Pemerhatian ini membolehkan penyelidik merekodkan amalan sebenar pengajar dan jurutera industri dalam persekitaran kerja sebenar, serta memahami suasana pembelajaran secara autentik. Selain itu, nota reflektif harian telah ditulis oleh peserta sepanjang tempoh latihan untuk merekodkan pengalaman, pemikiran kritikal, serta proses pemerolehan pengetahuan dan kemahiran baharu yang berlaku secara harian. Dokumen sokongan seperti modul latihan dan manual teknikal juga telah dianalisis bagi mendapatkan gambaran mendalam tentang kandungan latihan yang disampaikan serta tahap kesesuaian maklumat teknikal dengan keperluan pengajaran di Malaysia. Interaksi informal yang berlaku antara peserta denganjurutera industri dan tenaga pengajar di institusi latihan turut digunakan sebagai sumber data penting bagi mengenal pasti pandangan dan amalan profesional dalam konteks teknologi BEV. Akhir sekali, data penilaian abiliti pengajar sebelum dan selepas program LSI yang direkodkan melalui sistem TVET Instructor e-Profiling System (TiPS) digunakan untuk .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7373
menilai perubahan tahap kompetensi pengajar secara sistematik berdasarkan indikator yang ditetapkan oleh pihak berkuasa TVET Malaysia. $QDOLVLV'DWDKaedah analisis data yang digunakan dalam kajian ini ialah analisis tematik, yang membolehkan penyelidik mengenal pasti, menganalisis, dan melaporkan corak tema yang muncul daripada data kualitatif yang dikumpulkan. Proses analisis ini melibatkan pengekodan awal terhadap data daripada nota reflektif, pemerhatian, dokumen, serta interaksi dengan pihak industri dan institusi pendidikan. Daripada proses pengekodan tersebut, beberapa tema utamatelah dikenal pasti yang mencerminkan pengalaman dan impak program Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) di China. Tema pertama ialah kaedah pelaksanaan program LSI China, yang merangkumi struktur latihan, pendekatan pengajaran, serta penyesuaian peserta terhadap budaya kerja industri di China. Tema kedua ialah kolaborasi antara industri dan institusipendidikan, yang menyorot peranan aktif pihak industri dalam pembangunan latihan serta perkongsian kepakaranteknikal. Tema ketiga ialah pengukuran kompetensi peserta LSI, merangkumi bagaimana keberkesanan latihan dinilai secarasistematik melalui sistem e-profiling serta pemerhatian prestasi peserta. Akhir sekali, tema cabaran dan potensi integrasi ilmu diMalaysia mengenal pasti isu-isu seperti kesesuaian teknologi, kekangan kurikulum sedia ada, serta peluang penambahbaikan dalam latihan TVET berasaskan model LSI China. Pendekatan analisis tematik ini memberikan gambaran menyeluruh terhadap impak program serta cadangan penambahbaikan bagi sistem latihan pengajar TVET di Malaysia. '$3$7$1'$13(5%,1&$1*$1.DHGDK3HODNVDQDDQ/6,&KLQDPeserta program Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) dalam bidang Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) di China telah menerima pendedahan komprehensif berkaitan teknologi dan sistem yang membentuk ekosistem kenderaan elektrik, khususnya model BYD Yuan Plus. Sepanjang program, peserta didedahkan kepada pelbagai komponen utama yang merangkumi konsep New Energy Vehicle (NEV), sistem pengurusan bateri (Battery Management System), sistem kawalan motor, sistem stereng kuasa (power steering), sistem keselamatan voltan tinggi, sistem pendingin hawa, sistem pengecasan, serta kaedah diagnosis dan analisis kerosakan kenderaan. Rajah 1 menggambarkan kaedah pelaksanaan latihan yang dirancang secara berstruktur dan dibahagikan kepada dua fasa utama: pembelajaran menggunakan kenderaan sebenar dan pembelajaran berasaskan panel latihan. Dalam fasa pertama, peserta menjalani latihan intensif melibatkan aktiviti diagnosis dan pemerhatian ke atas pengoperasian kenderaan BEV sebenar. Model kenderaan tersebut kemudiannya dileraikan menjadi tujuh panel latihan berdasarkan sistem utama kenderaan untuk tujuan pengajaran secara lebih terperinci. Dalam fasa kedua,peserta melanjutkan pembelajaran mereka menggunakan panel-panel ini, yang membolehkan mereka memahami dengan lebih mendalam fungsi dan interaksi antara komponen secara tersusun. 5DMDKffl0RGHOSHPEHODMDUDQ/6,&KLQDLatihan menggunakan kenderaan sebenar telah membantu peserta memperoleh pemahaman praktikal yang jelas tentang kondisi dan pengoperasian sistem BEV. Sebagai tambahan, pengajar turut mensimulasikan beberapa kerosakan pada kenderaan untuk memberi peluang kepadapeserta mengenal pasti punca kerosakan dan mencadangkan kaedah pembaikan yang bersesuaian. Pembelajaran melalui panel latihan pula memberi kelebihan dari aspek visualisasi dan akses mudah terhadap komponen dalaman kenderaan, yang sukar dicapai semasa latihan menggunakan kenderaan penuh. Penekanan khas turut diberikan kepada kemahiran membaca wiring diagram, sebagai asas penting dalam kerjakerja diagnosis dan baik pulih sistem elektrik BEV. Rajah 2 menunjukkan sebahagian panel latihan EV yang digunakan semasa LSI. .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7374
5DMDKffl6HEDKDJLDQSDQHOODWLKDQNHQGHUDDQHOHNWULNBagi melengkapkan lagi pengalaman latihan dan memberikan gambaran menyeluruh terhadap ekosistem BEV di China, peserta turut dibawa melawat pelbagai fasiliti berkaitan industri EV. Lawatan ini merangkumi pusat servis dan jualan BEV, infrastruktur pengecasan, serta fasiliti penukaran bateri kenderaan. Selain itu, sesi dialog bersama pembekal dan jurutera industri tempatan turut diadakan untuk memberikan pemahaman lanjut mengenai rantaian bekalan, keperluan regulatori, dan tahap integrasi teknologi baharu dalam pembangunan dan pasaran BEV di China. Kombinasi pembelajaran secara langsung dan berstruktur ini bukan sahaja meningkatkan pengetahuan teknikal peserta, tetapi juga memperkukuh pemahaman mereka terhadap keseluruhan sistem dan ekosistem BEV, menjadikan pengalaman LSI ini satu model latihan yang berimpak tinggi dan relevan untuk diaplikasikan dalam konteks TVET Malaysia. Rajah 3 menunjukkan sesi tinjauan peserta LSI di pusat servis jualan BEV dan juga fasiliti perkhidmatan tukar bateri (battery swapping). 5DMDKffl7LQMDXDQSXVDWVHUYLVGDQIDVLOLWLSHQXNDUDQEDWHUL.HUMDVDPD,QGXVWUL'DQ,QVWLWXVL3HQGLGLNDQPelaksanaan program Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) dalam bidang Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) di China menonjolkan satu bentuk kolaborasi strategik yang erat antara pihak industri dan institusi pendidikan. Kolaborasi ini melibatkan khususnya syarikat pembuatan alat bantu mengajar dan institusi latihan teknikal, seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam kerjasama bersama Yalong Group [10],[11]. Syarikat pembuatan alat bantu mengajar memainkan peranan penting dalam mentransformasi kenderaan BEVsebenar kepada panel-panel latihan modular, yang membolehkan sistem dan komponen kenderaan dipelajari secara berasingan dan lebih mudah diakses oleh pelatih.Kaedah ini memudahkan proses pengajaran dan pemahaman sistem kenderaan secara holistik dan praktikal. Di samping itu, institusi pendidikan di China turut menyumbang kepakaran melalui penglibatan tenaga akademik dan jurulatih berpengalaman yang pernah terlibat dalam pertandingan WorldSkills peringkat antarabangsa dalam bidang automotif. Pengalaman dan kepakaran mereka memastikan bahawa latihan yang diberikan bukan sahaja relevan dengan amalan industri semasa, tetapi juga memenuhi piawaian kemahiran bertaraf global. Pendekatan ini menunjukkan bagaimana sinergi antara ilmu akademik dan pengalaman industri dapat memantapkan kualiti latihan TVET. Rajah 4 menunjukkan peranan syarikat pembuatan alat bantu mengajar sebagai penghubung antara industriautomotif dan institusi pendidikan TVET di China. .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7375
5DMDKffl+XEXQJNDLWLQGXVWULDXWRPRWLIGDQSHQGLGLNDQ79(7Satu aspek penting yang dapat diperhatikan ialah peranan unik syarikat pembuatan alat bantu mengajar sebagai penghubung utama antara industri automotif daninstitusi pendidikan. Dalam konteks industri automotif,syarikat pengeluar kenderaan lazimnya memberi tumpuan utama kepada produktiviti dan pencapaian sasaran pengeluaran. Oleh itu, mereka sering tidak dapat memberi komitmen terhadap pembangunan alat bantu pengajaran khusus untuk tujuan latihan. Kekosongan ini diisi oleh syarikat pembuatan alat bantu mengajar yang berfungsi sebagai mediator, dengan mengkaji keperluan teknologisemasa di industri dan seterusnya mereka bentuk peralatanatau modul latihan yang sesuai untuk digunakan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran di institusi TVET. Melalui pendekatan ini, pembangunan kurikulum dan bahan latihan dapat disesuaikan dengan teknologi terkini yang sedang diguna pakai dalam industri. Ini secara tidak langsung memastikan keselarasan antara apa yang diajar di institusi pendidikan dengan kehendak sebenar pasaran kerja. Model kerjasama seperti ini dilihat amat berkesan dalam menyokong agenda pemerkasaan TVET, terutamanya dalam bidang berteknologi tinggi seperti BEV, dan wajar dijadikan rujukan dalam konteks Malaysia. 3HQJXNXUDQ.RPSHWHQVL3HVHUWD/6,Bagi menilai keberkesanan program LSI dalam meningkatkan kompetensi pengajar TVET, satu kaedah penilaian kendiri abiliti telah dijalankan sebelum dan selepas LSI. Penilaian ini dilaksanakan dalam TVET Instructor e-Profiling System (TiPS), dan merangkumi lima abiliti utama berkaitan keselamatan, sistem elektrik voltan tinggi, serta pengecaman sistem asas kenderaan BEV. Lima aspek abiliti yang dinilai ialah: i. Can identify hazard, safety and health requirementsii. Can identify types of EV (HV/PHEV/BEV)iii. Can identify High Voltage system and componentsiv. Can identify types of BEV charging systemv. Can disconnect service plug / safety plug / HighVoltage FuseUntuk melengkapkan analisis berkaitan pengukuran kompetensi, sistem penilaian yang digunakan dalam TiPS adalah berdasarkan skala skor dari 1 hingga 5 bagi setiap abiliti yang dinilai. Skala ini digunakan oleh peserta untuk menilai tahap penguasaan terhadap kemahiran-kemahiran berkaitan BEV. Penjelasan setiap skor adalah seperti berikut: Skor 1: Tiada pengetahuan ñ peserta tidak mempunyai sebarang kefahaman atau pengalaman berkaitan abiliti tersebut. Skor 2: Sedikit pengetahuan ñ peserta mempunyai pengetahuan asas yang sangat terhad. Skor 3: Ada pengetahuan dan boleh dipercayai ñ peserta memahami konsep dan boleh melaksanakannya dengan tahap kebolehpercayaan yang sederhana. Skor 4: Banyak pengetahuan untuk mengajar, tetapi tidak kreatif ñ peserta memiliki tahap kefahaman yang tinggi dan mampu mengajar, namun belum mampu menyesuaikan pengajaran secara inovatif. Skor 5: Pengetahuan menyeluruh ñ peserta bukan sahaja mampu mengajar dengan berkesan, tetapi juga berupaya membangunkan kandungan latihan serta memberi nasihat teknikal dalam bidang tersebut. Skala ini bukan sahaja membantu dalam menilai tahap keberkesanan latihan, tetapi turut memberi gambaran menyeluruh terhadap keupayaan sebenar peserta dalam mengaplikasikan pengetahuan teknikal secara profesionaldan pendidikan. 3HQLODLDQ6HEHOXP/6, 3UD/6, Seramai 18 peserta LSI telah melaksanakan penilaian kendiri bagi setiap abiliti sebelum memulakan latihan. Dapatan awal menunjukkan majoriti peserta berada padatahap kemahiran sederhana (skor 2 dan 3) untuk semua abiliti. Sebagai contoh, bagi abiliti ìCan identify hazard, safety and health requirementsî dan ìCan identify types of EVî, masing-masing seramai 7 peserta berada pada skor 2 dan 8 peserta pada skor 3. Ini menunjukkan bahawa sebelum LSI, tahap pemahaman peserta terhadap aspek-aspek teknikal BEV adalah pada peringkat asas hingga pertengahan. Abiliti berkaitan sistem voltan tinggi dan pengecasan pula menunjukkan sedikit kelonggaran dalam pengetahuan, dengan sebahagian kecil peserta (2 orang) mencatatkan skor 1 bagi dua abiliti terakhir, iaitu berkaitan pengecasan dan pemutusan sambungan voltan tinggi. Ini mengisyaratkan keperluan segera bagi latihan praktikal dan teori yang lebih mendalam dalam aspek keselamatan dan pengendalian komponen kritikal BEV. Jadual 1 menunjukkan tahap kompetensi sebelum hadir LSI bagi kesemua peserta. .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7376
-DGXDOffl6NRUDELOLWLVHEHOXPKDGLU/6,Secara keseluruhan, tahap penguasaan awal peserta berada pada tahap sederhana. Majoriti skor tertumpu kepada Skor 2 dan Skor 3, yang menunjukkan peserta mempunyaipengetahuan asas tetapi belum menguasai dengan mendalam kebolehan-kebolehan kritikal berkaitan BEV.Berdasarkan pemerhatian terhadap skor abiliti peserta sebelum mengikuti program Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI), beberapa pola kelemahan dan keperluan latihan dapat dikenalpasti bagi setiap aspek kompetensi yang dinilai. Bagi abiliti ìCan identify hazard, safety and health requirementsî, seramai 7 peserta mencatatkan Skor 2 dan 8 peserta pada Skor 3, manakala hanya seorang peserta mencapai Skor 5. Corak ini menunjukkan majoriti pesertamasih kurang yakin terhadap aspek keselamatan dan kesihatan, yang merupakan elemen kritikal dalam pengendalian sistem voltan tinggi kenderaan BEV. Kekurangan ini perlu diberi perhatian khusus kerana kelalaian dalam aspek ini boleh membawa risiko kemalangan serius semasa latihan atau pengendalian sebenar. Bagi abiliti ìCan identify types of EV (HV/PHEV/BEV)î, skor peserta menunjukkan pola yang sama dengan abiliti keselamatan, di mana sebahagian besar masih berada pada tahap sederhana. Ini menggambarkan bahawa pemahaman peserta terhadap klasifikasi kenderaan elektrik, iaitu hibrid (HV), plug-in hibrid (PHEV) dan bateri elektrik (BEV) masih belum mantap. Kekeliruan dalam mengenal pasti jenis EV boleh menjejaskan kecekapan dalam pengajaran teknikal dan aplikasi di bengkel. Sementara itu, dalam abiliti ìCan identify High Voltage system and componentsî, seramai 8 peserta berada pada Skor 2 dan 6 peserta pada Skor 3. Ini menunjukkan terdapat keperluan yang tinggi untuk latihan yang lebih terfokus dan intensif dalam memahami sistem elektrik voltan tinggi, memandangkan sistem ini merupakan komponen utama dalam operasi kenderaan BEV. Seterusnya, abiliti ìCan identify types of BEV charging systemî memperlihatkan jurang pengetahuan yang lebih ketara, dengan dua orang peserta berada pada tahap paling rendah (Skor 1). Ini menunjukkan pemahaman terhadap sistem pengecasan BEV masih lemah dalam kalangan sebahagian peserta, sedangkan aspek ini penting untuk pemeliharaan dan operasi harian kenderaan elektrik. Akhir sekali, abiliti ìCan disconnect service plug / safety plug / High Voltage Fuseî menunjukkan corak yang hampir serupa dengan abiliti sebelumnya, di mana dua peserta turut mencatatkan Skor 1. Perkara ini membimbangkan kerana kebolehan memutuskan sambungan komponen voltan tinggi merupakan langkah keselamatan asas dalam kerja-kerja penyelenggaraan dan pengujian BEV. Ketidakupayaan dalam aspek ini berisiko menjejaskan keselamatan diri dan peralatan. Secara keseluruhan, dapatan ini mengesahkan bahawa kebanyakan peserta berada pada tahap pengetahuan asashingga sederhana sebelum menyertai LSI, dan ini sekaligusmenekankan kepentingan latihan praktikal yang sistematik dan menyeluruh dalam program LSI͘3HQLODLDQ6HOHSDV/6, 3DVFD/6, Selepas tamat program LSI, peserta sekali lagi menilai abiliti mereka menggunakan skala yang sama. Hasil penilaian menunjukkan peningkatan ketara dalam semua aspek yang dinilai. Tiada peserta lagi yang mencatatkan skor 1 atau 2 bagi mana-mana abiliti, ini menunjukkan peningkatan kompetensi yang konsisten selepas mengikuti latihan intensif. Jadual 2 menunjukkan kedudukan skor abiliti selepas hadir LSI bagi kesemua peserta. Bagi semua abiliti terlibat sudah tiada lagi peserta yang berada pada skor 2. Abiliti LSI Skor 1 Skor 2 Skor 3 Skor 4 Skor 5 Can identify hazard, safety and health requirements. 0 7 8 2 1 Can identify types of EV (HV/PHEV/BEV). 0 7 8 2 1 Can identify High Voltage system and components. 0 8 6 3 1 Can identify types of BEV charging system. 2 7 5 3 1 Can disconnect service plug / safety plug / High Voltage Fuse. 2 7 5 3 1 .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7377
-DGXDOffl6NRUDELOLWLVHOHSDVKDGLU/6,Berdasarkan Jadual 2, tahap abiliti peserta selepas mengikuti Program LSI menunjukkan peningkatan ketara dalam semua aspek yang dinilai. Tiada peserta berada pada Skor 1 atau 2, menandakan kesemua peserta telah mencapaisekurang-kurangnya tahap sederhana dalam kefahaman dan kemahiran berkaitan teknologi BEV. Bagi abiliti ìCan identify hazard, safety and health requirementsî, seramai 15 peserta berada pada Skor 4 dan 5, iaitu masing-masing 8 dan 7 orang, manakala hanya 3 peserta berada pada Skor 3. Ini menunjukkan kesedaran dan pengetahuan peserta terhadap aspek keselamatan serta kesihatan dalam pengendalian sistem voltan tinggi telahbertambah baik dan lebih meyakinkan berbanding sebelum ini. Seterusnya, bagi abiliti ìCan identify types of EV (HV/PHEV/BEV)î, semua peserta menunjukkan peningkatan ketara dengan 12 peserta mencatat Skor 4 dan 6 peserta pada Skor 5, tanpa sebarang peserta berada pada skor yang lebih rendah. Pencapaian ini menggambarkan bahawa pemahaman peserta terhadap klasifikasi kenderaan elektrik telah diperkukuh melalui pengajaran dan latihan sepanjang LSI. Bagi abiliti ìCan identify High Voltage system and componentsî, seramai 10 peserta berada pada Skor 4 dan 7 pada Skor 5, manakala hanya seorang peserta masih berada pada Skor 3. Ini membuktikan bahawa latihan praktikal telah membantu peserta menguasai sistem voltan tinggi dengan lebih baik. Dalam aspek ìCan identify types of BEV charging systemî, sebanyak 11 peserta mencatat Skor 4 dan 6 peserta mencapai Skor 5, manakala hanya seorang peserta berada pada Skor 3. Ini menunjukkan jurang pengetahuan yangwujud sebelum ini berkaitan sistem pengecasan BEV telah berjaya dikurangkan hasil daripada latihan intensif yang diterima. Akhir sekali, bagi abiliti ìCan disconnect service plug / safety plug / High Voltage Fuseî, seramai 8 peserta berada pada Skor 4 dan 8 lagi mencapai tahap tertinggi, Skor 5. Hanya dua peserta masih berada pada Skor 3. Pencapaianini amat memberangsangkan kerana ia melibatkan aspekkeselamatan kritikal dalam pengendalian danpenyelenggaraan BEV.Secara keseluruhan, hasil penilaian kendiri selepas LSI membuktikan bahawa program ini berkesan dalam meningkatkan kompetensi peserta dalam bidang teknologi BEV. Peningkatan yang konsisten dalam semua abiliti yang dinilai menggambarkan keberkesanan pendekatan latihansecara hands-on, kolaborasi dengan pakar industri dan pendedahan kepada teknologi sebenar di lapangan. 3HUEDQGLQJDQ 3XUDWD 6NRU $ELOLWL 6HEHOXP GDQ6HOHSDV+DGLU/6,Bagi mendapatkan gambaran yang lebih menyeluruh terhadap tahap keberkesanan program LSI BEV, Rajah 6 memperlihatkan perbandingan purata skor abiliti sebelum dan selepas menyertai LSI bagi setiap peserta. Seramai 18orang peserta yang dilabelkan sebagai A hingga R menunjukkan peningkatan purata skor abiliti yang konsisten dan signifikan selepas mengikuti latihan. Peningkatan ini mencerminkan keberkesanan LSI yang dijalankan di China dalam memperkukuh kompetensi pengajar TVET dalam bidang bateri dan kenderaan elektrik. 5DMDKffl3HUEDQGLQJDQSXUDWDDELOLWLVHEHOXPGDQVHOHSDVKDGLU/6,Antara peningkatan paling ketara direkodkan oleh peserta E dan R dengan lonjakan skor sebanyak 2.8 mata(156%), diikuti peserta L dan Q sebanyak 2.4 mata (120%), serta D sebanyak 1.6 mata (113%). Beberapa peserta lain turut mencatat peningkatan yang tinggi, antaranya peserta A, G, dan P dengan 100% peningkatan, manakala peserta I menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 54%. Peserta B dan J Ϯϯ ϯϭ͘ϲϭ͘ϴϯ͘ϲϮϰϮ͘ϲ ϯ ϯϮϰϱϯϮ Ϯ Ϯ͘Ϯϰϰ͘ϲϯ͘ϲϯ͘ϰϰ͘ϲ ϱϰϰ͘ϲϰϰ͘ϲϰϰ͘ϰϰ͘ϲ ϱϰ͘Ϯ ϰϰ͘ϰϱϬϮϰϲ ffi & ' , / : < > D E K W Y Z^ĞďĞůƵŵ>^/ ^ĞůĞƉĂƐ>^/Abiliti LSI Skor 1 Skor 2 Skor 3 Skor 4 Skor 5 Can identify hazard, safety and health requirements. 0 0 3 8 7 Can identify types of EV (HV/PHEV/BEV). 0 0 0 12 6 Can identify High Voltage system and components. 0 0 1 10 7 Can identify types of BEV charging system. 0 0 1 11 6 Can disconnect service plug / safety plug / High Voltage Fuse. 0 0 2 8 8 .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7378
masing-masing mencatat peningkatan 53%, sementara peserta O mencatat peningkatan 40%. Peserta F meningkat sebanyak 39%, K sebanyak 33%, dan peserta C menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 20%. Dua peserta, H dan M, mencatat peningkatan lebih sederhana iaitu sebanyak 15%. Manakala peserta N tidak menunjukkan sebarang peningkatan atau penurunan kerana purata skor abiliti sebelum dan selepas LSI kekal pada tahap maksimum iaitu Skor 5, mencerminkan penguasaan penuh terhadap kesemua abiliti sejak awal. Secara keseluruhannya, rajah ini jelas menunjukkan impak positif LSI terhadap penguasaan peserta dalam bidang teknologi BEV, sekali gus menyokong pelaksanaan program ini sebagai salah satu pendekatan berkesan dalam pembangunan kompetensi pengajar TVET.&DEDUDQ'DQ3RWHQVL,QWHJUDVL,OPX'L0DOD\\VLDAntara cabaran utama yang dikenal pasti sepanjang pelaksanaan program Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) di China adalah dari segi komunikasi, khususnya berkaitan aspek bahasa. Penguasaan bahasa Inggeris dalam kalangan pengajar dan jurulatih di China adalah amat terhad, sekali gus menyukarkan proses pemindahan ilmu secara efektif. Walaupun khidmat jurubahasa disediakan oleh institusi pendidikan di China, kemampuan mereka dalam menterjemah istilah teknikal secara tepat masih terbatas dan memberi kesan terhadap pemahaman peserta LSI terhadap kandungan latihan. Dari sudut pedagogi, pendekatan pembelajaran LSI yang menekankan latihan secara langsung pada kenderaan sebenar serta penggunaan panel latihan adalah amat berkesan. Kaedah ini berpotensi tinggi untuk diintegrasikan ke dalam sistem pembelajaran di institusi pendidikan TVET di Malaysia. Namun begitu, pelaksanaannya dijangka melibatkan peningkatan kos yang ketara, terutamanya dalam penyediaan kenderaan sebenar dan peralatan latihan khusus yang diperlukan. Tambahan pula, perkembangan teknologi bateri dan kenderaan elektrik yang begitu pesat turut memberi cabaran tersendiri. Institusi pendidikan berdepan risiko kewangan apabila pelaburan dalam peralatan latihan bagi model kenderaan tertentu menjadi usang atau tidak relevan apabila teknologi baharu diperkenalkan. Ini memerlukan pendekatan perolehan yang lebih fleksibel dan strategi pengajaran yang adaptif bagi mengekalkan kebolehlaksanaan latihan. Selain itu, pendekatan LSI yang berfokus kepada satu model kenderaan EV sahaja memberi kelebihan dari segi pemahaman mendalam peserta terhadap sistem dan komponen khusus. Namun begitu, ia juga menghadkan pendedahan peserta terhadap variasi teknologi atau konfigurasi yang mungkin wujud dalam model kenderaan EV yang lain, termasuk yang lebih terkini. Justeru, strategi integrasi ilmu di Malaysia perlu mengambil kira keseimbangan antara fokus mendalam dan pendedahan meluas agar peserta lebih bersedia menghadapi perubahan teknologi masa hadapan .(6,038/$1'$1&$'$1*$1Secara keseluruhannya, program Latihan Sangkutan Industri (LSI) dalam bidang bateri dan kenderaan elektrik (BEV) yang dijalankan di China telah terbukti berkesan dalam meningkatkan tahap kompetensi pengajar TVET Malaysia, terutamanya dari aspek pengetahuan teknikal, keselamatan, serta kemahiran berkaitan sistem voltan tinggi dan pengecasan. Dapatan daripada penilaian sebelum dan selepas latihan menunjukkan peningkatan skor purata abiliti yang ketara dalam kalangan peserta, sekali gus mencerminkan keberkesanan pendekatan hands-on dan pendedahan langsung kepada teknologi sebenar. Namun begitu, pelaksanaan dan potensi integrasi ilmu hasil daripada LSI ini turut berhadapan dengan beberapa cabaran seperti kekangan bahasa, keperluan sumber kewangan untuk penyediaan fasiliti latihan yang relevan, serta isu keterbatasan pendedahan kepada model EV yang berbeza. Justeru, inisiatif ini memerlukan penyesuaian konteks apabila hendak diterapkan dalam sistem pendidikan TVET Malaysia. Sehubungan itu, penulis mencadangkan agar: Program LSI diperluaskan kepada lebih ramai pengajar TVET dalam bidang berkaitan, bagi memastikan penyebaran ilmu dan kemahiran terkini dapat dimanfaatkan secara meluas dalam kalangan tenaga pengajar negara; Kandungan modul TVET dikemas kini secara berterusan berdasarkan maklum balas industri semasa dan perkembangan teknologi terkini dalam sektor EV dan tenaga boleh diperbaharui; Kerjasama strategik antara institusi TVET dan pemain industri global terus diperkukuh bagi menjamin kebolehlaksanaan latihan berimpak tinggi yang berteraskan keperluan industri, sekaligus memastikan graduan TVET sentiasa relevan dan berdaya saing dalam pasaran kerja masa hadapan. Melalui pendekatan kolaboratif dan adaptif ini, Malaysia diyakini mampu memacu pembangunan tenaga kerja mahir dalam bidang teknologi hijau dan mobiliti masa hadapan secara mampan. .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7379
3(1*+$5*$$1Penulis berterima kasih atas penganjuran LSI di China yang telah diselaraskan oleh Unit Latihan Sangkutan Industri, Program Perancangan dan Pembangunan Latihan,Pusat Latihan Pengajar dan Kemahiran Lanjutan (CIAST), Jabatan Pembangunan Kemahiran (JPK), Kementerian Sumber Manusia Malaysia, dengan Kerjasama Advance Retro Solution (ARS) Sdn Bhd. Juga penghargaan buat Pasukan TiPS yang menyediakan platform bagi penilaian kompetensi pengajar dan enam agensi TVET yang telah menghantar tenaga pengajar bagi menyertai LSI di China ini iaitu Jabatan Pembangunan Kemahiran (JPK), Jabatan Tenaga Manusia (JTM), Kementerian Belia dan Sukan (KBS), Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik dan Kolej Komuniti (JPPKK), Bahagian Pendidikan dan Latihan Teknikal Vokasional (BPLTV), dan Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA). 5()(5(1&(6[1] A. Ismail, R. Hassan, A. Abubakar, H. Hussin, M.A. Mat Hanafiah, and L. H. Asary, ìThedevelopment of TVET educator competencies forquality Educator,î Journal of Technical Educationand Training, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 38ñ48, 2018.[2] N. Shahroni, A. D. Mingha, and S. S. B. Mustakim,ìMethodology for investigating competency indexof technical vocational education and training(TVET) instructors for 4.0 industrial revolution,îAsean Journal for Science Education, vol. 1, no. 1,pp. 49ñ62, 2022.[3] W. A. J. Wan Ngah, N. Buniyamin, and S. Mohd.Sharif, ìThe Evaluation of TVET InstructorísTraining Needs Analysis Using CurriculumDevelopment Based on Vocational AbilityStructure in Malaysia,î Journal of Electrical &Electronic Systems Research, vol. 19, no.OCT2021, pp. 185ñ192, 2021, doi:10.24191/jeesr.v19i1.025.[4] CIAST, ìE-profiling Pengajar TVET,î CIAST.Accessed: Apr. 12, 2025. [Online]. Available:https://www.ciast.gov.my/?page_id=7960&lang=en[5] A. Yusoff, Z. H. Mohamed Ashari, N. A. Badrul, M.Mansor, and M. Sulaiman, ìBuilding an E-ProfilingSystem for Technical and Vocational Education andTraining (TVET) in Malaysia,î in The AsianConference on Education & InternationalDevelopment 2019, 2019. [Online]. Available:www.iafor.org[6] C. Mawuli and K. Otchi, ìCauses for the fallingstandards of technical and vocational education andtraining (TVET) in Ghana,î ~ 215 ~ InternationalJournal of Home Science, vol. 9, no. 2, 2023.[7] A. Adnan, T. Mohd Effendi Jamlos, and M. HafizSalleh, ìTEVT KPM: Kolej VokasionalMelestarikan Kurikulum TVET BerteraskanIndustri,î Jurnal Kurikulum BahagianPembangunan Kurikulum, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 110ñ122, 2021.[8] O. Sriboonruang and K. Somsaman, ìAdvancingIntegrated STEM Education in Technical andVocational Education and Training (TVET),îSoutheast Asian Journal of STEM Education, vol. 5,no. 1, pp. 2ñ7, Jan. 2025.[9] M. H. M.Yusof, M. Arsat, N. F. Amin, and A. AbdulLatif, ìIsu dan Cabaran Kualiti PenyampaianPengajaran Bidang Vokasional dalam KalanganPensyarah Kolej Vokasional: Satu UlasanSistematik,î Sains Humanika, vol. 12, no. 2ñ2,2020.[10] Yalong Group, ìZhejiang College Of SecurityTechnology And Yalong Group Jointly Held A NewEnergy Vehicle Technology Seminar,î YalongIntelligent Equipment Group Co.,Ltd. Accessed:Apr. 13, 2025. [Online]. Available:https://www.yalongeducation.com/news/zhejiangcollege-of-security-technology-and-ya81703600.html[11] Yalong Group, ìA Delegation Of ParticipatingTeachers From Malaysiaís National New EnergyVehicle (China) Maintenance Training ProgramVisited Yalong Intelligent Industry College OfWenzhou University For A Visit And Exchange,îYalong Intelligent Equipment Group Co.,Ltd.Accessed: Apr. 13, 2025. [Online]. Available:https://www.yalongeducation.com/news/adelegation-of-participating-teachers-from-ma81153242.html.219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7380
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Bio-fuel: A Challenge in Technology Development and Resources Availability7V$KPDG7DUPL]L0G1RU 1XUXO6KDKLUD0RKG.DVVLP 1RU]LODKZDWL0G1RKKolej Komuniti Kelana Jaya,Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, No. 2 Jalan PJS 5/28B, Petaling Jaya Commercial City, 46150 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul EhsanCorresponding email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]$EVWUDFWfflBiofuels are an alternative diesel fuel that is derived from animal fat, recycled cooking grease, andvegetable oil. The two most common types of biofuels that are used are ethanol and biodiesel. Biofuelís share of the automotive fuel market will rise steadily over the next decade, due to its own environmental merits. Biofuel production was divided into three types which are biofuels of the first, second and third generations. Their biomass sources, their drawbacks as a renewable energy source and their technical development distinguish them. In 2006 interest in production of biodiesel from palm oil increased. There are three main reasons for the introduction of first generation biofuels using palm oil. The key factors were the climate, agricultural aid and energy efficiency. For second generation biofuels, biomass sources include wood, agricultural waste, food waste and different crops with biomass. Even parts of food crops which are not edible can be used to produce fuel. Rapidly growing trees such as poplar trees need a pretreatment step, which is a series of chemical reactions. Issues and challenges during biofuel production in and out of Malaysia are environmental constraints and the competitiveness of existing biofuel production technologies. Many countries around the world use ethanol / bioethanol as an alternative fuel in the transportation sector due to its excellent compatibility with the present high octane value of gasoline. Biofuel production will only be efficient and useful to society if there is sustainably adequate supply of biomass feedstock for such technologies. Growing more biofuel-based crops without considering water quality and availability per region may place considerable strain on water resources, particularly in developing countries..H\\ZRUGVffl Biofuels, Biodiesel, Environment, Resources availability ,1752'8&7,21Heavy road vehicles, water transportations such as trucks, tanker and boats, and diesel engine petrol hasused diesel as it is the most effective fuel choices for years to power them. The rapid decline of fossil resources has resulted in the development of renewable energy to meet future demands [1]. There is a growing trend towards the use of modern technologies and the efficient conversion of bio- energy using a range of biofuels in developed country such as Norway, Switzerland and Ireland. Like other renewable energy sources, biomass can be directlyconverted into liquid fuels, known as biofuels to fulfill the transport fuel needs. Biofuels are an alternative fuel to diesel that derived from fats such as animal fat, recycled cooking grease, and vegetable oil. Although nowadays, ethanol and biodiesel are the two most common types of biofuels that being used, both which represent the first generation of biofuel technology.There are multiple reasons for biofuels to be considered relevant to advanced technologies by both developing countries and industrialized countries [2]. It includes an explanation for energy conservation, environmental considerations, foreign-exchange saving, and rural-related-socio- economic issues. The share of biofuel in the automotive fuel market will grow fast in the next decade, due to its own environmental merits. The reason that the idea of biofuel production well receivedare because biofuels are readily available from common biomass sources, represent a carbon dioxide cycle in combustion, biofuels have considerable environmental potential, economic and consumer benefits in the use of biofuels, and they are biodegradable and contribute to the sustainability 352'8&7,2162)%,2)8(/6Biofuel production has been categorized into three types which are first, second and third generation biofuels. They are distinguished by their biomass sources, their .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7386
drawbacks as a renewable energy source, and their technological advancement [3]. The biggest limitations of first generation biofuels is that they come from waste, which also a food source like starch, corn, animal fats and vegetable oils. Meanwhile,second generation biofuels derive from non-food biomass, but are still competing with food production for land use. Third generation biofuels have the best possible renewable fuel as they did not interfere and clash with food waste or production, though, there are still some challenges as well as limitations in making them economically feasible. 2.1 First Generation Biofuels With countries like those in the Europe and United States promoting biofuel use, interest in palm oil biodiesel production rose in 2006 [4]. There are three main reasons first-generation biofuels using palm oil were introduced asfollowing: 1. Environment ñ making sure zero pollution aswell as reduce global warming.2. Agricultural support ñ encouraging commodityprices.3. Energy security ñ depend less on nonrenewableenergyIn Malaysia, the research and development (R&D) were already in research since 1980s where MPOB and PETRONAS as first palm biodiesel pilot plant was constructed, and engine tests and trials conducted in 1985. Biofuels from the first generation are produced using wellunderstood technologies and processes, such as fermentation, distillation and trans-esterification. Figure 1 shows the process of first-generation biofuels are made.)LJXUHfflFirst Generation Biofuels [6]2.2 Second Generation BiofuelsThe biomass sources for second-generation biofuels include wood, organic waste, food waste and specific biomass crops. Even the non-edible parts of food crops can be used for second-generation fuel such as stalks, stems, and leaves. Fast growing trees like poplar trees need to undergo a pretreatment stage, which is a series of chemical reactions that break down lignin, the \"glue\" that holds together plants to create fuel [3]. This generation biofuels focusing on nonfood biomass where people no longer have to worry about losing food to biofuels. Figure 2 shows how secondgeneration biofuels are produced)LJXUHfflSecond Generation Biofuels [6]There are two way to process second generation biofuels which are through thermochemical routes and biochemicalroutes. Thermochemical consists of two processes such as gasification; biomass reacts with high amounts of oxygen and steam as well as pyrolysis; decomposition of biomass athigh temperature without oxygen. On the other hand, biochemical can incorporate different methods where the end product are bioethanoland bio butanol2.3 Third Generation BiofuelsAlgae is now new sources as the third generation biofuels use special engineered crops. These algaeís are grown and harvested to extract oil within them [3]. The reason that algae are selected to become new generation type of biofuel sources because it can yield up to 30 more energy per acre than land crops like soybeans [9]. It can be used to produce vegetable oil, bioethanol, bio methanol, and biodiesel. Figure 3 shows how third generation biofuels are produced. Algae has few benefits over previous generations as following:1. Algae fuel can become more efficient as timegoes by due to increase amount ofresearches. This also means new, more practical methods for growing and .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7387
processing algae will be introduced. 2. Recent advances in oil extraction will reducethe price of algae oils producing biodiesel.3. Algae does not eliminate carbon emission,but it does stop new carbon dioxide beingreleased into the atmosphere as it will displace the use of fossil fuels. )LJXUHfflThird Generation Biofuels [9]Algae exhibit a wide range of changes related to cellular composition, energy storage pathways, photosynthetic pigment composition, cell wall characteristics, and reproductive mechanisms [5]. Despite this diversity, each species has a very different potential for producing biofuel from microalgae. The most promising classes for biofuel applications have been determined to be Chlorophyceae, Eustigmatophytes, Chrysophyceae, and Bacillariophyceae (diatoms). Consequently, these specific groups have been the focus of most of the study in this field [`5].)LJXUHffl 0LFURDOJD ELRPDVV SURFHVV SURGXFW [9]The productivity of the microalgal strain is a key determinant of the potential of algal biofuels. Because some microalgae can store up to 80% of their dry weight as lipids, they are perfect for making biodiesel. Other strains show a propensity to accumulate carbohydrates, which can ferment into ethanol [7]. More lipids, especially triacylglycerols, can now be created thanks to progress in metabolic engineering and genetics. Additionally, leftover proteins and carbohydrates may now be fermented to create more biofuels [6]. Additionally, the lipids' chain length and saturation level can be changed, enabling the manufacture of biodiesel that is compatible with contemporary car engines without the need for any changes [5]. &+$//(1*(6,1%,2)8(/67(&+12/2*<Much like every other aspect of biotechnology, biofuel technology must maintain a balance between what is best for the advancement of science and what is best for the economy. Issues and challenges during the production of biofuel either inside or outside are Malaysia are environmental constraints, and competitiveness of existing technologies for producing biofuels.3.1 Environmental constraintsBiofuel is considered as environmentally friendly, however, the extensive biofuel production has also highlighted a range of environmental issues related to its use. As the production is a bio-derived product, it have the possibility to be carbon-neutral over their life cycles [8]. Even though biodiesel does not add carbon dioxide (CO2) to the environment, it does emit nitrous oxide (N2O). N2O is 310 times stronger than CO2 when come to trap heat as well as 0.25 percent increment in N2O concentration for the past 20 years [9]. Many countries are trying to set standards worldwide for lowering emission in the future. This program has created many growth opportunities for the biofuel industry. In addition to biofuel's numerous advantages over petroleum fuel, the comprehensive development of the biofuel industry may directly or indirectly cause other adverse environmental effects. Large scale of deforestation are needed in order to produce additional biofuel as demand keep growing. This activity might had effects such as soil erosion and loss of ecologicalsystem.Car makers must adhere to the EU-imposed cap of 95 g CO!/km for their fleet of newly marketed passenger cars beginning in 2021 in an effort to lower total CO! emissions. Biofuels are positioned by this rule as a feasibleway to achieve these goals [15]. The UK Sustainable Biodiesel Alliance (UKSBA) has responded by suggesting that Renewable Transport Fuel Certificates (RTFCs) have .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7388
a minimum price of 15p per liter in order to increase market prospects for biofuel producers. Furthermore, by 2020, advanced biofuels, such those made from algae, will be encouraged by legislation adopted by the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) [11]. In an attempt to encourage the use of algae and other non-edible material in the manufacture of biofuel, the European Parliament has also set a cap on biofuels derived from food crops [11].3.2 Competitiveness of existing technologies for producing biofuels Intensive efforts and research are currently being focused on improving the economics for sustainable development of biofuel. Due to society, environmental, geographical and technical constraints, they are not favored by the high production cost of biofuel to be used as an alternative to conventional fuel at present. Most countries around the world use ethanol / bioethanol as an alternative fuel in the transportation sector because of its excellent compatibility with the current gasoline, high octane value, and also provide vehicle power and efficiency [8]. In addition, biodiesel has also gained significant popularity as an alternative to conventional diesel; while biodiesel is used directly or as a biodiesel fuel in internal combustion engine due to its good compatibility with conventional diesel, its complete commercialization has yet to be achieved. According to the literature report, about more than 90% of biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils world-wide. The production costs of biofuels from different feedstockís are summarized in Table 1.7DEOHfflProduction cost of biofuel [8]The slower costs of reviving fossil fuels have stalled the progress of the biofuel business [12]. Even so, people have significant concerns about how well crude oil can be sustained in the long run and what impact it has on the environment, especially causing greenhouse gas emissions. A further concern with fossil fuels is the political difference in where and how they are distributed, as some nations worry about running low on oil, whereas others benefit economically and control important currency markets because they have more oil [13]. Plant-basedbiofuels offer a just and environmentally friendly approach for the economy and the environment.Leading oil-producing countries have shifted their focus more and more to renewable energy and biofuels, establishing precise goals and schedules for both development and deployment. For instance, the United Arab Emirates targeted to power 10% of its transportation sector with biofuels by 2020, while the United States projected replaced 20% of its road transport fuel with biofuels by 2022 [14]. The transition to renewable energies has been further strengthened by laws and policies intended to cut or eliminate CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. A certain percentage of renewable sources, including biofuels, must be included in the products of all transport fuel suppliers in the UK, according to the Department for Transport's Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation [15]. green Transport Fuel Certificates (RTFCs) are given to suppliers who meet the requirements in order to guarantee the quality and uniformity of these green fuel mixtures [15]. Additionally, differences in the exploration and distribution of crude oil have fueled political support for renewable fuels around the world, which has important ramifications for energy security, rural development, and climate change mitigation [14]. ',6&866,21The production of biofuel can only be successful and useful to society if the availability of biomass feedstock for these technologies is sufficient in a sustainable manner, as there are argument between the impact on environment and food vs. fuel issues. Keeping up with the world population in which keep increasing day by day, the demand for food andwater will continuously in demand, hence by promoting carbon neutral, more sustainable and nearly non-fodder feedstockís without affecting the biodiversity and maintaining of essential and native food crops. Constant rising demand and production of biofuels as well as productivity of the biofuel market only allows the cost ofraw materials to increase. In addition, growing more biofuelbased crops to boost the production of biofuels withoutconsidering the quality and availability of water per region could put a significant strain on water resources, particularly in developing countries. To evaluate the economic feasibility of acquisition and pre-processing of agricultural and forestry residues, more detailed country and residue- specific studies are stillrequired.Biofuels are created mainly to support green energy and reduce our use of fossil fuels [7]. Today, the leading options to traditional fossil fuels are biofuels produced from first- and second-generation resources [9]. Still, using .219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7389
valuable nutrients and much of the land used for growing food, some say their sustainability is being questioned. Because of this, it is vital to develop different biofuel sources that allow us to keep feeding our population and experts stress that algae is a good fit [10].Using microalgae as fuel offers us lots of energy, a natural way to get rid of it and greener energy sources. Since they can mix well with gasoline, diesel and jet fuel, biofuels are best used for cars and airplanes [15]. Outside of microalgae, there arenít many sources that produce as much oil. It is good for the country, because there is no set time to mine underground [14]. Both ponds and closed systems can support algae growth and both types depend on emissions from waste treatment for the necessary carbon and fertilizer [9]. Making fuels and chemicals from CO! decreases emissions and makes more profit than other approaches. &21&/86,21Biofuels are an alternative fuel to diesel that derived from fats such as animal fat, recycled cooking grease, and vegetable oil. Biofuel production has been categorized into three types which are first, second and third generation biofuels. They are distinguished by their biomass sources, their drawbacks as a renewable energy source, and their technological advancement. Interest in palm oil biodiesel production rose in 2006. There are three main reasons first-generation biofuels using palm oil were introduced which are environment, agricultural support and energy security. Even the non- edible parts of food crops can be used for second-generation fuel. Fast growing trees like poplar trees need to undergo a pretreatment stage, which is a series of chemical reactions that break down lignin, the \"glue\" that holds together plants to create fuel. Algae is used to produce vegetable oil, bioethanol, bio methanol, and biodiesel. Itcan yield up to 30 more energies per acre than land crops like soybeans.Biofuel is considered as environmentally friendly, however, the extensive biofuel production has highlighted a range of environmental issues related to its use. Large scale ofdeforestation is needed in order to produce additional biofuel as demand keep growing. This activity might have effects such as soil erosion and loss of ecological system. Intensive efforts and research are currently being focusedon improving the economics for sustainable development of biofuel. Most countries around the world use ethanol / bioethanol as an alternative fuel in the transportation sector. According to the literature report, about more than 90% of biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils worldwide. Biofuel production will only be efficient and useful to society if there is sustainably adequate supply of biomass feedstock for such technologies. Growing more biofuelbased crops without considering water quality and availability per region may put considerable strain on water resources, particularly in developing countries.Biofuels have great potential, but there are a number of hurdles needing to be cleared before they can be used regularly for energy. Carbon taxes are missing in many places which means fossil fuels with high carbon dioxide emissions are not made less attractive by their higher expense. Furthermore, because there are few firm laws about using biofuels, it is difficult for them to succeed in the market. It costs a lot to build big biofuel factories and the cost goes upward when farmland is switched to using energy crops. Moreover, since fossil fuels are cheap, biofuels cannot keep up. The major concern now is that hydraulic fracturing (fracking) has helped the industry extract fossil fuels more easily and on a budget. The good news is that some of the technology built for advanced biofuels can still be put to use for other useful products. There are products that were often made using petroleum or that are tough to produce using fossil fuels. With these technologies working better, future biofuel production will become simpler, as governments across the globe shift their attention from the petroleum industry to climate issues.5()(5(1&(6[1] Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA),(2020). Our Way: Advanced Biofuel. Retrieved May 15,2020 from https://www.mida.gov.my/home/our-way-:-advanced- biofuel/posts/[2] Demirbas, A. (2008). Biofuels sources, biofuel policy, biofueleconomy and global biofuel projections. Energy conversionand management, 49(8), 2106-2116.[3] Oregon State University. (2020). Generations of Biofuels.Retrieved May 15, 2020 fromhttps://agsci.oregonstate.edu/sites/agsci.oregonstate.edu/files/bioenergy/generations-of-biofuels- v1.3.pdf[4] Loh, S. K., & Choo, Y. M. (2013). Prospect, challenges andopportunities on biofuels in Malaysia. In Advances inbiofuels (pp. 3-14). Springer, Boston, MA.[5] Y.S. Shin et al. Targeted knockout of phospholipase toincrease lipid productivity in Chlamydomonasreinhardtii for biodiesel production Bioresour Technol(2019)[6] W.Z. Jiang et al. A gene-within-a-gene Cas9/sgRNAhybrid construct enables gene editing and genereplacement strategies in Chlamydomonas reinhardtiiAlgal Res (2017)[7] Joshi, G., Pandey, J. K., Rana, S., & Rawat, D. S. (2017).Challenges and opportunities for the application of biofuel.Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 79, 850-866.[8] Joshi, G., Pandey, J. K., Rana, S., & Rawat, D. S. (2017).Challenges and opportunities for the application of biofuel.Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 79, 850-866.[9] Challenges and opportunities for the application of biofuel.Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 79, 850-866..219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7390
Refueling the Future. (2020). The First Generation. Retrieved May 15, 2020 fromhttp://refuelingthefuture.yolasite.com/first-generationbiofuels.php[10] K. Xu et al. Toward the lowest energy consumption andemission in biofuel production: combination of ideal reactorsand robust hosts Curr Opin Biotechnol (2018)[11] F.M. Hossain et al. Performance and exhaust emissions ofdiesel engines using microalgae FAME and the prospectsfor microalgae HTL biocrude Renew Sustain Energy Rev(2018)[12] J. Trivedi et al. Algae based biorefinery how to makesense? Renew Sustain Energy Rev (2015)[13]C.A. Laamanen et al. Flotation harvesting ofmicroalgae Renew Sustain Energy Rev (2016)[14] Sk. Yasir Arafat Siddiki et al Microalgae biomass as asustainable source for biofuel, biochemical and biobasedvalue-added products: An integrated biorefinery concept(2022)[15] Shahid Ahmad Padder et al. Biofuel Generations: Newinsight into challenge and opportunities in their microderived industrial production.(2024).219(16<(179(70$'$1,ffl5(92/86,'$7$'$1,129$6,79(7391