021_HANDBOOK_of_Development_Economics_723

2440 P. Dasgupta and K.-G. Mäler

other considerations are found by hirn to be overriding. In short, his upbring-
ing ensures that he has a disposition to obey the norm. When he does violate it,
neither guilt not shame is typicaUy absent, but the act will have been
rationalized by hirn. A general disposition to abide by agreements, to be
truthful, to trust one another, and to act with justice is an essential lubricant of
societies. Communities where the disposition is pervasive save enormously on
transaction costs. There lies its instrumental virtue,s7 In the world as we know
it, such a disposition is present in varying degrees. When we refrain from
breaking the law, it is not always because of a fear of being caught. On the
other hand, if relative to the gravity of the misdemeanour the private benefit
from malfeasance were high, some transgressions could be expected to take
place. Punishment assumes its role as a deterrence because of the latter fact.

However, where people repeatedly encounter one another in similar situa-
tions, agreements could be reached and kept even if people were not
trustworthy and even if a higher authority were not there to enforce the
agreements. This is a third kind of mechanism. How does this argument work?
A simple set of contexts in which it works is where far-sighted people know
both one another and the environment, where they expect to interact
repeatedly under the same circumstances, and where all this is common
knowledge,ss For expositional purposes, it helps to simplify further and to
consider circumstances where actions are observable, and where there is
perfect recall on each person's part of how others have behaved in the past.s9
One idea is to require norms of behaviour to be supplemented by an entire
sequence of meta- (i.e. higher-order) norms, all of which can be succinctly
stated in the form of a basic norm, requiring each party to abide by the

agreement with any other if and only if that other party is deserving. We now

assume that the social norm requires all parties to start the process of repeated
interactions by co-operating. By recursion, it is then possible for any party at
any date to determine who is deserving and who is not. If someone is found to
be non-deserving in any period, the norm enjoins each of the other parties to
impose a sanction on hirn for that period. (This amounts to non-cooperation
with hirn for that period). In long, the norm requires that sanctions be imposed
upon those in violation of an agreement; upon those who fail to impose
sanctions upon those in violation of the agreement; upon those who fail to
impose sanctions upon those who fail to impose sanctions upon those in

s7 See Dasgupta (1988) for further discussion of the value of trust in a community.
ss See Kreps and Wilson (1982), Milgrom and Roberts (1982), Kreps et al. (1982), and Benoit
and Krislma (1985) for demonstrations that co-operative behaviour is possible even when people
know that the interactions will be for a (large) finite number of periods. For a non-technical
discussion of the force of the assumption of common knowledge, see Binmore and Dasgupta
(1986) and Aumann (1987).
SgEach of these qualifications can be relaxed. See Radner (1981) for weakening the first
qualification, and Sabourian (1988) for relaxing the second.

Ch. 39: Poverty, Institutions, and the Environmental Resource-Base 2441

violation of the agreement; . . . and so on, indefinitely. (This is the sequence of
meta-norms mentioned earlier). Provided agents are sufficiently far-sighted to
give sufficient weight to their future gains from cooperation, this basic norm,
which tells each agent to cooperate with (and only with) deserving agents, can
lift communities out of a number of potentially troublesome social situations,
including the repeated Prisoners' Dilemma. The reason each agent conforms to
the basie norm when a sufficient number of others conform is pure and simple
self-interest. If an agent does not conform, he will suffer from sanctions for the
duration of his non-conformism. It will be noticed, however, that since
continual co-operation is an equilibrium outcome, there will be no deviance
along this equilibrium path, and so no sanctions will be observed. The
meta-norrns pertain to behaviour oft the equilibrium path.

This sort of argument, whieh has been established in a general setting only
recently [e.g. Fudenberg and Maskin (1986), Abreu (1988)], has been put to
effective use in explaining the emergence of ä number of institutions which
facilitated the growth of trade in medieval Europe. Greif (1993), for example,
has shown how the Maghribi traders during the eleventh century in Fustat and
across the Mediterranean acted as a collective to impose sanctions on agents
who violated their commercial codes. Greif, Milgrom and Weingäst (1994)
have offered an account of the rise of merchant guitds in late medieval Europe.
These guilds afforded protection to members against unjustified seizure of their
property by city-states. Guilds deeided if and when a trade embargo was
warranted against the city. In a related work, Milgrom, North and Weingast
(1990) have analysed the role of merchant courts in the Champagne fairs.
These courts facilitated members in imposing sanctions on transgressors of
agreements.

A somewhat reverse set of äctions occurred as well in medieval Europe,
where transgressions by a party were sometimes met by the rest of society
imposing sanctions on the entire kinship of the party, or on the guild to which
the transgressor belonged. The norm provided collectives with a natural
incentive to monitor their own members' behaviour. (For a different instance
of this, the eontext being the use of local common-property resources, see
Howe, 1986.) 90

As matters stand, international agreements on environmental matters could
be expected to be sustained by the latter two mechanisms in the list we have
just discussed, not by the first. There is currently no world body with the kind
of authority and power that national governments in principle enjoy. Ultimate-
ly, though it is the second route that offers the strongest hopes for the

9oT h o s e a m o n g readers who are g a m e theorists will recognize that the strategy we have
identified is not renegotiation-proof. On an application of this requirement for international
agreements on biodiversity, see Barrett (1994).

2442 P. Dasgupta and K.-G. Mäler

emergence of collective responsibility over the transnational commons. How-
ever, institutional changes are easier to bring about than changes in personal
and collective attitudes; or so it would seem. Social scientists typically take
ùpreferences" and "demands" as given and try to devise policies that would be
expected to improve matters collectively. This is the spirit in which en-
vironmental economics has developed, and there is an enormous amount to be
said for it. But in the process of following this research strategy we should not
play down the strictures of those social thinkers who have urged the rich to
curb their material demands, to alter their preferences in such ways as to better
husband the earth's limited resources. If such strictures seem quaint in today's
world, it may be because we are psychologically uncomfortable with this kind
of vocabulary. But that is not an argument for not taking them seriously.

Appendices

lntroduction

In Sections 11-13 we outlined the use of accounting prices in project appraisal
and national income accounting. The purpose of these appendices is to develop
a few of the more technical arguments that are involved in this.

In Section 13 we argued that in poor countries household production
functions offer a useful venue for estimating the accounting prices of en-
vironmental goods and services. Appendix 1 contains a discussion of a number
of issues that arise if the aim is to assess public policies that affect only a small
portion of an economy (e.g. a rural community). The point of view to be
adopted in Appendix 1 will be that economic appraisal is an aspect of policy
reform. Analysis of policy reforms involves calculating the probable effects on
general well-being of marginal changes in some set of control variables (for
example, public investments). This enables one to make recommendations on
the direction in which the controls ought to be altered. Orte way of doing this is
to make use of accounting prices for goods and services: the art consists in
trying to estimate such prices from features of the economy as it currently is,
and is expected to be [Dasgupta, Marglin and Sen (1972), Boadway (1978),
Blitzer, Dasgupta and Stiglitz (1981), Dinwiddy and Teal (1987), Ahmad and
Stern (1990)]. Orten it makes sense to assume more strongly that the rest of
the economy is, to a first approximation, unaffected by what happens to the
segment that is under scrutiny [Däsgupta, Marglin and Sen (1972), Chapter 19;
Anderson (1987), Hodgson and Dixon (1992)].

Although related, this approach to the estimation and use of accounting
prices is different from the one where the government is involved in an overall

Ch. 39: Poverty, Institutions, and the Environmental Resource-Base 2443

optimization exercize [Little and Mirrlees (1974)]. 91 In Appendix 2 we will
follow this latter route. Our aim will be to derive formulae for accounting
prices and to develop the concept of net national product.

Appendix 1

The valuation of environmental resources: Public policy as reform

Let us begin with an example of fuelwood (or water) collection. We take the
unit of analysis to be a household.92 To fix ideas, consider a reduced form of
the model. Assume that a representative household's daily energy intake is c,
and that x is its harvest of fuelwood (or water) per day. Denote by S the stock

of fuelwood (or water) resources in the locality, and by e(S) the energy cost of
bringing home a unit of fuelwood (or water). Obviously, e(S) is a decreasing

function of S. Equally obviously, the household's production of goods and
services (e.g. cooked food, heating) is an increasing function of x. It follows
that household well-being is an increasing function of both the net energy

intake (c- e(S)x) and x. Write this as W(c- e(S)x, x). Assume for simplicity

that the household chooses x so as to maximize W. We write the maximized

value as V(c, S). It is the indirect well-being function.

Suppose next that there are M households that rely on the resource. For an
additive aggregate well-being function (see Section 9), the shadow price of the

resource is simply - M ( d c / d S ) w = M V s / V c =-Me'(S)x. (Here Vs and Vc
denote the partial derivatives of V, and (dc/dS)w denotes the marginal rate of

substitution between c and S in the indirect well-being function.) 93 In a more

detailed model, c will be endogenous, and the effect of Mx on future values of

S will also be taken into account. We turn to a few generalizations.94
A household's production function can be written as

q =f(y, S),

where y is the vector of net dernands for goods and services transacted in the
market; S is a vector of environmental stocks; and q is the household's
production of goods and services. Without undue loss of generality, we will

91The connection between the two approaches is discussed in Dasgupta (1972, 1982a).
92This has shortcomings (see Dasgupta, 1993, Chapters 11-12), because a household typically
consists of more than one individual. But it will not matter here. Our aim is to sketch the technical
problems that are involved, nothing more.
93Fredriksson and Persson (1989) have used this framework for estimating the social benefits of
improved water supply in Manicaland, Zimbabwe.
94The discussion that follows is based on Mäler (1985, 1993).

2444 P. Dasgupta and K.-G. Mäler

regard q and S as scalars. Interest lies in the case where S does not have a
market. The task is to estimate the value of a change in S in terms of changes
in the values of q and y. This leads to a taxonomy based on what the analyst
can observe and what he (or she) is able to value. We will consider a few cases.

(1) The simplest is one where q is measurable. Assume that household
well-being depends solely on q. Suppose now that q and y can be transacted in
markets, and so have market prices associated with them. We wish to estimate
the social value of an increase in S. If the increase is marginal (i.e. it is not
expected to have any effect on prices), its value is the marginal change in
well-being that accompanies it. In short, y is held constant in this exercize. If
the increase in S is large, but nevertheless it does not affect market prices, the
social value of the increase needs to be measured as the difference between
maximum household well-being after and before the increase, taking optimal
adjustments in y into account. Anderson's (1987) study of the benefits and
costs of establishing shelterbelts and farm forestry in the arid zone of Nigeria,
is a fine example of this "partial" approach to cost-benefit analysis.95

(2) q may not be easily quantifiable. This would be so if q were an amenity
(e.g. if S were a recreational area). In many such cases, there are inputs in the
production of q that can be valued and that are at the same time substitutes or
complement of S. Consider, as an example, the "travel cost" method for
valuing recreational facilities. Regard y to be a "weak complement" of S if the
value imputed to S is zero when the demand for y is zero (see Mäler, 1974).
The travel cost method involves counting the number of visitors to the place
(preferably the number of visitor days). But travel costs are not the same for
all visitors. In our notation, different people face different prices for y. The
demand curve for q can be estimated by taking a sample of visitors, and
recording their travel costs and durations of visit. Survey techniques also
enable one to infer how the demand curve would shift if the recreational area
were to change in quality. This information enables one to estimate the change
in consumer-surplus, which, under the assumption of weak complementarity,
measures the value of the change in quality.

In some cases, y is a perfect substitute for S. The production function can
then be written as q = f ( y + B(S)), where B is an increasing function of S. A
marginal increase in S would lead to an increase in q by f'(.)B'(S). If,
however, y were simultaneously reduced by the amount -B'(S), output would
not be affected. Suppose now that p is the accounting price of y. Then the
accounting price of S is pB'(S). Of course, we could so choose units that
B(S) = S. In this case the accounting price of S is p.

There are a number of examples where this technique is of use. For
example, the corrosion of material structures due to air pollution can be offset

95Anderson also explores the the risks that are involved in farm forestry programmes.

Ch. 39: Poverty, Institutions, and the Environmental Resource-Base 2445

by preventive care (e.g. painting the structures more frequently, replacing the
corroded material more often). Expenditures on these preventive measures are
a good measure of the social costs of corrosion. Similarly, the value of
improved water supplies can be estimated from the reduced cost of obtaining
water. And so forth.

Appendix 2

Net national product in a dynamic economy

A2.1. The economics of optimal control

In Section 11 and A p p e n d i x 1 we sketched a n u m b e r of methods that are
currently available for estimating shadow prices of environmental resources in
situ. We now seek to put shadow prices to use in judging the relative
desirability of alternative economic activities. Of particular interest to us is
social cost-benefit analysis of investment projects. The measurement of real
national income is intimately connected to this. The index we seek is net
national product ( N N P ) as a measure of aggregate well-being. 96 We will show
that the question how we should measure it for the purposes of social
cost-benefit analysis is not a matter of opinion, it has an unambiguous answer.
We need a formal model to establish this. In this appendix we present what we
hope is a canonical model of an optimizing e c o n o m y for doing so.97

Our aim here is to display the connection between accounting prices, rules
for project evaluation, and national product accounting in a context that is
simple, but that has sufficient structure to allow us to obtain a number of
prescriptions alluded to in the body of the chapter. In order to keep to what,
for our purposes in this chapter, are essential matters, we will ignore the kinds
of "second-best" constraints (for example, market disequilibria) that have been
the centre of attention in the literature on project evaluation in poor countries;
as, for example, in Dasgupta, Marglin and Sen (1972) and Little and Mirrlees
(t974). The principles we will develop here carry over to disequilibrium
situations. For expositional ease, we will restrict ourselves to a closed
economy.

We will take it that the aggregate well-being functional is the (possibly
discounted) integral of the flow of instantaneous social well-being (as in (1) in
Section 9). Let us begin by recalling the main features of intertemporal

96There are other purposes to which the idea of national product has been put; for example, as a
measure of economic activity. They require different treatments. We are not concerned with them
here.

97This appendix is taken from Dasgupta and Mäler (1991) and Mäler (1991).

2446 P. Dasgupta and K.-G. Mäler

optimization exercizes.98 The theory of intertemporal planning teils us to
choose current controls (for example, current consumptions and the mix of
current investments) in such a way as to maximize the current-value Hamil-
tonian of the underlying optimization problem. As is weil known, the current-
value Hamiltonian is the sum of the flow of current well-being and the shadow
value of all net investments currently being undertaken. (The optimization
exercize generates the entire set of intertemporal shadow prices.) 99 It will be
seen in Section A2.3 that if accounting prices are approximately constant over
time, then the current-value Hamiltonian measures the return on the value of
all capital assets. In short, it is in such circumstances a measure of the return
on wealth. This provides us with a connection between the current-value
Hamiltonian and real net national product. In fact, NNP is a linearized version
of the current-value Hamiltonian, the linearization amounting to representing
the current flow of well-being by the shadow value of all the determinants of
current well-being. In the simplest of cases, where current well-being depends
solely on current consumption, NNP reduces to the sum of the accounting
value of an economy's consumptions and the accounting value of the changes
in its stocks of real capital assets.

The Hamiltonian calculus in fact implies something more. It implies that the
present discounted sum of today's current value Hamiltonian is equal to the
maximum present discounted value of the flow of social well-being (equation
A13 below). This was not seen immediately as an implication of the mathe-
matical theory of programming, although it should have been transparent from
the work of Arrow and Kurz (1970) and Solow (1974a). Each of these matters
will be illustrated in our formal model.

A2.2. N N P in a deterministic environment

We consider an economy that has a multi-purpose, man-made, perfectly
durable capital good, whose stock is denoted by K:. If L 1 is the labour effort
combined with this, the flow of output is taken to be Y = F ( K 1, L:), where F(.)
is an aggregate productl. on functl• on.100 The economy enjoys in addition two
sorts of environmental-resource stocks: clean air, K2, and forests, K3. Clean air

9• The best economics treatment of all this is still Arrow and Kurz (1970).
99The current-value Hamiltonian in general also contains terms reflecting the social cost of
breaking any additional (second-best) constraint that happens to characterize the optimization
problem. As mentioned in the text, we ignore such additional constraints for the sake of
expositional ease.
100 In what follows we assume that all functions satisfy conditions which ensure that the planning
problem defined below is a concave programme. We are not going to spell out each and every such
assumption, because they will be familiar to the reader. For example, we assume that F(.) is
concave.

Ch. 39: Poverty, Institutions, and the Environmental Resource-Base 2447

is valued directly, whereas, forests have two derived values: they help keep the
atmosphere (or air) "clean", and they provide fuelwood, which too is valued
directly (for warmth or for cooking). Finally, we take it that there is a flow of
environmental amenities, Z, which directly affects aggregate well-being.

Forests enjoy a natural regeneration rate, but labour effort can increase it.
Thus we denote by H(L2) the rate of regeneration of forests, where L 2 is
labour input for this task, and where H(.) is, for low values of L2 at least, an
increasing function. Let X denote the rate of consumption of fuelwood.
Collecting this involves labour effort. Let this be L 3. Presumably, the larger
the forest stock the less is the effort required (in calorie requirements, say). We
remarked on this earlier. We thus assume that X = N(K 3, L3), where N(.) is an
increasing, concave function of its two arguments.

Output Y is a basic consumption good, and this consumption is also valued
directly. However, we take it that the production of Y involves pollution as a
byproduct. This reduces the quality of the atrnosphere both as a stock and as a
flow of amenities. We assume however that it is possible to take defensive
measure against both these ill-effects. Firstly, society can invest in technologies
(e.g. stack-gas scrubbers) for reducing the emission of pollutants, and we
denote the stock of this defensive capital by K 4. If P denotes the emission of
pollutants, we have P = A ( K 4, Y), where A is a convex function, decreasing in
K 4 and increasing in Y. Secondly, society can mitigate damages to the flow of
amenities by expending a portion of final output, at a rate R. We assume that
the resulting flow of amenities has the functional form, Z = J(R, P), where J is
increasing in R and decreasing in P.

There are thus four things that can be done with output Y: it can be
consumed (we denote the rate of consumption by C); it can be reinvested to
increase the stock of Kl; it can be invested in the accumulation of K4; and it
can be used, at rate R, to counter the damages to the flow of environmental
amenities. Let Q denote the expenditure on the accumulation of/£4.

Now, the environment as a stock tries to regenerate itself at a rate which is
an increasing function of the stock of forests, G(K3). The net rate of
regeneration is the difference between this and the emission of pollutants from
production of Y. We can therefore express the dynamics of the economy in
terms of the following equations:

d K J d t = F ( K 1, L1) - C - Q - R (A1)

dK2/dt = G(K3) - A(K4, F[K1, La]) (A2)

dK3/dt = H(L2) - X (A3)

dK4/dt = Q (A4)

2448 P. Dasgupta and K.-G. Mäler
X = N(K» L3)
(AS)

and

Z = J[R, A(K4, F[Kp La])]. (A6)

The current flow of aggregate well-being, W, is taken to be an increasing
function of aggregate consumption, C; the output of fuelwood, X; the flow of
environmental amenities, Z; and the quality of the atmospheric stock, K 2.
However, it is a decreasing function of total labour effort, L = L a + L 2 + L 3.
(As noted in the text, labour effort could be measured in calories). We thus
have

W(C, X , Z, K 2, L a + L 2 + L3) .

Stocks of the four types of assets are given at the initial date; the
instantaneous control variables are C, Q, R, X, Z, La, L 2 and L 3. The
objective is to maximize the (discounted) sum of the flow of aggregate
well-being over the indefinite future; that is

f W(C, X, Z, K z, L 1 + L 2 + L3)e -at dt, where 6 > 0 (see Section 9).

0

We take well-being to be the numeraire. Letting p, q, r and s denote the
(spot) shadow prices of the four capital goods, Ka, K z / £ 3 and K4 respectively,
and letting v be the imputed marginal value of the flow of environmental
amenities, we can use equations (A1)-(A6) to express the current-value
Hamiltonian, V, of the optimization problem as:

V = W(C, N ( K 3, L3), Z, K2, L a + L 2 + L 3 ) + p [ F ( K a , La)
- C - Q - R] + q[G(K3) - A(K4, F[Ka, LaD ]
+ r [ H ( L 2 ) - N ( K 3, L3) ] + s Q + v ( J [ R , A ( K 4, F [ K a, La])] - Z ) .
(A7)

Recall that the theory of optimum control instructs us to choose the control
variables at each date so as to maximize (A7). a°l Writing by Wc the partial
derivative of W with respect to C, and so forth, it is then immediate that, along
an optimal programme the control variables and the shadow prices must satisfy

lol Notice that we have used equation (A5) to eliminate X, and so we are left with 6 direct
control variables.

Ch. 39." Poverty, Institutions, and the Environmental Resource-Base 2449

the conditions: (A8)

(i) W c=p; (ii) WxN z+W L=rN2; (iii) W z=v;
(iv) W L = [ q A 2 - v J 2 - p ] F z ; (v) WL = r d H ( L 2 ) / d L 2 ;
(vi) p = v J ~ ; (vii) p = s . 102

Moreover, the accounting prices, p, q, r, and s satisfy the auxiliary
conditions:

(1) dp/dt = -OV/OK 1 + 6p; (2) dq/dt = -OV/OK 2 + 6q; (A9)
(3) dr~dt = -OV/OK 3 + 8r; (4) ds/dt = -OV/OK 4 + 6s .

Interpreting these conditions is today a routine matter. Conditions (A8) tell
us what kinds of information we need for estimating accounting prices. (A9)
are the intertemporal arbitrage conditions that must be satisfied by accounting
prices. We may now derive the correct expression for net national product
(NNP) from equation (A7): it is the linear support of the Hamiltonian, the
normal to the support being given by the vector of accounting prices.

It will pay us now to introduce time into the notation. Let us denote by O*;
the vector of all the non-price arguments in the Hamiltonian function along the
optimal programme at date t. Thus:

O* = (C*, Z * , Q * , R * , K~t, K *2t, K~t, K~t, L *it, L~t, L3t* ) '

Write Iit =- dKit/dt, for i = 1, 2, 3, 4. Consider now a small perturbation at t
round O*. Denote the perturbed programme as an unstarred vector, and d Q
as the perturbation itself. It follows from taking the Taylor expansion around
O*; that the current-value Hamiltonian along the perturbed programme is:

V(Ot) = V(O*) + W c dC t + Wx d X t + W z d Z t + WL(dL~t + dL2, + dL3t )

+ p diät + q dI2t + r dI3t + s dI4,,

where Z* = «[R*, A ( K ~ , F [ K T, LTI)]. (At0)

Equation (A10) tells us how to measure net national product. Let {Ot}
denote an arbitrary intertemporal programme. NNP at date t, which we write
as N N P t, in the optimizing economy, measured in well-being numeraire, is the

l°"F2 stands for the partial derivative of F with respect to its second argument, El; and as
mentioned earlier, L = L1 + L, + L 3. We have used this same notation for the derivatives of N(.),
J(.) and A(.).

2450 P. Dasgupta and K.-G. Mäler
term representing the linear support term in expression (A10). So,

N N P , = W«C t ~- W x X t ~- Wz«[Rt, A(K4, F [ K w L I , ] ) ] (All)
+ WL(Llt + L2t + L3t ) +p dK1/dt + q dKJdt + r dK3/dt
+ s dK4/dt .103

Notice that all resources and outputs are valued at the prices that sustain the
optimal programme {O*}. TM In order to stress the points we want to make
here, we have chosen to work with a most aggregate model. Ideally, (income)
distributional issues will find reflection in the well-being functional. These
considerations can easily be translated into the estimates of shadow prices (see
Dasgupta, Marglin and Sen, 1972).

Why should expression ( A l l ) be regarded as the correct measure of net
national product? The clue lies in expression (A10). Suppose we are involved
in the choice of projects. A marginal project is a perturbation on the current
programme. Suppressing the index for time once again, the project is the
10-vector (dC, dX, dR, dL 1, d L » dL 3, dI1, d l » dI3, d/a), where Ii = dK/dt,
(i = 1, 2, 3, 4); and dC, and so on, are small changes in C, and so forth. If the
project records an increase in NNPt (the increase will be marginal of course), it
will record an increase in the current-value Hamiltonian, evaluated at the
prices supporting the optimal programme. Recall that optimal control theory
asks us to maximize the current-value Hamiltonian. Moreover, we are
assuming that the planning problem is concave. So, choosing projects that
increase NNP (i.e. they are socially profitable) increase the current-value
Hamiltonian as weil and, therefore, they should be regarded as desirable.
Along an optimal programme the social profitability of the last project is nil.
Therefore, its contribution to NNP is nil. This follows from the fact that the
controls are chosen so as to maximize expression (A7). This is the justification.
All this is well-known, and our purpose here is to obtain some additional
insights. Expression ( A l l ) teils us:

(a) If wages were equal to the marginal ill-being of work effort, wages would
not be part of NNP. In short, the shadow wage bill ought to be deducted from
gross output when we estimate NNP. Although our formal model is based on
the assumption that the labour market clears, our result that the shadow wage
bill ought to be deducted holds true even if the labour market were not to

103We may divide the whole expression by Wc to express NNP in aggregate consumption
numeraire. It should also be recalled that by assumption WL is negative.

104But recall the alternative framework mentioned in Sections 10-12, in which accounting prices
are estimated from the prevailing structure of production and consumption. See Dasgupta, Marglin
and Sen (1972).

Ch. 39: Poverty, Institutions, and the Environmental Resource-Base 2451

clear. (If labour is supplied inelastically, it is a matter of indifference whether
the wage bill in this õptimizing economy is deducted from NNP).

By labour here we have so far meant raw labour. If a part of the wage bill is
a return on the accumulation of human capital, that part would be included in
NNP.

(b) Current defensive expenditure, R, against damages to the flow of
environmental amenities should be included in the estimation of final demand
{see the third term in expression (A9)].

(c) Investments in the stock of environmental defensive capital should be
included in NNP [see the final term of expression (All)].

(d) Expenditures that enhance the environment find expression in the value
imputed to changes in the environmental resource stock. We may conclude that
this change should not be included in estimates of NNP [notice the absence of
sQ in expression (All)].

(e) The value of changes in the environmental resource base (K z and /£3)
should be included in NNP. However, anticipated capital gains (or losses) are
not part of NNP.

A2.3. The Hamiltonian and the return on aggregate well-being

Differentiate expression (A7) and use conditions (A9) to confirm that along
the optimal programme:

dV*/dt = 8(p dK1/dt + q dK2/dt + r dK3/dt + s dK4/dt ) (A12)

= ~(vT - w*,),

where W* is the flow of optimal aggregate well-being.
This is a differential equation in V* which integrates to:

ze

V* = 6 J W*e -~('-t) dr, and thus (A13)

t

o~ oe (A14)

v, f e-«*-t) d.r = f W,e-ô(*-O d.r .
tt

Equation (A13) says that the current-value Hamiltonian is the return on the
present discounted value of the flow of well-being (i.e. aggregate well-being)
along the optimal path. Equivalently, equation (A14) says that the present
discounted value of a constant flow of today's current-vatue Hamiltonian
measures the present discounted value of the flow of social well-being along the

2452 P. Dasgupta and K.-G. Mäler

optimal path. Equations (A13) and (A14) have been the object of study in
Solow (1986), Hartwick (1990, 1994) and Asheim (1994). Solow assumed thät
W(.) = C (i.e. that the flow of social well-being is linear in consumption). In
this case the Hamiltonian is NNP. Asheim and Hartwick, on the other hand,
work with strictly concave social well-being functions. They identify NNP with
the Hamiltonian so as to make the connection between their notion of NNP
with the return on the present discounted value of the flow of well-being along
the optimal path. In Section 11 we observed why NNP has always been thought
of as a linear index.

Under certain special circumstances, the current-value Hamiltonian equals
the return on the aggregate value of capital stocks (inclusive of the en-
vironmental resource-base, measured at current accounting prices). The special
circumstances amount to the case where the optimum is approximately a steady
stare, so that accounting prices are constant over time.

To see this, define K =-pK 1 + q K 2 + r K 3 + s K 4 as the aggregate capital stock
in the economy. The first part of equation (A12) can then, as an approxi-
mation, be written as:

V* = 6K,.

Il, as would generally be the case, the optimal path is not a steady state, the
current-value Hamiltonian equals the return on the sum of the values of all net
investments in the past. This follows directly from equation (A12).

A2.4. Future uncertainty

We will now extend the analysis for the case where there is future uncertainty.
As an example, we could imagine the discovery and installation of cleaner
production technologies which make existing abatement technologies less
valuable. For simplicity of exposition, we will assume that such discoveries are
uninfluenced by policy, for example, research and development policy.1°5

It is most informative to consider discrete events. We may imagine that at
some random future date, T, an event occurs which is expected to affect the
value of the then existing stocks of capital. We consider the problem from the
vantage point of the present, which we denote by t = 0; where t, as always,
denotes time. Let us assume that there is a (subjective) probability density
function, 7rt, over the date of its occurrence. (We are thus supposing for

105Research and development policy can be easily incorporated into our analysis (see Dasgupta,
Heal and Mujumdar, 1977). The following account builds on Dasgupta and Heal (1974), Dasgupta
and Stiglitz (1981), and Dasgupta (1982b). These earlier contributions, however, did not address
the measurement of NNP, our present concern.

Ch. 39: Poverty, Institutions, and the Environmental Resource-Base 2453

expositional ease that the event will occur at some future date). From this we
may define the cumulative function q/.

We take it that the social good is reflected by the expected value of the sum
of the discounted flow of future aggregate well-being. If the event in question
were to occur at date T, the economy in question would enter a new
production and ecological regime. We shall continue to rely on the notation
developed in the previous section. As is proper, we use dynamic programming,
and proceed to work backwards. Thus, let K ir (with i = 1, 2, 3, 4) denote the
stocks of the four assets at date T. FoUowing an optimal economic policy
subsequent to the occurrence of the event would yield an expected flow of
aggregate well-being. This flow we discount back to T. This capitalized value of
the flow of well-being will clearly be a function of Ki r. Let us denote this by

B(K1 r, K2 r, K3T, K4T). It is now possible to show that until the event occurs

(i.e. for t < T), the optimal policy is to pretend that the event will never occur,
and to assume that the flow of aggregate well-being is given, not by W(.), as in
Section A2.1, but by (1 - et)W(.) + ~rtB(.). [See Dasgupta and Heal (1974)].
Suppressing the subscript for time, we may then conclude from the analysis of
the previous section that NNP at any date prior to the occurrence of the event
is given by the expression:

NNP= (1- dp)[W«C +WxX+WzJ[R , A(K4, F[K1, L1])] (A15)
+ WL(L ~ + L 2 + L3) +p dKJdt + q dKSdt + r dK3/dt
+ s dK4/dt ] .

Notice that if the event is not expected to occur ever, then ¢ / = 0 for all t,
and consequently, (1 - @t) = 1 for all t. In this case expression (A15) reduces
to expression (All). Notice that the accounting prices that appear in expres-
sion (A15) are Arrow-Debreu contingent commodity prices. Notice too that
while we have used the same notation for the accounting prices in expressions
( A l l ) and (A15), their values are quite different. This is because future
possibilities in the two economies are different.

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INDEX

Note: linked page numbers are often used as a space-saver so entries on these pages may not
necessarily be continuous.

Abdullah, A. 2726 2894; technology 2258, 2274, 2276-2277;
Abel, W. 2743 trade and industrial policy reform 2927,
Abel-Smith, B. 2816 2943, 2947, 2967, 2968; see also Central;
Abercombie, K.C. 2746 East; North; South; sub-Saharan; West; and
Abreu, D. 2426, 2441 under individual countries
accounting prices, environmental 2408-2410 Agarwal, A. 2423, 2425
Action Center for Small and Medium Sized Agarwala, R. 2569
age- and sex-specific participation rates 2591,
Companies 2271 2598
Activities of Daily Living 1813 age-wage profile 1802
Acton, J. 1928 Ageron, C.R. 2750, 2751
aggregate well-being 2396, 2451-2452
Adams, D.W. 2127, 2172, 2176, 2629 Aghazadeh, I. 2569
Addis Ababa 2176 Aghion, P. 2194, 2985, 2990
Addison, T. 2610 agrarian relations 2670-2673
Additional Rural Incomes Survey 1891, 1892 agricultural land relations 2661-2761; analytic
Adegboye, R.O. 2132 controversies 2693-2718; decollectivization
Adelman, I. 2027, 2051, 2053, 2216, 2280, 2733-2734; farm size and productivity 2694-
2707; fragmentation and consolidation 2728-
2564, 2603 2729; incentives 2712-2718; intervention and
adjustment see macroeconomics; sectoräl; large farms 2674-2676, 2738-2758; land-
credit links 2707-2718; methodology 2734-
structural 2738; monsoon onset standard deviation
ADLs see Activities of Daily Living 2706; policy 2684, 2707-2711, 2718-2734;
administration 1836, 2564, 2616-2619, 2812, productivity relations 2684, 2758-2761;
property rights 2666-2669, 2684; reform
2826 2683-2693, 2730-2733; registration and
Adriano, L.S. 2724, 2733 titling 2719-2723; rental markets 2712-2718,
adverse selection 2131, 2158 2729-2730; sales limitation 2725-2727; tax
Afghanistan 2312 2723-2725; tribute and rent e×traction 2669-
2682
Africa 2485, 2493; African Purchase Areas agriculture 2554, 2561-2562, 2570-2571, 2592,
2757; agricultural land relations 2669, 2676- 2600, 2602, 2605, 2628, 2634; benefit-cost
2678, 2691-2692, 2698, 2703, 2737, 2754; studies 2272-2277; Consultative Group for
data 1799-1800, 1804, 1813, 1814; education International Agricultural Research 2231;
2785; gross domestic product 1810-1811; developrnent 2232; extension 1789, 2231,
human resources 1978, 1983; infrastructure 2276; fluctuations 2598; growth 2605, 2608,
2783; institutions 2320, 2323-2324, 2334, 2610, 2630; income 1793; and infrastructure
2342, 2347; intervention and large farms 2780; inventive adaptation 2252-2254;
2675-2676, 2750-2758;policy lessons post marketing 2507-2508, 2527, 2529, 2539,
Second World War 2498, 2525; poverty 2544; output 2501-2502, 2506, 2526-2527,
2554, 2559-2560, 2584, 2586, 2589-2590, 2702; pricing policies 2522, 2525-2527, 2537-
2599-2600, 2612, 2614, 2628, 3236; poverty,
institutions and environment 2393; pricing
infrastructure services 2822, 2825, 2829;
public investment 2798; savings, credit and
insurance 2128, 2150, 2164; structural

adjustment 2852, 2857, 2863, 2877, 2890,

XXX Index

2539, 2630; productivity 1824-1827, 2526, Anderson, A.B. 2426
2537; public ~oods restriction 2676-2677; Anderson, D. 2379, 2382, 2408, 2442, 2444,
research 2231-2232, 2252, 2274-2275, 2282,
2592-2593, 2633; and technology 2242, 2828-2830
2254-2256; wage 2592-2593, 2633; see also Anderson, J.R. 2597, 2697
agricultural; farm/farming; Food And Anderson, K.H. 1960, 2352
Agricultural Organization; rural; villages Anderson, R.T. 2176
Ahluwalia, M.S. 1803, 2520, 2583-2584, 2603, Anderson, T.L. 2323, 2723, 2737
2606, 2608 Andrews, W.H. 1824
Ahmad, A. 1987 Angola 2675, 2693, 2751-2752
Ahmad, E. 1873, 2405, 2442, 2557, 2559, Angrist, J.D. 1834-1836, 1907
2621 Anker, R. 2589
Ahmad, S. 2489, 2883 anthropometry 1803, 1909, 1920, 2594, 2596
Ahmed, R. 2788 Antle, J.M. 1963, 2630, 2780
Ahn, S.C. 1859 Aquinas, T. 2555
Ainsworth, M. 1792, 1803-1804, 1893, 1939, Arabmazar, A. 1822
2171 Ardener, S. 2133, 2176, 2179
Aitken, B. 2937-2938 Ardeni, P.G. 1846
Akerlof, G. 2315, 2324, 2327 Arellano, M. 1819, 1859, 1861
Akin, J.C. 1923, 1937, 1948, 1952-1953, 2819- Arens, P. 2408
2821 Argentina 2488; agricultural land relations
Aktan, O.H. 2967
Alam, M.S. 2939 2724, 2746; benefit incidence of expenditure
Alam, N. 1977, 1978 categories 2799; 1991 convertibility law
Alchian, A . A . 2310-2311, 2316, 2326 2874; policy lessons post Second World War
Alderman, H. 1894, 2155, 2573, 2594, 2620, 2512, 2516, 2523, 2534, 2536-2537; poverty
2819; on human resources 1894, 1896, 1901- 2614; social sector subsidies 2800; structural
1902, 1908, 1911-1912, 1921, 1923, 1937- adjustment 2847, 2852, 2871, 2880;
1938, 1957-1959, 1967-1969, 1975, 1988 technology 2228; trade and industrial policy
Alesina, A. 1803, 2862, 2873, 2963 reform 2936, 2945, 2954, 2964, 2972
Algeria: agricultural land relations 2678, 2688, Arida, P. 2280, 2569
2689, 2690; data 1811; intervention and ARIMA formulation 1842-1843
large farms 2675, 2750-2751; policy lessons ARIS see Additional Rural Incomes Survey
post Second World War 2516, 2517 Aristotle 2404
Aliber, M. 2706 A R M A 1845, 1847, 1849
Alicbusan, A.P. 2812, 2829 Armington specification 2033, 2047, 2074
All India Rural Credit survey 2179 Armitage, J. 1969
Allais, M. 2901 Armstrong-Wright, A. 2795
Allende government 2850, 2894, 2897 Arndt, H. 2505
Alsm, J. 2724 Arnold, J.E.M. 2373, 2383, 2425
Alston, L. 2320 Arnott, R. 2138
Altonji, J. 1805, 1921, 2001, 2153 Arora, A. 2266
Alvarez, C. 2614 Arriagada, A.-M. 1965, 1969, 2778
Amazon basin 2427, 2435 Arrighi, G. 2754
Americas 2669, 2672, 2754; see also Central; Arrow, K.J. 1808, 2069, 2078, 2089, 2157,
Latin; South; and under individual countries 2214, 2219, 2221, 2303, 2311, 2397, 2402,
Amoroso-Robinson formula 2063 2405, 2409-2410, 2418, 2446, 2453, 2489,
Amsden, A. 2542, 2849, 2853, 2945-2947, 2777, 2790, 2984; see also Arrow-Debreu
2949, 2957 Arrow-Debreu 2026, 2028, 2030, 2083, 2093,
ANAGSA (Mexico) 2161 2096, 2126-2127, 2136, 2152, 2303
analysis tools and public investment 2802-2805 Arroyave, G. 1908
Anand, S. 1803, 1902, 1904, 2403, 2567-2568, Asako, K. 2711
2575-2576, 2578, 2587, 2595, 2604-2606 Aschauer, D. 2780
Anant, T.C.A. 2985 Asheim, G. 2406, 2452
Anas, A. 2787-2788, 2794 Ashenfelter, O. 1802, 1966, 2593
anchors see nominal Asia: agricultural land relations 2669, 2687,
2698, 2703, 2716, 2728; Asian Development
Bank 2570; education 2775; human

Index xx×i

resources 1978, 1983; institutions 2323, Balassa, B. 2351-2352, 2518, 2851, 2930,
2334; intervention and large farms 2674, 2932-2934, 2939, 2941-2942
2738-2742; policy lessons post Second World
War 2498; poverty 2554, 2559-2560, 2563, Baldwin, R.E. 2511, 2951
2566, 2584, 2586, 2589, 2593, 2599-2600, Balestra, P. 1859
2618, 2626, 2628-2629, 3236; pricing Balisacan, A.M. 2352, 2614
infrastructure services 2822, 2824; savings, Bandarage, A. 2742
credit and insurance 2175; structural Bandyopadhyay, S. 2962
adjustment 2852; technology 2254, 2274, Banerjee, A.V. 2184-2185, 2194-2195, 2607
2276; trade and industrial policy reform Bangladesh: agricultural land relations 2709,
2931, 2947, 2968; see also East; South;
Southeast; and under individual countries 2717, 2724, 2726; Demographic Surveillance
ASPRs see age- and sex-specificparticipation System 2000; education 2825; human capital
rates investments 1923, 1936, 1938, 1947-1948;
assets 1891-1892, 1895, 1900, 1911, 1922-1923, human resources 1916, 1977, 1979, 2024;
1926, 1930-1931, 1947, 1949, 1953, 1955, infrastructure 2788; International Center for
1960-1963, 1976-1979, 1981-1982, 1989, Diarrheal Disease Research 1943; links
1991, 1997-1998; markets, incomplete, 2067, among individuals/ households / families
2094-2099, 2101; returns 2158; technological 1983, 1987, 2002; poverty 2577, 2588-2590,
2209, 2218, 2236-2239, 2265, 2287; see also 2596, 2599, 2603, 2612, 2618-2619, 2623,
finance 2632; poverty, institutions and environment
Atiyas, I. 2934 2430; pricing infrastructure services 2822,
Atkeson, A. 1851 2824; public investment 2796; regime
Atkinson, A.B. 1873, 2570, 2578, 2582-2583, switches 2073; savings, credit and insurance
2603, 2790, 2797, 2805, 2812, 2813 2135, 2174, 2175; trade and industrial policy
Attanasio, O. 1854 reform 2968; watet prices, public and
Atwood, D.A. 2132, 2720-2733 private 2801; see also Grameen Bank
Auerbach, A. 2093-2094 banks, informal 2179-2180
Aumann, R. 2415, 2426, 2440 BANRURAL (Mexico) 2161
Australia 2323, 2697, 2913, 2916 Banuri, T. 2947
autarky 2129, 2139-2150; empirical evidence Barbier, E. 2393, 2571
2146-2149; horizon model, infinite 2144- Bardhan, P.K. 1985, 2304, 2345, 2468, 2475,
2146; three period model 2141-2143; two- 2489, 2490-2492, 2529, 2555, 2565, 2570,
period model 2140-2141 2589, 2593, 2597-2598, 2627, 2947, 2984-
authority, structure of 2438-2442 2996
autoconsommation 1800 bargaining 1998, 2679-2681, 2683, 2714-2715,
autocorrelation 1802, 1842-1844, 1846-1848 2743
Avriel, M. 2038 Barghouti, S. 2393
A w , B.Y. 2937 Barham, B.L. 2689
Ayres, C.E. 2216, 2305 Barker, R. 2280-2281
Ayres, R. 2389 Barnett, W. 2035
Azabou, M. 2349 Barraclough, S. 2427, 2703
Azam, J.-P. 2613 Barrera, A. 1922, 1928-1929, 1931, 1936,
Azariadis, C. 2994 1939-1940, 1944, 1950, 1954-1955
Barrett, S. 2435, 2436, 2441
Baack, B. 2321 Barro, R.J. 1808, 2215-2216, 2219, 2492-2493,
Bagwell, K. 2934 2778-2779, 2939-2940
Bahia 2705 Barros, R. 1923, 1967
Bahl, R. 2828 Barrows, R.L. 2720, 2726-2727
Bahrain 1814, 2348 barter 2345
Bailey, M. 2869, 2872 Barzel, Y. 2221, 2310, 2316, 2320-2321, 2335
Baker, R. 1907 Basant, R. 2267-2268
balance of materials 2388-2391 Basic Linked System models 2060
Baland, J.-M. 2433 Basta, S. 1909
Balasko, Y. 2092-2093 Basu, K. 2179, 2199, 2307, 2314, 2326
Bates, R. 2563
Bates, R.H. 2164, 2502, 2543-2544, 2737
Bates, R.M. 2351-2352

xxxii Index

Batra, G. 2937 Berry, R.A. 2703-2704
Batte, M.T. 2697 Berthelémy, J.C. 2064
Bauer, P.T. 2140, 2150, 2324, 2327, 2341, Bertrand fashion 2951, 2988
Besley, T. 1782, 1974, 2111-2113, 2119, 2125-
2562, 2745-2746
Baumol, W. 2778, 2809 2201, 2318, 2361, 2573, 2616, 2621, 2629,
Baumol, W.J. 2332 2803, 2805, 2813-2814, 2826
Baumol, W.M. 2383, 2417, 2419-2420 Beteille, A. 2425
Baxter, M. 2276 Bevan, D.L. 1801, 1825, 2053, 2128, 2147
Bayesian 1841, 2962 Bhadra, D. 2727
Bayliss Smith, T. 2391 Bhaduri, A. 2715
Bean, J.C. 2088 Bhagwati, J.N. 2059, 2257, 2471, 2513-2514,
Beaton, G. 1896 2518, 2534, 2851, 2881, 2930, 2932, 2943-
Becker, C.M. 2281 2944, 2962
Becker, G.S. 1885, 1887, 1891, 1932, 1967, Bhalla, S.S. 2147, 2588, 2626, 2702-2704, 2777
Bhanoji Rao 2594
1983, 1996, 2219, 2329, 2350, 2408, 2513, Bharathan, N. 2589
2556, 2588, 2774, 2777 Bhargava, A. 2576, 2594, 2597
Beenhakker, H. 2788 bias 1786, 1794, 1796, 1807, 1811, 1823, 1825-
Begashaw, G.E. 2176 1827, 1831, 1837-1838, 1863, 1868
Begemann, L. 2381 Bidani, B. 2577, 2595, 2599, 2602, 2632
Behrman, J.R. 1894, 2079, 2116, 2513, 2526, Biddle, W.J. 2947
2564, 2587, 2589, 2594; on data and Bidinger, ED. 2699
econometric tools 1780-1781, 1805, 1812- Bie, S. 2628
1813, 1827, 1869; on human resources 1885- Bierens, H.J. 1861
1888, 1892, 1894, 1896-1897, 1901-1902, big bang 2881-2882
1904-1905, 1907-1908, 1911-1912, 1921-1924, big push 2949, 2968
1927, 1931-1932, 1940, 1945, 1954, 1957, Biggs, T. 2947
1959, 1967, 1969-1973, 1978, 1981-1983, Bikchamdani, S. 2327
1985-1986, 1988-1989, 1997 Bindlish, V. 2277
Bell, C. 1831, 2111, 2113, 2125, 2134, 2179, Binmore, K. 2440
2180, 2184, 2196, 2199-2200, 2357, 2565, Binswanger, H.P. 1860, 1908, 1917, 1963,
2606-2607, 2627, 2629, 2712, 2716, 2717 1978, 2127, 2148, 2161, 2222, 2224-2225,
Bell, M. 2214, 2249, 2268, 2937 2309, 2312, 2319-2320, 2342, 2381, 2383,
Bellew, R. 1923, 1932 2427, 2467, 2478-2479, 2527, 2563-2564,
Belot, T. 2266 2571, 2608, 2615, 2627-2628, 2630-2631,
Ben-Ner, A. 2689 2661-2761, 2780, 2788
Benassy, J.P. 2072 biodiversity 2377-2378, 2398, 2441
Bencevinga, V.R. 2191 Bird, R. 2724
Bender, G.J. 2751-2752 Birdsall, N. 1780, 1886, 1923, 1938, 1945,
benefit incidence 2796-2799 1970-1972, 1988-91, 2508, 2541, 2586-2589,
benefit-cost studies 2210, 2272-2277, 2804 2593, 2783, 2786, 2810-2811, 2817, 2820,
Benefo, K. 1804 2827
Benin 2818 Birgegaard, L.E. 2563
Benjamin, D. 1825, 1888, 1962, 2704 Birkhauser, D. 2226, 2277
Bennathan, E. 2828 birth order 1952-1954, 1982, 1988-1991
Bennett, A.S. 2323 birthweight 1946-1950, 1952-1955, 1982, 1988
Bennett, L. 2588, 2590 Bismarck, O. von 2557, 2559
Bennoune, M. 2751 Bjorn, P. 1995
Benoit, J.P. 2440 black markets 2072-2073, 2938-2939
Benor, D. 2276 Blackorby, C. 2578, 2602
Bentley, J. 2729 Blanchard, O.J. 2144, 2859, 2861, 2967
Berg, A. 2564, 2965, 2969 Blanken, J. 1997
Berman, B.J. 2753 Blarel, B. 2722, 2728
Berne Convention 2229, 2282 Blau, D. 1962-1964, 1967, 1974
Bernheim, B.D. 2168-2169 Bliss, C.J. 1908, 1917, 2181, 2199, 2714
Berrian, D. 2580 Blitzer, C.R. 2061, 2091, 2442
Berry, A.R. 1794, 1824, 2563, 2628

lndex xxxiii

Blomstrom, M. 2266 data 1803; Demographic and Health Survey
Blum, J. 2323, 2672, 2744-2745 1929, 1931; econometric tools 1868-1869;
Blumberg, R. 1997 ENDEF survey 1902, 1906, 1909-1910,
BMI see body mass index 1931; farm size productivity differences
Boadway, R. 2442 2703-2706; human capital investments 1922-
Boateng, E.O. 2599 1923, 1927-1929, 1932, 1934, I936, 1938-
Bocock, P. 2240 1940, 1945; human resources 1997, 2024;
Bodart, C. 2822 infinite horizon 2091; institutions 2337;
body mass index 1909, 1911-1915, 1920, 1932, Land Law (1964) 2686; nutrient demands,
income and productivity 1897-1898, 1904-
2593-2596 1905, 1907, 1915; Parana State 2320; policy
Boissiere, M. 1965, 1967-1968 lessons post Second World War 2509-2510,
Boldrin, M. 2089-2990 2516-2517, 2527, 2534, 2536-2537; poverty
Boldt, R.A. 2723 2589, 2603, 2614, 2626-2627;poverty,
Bolivia 2488, 2675; agricultural land relations institutions and environment 2425, 2427;
pricing inffastructure services 2822, 2833-
2678, 2683, 2685, 2687, 2721, 2726; human 2834; production functions 1956, 1958;
resources 1893, 1927, 1932; infrastructure public investment 2793, 2808; savings, credit
services 2801; interventions and large farms and insurance 2147, 2174; structural
2749-2750; policy lessons post Second World adjustment 2870, 2890; technology 2228,
War 2523; structural adjustment 2879; trade 2257, 2271, 2287; trade and industrial policy
and industrial policy reform 2945, 2947, reform 2951-2952, 2964; wages 1965-1967,
2964, 2972 1969, 1971
Bollard, A. 2910, 2912-2913, 2916 Breman, J. 2741
Bolton, E 2194, 2990 Brenner, R. 2679, 2682, 2716, 2737
Bond, S. 1859, 1861 Breslin, P. 2422
bondage 2669, 2672-2673, 2682, 2736-2737;see Bretton Woods 2510, 2928
also labor, bonded Breusch, T.S. 1797, 1817
Bongaarts, J. 2633 Brewster, J.M. 2322
Bonin, J.P. 2688, 2689 Briscoe, J. 1948, 2788, 2816, 2824
Borensztein, E.R. 2969 Britain: agricultural land relations 2697, 2708,
borrowing 2523-2524, 2528, 2532-2533 2738; poverty 2600; structural adjustment
Boserup, E. 2320, 2431, 2489, 2626, 2666, 2848, 2858, 2875-2876, 2911; technology
2668, 2670-2671, 2683, 2736-2737 2269; trade and industrial policy reform
Botswana 2170, 2434, 2516, 2629, 2782 2969; see also England; Ireland
Bottomley, A. 2629 Britton, D.K. 2697
Bouis, H.E. 1812-1814, 1869, 1894, 1896-1897, Brockett, C.D. 2709, 2747
1900-1902, 1904-1906, 1908, 1911-1913, 2594 Brooke, A. 2027
Bouman, F.J.A. 2175-2176, 2179, 2181 Broome, J. 2395
Bound, J. 1907 Brown, G. 2398, 2408
Bourguignon, F. 1998, 2064, 2066-2068, 2100, Brown, L. 2720
2580, 2582-2583, 2610-2612, 2614, 2885, Brown, M. 1995
2917 Brown, P.D. 2251
Bovenberg, A.L. 2090, 2099 Browning, M. 1974, 1987, 1995, 1998, 2574
Box, G.E.P. 1842, 1845 Bruce, J.W. 2721
Boyson, S. 2292 Brundtland Report 1987, 2374
Bradford, D. 2417, 2419-2420 Bruno, M. 2503, 2513, 2869, 2874
Brading, D.A. 2678 Bruton, H. 2932
Braga, H. 2266 Bryant, R. 2868
Brahmanand, P.R. 2561 Buchinsky, M. 1823
Brandao, A.S.P. 2711, 2727 Bucovetsky, S. 2824
Brander, J. 2950-2951 budgets 1830, 1852, 1856
Brandon, A.J. 2589 buffer stoeks 2045, 2069-2072, 2074, 2099,
Braudel, F. 2323 2163-2164
Braverman, A. 2172-2174 Buffie, E.F. 2956
Bray, M. 2816 Bundy, C. 2730
Brazil: agricultural land relations 2672, 2683,
2690, 2711, 2723-2724, 2730-2731, 2746;

xxxiv Index

bureaucrats 2334-2336, 2339-2340 Castaneda, T. 2807
Burkina Faso 2000, 2277, 2675, 2753-2754, Casterline, J.B. 1932, 1942, 1944-1945
Castillo, L. 2732
2818, 2903 Castle, E.N. 2664
Burniaux, J.-M. 2060-2061, 2064 Castro, F. 2338
Buse, A. 1837-1838 catchup concept 2215-2216
Butcher, K. 2171 Cauchy-type distributions 2223
Butz, W.P. 1891, 1922, 1939 Cavallo, D. 2964
Caves, R.E. 2335
Caballero, R. 2868 Caygill, D. 2910, 2913
Cagan, P. 2869, 2872 CDF see cumulative distribution function
Cai, F. 2342 censoring 1821-1823, 1832-1833, 1868
Caicedo, E. 1894 censuses 1787, 1791, 1797, 1813, 1835
Cain, M. 2428, 2430, 2709, 2717, 2726 Central Africa 2373, 2425
Caldwell, J.C. 1921, 1927, 1984, 2428, 2431, Central African Republic 2818
Central America 1891, 1969, 2679, 2695-2696,
2587
Caldwell, P. 2428 2709; see also Latin America
Callison, C.S. 2685 certification 1964-1967
Calomiris, C. 2198 CES function 2035, 2047
calories 1813, 1829, 1867-1870; demand CGIAR see Consultative Group for

income and expenditure elasticities 1894; International Agricultural Research
elasticities 1896; -expenditure curves 1903, chains 1809-1811
1906; intake 1902, 1905, ]909, 1911-1915, Chakravarty, S. 2395
1947; see also nutrition Chamberlain, G. 1820, 1833, 1859, 1992
Calvo, G. 2875, 2882, 2961 Chambers, R. 2597-2598
Cambranes, J.C. 2721, 2748 Chamie, J. 1812-1813, 2883
Cambridge equation 2067 Chander, R. 2565
Cameron, R. 2190 Chandler Jr, A.D. 2322
Cameroon 2599, 2675, 2753-2754, 2822, 2954 Chang, T.T. 2254
Campbell, J.Y. 1841-1842, 1845, 1847-1848, Chao, K. 2581, 2739
1850 Chapin, M. 2422
Canada: agricultural land relations 2698; Chapman, T. 2381
human resources 1998; Montreal protocol Chaudhri, D.P. 2592
on CFCs 2435; Patent Office 2235; Chaudhuri, S. 2573, 2575, 2593, 2597, 2621
structural adjustment 2916; technology Chavas, J.P. 2706
2266, 2269 Chayanov, A.V. 1824, 2591
Canavesi de Sahonero, M.L 2176 Chen, L.C. 1983, 1998, 2432, 2584, 2585-
capital: goods 2218, 2240, 2248, 2283, 2285-
2286; knowledge 2986-2988; market 2284; 2586, 2589, 2590
output 2503, 2506, 2532; overhead 2774; Chen, T.-J. 2937
physical 2503, 2513, 2779-2781;transfers Chenery, H.B. 2059, 2211, 2503, 2513, 2520,
2190; see also evironment/environmental
economics; human 2564
Card, D.E. 1806, 1921, 1971 Chernichovsky, D. 1902, 1983, 2024
Caribbean 2585, 2672, 2696, 2857 Cheung, S.N.S. 2335, 2713
Carlin, P. 1997 Chevalier, F. 2678
Carlson, D.A. 2087 Chhibber, A. 2781, 2968
Carnoy, M. 1969 Chiappori, P.-A. 1995-1996, 1998-1999, 2001
Carson, R.T. 2409 Chichilnisky, G. 2400
Carter, M.R. 2174, 2680, 2689-2690, 2700, ehildren 2566, 2573-2574, 2586, 2588-2589,
2703, 2711, 2724
Carvalho, J.L. 2509, 2527 2591, 2593, 2596, 2619, 2633, 2635-2636;
cash-in-advance 2094-2099 anthropometrics 1921, 1954; education 1886,
Cashdan, E. 2423 1923, 1927, 1990; growth 1889-1890, 1949-
Casley, D.J. 1791 1952, 1978-1979; health 1884, 1886, 1890,
Cass, D. 2089 1923-1929, 1931, 1936, 1943, 1948, 1950,
Cassen, R. 2588 1952-1956, 1975, 1980, 1992, 1997-1998;
mortality 1889, 1891, 1918-1919, 1921-1922,
1928-1929, 1932, 1935-1936, 1938-1939,

Index xxxv

1943-1945, 1973, 1978-1979, 1981, 1983, Ciccone, A. 2994
1985; as producer goods 2372, 2428-2432; CIEs see expenditure-elasticities of calorie
weight production functions 1954-1955,
1982; work allocation among 2432-2433 intake
Childress, M. 2689 civil wars 2690-2693
Chile 2488; agricultural land relations 2678, Clarence-Smith, W.G. 2751
2683, 2687-2688, 2690, 2693, 2726, 2732; Clarete, R.L. 2053
annual financial indicators 2895; beneflt Clark, C. 2559
incidence of expenditure categories 2799; Clark, C.W. 2382, 2408, 2498
crisis, causes of 2894-2896; data 1809; Clark, P. 2513
financial sector reforms 2901; infrastructure Clark, S. 2579
2782; institutions 2336; intervention and Clark, W.C. 2391
large farms 2674, 2745-2746; labour market Clarke, G.R.G. 2607
reforms 2900-2901; macroeconomic Cleland, J. 1921, 2633
indicators 2898; policy lessons post Second Clemens, J. 2822
World War 2510, 2533, 2534, 2536-2537; Clements-MacArthur proposal 2376
poverty 2632; public investment 2807, 2809; Clemhout, S. 2984, 2990
public sector reforms 2896~2897; social Cleveland, W.S. 1868-1869
sector subsidies 2800; structural adjustment Cline, W.R. 1824, 2524, 2533, 2563, 2628,
2848, 2850, 2869, 2874, 2876, 2880, 2891,
2893, 2894-2903;technology 2244; trade and 2703-2704
industrial policy reform 2940, 2942-2943, closure rules 2050-2052, 2066, 2085, 2101
2945, 2950, 2965, 2967-2969, 2971-2972; clustering 1791, 1797-1799, 1828, 1830, 1839,
trade reforms 2897-2900
Chin, J.C. 2989 1841; and linear regression 1817-1819
China xv, 2482; agricultural land relations coalitions 2677, 2681-2683, 2687, 2736-2738
2672-2673, 2678, 2683, 2685, 2688-2690, Coase, R.H. 2120, 2316, 2414-2421
2709, 2734, 2750; data 1809; Coate, S. 2132, 2176-2178, 2182, 2186, 2193,
decollectivization of farming 2358-2360;
education 2825; gross domestic product 2597, 2621, 2826
1812-1813; infrastructure 2786; institutions Coats, A.W. 2556-2557
2311, 2313-2314, 2322, 2325, 2349, 2353, Cobb, J.B. 2398
2361; intervention and large farms 2674, Cobh-Douglas function 2034-2035, 2272
2739-2740; policy lessons post Second World Cochrane, J.H. 1847, 2153, 2155
War 2516, 2521; poverty 2562, 2568, 2599, Cochrane, S. 1921, 2786
2617, 2619; poverty, institutions and cocoa 1804, 1809, 1846
environment 2391; pricing infrastructure Codsi, G. 2027, 2091
services 2824; savings, credit and insurance Coe, D.T. 2220
2164, 2176; structural adjustment 2852-2853, coercion 2663-2665, 2670-2673, 2680-2681,
2858, 2881-2882; technology 2244, 2253;
trade and industrial policy reform 2928, 2695
2967, 2970 coffee 1804, 1809, 1846
Choksi, A.M. 2536, 2881, 2958 Cohen, J.M. 2423, 2428, 2608
Chole, E. 2626 Cohen, W.M. 2256, 2261
Chopra, K. 2423, 2425 Colburn, F.D. 2689
Chow, G.C. 1840 Colclough, C. 1959, 2570
Chowdhury, A. 2588 Cole, D.C. 2135
Christensen, G.N. 2699 Collarte, J.C. 2703
Christodoulou, C. 2691 collateral 2666, 2668-2669, 2687, 2698-2700,
chronic poverty 2622-2633; credit 2628-2630;
land 2623-2628; public services 2630-2633 2707-2709, 2714, 2719-2720, 2722, 2735-
Chuma, H. 2325, 2687, 2712-2713, 2714-2715, 2736, 2739, 2745; social 2132
2717 collective action and the state 2325-2342;
Chung Hee 2338 institutional change 2328-2332; political
Churchill, A. 2828 economy 2332-2342
Chuta, E. 2600 collective models 1993, 1995
collectives 2665, 2688-2691, 2693, 2719, 2733-
2735, 2752; action 2301, 2305, 2328, 2995;
farms 2661
Collier, P. 1801, 1825, 2068, 2128, 2147, 2170,
2730
Collins, S. 2849

xxxvi Index

Colombia: agricultural land relations 2687, quantitative restrictions 2048; recursive
2693, 2724; human resources 1928, 1936, dynamics 2051-2052; savings and investment
1945, 1989, 1991, 2024; infrastructure 2788; 2050; social accounting matrix 2033-2034;
policy lessons post Second World War 2516, specifications 2028-2032, 2045-2052; static
2536, 2537; poverty 2563, 2632; pricing versus dynamic simulation 2035-2036; taxes
infrastructure services 2834; publie and tariffs 2048-2049; technology 2280,
investment 2801; schools, public and private 2285; trade 2031-2032; trade and industrial
2795; soeial sector subsidies 2800; structural policy reform 2956, 2964; welfare measures
adjustment 2890; technology 2242-2243, 2036-2037; see also Computable General
2300; trade and industrial policy reform Equilibrium model policy analysis
2968, 2971 Computable General Equilibrium mode1
policy analysis 2052-2068; absolute price
Commander, S. 2969 level determination 2065-2066; exchange
commercial farms 2662, 2686-2688 rates 2066; markup pricing and imperfect
commodities 1789, 1811, 1814, 1819, 1847, competition 2062-2065; monetary neutrality
2065-2068; money and financial assets 2066-
1854, 1873; price stabilization 2157, 2159, 2068; policy packages 2053-2061; tax and
2161-2164; prices 1809-1810, 1841-1842, tariff reform applications 2059-2061; welfare
1846, 1858, 2162; primary 2500, 2505, 2521 analysis of tax and tariff reform 2054-2059
common preference model 1995 computers 1787, 1805, t819, 1823, 1855, 1857-
common property resources 2412-2414, 2423- 1858, 1863, 2027; see also Computable
2426, 2428, 2430, 2433, 2439, 2441, 2722; General Equilibrium model
see also communal Condon, T. 2066
commons: global 2434-2437; local 2424-2428 Condorcet, M.J. 2417
Commons, J.R. 2305 Cone, L.W. 2753
Commonwealth of Independent States 2733 Congo 2818
communal 2674-2675, 2688, 2691-2692, 2745, Connell, J. 2563, 2605
2748, 2752; land rights 2669; ownership consistency 1796-1797, 1816, 1818, 1823, 1830,
2661, 2688; systems 2669, 2722, 2725-2726; 1834-1835, 1838, 1860, 1863, 1869, 1873;
tenure 2669, 2687, 2709, 2718-2719, 2740, estimates 1826, 1828, 1850
2756 Consultative Group for International
community 2661, 2669, 2682, 2713, 2716, Agricultural Research 2231
2718-2720, 2725-2726, 2739-2740, 2751; consumer: prices 1787, 1846, 2611; surplus
characteristics 1891, 1918, 1933, 1935, 1942, 2036-2037, 2055, 2088
1954, 1990; fixed effects 1932; health consumption 2553, 2567, 2572-2577, 2579-
infrastructure 1930; sanitation 1928, 1932; 2580, 2582, 2585-2587, 2589, 2594, 2597,
title 2722; see also community resources 2599-2600, 2602-2603, 2606, 2610, 2613,
community resources 1883, 1886, 1922-1923, 2618, 2620, 2628-2629, 2631, 2636-2637;
1927, 1933, 1933-1941, 1988, 2004; amounts 1793; distribution 2584;
measurement issues 1933-1935;selected externalities 2774, 2828; function 1851;
results 1935-1941 individual 2154; marginal propensity 1796;
compensation 2685-2686, 2695, 2731 non-rival 2075-2078, 2080; rate of discount
competition 2303-2304, 2308, 2314-2315, 2333, 2396-2397
2335, 2350, 3210; monopolistie 2988, 2990; Continental Shelf convention (1958) 2321
see also impeffect contract: agreements 2438-2442; agricultural
complementarities, strategie 2983, 2991-2996 land relations 2712-2716; choiee 2317-2319,
Computable General Equilibrium model 2028- 2712; contracting 2809; enforcement 2133;
2052; basic 2028-2030; elassifications 2032- farming 2661, 2695-2696, 2698, 2719, 2733;
2033; closure rules 2050-2051; decreasing fixed rent 2715, 2717-1718; forms, changes
returns: entry and exit 2045-2046; external in 2348-2349; insurance 2158; interlinked
trade 2047; formats 2030-2031, 2037-2045; 2714-2715; intertemporal trade
full format 2040-2041; government implementation 2131; piece-rate 1914; share
consumption 2046-2047; implementation 2316-2318, 2348-2349, 2353-2358, 2662,
2032-2037; mathematical program with 2712-2714
feedback 2041-2044; Negishi-format 2037- Conway, P. 2889-2890
2040; parameter estimation 2034-2035; Cooksey, E. 1932
poverty 2610; poverty, institutions and
environmental resource base 2433-4;

Index xxxvii

Cooper, R. 2408 Cowen, T. 2398
cooperatives 2160, 2180, 2182, 2184-2187, Cox, D. 1956, 2001-2002, 2798
CPI 2599
2199-2200 Cramer, J.S. 1797
copper 1809, i811, 1846 credit: chronic poverty 2628-2630; constrained
Corbo, V. 1851, I854, 2468, 2481-2485, 2487,
1855; cooperatives 2184-2185, 2187; farm
2522, 2534, 2536, 2539, 2846-2917, 2928- size and productivity 2698-2700; formal
2930, 2964-2967 2172-2175; inability to repay 2172-2173;
Corden, W.M. 2284, 2863, 2883, 2934, 2950 rationing 2500, 2507, 2530; rotating savings
Coricelli, F. 2969 and credit associations 2119, 2176-2179;
Cornelje, O.J.C. 2072 rural 2179; selective allocation 2138;
Cornet, B. 2082 subsidies 2665, 2711, 2756; tied 2176, 2180;
Cornia, G.A. 1973, 1982, 2483, 2567, 2568, unwiltingness to repay 2173-2175; see also
2616, 2703, 2853, 2879 credit and insurance; credit market;
Cortes, M. 2240 informal; land-credit; and under savings
corvée 2661, 2671, 2677 credit and insurance 2127, 2137, 2150-2195;
cost 1788-1792, 1804-1805, 1811, 1821, 1824, cooperatives 2184-2185; formal credit 2172-
1826, 1857-1858, 1873; -benefit analysis 2175; formal and informal sectors,
2513; see also social combination of 2182-2188; formal insurance
-effectiveness 2615-2616; fixed 2986, 2992- 2156-2165; group lending programs 2185-
2995; function 1788-1789; -of-living indices 2187; historical overview 2189-2191;
2574, 2599; -sharing arrangement 2715; informal credit 2175-2182; informal
user-cost 2818; see also price/pricing; insurance 2165-2169; risk sharing, informal
transaction 2169-2172; risk taking, efficient 2152-2156;
Costa, D. 1920 theoretical models and econometric
Costa Rica: agricultural land relations 2683, evidence 2191-2195; trader-lenders 2187-
2723; benefit incidence of expenditure 2188
categories 2799; institutions 2348; poverty credit market 1967, 2137, 2665, 2694, 2700-
2568, 26t4; poverty, institutions and 2701, 2710, 2714-1715, 2717, 2719-2721,
environment 2406; savings, credit and 2723, 2735, 2759; imperfect 2707-2709;
insurance 2174; social sector subsidies 2800 informal 2669; interlinked 2341
Costanza, R. 2375 Credit to Natives Ordinance (1931) 2757
Côte d'Ivoire: agricultural land relations 2720; Creese, A. 2816, 2822
data 1801-1804; econometric tools 1825; Crimmins, E. 2588, 2633
education 2818; health and education crops 2148; insurance 2157, 2159-2161, 2621;
services 2820; human capital investments research see International Crops Research
1922-1924, 1928-1929, 1931-1932, 1934, Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics; see also
1936, 1938, 1940; human resources 1893, sharecropping
1967; infrastructure services 2801; links cross-country studies 2938-2941
among individuals/households / families cross-industry studies 2935-2938
1983, 1987; Living Standards Survey 1919, C.S.E. 2373-2374, 2423, 2429, 2432
1934, 1939, 1964; policy lessons post Second Cuba: agricultural land relations 2683, 2688-
World War 2537; poverty 2590, 2594, 2599, 2689, 2726, 2731; institutions 2338; poverty
2602-2603, 2614; pricing infrastructure 2568
services 2819, 2827; public investment 2809, Cuddington, J.T. 1846
2811; savings, credit and insurance 2155- cumulative distribution function 2578, 2582-
2156, 2171-2172;schooling/wages/farm 2585, 2604
output 2784; social services 2821; structural Cushner, N.E 2741
adjustment 2854; trade and industrial policy CVMs see contingent valuation methods
reform 2939, 2947, 2970; water prices, da Cruz, E. 2275
public and private 2801 Dahab, S. 2257
Coulson, A. 2757 Dahlman, C.J. 2216, 2257, 2262, 2268, 2287
Cournot see Nash-Cournot model Dailami, M. 2781, 2943
Courtenay, P.E 2694 daily living 1813
covariance 1797, 1819, 1821, 1830-1831, 1859, Dales, J.H. 2435
2665, 2680, 2699-2700, 2709, 2718, 2735- Dalton, H. 2603
2736

xxxviii lndex

Daly, H.E. 2398, 2437 Debreu, G. 2037, 2044, 2059, 2074, 2092,
Dalziel, P. 2910-2912 2097, 2453; see also Arrow-Debreu
Dandekar, V.M. 2160, 2565, 2576
d'Arge, R. 2389 debt 2521-2525, 2531-2532, 2535; dynamics
Darwin, Charles/Darwinism 2253 2858-2861; forgiveness 2524; overhang 2524;
Das Gupta, M. 1984, 1985, 2589 peonage 2661, 2672-2675, 2677, 2737, 2745,
Dasgupta, B. 2591 2748-2749; -service obligations 2521, 2523-
Dasgupta, P. 1782, 1908, 2079-2080, 2111, 2524, 2532; stalled growth 2522-2525

2116, 2119, 2120, 2121, 2221, 2373-2453, Decaluwé, B. 2027, 2051
2568, 2571, 2588, 2592, 2596, 2607, 2633, decollectivization 2665, 2689, 2719, 2732-2734;
2731
d'Aspremont, C. 2411 of farming in China 2358-2360
data 1787-1815, 2556, 2565-2566, 2573, 2576- decreasing returns: entry and exit 2045-2046
2577, 2580, 2582, 2590, 2593-2594, 2596, deficits: fiscal 2520, 2522-2523, 2525, 2530-
2598-2599, 2601, 2603, 2606, 2612-2613,
2616, 2620, 2632-2633, 2635-2636; colleetion 2532, 2537-2539; primary 2860-2862
1890-1893; entry 1803; household survey Deininger, K. 2320, 2467, 2661-2761
data 1787-1801; issues: measurernent and DeLong 2711
sample selection 1960-1964; national income Delorme, F. 2064
and other data 1807-1815; see also panel; demand 1885, 1890, 1893, 1896-1897, 1912,
survey
1920, 1926-1927, 1932, 1937-1938, 1941-
Datt, G. 2562, 2565, 2582, 2593, 2599, 2603, 1942, 1947, 1963, 1967, 1971, 1974-1976,
2606-2610, 2613-2614, 2616-2617, 2620, 2630 1980-1981, 1994-1996, 1998; behavior 2574;
functions 1825, 1831; for health 1951, 1988;
Datta, S.K. 2348 for institutional service 2319, 2322; price
DaVanzo, J. 1891, 1922, 1935, 1939, 1940 elasticities 2819; system 1873
David, C.C. 2181, 2281 Dernekas, D.G. 2969
David, P.A. 2214, 2431 Demery, D. 2612-2613
Davidson, R. 1837 Demery, L. 2610, 2612-2613
Davies, J. 2094 DeMeza, D. 2196
Davis, D.R. 2955 demography 1786, 1803, 1808; characteristics
Davis, L. 2135, 2190, 2193, 2319, 2359 of the poor 2551, 2586; composition 2574,
Davis, S.H. 2692, 2749, 2750 2586; Demographic and Health Surveys
DCs see developed countries 1929, 1931, 2779; Dernographic Surveillance
de Barros, J.R.M. 2691 System (Bangladesh) 2000; profile of the
de Ferranti, D. 2816 poor 2574
De Francis, J.F. 2739 Dernsetz, H. 2310, 2311, 2316, 2320
de Haen, H. 1997 Deng Xiaoping 2358
De Janvry, A. 2067, 2100, 2340, 2615, 2686- Denison, E.F. 2111, 2219, 2227, 2777
Dennen, R.T. 2323
2687, 2693, 2732, 2737, 2964 density 1870-1874; estimation 1861-1868, 1873;
de la Cuadra, S. 2901 functions 1787; joint 1865-1866, 1871-1872;
De Long, J.B. 2112, 2939, 2963 spectral 1847
de Melo, J. 2027, 2059, 2064, 2285, 2536, Deolalikar, A.B. 1780, 1827, 1869, 1885-1886,
1894, 1896-1897, 1901, 1904-1905, 1907-
2874, 2893, 2956, 2964, 2965 1908, 1911-1912, 1921, 1923, 1932, 1936,
De Meza, D. 2720 1940, 1945, 1954, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1978,
de Soto, H. 2601 1981, 1983, 1988-1989, 2079, 2266, 2594,
de Tray, D. 1923, 1932, 1938, 1988 2631, 2702, 2783
de Vos, K. 2575 depositor protection 2198
de Wulf, L. 2796 derivatives, average 1787-1789, 1825, 1868,
Dearden, L. 2002, 2597 1871-1874
Deaton, A.S. 1778-1780, 1782, 1786-1874, Dervis, K. 2053, 2062, 2066, 2565, 2930
Desai, A. 2257
1886, 1896, 1899, 1901-1902, 1904-1905, Desai, B.M. 2186
1907-1908, 1933, 1974-1976, 1978, 1983, Desai, G.M. 2608-2609
1987, 2024, 2043, 2094, 2128, 2144-2146, Desai, P. 2263, 2471, 2514
2148, 2155-2156, 2164, 2494, 2516, 2565, Dev, S.M. 2608, 2628
2573-2574, 2583, 2590, 2699, 2831
Debelle, G. 2916

Index xxxix

Devarajan, S. 2027, 2064, 2073, 2781, 2794, Dixit, A.K. 2129, 2136, 2958-2959, 2987-2988
2868, 2954, 2960 Dixon, J.A. 2380, 2392, 2411-2412, 2434, 2442
Dixon, P.B. 2027, 2053, 2062
developed countries 2312, 2334, 2336, 2338, Dobb, M. 2737
2341, 2362-2363 Doghri, L. 2345
Dollar, D. 2936, 2939-2940, 2970
development: strategies, postwar 2499-2507; Domar, E. 2112, 2472, 2490, 2561, 2861; see
see also optimality; process; sustainability
also Harrod-Domar
Dewatripont, M. 2066, 2342 dornestic policies 2286-2288
Dey, J. 1994 domestic product see gross
DHS see Demographic and Health Surveys domestic technology 2266-2269
Diakosavvas, D. 2962 Dominican Republic 2537, 2689, 2795, 2799-
Diamond, D.W. 2130, 2133, 2198
Diamond, I. 1973 2800, 2822
Diamond, P.A. 2813, 2831 Donaldson, D.S. 2164, 2578, 2602
diarrheal incidence 1926, 1943, 1949-1950, Dong, X.Y. 2311
Donovan, D. 2884
1952, 1954-1956, 1979 Dooley, M.P. 2524
Diaz Alejandro, C.F. 2510, 2512, 2513 Dor, A. 2819, 2821
Diba, B.T. 2711 Dornbusch, R. 2849, 2862-2863, 2865-2866,
Dick, W.J.A. 2160
Dickey, D.A. 1845, 1849 2869-2870, 2872, 2878, 2891-2893
Dickler, R.A. 2743 Dorner, P. 2730
Dierker, E. 2036 Dorosh, P.A. 2612, 2614
Diewert, W.E. 2035 Dougherty, C. 1965, 1967
differential taxation 2673, 2676; Algeria 2751; Douglas, R. 2882, 2910, 2912, 2916; see also

Angola 2751-2752; Bolivia 2750; Burkina Cobb-Douglas
Faso 2754; Cameroon 2754; Chile 2746; Dow, G.K. 2311
China 2739-2740; Ecuador 2750; Egypt Downs, A. 2334
2752; E1 Salvador 2747; Guatemala 2747- Drazen, A. 2862, 2873, 2963, 2994
2748; India 2739; Indonesia 2741; Japan Drèze, J. 2071-2073, 2159, 2568, 2589-2590,
2740-2741; Kenya 2753; Malawi 2754;
Mexico 2748-2749; Mozambique 2755; Niger 2592, 2615, 2619-2620, 2622, 2804
2754; Nigeria 2754; Peru 2750; Philippines Drinkwater, M. 2623
2741-2742; Prussia 2743; Russia 2744-2745; drylands 2392-2393, 2425, 2432
South Africa 2756; Sri Lanka 2742; D'Souza, S. 1983
Tanzania 2757; Zimbabwe 2757 Duloy, J.H. 2565
diffusion 2209, 2212, 2219, 2225-2226, 2250, Dumouchel, W.H. 1796
2254, 2290 Duncan, G.J. 1796
DiGiorgio, M. 2689 Dunlop, D. 2820
Dinopoulos, E. 2985 Dunn Nutrition Group 2576
Dinwiddy, C. 2442 Duraisamy, P. 1944, 1998
direct foreign investment 2265-2266 Durbin-Watson statistic I848, 1850
discount rates 2395-2400 Durham, W.H. 2427
discretion 2337-2340 Dutz, M.A. 2934, 2958, 2971
discrimination 1931, 1983-1985, 1987 Dybvig, P. 2130, 2198
diseconomies of scale 2701-2706 Dyer, G. 2703
disinftation 2870-2871 dynamics 2083-2099; cash-in-advance and
dispersion, measurement of 1793-1794
distribution 1788-1789, 1795, 1833, 1848, 1850, incomplete asset markets 2094-2099;
1861, 1873-1874, 2553, 2560, 2573, 2579, dynastic models 2086-2091; economy 2445-
2581, 2586-2587, 2589, 2594, 2600, 2602- 2453; effects 2933-2941; efficiency 2969-
2603, 2606-2607, 2613-2614, 2616, 2618, 2971; finite horizon 2083-2085; infinite
2623, 2627-2628, 2632, 2635, 2638; horizon 2085; issues 1972-1982; overlapping
coalitions 2328; conflicts 2996; function generations models 2091-2094; programs
1822, 1856, 1865; impacts 2210, 2271, 2279- 1851-1858; recursive 2036, 2051-2052, 2083
2281; of income 1864, 2679-2681; see also dynastic models 2086-2091; specification 2086-
cumulative 2088; steady state 2089-2091
Diwan, I. 2524, 2965, 2989 Dyson-Hudson, R. 2423

xl Index

East Africa 2378 Africa 2818; in Asia 2825; attainment 1921,
East Asia 2472-2474, 2486-2488;endogenous 1923-1924, 1943, 1946, 1956-1958, 1989-
1990, 2778; characteristics 1957-1958; choice
growth theory 2984, 2986, 2991; gross 1956, 1971; cost-recovery ratlos 2815;
domestic product 2516; institutions 2337; demand 1932, 1947; dynamic issues 1958;
newly industrialized countries 2533, 2540- effeets 1883, 1920; enrollment 1923, 1958,
2541; policy lessons post Second World War 2778; influence 1925-1930;and informal
2499, 2508, 2511, 2514-2521, 2531, 2542; sector employment 2784; learning by doing
poverty 2585-2586, 2608; structural 2984, 2989-2991; low income countries
adjustment 2846, 2848, 2853, 2878; trade 1958-1959; maternal 1919, 1921-1923, 1926-
and industrial policy reform 2927-2928, 1929, 1944, 1956, 1988; measurement 1920-
2933, 2942, 2944-2948, 2972 1925; parental 1886, 1917-1918, 1921-1925,
Easter, K.W. 2411 1927, 1929, 1943, 1967, 1969-1970, 1972,
Easterlin, R.A. 2216, 2588, 2633 1975, 1999; promotion 2954-2958; quality
Easterly, W. 2067, 2778, 2860, 2892-2893, 1884, 1886, 1921-1922, 1946, 1958-1959,
2939-2940 1964-1965, 1967, 1971-1972;school
Eastern Europe xv; agricultural land relations attendance 1980; school quality, wages and
2672-2673, 2678-2679, 2733, 2738, 2746; labor supply 1971-1972;school-based
institutions 2338-2339; savings, credit and samples 1956; school-related inputs 1958;
insurance 2189; structural adjustment 2852, schools, cost and efficiency of 2795; services
2881; trade and industrial policy reform 2820; user-costs 2818
2961-2962, 2965, 2967, 2969 Edwards, A.C. 2850, 2874
Eastman, L.E. 2739 Edwards, S. 2610, 2850, 2862, 2870, 2872,
Eaton, J. 2136, 2951 2874, 2880-2881, 2884, 2890, 2893, 2902,
Echeverri-Gent, J. 2616 2930, 2939, 2961
Eckholm, E.P. 2628 EFF see Extended Fund Facility
econometric tools for development analysis efficiency 2664-2665, 2670-2671, 2681-2682,
1815-1874; time-series issues 1841-1861;see 2686-2688, 2690, 2692-2693, 2697-2698,
also survey data 2700-2702, 2707, 2709, 2712, 2714-2723,
Economic Commission for Africa 2852 2725-2734, 2736-2738; community 2313;
Economic Recovery Program (Ghana) 2904, institutions 2314; risk sharing 2124, 2152,
2905 2155-2156, 2167; wage 2068, 2079-2082,
economics/economies: adjustment 1982; 2101, 2592, 2607; see also dynamics; static
agglomeration 2995; distortions 2673-2677; Eggertsson, T. 2305
economizing function 2308-2310, 2313; Egypt: agricultural land relations 2678, 2726;
efficiencies in missing/imperfect markets Computable General Equilibrium model
2136-2138; exhaustible resources 2390, 2398; policy analysis 2061; infinite horizon 2091;
geography 2995; growth 2313-2314, 2332, intervention and large farms 2675, 2752;
2336-2341; and ill-health 1919; market-based policy lessons post Second World War 2516-
2685-2688; performance 2911; reform 2517, 2537, 2543; poverty 2592
program 2905-2909; of scale 2665, 2670- Ehrlich, A. 2379-2380, 2382
2671, 2681, 2686-2689, 2694-2698, 2705, Ehrlich, P. 2379-2380, 2382, 2392
2707, 2721, 2733, 2736, 2738, 2741, 2754; Eichengreen, B. 2963
shocks 1973; and the stare 2333; welfare Eicker, F. 1816
2553 El Salvador: agricultural land relations 2683,
ecosystems 2371, 2374-2379, 2388, 2392; 2692, 2721, 2726; intervention and large
carrying capacity 2377; ecology 2375; farms 2674, 2746-2747; poverty, institutions
resilience 2377-2378 and environment 2427; structural
Ecuador 2599, 2675, 2678, 2687, 2717, 2723, adjustment 2890
2749-2750 EI-Badawi, I. 1870
Edirisinghe, N. 1894, 2594, 2826 Elbers, C.T.M. 2074
Edmundson, W. 1901 Elder, J.W. 2729
education 1790, 1797, 1813, 1818, 1820, 1827- Elhance, A. 2780
1828, 1920-1930, 1948, 2774, 2777, 2782- EUis, F. 2695
2786, 2789-2790, 2793-2796, 2798-2800, Ellis, R.P. 2819
2807, 2809-2812, 2815-2825, 2827, 2834- empirical studies 2941
2835, 2893, 2925, 2927, 2932-2936, 2950; in

lndex xli

employment 2557, 2562-2563, 2568, 2570, equity 2775, 2790, 2792, 2796-2802, 2812,
2580, 2590-2593, 2597-2601, 2611-2612, 2815-2816, 2836; benefit incidence 2796-
2619-2621, 2626-2627, 2636; Indian 2798; conceptual issues 2823-2824; data
Employment Guarantee Scheme 2629-2630; needs 2796; evidence 2823-2826; issues
and poverty 2591-2592; public 2593, 2616 2833-2834; record 2773, 2796

e n c o m e n d e r o s 2745, 2749-2750 ERBSs see exchange-rate based stabilizations
e n c o m i e n d a 2746, 2748-2750 Ergas, H. 2283
ENDEF (Estudo National da Despesa Erzan, R. 2930
Esfahani, H.S. 2939
Familiar) 1897-1899, 1913; see also Brazil Eskeland, G. 2810, 2832
endogenous growth theory 2219-2221, 2954, Esman, M.J. 2433
Esrey, S. 1923, 1939, 1955
2984-2996; strategic complementarities and estates see haciendas; Junker; landlord;
increasing returns 2992-2996; trade and
technological diffusion 2986-2992 manorial; plantations
endowments, timing of 2130 Estatuta da Tierra 2730
enforcement arguments 2197-2198 estimation 1786, 1789, 1793-1795, 1797, 1799,
Engel, C. 1870, 2962
Engerman, S.L. 2696, 2737 1804, 1806, 1809, 1811-1814, 1816-1818,
engineers see under scientists 1822-1828, 1830-1831, 1833-1835, 1837-1838,
England: agricultural land relations 2683; 1840, 1842, 1845, 1847-1850, 1852-1853,
institutions 2321, 2341; Poor Laws 2555, 1855, 1857-1861, 1863-1865, 1867;
2559; poverty 2555-2557, 2559; poverty, techniques 1868-1874
institutions and environment 2425; savings, Estrin, S. 2969
credit and insurance 2165, 2181, 2189-2190 Eswaran, M. 2192, 2605, 2700, 2713, 2727,
Englander, A.S. 2260 2735
Engle, P. 1997 Ethier, W. 2955
Engle, R.F. 1838, 1848-1849, 1869 Ethiopia: agricultural land relations 2678,
Enos, J. 2238, 2290 2685, 2689, 2726; health and education
Enriquez, L.J. 2688 services 2820; poverty 2608, 2626; poverty,
Ensminger, J. 2424, 2427 institutions and environment 2423;
environment/environmental2564, 2571, 2602, technology 2242-2243, 2300
2609, 2619; accounting prices 2372, 2408- Euler equation 1842, 1852-1856, 1915, 1979-
2410; degradation 2383-2384, 2428-2432, 1980, 2088, 2090, 2146-2148
2627; Kuznets curves 2386; pollution 2376, Europe: agricultural land relations 2676-2677,
2391, 2420, 2438; property rights 2058-2059; 2679, 2682, 2697, 2716, 2737-2739;
resources 2371-2373, 2375, 2379, 2382-2384, Computable General Equilibrium model
2386, 2388, 2393, 2398, 2406-2411, 2415, policy analysis 2064; data 4792; education
2425, 2427, 2433, 2443, 2445; taxes 2058- 2785; human resources 1973;
2059, 2061, 2089; see also environment/ industrialization 2558; institutions 2323,
environmental economics; and under 2337, 2342; intervention and large farms
poverty 2674, 2742-2745; poverty 2554, 2557, 2559;
environment/environmentaleconomics as poverty, institutions and environment 2387,
capital theory 2371-2377, 2379, 2381-2413, 2441; technology 2228; trade and industrial
2415, 2417, 2419, 2421, 2423, 2425, 2427, policy reform 2951, 2956; see also Eastern;
2429-2431, 2433, 2435, 2437, 2439, 2441- European Community; Western; a n d under
2443, 2445, 2447, 2449, 2451-2453; individual countries
accounting prices 2408-2410; balance of European Community 2911
materials 2388-2391; land and water 2391- Evans, D. 2569, 2958, 2962
2393; optimal development, discount rates Evans, R.J. 2711
and sustainability 2395-2400; project Evenson, R.E. 1812, 1891, 1935, 1960, 1980,
evaluation and net national product 1983, 2111, 2114-2115, 2118-2119, 2211-
measurement 2403-2407; second-best 2292, 2938, 2994
optima, global warming and risk 2400-2402; eviction 2680, 2686-2687, 2691-2693, 2729,
sustainable development 2393-2395; 2732, 2753
technological adaptation 2407-2408 exchange rates 2066, 2517, 2520, 2523, 2531,
Enyimayew, K.A. 2822, 2826 2534-2538, 2542, 2609, 2870, 2875, 2940-
Epanechnikov kernel 1863, 1864 2941, 2964; nominal 2500, 2505, 2510, 2526,

xlii Index

2530, 2535; overvalued 2931, 2939; see also household models 1803; farmers 1799-1800,
foreign 1804, 1821, 1824-1826, 1832, 1836, 1855;
expenditure 1787-1788, 1812, 1830, 1867-1868, home 2661; household farming system
1870, 1873; -elasticities of calorie intake diffusion 2361; incomes 2159-2160; large
1790, 1793, 2594-2595; full 2037, 2088; 2674-2676; machinery 2696-2697; output
public 2568, 2570, 2608, 2612, 2614, 2632, 2784; production functions 1824; see also
2793-2794; total 1898-1899, 1907; trends agriculture; family; farm/farming size;
2793 home-farm; interventiona; rural; state
exports 2501, 2503, 2505-2506, 2510, 2514- farm/farming size 1826, 2694, 2709, 2711,
2515, 2517-2521, 2535-2536, 2540-2541, 2719, 2721, 2737, 2758, 2758-2761, 2761;
2545; substitution 2519 holding size 2701, 2707, 2726-2727;
expropriation 2675, 2686, 2732, 2748, 2752 productivity differences 2703
Extended Fund Facility 2852 farm/farming size and productivity 2659,
Extended Structural Adjustment Facility 2482 2664, 2694-2707; credit and risk diffusion
extension, returns to 2276-2277 2698-2700; diseconomies of scale 2701-2706;
external effects 2075-2081; applications 2080- lumpy inputs 2696-2698; processing and
2081; efficiency wage 2079-2080; empathy economies of scale 2694-2696; relationship
2077-2079; non-rival consumption 2075-2077 2700-2704, 2706
externalities 2774, 2776-2778, 2785-2786, 2790- Farrell, J. 2199, 2411, 2416
2793, 2803, 2806, 2812-1813, 2817, 2822, Fauveau, V. 1943
2825, 2828, 2830-2831, 2834; dynamic 2984- Feachem, R. 1923, 1939, 1955
2985, 2991-2992; negative 2831-2833; public Featherman, D. 1921
investment 2790-2791; reciprocal 2410-2414; Feder, G. 1824, 2132, 2185-2186, 2192, 2197,
unidirectional 2410-2414 2312, 2320, 2360, 2383, 2422-2423, 2427,
2467, 2661-2761, 2939
F-tests 1837, 1841, 1844-1845 Feeney, D. 2132
factor market constraints 2714-2716 Feenstra, R.C. 2956, 2987
Factory Acts (Britain) 2559 Feeny, D. 2312, 2320, 2340, 2360, 2413, 2423,
Fafchamps, M. 1976, 1977, 2597, 2621 2722
Faini, R. 2967 Fei, J.C.H. 2218, 2508, 2562
Falconer, J. 2373, 2383, 2425-2426 Fel'dman, G.A. 2490, 2561, 2984
Falk, B. 2711 Feldstein, M. 2710
Falkenmark, M. 2381, 2393 Feltenstein, A. 2067, 2099
Falkinger, J. 2607 Fenoaltea, S. 2728
Falkner, F. 1920 Fernandez, R. 2340, 2432, 2862, 2963
Falloux, F. 2380 Fernando, N. 2509
Falvey, R.E. 2938 fertility 1946-1948, 1981; see also World
family 2664-2666, 2668-2671, 2685-2691, 2694, Fertility Surveys
Feuerwerker, A. 2740
2707, 2738, 2758-2761; background 1884, Field, A.J. 2307, 2323
1886, 1891, 1921-1922, 1925, 1959, 1964- Fields, G.S. 1794, 1803, 2580, 2605, 2606
1965, 1968-1972; farms 2661, 2665, 2669- Fikkert, B. 2267-2268, 2278
2670, 2673, 2680, 2685, 2687-2691, 2693, finance 2507, 2515, 2518, 2523, 2532, 2541;
2696-2700, 2718-2719, 2732-2736; fixed assets 2028, 2041, 2065-2068, 2084, 2094-
effects 1828; and households 2343-2345; 2095, 2097, 2099-2100; external 2876-2877;
labor 2661, 2664, 2686, 2697, 2700-2705, indicators 2895; intermediation and growth
2710, 2717, 2728, 2732, 2734, 2761; 2191-2193; International Financial
planning 1891-8192, 1928, 1933-1936, 1938, Institutions 2284, 2848, 2876; markets 2134-
1943-1945; size 2586-2588 2135, 2190; obligations enforcement 2131;
Family Life Survey see Malaysia policies 2527-2529; public 2872-2873;
Fan, S. 2689 repression 2138-2139; sector reforms 2901;
FAO see Food and Agricultural Organization see also borrowing; loans; money/monetary
Farah, A.-A. 1922, 2587 Findlay, R. 2334, 2336, 2337, 2514, 2540
farm/farming 1787, 1788, 1801, 1824-1827, finite horizon 2083-2085, 2093
1859; behavior 1859; collective 2661; Finke, R. 2631
commercial 2662, 2686-2688; contract 2661, Firestone, O.J. 2269
2695; decollectivization 2358-2360; farm-

lndex xliii

firms: firm-level studies 2935; foreign 2265- Fransman, M. 2238
2266, 2288 Fredriksson, P. 2443
Frenkel, J.A. 2524, 2881
Fischer, G.K. 2042, 2055, 2060-2061 Friedman, J. 2426
Fischer, S. 2144, 2468, 2481-2485, 2487, 2522, Friendly Societies 2165
Frisch, R. 1974-1975, 2588
2534, 2539, 2846-2917, 2928-2929 Frischtak, C. 2930, 2932, 2934, 2954, 2958
Fisher, A. 2402, 2410 Froot, K. 2962
Fishlow, A. 2948 Fry, M.J. 2312
fixed effects 1892, 1899-1900, 1906, 1911, Fudenberg, D. 2426, 2441
Fujimoto, A. 2717
1916, 1921, 1924, 1932, 1944-1945, 1948, Fujita, M. 2664
1952-1953, 1970, 1976-1978, 1981-1982, full format 2040-2041, 2044-2045, 2092-2095,
1984, 1988, 1991-1992, 1999, 2001;
individual 1914-1915, 1942; mother-level 2097-2099
1943, 1950-1951 Fuller, W.A. 1816, 1830, 1845, 1849
fixed rations 2072-2073 functional form: certification and self-selection
Flam, S.D. 2091
Flanders, J. 2505 1964-1967
Flavin, M.A. 2859
Flegg, A. 2587 Gabzewicz, J.J. 2063
Florescano, E. 2675, 2700 Gadgil, M. 2425, 2439
Floro, M.S. 2188 Gala hypothesis 2392
Fogel, R.E. 1920, 2737 Gaiha, R. 2590, 2608
Folbre, N. 1995 Galal, A. 2969
Folke, C. 2374 Galenson, A. 2807
Fon, V. 2830 Gallagher, M. 2943
food 1790, 1801, 1812-1814, 1829, 1869; Gallant, A.R. 1870
energy requirements 2576, 2595; -for-work Gallini, N. 2199
2619; International Food Policy Research Galloway, P. 1973
Institute 1801, 1892; prices 1900, 1911, Galor, O. 2194
1913, 1915, 1936, 1939-1940, 1986, 1988, Gambia, 1895, 1994, 2176, 2589, 2789, 2903
1992; wastage 1814; see also Food and Gandhi, M. 2468, 2498, 2560
Agricultural Organization; nutrition Garcia, A. 2532
Food and Agricultural Organization 1901, Garcia, C.B. 2036
2253 Garcia, M. 1894, 1902, 2595
foreign exchange 2503, 2505-2509, 251i, 2513- Gardner, B.L. 2160
2514, 2528-2531, 2533, 2545 Gastwirth, J.L. 2603
formal insurance 2156-2165; commodity price GATI" see General Agreement on Tariffs and
stabilization 2161-2164; contracts 2158; crop
2159-2161; health 2164-2165; price 2158- Trade
2159, 2161-2162; of yields 2158 Gauss-Markov theorem 1796, 1816, 1856,
Foroutan, F. 2970, 2971
Forster, N.R. 2731 1858, 1863, 1864
Foster, A. 1781, 1911, 1913-1915, 1943-1945, Gauthier, H. 2691
1977-1980, 1984, 2000, 2002, 2116 Gaynor, M. 2313
Foster, J. 2578-2579, 2582-2583, 2602 GDP see gross domestic product
Fourier series 1870 Geanakoplos, J. 2093, 2097, 2607
Fox, K. 1813, 1920, 1923, 1932, 1983 Geertz, C. 2176, 2741
Foxley, A. 2632 Gelb, A. 2893
France: agricultural land relations 2728, 2738; Genberg, H. 2961
data 1814; human resources 1998; gender 1983-1988, 2589-2590
institutions 2337, 2340; Paris Convention General Agreernent on Tariffs and Trade
2229, 2282; schooling/wages/farm output
2784; technology 2277 2221, 2282, 2962
Franco, F. 2339 General Algebraic Modelling System 2434
Frank, C.R. Jr. 2514, 2517, 2519, 2849 general equilibrium 2565, 2581, 2605, 2612,
Frankel, M.R. 1797
Frankenberg, E. 1928, 1942-5 2692; see also Computable General
Equilibrium rnodel
generalized methods of moments 1838, 1852-
1853, 1854, 1861

xliv Index

George, M. 2479 global commons 2372, 2400, 2424, 2434-2437
Georgescu-Roegen, N. 2388 global 'snapshot' 2583-2586
Gerard-Varet, L. 2411 global warming 2372, 2375, 2396, 2400-2402,
Gereffi, G. 2947
Germany: agricultural land relations 2688, 2434, 2436
Glover, D. 2695
2734, 2738; cooperative movement 2182, GLS 1859, 1860
2185, 2187; institutions 2337; poverty 2557, GMM see generalized methods of moments
2559; public investment 2797; savings, credit GNP see gross national product
and insurance 2189-2190; structural Goldberger, A.S. 1822, 1828
adjustment 2848; teehnology 2269; Goldin, I. 2060, 2068
Zollverein 2687 Goldsmith, R.W. 2190-2191
Gerschenkron, A. 2189-2190, 2193, 2215, 2687 Goldstein, M. 2534, 2884, 2886-2887, 2890
Gersovitz, M. 1782, 1851, 1975, 2111, 2113, Goldstone, J.A. 2691
2125, 2189, 2607 Gollin, D. 2254, 2275
Gertler, P. 1789, 1813, 1835, 1920, 1923, Gonzales, M.J. 2749, 2750
1928, 1932-1933, 1935, 1937-1938, 1942- Goodman, D. 2691
1944, 1962-1964, 1983, 1988, 1993, 2631,
2798, 2819-2821, 2825 goods 2028, 2030-2034, 2042, 2044-2047, 2050,
Gbai, D. 2689 2056, 2058-2060, 2066, 2070, 2076, 2080;
Ghana: agricultural land relations 2728; Bank private 2326; public 2349-2351, 2669, 2676,
of 2908; Cocoa Board 2909; crisis, causes of 2679, 2681, 2687, 2720; traded 2601, 2610-
2904-2905; data 1801-1802, 1804; 2611, 2614, 2634; see also capital
econometric tools 1854; Economic Recovery
Program 2904-2905; economic reform Gordon, H.S. 2413
program 2905-2909; human resources 1893, Goto, A. 2987
1923; infrastructure 2787-2788, 2801; Gould, J.R. 2720
institutions 2361; Living Standards Survey Goulder, L.H. 2061, 2090, 2099
1919, 1957; macroeconomic indicators 2906- government 1787, 1792, 1811-1812, 1817,
2907; PAMSCAD 2910; policy lessons post
Second World War 2516, 2523; poverty 1828, 1836, 1865; bonds 2172; consumption
2589-2590, 2599; pricing infrastructure 2046-2047; enterprises 2529; expenditure
services 2819, 2822, 2826-2827;savings, 1812; failures 2994; intervention 2127, 2136-
credit and insurance 2132, 2176, 2182, 2197; 2137, 2139, 2157, 2196, 2199-2200, 2716-
schooling/wages/farm output 2784; 2717, 2757; policy 2138-2139; revenue 1873;
structural adjustment 2854, 2893, 2903-2910; role in development 2540-2543
trade and industrial policy reform 2968, Govindasamy, P. 1940
2972 Grabowski, R. 2307
Ghani, E. 2284, 2949 gradient process (hill-climbing method) 2405
Ghate, P. 2135, 2175, 2180 gradualism 2881-2882
Ghose, A.K. 2689 Graham, D.H. 2176, 2691
Gibbons, D.M. 1828, 1928, 1942-1947 Grais, W. 2060
Gibson, C. 2748 Grameen Bank (Bangladesh) 2137, 2175,
Gigengack, A.R. 2380 2185-2187, 2200, 2630
Gilbert, A. 2353 Grandin, B. 2722
Gilbert, R.J. 2221 Granger, C.W.J. 1848-1849
Gilby, T. 2555 Great Depression 2500, 2846
Gill, I.S. 2777 Greece 2242-2243, 2300, 2536, 2890
Gilson, L. 2816 Green, P.A. 2251
Gini coefficient 2709, 2799 Green Revolution (India) 2116
Gini index 2582, 2585, 2626 Green, R.H. 2968
Ginsburgh, V. 2040, 2049, 2069, 2096 Greenaway, D. 2965
Giovannini, A. 1851, 1852, 2892 Greene, M. 1997
Glen Grey Act (1894) 2756 Greenhalgh, S. 1792, 1984, 2590
Glewwe, P. 1933, 1937-1938, 1957-1959, 1961, Greenwald, B. 2137
1967, 1988, 2565, 2575, 2614, 2789, 2821- Greenwood, J. 2191
2822, 2825 Greer, J. 2565, 2579, 2595
Greif, A. 2133, 2269, 2346-2347, 2441
Grether, J.-M. 2970, 2971

Index xiv

Oriffin, C.C. 1923, 1937, 1961, 2689, 2816, and physical capital 2779-2781; promotion
2824, 2826 2954-2958; rate 1809, 1812; and
redistribution 2564-2565; theory 2219-2221;
Grigg, D.B. 2694 trade and industrial policy reform 2933-
Griliches, Z. 1921, 2217, 2219, 2225-2227, 2941; see also endogenous; growth and
poverty; stalled
2252-2253, 2256, 2272-2273, 2277-2278 growth and poverty 2551, 2602-2615, 2634;
Orilli, E. 1846, 2962 pattern 2607-2610; reduction 2602-2607
Orimard, F. 1831, 1873, 2156 Guasch, J.L. 2172-2173
Orindle, M.S. 2334, 2882 Guatemala: agricultural land relations 2673,
Oronau, R. 1833, 1887-1888, 1962, 1981, 1983 2692, 2721, 2726; human resources 1891-
Orootaert, C. 2565, 2602, 2613-2614 1892; infrastructure 2785, 2801; intervention
Orosh, M.E. 2616, 2810, 2822, 2824, 2826 and large farms 2675, 2747-2748; Penny
Gross, D.J. 2615 Foundation 2731; poverty 2587, 2599
gross domestic product 1788, 2112, 2471, Guha, R. 2439
Guilkey, D. 1923, 1926, 1937, 1948, 1952-
2493; Africa 1810, 1811; Chile 2894, 2897, 1953, 1965
2898, 2899, 2901-2903;China xv, 1812-1813; Guinnane, T. 2182, 2184-2185, 2187
Computable General Equilibrium model Guitian, M. 2533, 2884
2036, 2053; data 1799, 1808-1809, 1812; Gulati, L. 2567, 2619
East Asia 2521; econometric tools 1843, Gulf War 2471
1847, 1859; Ghana 2904-2907, 2909-2910; Gunasekera, H.D.B.H. 2954
human resources 1983; India 1812-1813; Gunning, J.W. 1778, 1782, 1801, 1825, 2026-
infrastructure 2776, 2778, 2780, 2781; Korea 2101, 2128, 2147
2515, 2954; New Zealand 2911-2912, 2915; Guttman, J. 2352
policy lessons post Second World War 2516, Guyer, J. 1999
2522, 2532; poverty, institutions and
environment 2384; public investment 2789; Haavelmo, T. 2984
savings, credit and insurance 2193; Haberler, G. 2846
structural adjustment 2854-2855, 2860, 2883, Habicht, J.-P. 1922, 1935, 1939, 1944
2887-2889, 2893; technology 2242-2246, Hachette, D. 2964, 2967
2300; trade and industrial policy reform haciendas 2661-2662, 2671, 2674-2675, 2677-
2938, 2940; West Africa 1800
Gross, D.R. 2380 2678, 2685-2687, 2689, 2690, 2696, 2721,
gross national product 1788; data 1812; East 2732, 2738, 2741, 2746, 2748-2750, 2752
Asia 2517; Ghana 2907; infrastructure 2782; Haddad, C.L.S. 2509, 2527
policy lessons post Second World War 2524, Haddad, L. 2573, 2576, 2589, 2590
2530, 2532-2533; poverty 2562, 2565, 2628; Haddad, L.J. 1793, 1814, 1868, 1869, 1894,
poverty, institutions and environment 2387, 1896-1897, 1900-1902, 1904-1906, 1908,
2395, 2406; structural adjustment 2849-2850, 1911-1913, 1986, 2594
2860-2861, 2872, 2887, 2890-2891;trade and Haddad, M. 2266
industrial policy reform 2942 Haddock, D.D. 2335
Grossman, G.M. 2136, 2219, 2221, 2252, Hagen, W.W. 2742-2743
2385, 2934, 2950-2951, 2955, 2985-2989, Hagenaars, A.J.M. 2575
2991 Haggard, S. 2863, 2880, 2882
Grossman, H.I. 2711 Haggblade, S. 2600
Grossman, J.B. 1835 Hahn, F.H. 2069, 2402
Grossman, M. 1951 Haines, M. 1929
Grossman, S.J. 1854 Haiti 2782, 2801, 2833
group lending programs 2185-2187 Hall, G. 2614
Groves, T. 2411 Hallagan, W.S. 2320
growth 2553-2558, 2560-2565, 2568-2571, 2574, Hamid, N. 2709, 2724
2581-2582, 2584-2585, 2590, 2593-2594, Hamilton, B. 2061
2596-2597, 2618, 2627, 2630-2631, 2633- Hamilton, J.D. 2859
2635, 2637-2638; accounting 2209, 2226- Hamilton, L.S. 2382, 2446, 2448-2450
2227, 2272; agriculture 2605, 2608, 2610, Hamiltonian 2406, 2451-2452
2630; and human capital 2777-2779; and Hammer, J.S. 2632, 2813
inequality 2604; longer-term 2891-2893; new
growth theory 2776, 2984-2986, 2992, 2995;

xlvi: Index

Hammond, P. 2411, 2415, 2436 2398, 2402, 2404, 2413, 2424, 2428, 2452-
Hampel, F.R. 1820 2453
Hanemann, M. 2410 health 2774-2775, 2777-2779, 2781-2793, 2796,
Hanna, N. 2292 2798-2800, 2803, 2805, 2807, 2810-2812,
Hannesson, R. 2321 2815-2827, 2834-2835; adults 1889, 1921,
Hansen, B. 2543, 2561, 2563 1923-1924, 1932, 1935; as capital stock
Hansen, L.R 1838, 1852 1951; clinics 1818; Demographic and Health
Hansen, M.H. 1802 Surveys 2779; infrastructure 1936; insurance
Hanson, C. 2557 2157, 2159, 2164-2165; International Center
Hanushek, E. 1923, 1939, 1951, 1956-1959, for Diarrbeal Disease Research, Bangladesh
1943, 1979; interventions 2799; interview
1967 surveys 1920; prices 1934; productivity and
Haque, N.U. 2868 labor supply 1883, 1908-1917;services 2820;
Harberger, A.C. 1873, 2513, 2522, 2913, 2932 social variables 2781; spending 2789; status
Harbison, R. 1923, 1939, 1951, 1956-1959, 1908-1909, 1911, 1913, 1920, 1923, 1946;
World Health Organization 1901; see also
1967 children; Longitudinal Health and Nutrition
Hardin, G. 2413, 2424 Survey under Philippines
Hardin, R. 2328-2329, 2331-2332 Heath, J.R. 2688
Härdle, W. 1861, 1868-1869, 1872 heavy and chemical industries 2542
Hardy, A. 2780 Hecht, R. 2827
Hardy, D.C. 2961-2962 Hecht, S. 2426, 2427
Hare, P. 2969 Heckit see Heckman, J.J., probit
Hargrove, T.R. 2253 Heckman, J.J./probit 1792, 1831-1832, 1833,
Harrigan, J. 2885, 2889, 2929 1834, 1895, 1911, 1959, 1960-1961, 1969,
Harris, C. 1902, 1904, 2575, 2576 1974, 2170, 2795, 2884
Harris, M. 2736 Heckscher-Ohlin model 2047, 2211, 2490
Harris, R. 2063-2064, 2954 Hegel, G.W.F. 2558-2559
Harrison, A. 2266, 2937-2938, 2940, 2970-2971 Heggie, I. 2812, 2829-2830
Harriss, J. 2173 height 1889, 1901, 1909, 1911-1916, 1921,
Harrod-Domar model 2112, 2472, 2490, 2503, 1924, 1927-1932, 1934, 1936, 1939-1940,
1944, 1950-1954, 1973-1974, 1985, 1999; for
2984 age 1920, 1922, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1998
Hart, G.P. 2598, 2741 Hein, C. 2589
Hart, O. 2131-2, 2934 HeUeiner, G.K. 2265, 2853, 2890, 2939, 2949,
Hartmann, H. 1995 2967-2968, 2970
Hartwell, M. 2553 Heller, P. 2811, 2817, 2819
Hartwiek, J. 2375, 2406, 2452 Helpman, E. 2219-2221, 2252, 2878, 2955,
harvests 1791, 1793, 1804, 1825, 1858 2985-2989, 2991
Hassan, M.N. 1828-1829, 1916, 1987, 1991- Henderson, J.V. 2382, 2752
Hendricks, F.T. 2756
1992 Henneberry, D.M. 2727
Hau, T.D. 2791, 2832 Henriques, M.-H. 1922, 1926-1929, 1931-1932,
Haurie, A. 2087 1936, 1939, 1944
Hauser, R.M. 1805, 1921 Henry, C. 2402, 2410
Hausman, J.A. 1827, 1835, 1838-1839, 1900; Herdt, R.W. 2280-2281
Heston, A.C. xvi, 1779, 1800, 1808-1809,
see also Wu-Hausman test 1812, 2428, 2492-2493, 2516, 2583-2584,
Haveman, R. 2786 2587, 2883, 2939
Hawaii 2320 heterodoxy 2871-2872, 2944-2948, 2948-2958
Hay, R. 2689 heteroskedasticity 1797, 1816-1822, 1841
Hayami, Y. 2313, 2319-2320, 2322, 2325, 2330, Hewitt, C.N. 2351
Hicks, G. 2515
2352, 2354, 2359, 2608, 2685, 2695, 2699, Hicks, N. 2793
2712-2717, 2721, 2724-2725, 2730, 2733, Hicksian week 2095-2096
2737 Higgins, G.M. 2391
Hayashi, F. 1805, 2001, 2090, 2153
Hazell, P. 2597, 2600, 2621-2622
HCI see heavy and chemical industries
head-count index 2531, 2578-2579
Heady, C. 2813, 2960
Heal, G.M. 2375, 2383, 2390, 2395, 2397-

Index xlvii

high inflation countries 2869-2877; disinflation Hossain, M. 2186, 2630, 2788
2870-2871; external financing 2876-2877; Hossain, S. 1923, 1936, 1938-1939
heterodoxy and orthodoxy 2871-2872; Hotchkiss, D. 2432
nominal anchors 2873-2876; seigniorage and Hotelling's lemma 2045
public finance 2872-2873; wage control, Hotz, V.J. 1833, 1969, 1974
pacts and taxes 2872 House, W.J. 2586, 2588
household 1883-1893, i895-1905, 1907-1909,
Hikino, T. 2957
Hill, A. 1919, 2587, 2600 1911-1913, 1915-1943, 1945-1957, 1959-1965,
Hill, C. 2555 1967, 1969-1983, 1985-2005; behavior 1790,
Hill, K. 1973 1803, 1806, 1860; budgets 1788, 1891, 1902;
Hill, P. 2697, 2754 characteristics 1790, 1873; consumption
Hill, P.J. 2181, 2323, 2423, 2590, 2600, 2626 2155; data 2613', expenditure 1930; farming
hill-climbing method (gradient process) 2405 system diffusion 2361; formation and
Hilton, R. 2679, 2682, 2757 partition 1999; heterogeneity 1930;
Himalayas 2429 interaction 1884, 1991, 1993; -level fixed
Himmelfarb, G. 2555-2557 effects 1924; production model 1887, 1889,
Hinds, M. 2961 1930, 2003-2004; resources 1833, 1883,
Hirschman, A.O. 2329-2330, 2353, 2774, 2949 1886, 1916, 1920, 1922-1923, 1926-1927,
Hirshleifer, D. 2327 1930-t933, 1937, 1949-1950, 1956, 1988-
historical legacy 2666-2693 1989, 1991, 2004; rise and fall 2343; size
Hoddinott, J. 2002, 2169, 2170 1792, 1804; United Nations National
Hodgson, G. 2412, 2442 Household Capability Programme 2565; see
Hoff, C. 1974 also families; household concept; household
Hoff, K. 2188, 2381, 2607, 2724 survey
Hoffman, R.C. 2323, 2340 household concept 1884, 1993-2003; empirical
Hogendorn, J.S. 2754 evidence 1996-1999; formation and partition
Holdren, J. 2379, 2380, 2382 1999-2003; intra-household allocations 1993-
Holland, E.P. 2832 1996
Holleman, C.F. 2595 household survey data 1787-1801, 1807, 1812,
Holling, C.S. 2375, 2377 1829, 1862, 1864, 1870, 1873; clustering
Holmstrom, B. 2159 1797-1799; content and purpose 1787-1788;
Holt, D. 1818 econometric estimation in stratified samples
Holtz-Eakin, D. 1859-1860 1795-1797; general measurement issues
Home, T.A. 2556, 2558, 2623 1799-1801; household definition 1792-1793;
home-farm 2661; 2671, 2673-2674, 2677-2681, means estimation in stratified samples 1794-
1795; measuring means/dispersion 1793-
2686-2687, 2729, 2740, 2744, 2752 1794; survey data in policy and
homoskedacity 1817, 1819, 1832-1833, 1866- development 1788-1790;survey design and
implications for analysis 1790-1792
1867 housing 1791, 2564, 2587-2588, 2601, 2615
Honduras 2427, 2678, 2683, 2689, 2730, 2801, Houthakker, H.S. 1830
Howe, J. 2424, 2441
2822 Howes, S. 2582
Hong Kong 2474; institutions 2348; policy Howitt, P. 2985
Hrubec, H. 1921
lessons post Second World War 2514-2516, Hu, T.W. 2164
2519, 2524; pricing infrastructure services Huber, P.J. 1816, 1820
2832; technology 2244, 2292; trade and Hudson, H. 2780
indnstrial policy reform 2931, 2944-2946, Huffman, W.E. 2231, 2234, 2254
2958 Hufschmidt, M. 2411
Hong, W. 2519, 2531, 3945 Hughes, A. 2942, 2969
Hont, I. 2555 Hughes, G. 2832
Hopkins, A.G. 2754 Hughes, J. 1923, 1939, 1955
Hopper, W.D. 2598 Huizer, G. 2691
horizon model see finite; infinite Hull, T. 2587, 2588
Horn, H. 2934 Hull, V. 2587, 2588
Horney, M.J. 1995, 1998
Horowitz, A.W. 2358, 2683
Horton, D.E. 2689
Horton, S. 1922, 1924, 1931, 1991

xlviii Index

Hulme, D. 2563 IARCs see international agricultural research
Hulten, C. 2776 eenters
human capital 2776-2779, 2783, 2785, 2787,
IBRD see International Bank for
2811, 2835; accummulation 2991, 2994; and Reconstruction and Development
externalities 2785-2787; formation 2290,
2778; and growth 2777-2779; and Iceland 2939
infrastructure 2783-2785; see also human ICRISAT see International Crops Research
capital investments
human capital investments 1883-1885, 1913, Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
1917-1948, 1969, 1978, 2004; determinants: IFAD 2570
community resources 1933-1941; IFIs see International Financial Institutions
determinants: education effects 1920-1930; Ignatieff, M. 2555
determinants: household resources 1930- Ii, M. 1927, 1931-1932
1933; endogenous program placement and Iliffe, J. 2554, 2560, 2757
selective migration 1941-1946; gender Immink, M. 1915
differences 1983-1988; measurement 1918- imperfect eompetition 2062-2065, 2660, 2694,
1920; sample selectivity: fertility and
mortality selection 1946-1948 2696, 2700, 2702, 2712, 2715-1718, 2730-
human infrastructure 2773-2775, 2778, 2781, 2731, 2758, 2948-2958, 2970; learning and
2790, 2792, 2799, 2803, 2806-2807, 2815- growth promotion 2954-2958; scale
2828; education 2815, 2818, 2825; efficiency: economies 2952-2954; strategic trade policy
actual experiments 2822-2823; efficiency: 2950-2952
conceptual issues 2816-2618; efficiency: implicit function theorem 2088
simulation studies 2818-2822; equity: imports 1809, 1812, 1814, 1846, 2518;
conceptual issues 2823-2824; equity: substitution 2500-2505, 2507-2508, 2513-
evidence 2824-2826; feasibility 2826-2827; 2514, 2517-2522, 2528, 2533-2534, 2542,
health and education 2820; past practice 2544
and future reforms 2815-2816; social INCAP see Institute for Nutrition in Central
services 2821 America and Panama
human resources 1885-2004; capital incentives 2659, 2666,'~2670-2671, 2673, 2685,
investments 1917-1948; data collection 1890- 2690, 2694, 2712-1714, 2720-2721, 2724-
1893; dynamic issues 1972-1982; gender 2725, 2727, 2729-2732, 2735, 2740, 2747;
differences 1983-1988; household concept policies 2286; problems 2680, 2687-2688,
1991-2003; investments 2786, 2803; 2702, 2707, 2712, 2735; selective 2331-2332,
modelling 1887-1890; nutrient demands, 2344
income and productivity 1893-1917; income 1785-1786, 1788, 1790, 1793, 1799-
production functions 1948-1959; siblings 1814, 1846-1847, 1850, 1854-1856, 1861-
1988-1991; wages and labor supply 1959- 1862, 1864-1867, 1869-1870, 1873, 1893-
1972 1908; distribution 1806, 1813, 1865, 1870,
Hume, D. 2304, 2556 2679-2681; dynamics 1802, 1804, 1806;
Humphries, J. 2425 elasticities 1813; foreign 2616, 2620; full
Hungefford, T. 1965 2037, 2055-2056, 2088; gap ratio 2579;
Huppi, M. 1973, 2185, 2186, 2582, 2592, growth 1803, 1864; individual 2154, 2170;
2603, 2613, 2614 insurance 2157; labor 1852, 1856; non-labor
Huq, E. 1983 1888, 1891, 1899-1900, 1907, 1911, 1927,
Hurwicz, L. 2405 1930-1932, 1960, 1988, 1997-1999; -nutrient
Hurwitz, W.N. 1802 elasticities 1902; pooling 1978, 1996-2001,
Husain, I. 2524 2003; risk 2158; rural 1891, 1892; sharing
Hussain, S. 2338 rules 1996-1998; smoothing 1977; tax 2711;
Hutaserani, S. 1970 transitory 2147; variability 2551, 2597-2598;
Hwang, A. 2937
Hymer, S.H. 1887, 2216 see also national; permanent
index models 1871-1874
IADLs see Instrumental Activities of Daily index number problems 1808-1812
Living India 2468, 2471-2472, 2474-2475; agricultural

Iannaccone, L.R. 2330 land relations 2673, 2678, 2683, 2685, 2692,
2695, 2698, 2702, 2704-2705, 2709, 2717,
2719, 2721, 2724, 2726, 2729, 2742; All
India Rural Credit survey 2179; ASPRs
2598; British 2479; Centre for Science and

Index xlix

Environment 2373-2374; Chipko Movement large farms 2674, 2741; policy lessons post
2412; Computable General Equilibrium Second World War 2536; poverty 2577,
model policy analysis 2058; Congress Party 2588, 2592, 2595, 2598-2599, 2602-2603,
2498; Council for Scientifie and Industrial 2612-2614, 2617, 2632; poverty, institutions
Research 2233; data 1790, 1799, 1809, 1811; and environment 2391; pricing infrastructure
econometric tools 1824, 1831, 1836, 1868- services 2822, 2824, 2832, 2834; public
1869, 1873; education 2825; Employment investment 2866; schooling/wages/farm
Guarantee Scheine 2629-2630; Five Year output 2784; social sector subsidies 2800;
Plans 2503, 2506, 2560; Government 2504; structural adjustment 2852, 2858, 2881;
Green Revolution 2116; gross domestic technology 2244; trade and industrial policy
product 1812-1813; human capital reform 2939, 2940; transport costs 2808;
investments 1923, 1936, 1939-1940, 1944; water prices, public and private 2801
human resources 1891, 1904, 1977, 2024; induced innovation models 2224-2225
independence movement 2498; Industrial Revolution 2190
infrastructure 2780, 2782, 2785, 2788; Industrial Technology Researeh Institute
Integrated Rural Development Programme (Taiwan) 2290
2629; intervention and large farms 2674, industry/industrialization 2501-2505, 2519-
2738-2739; links among individuals/ 2520, 2528-2529, 2531, 2541-2542, 2558,
households/families 1983-1985, 1987-1988, 2560-2562, 2564, 2634; cross-industry studies
1998-1999; Narmada Project 2414; National 2935-2938; forced-draft 2560-2561; infant
Congress 2468; National Planning 2200-2201; inter-industry intervention flows
Committee 2468, 2472, 2475, 2560; National 2236; of manufacture 2047, 2235, 2246,
Sample Survey 1791, 1896, 2565; NCAER 2247; Ministry of Industrial Development
data 2002; nutrient demands, income and and Commerce 2271; planned 2561-2566;
produetivity 1892, 1896-1898, 1907; physical rationalization 2954, 2970-2971; research
quality of life index 2600; policy lessons and development 2247, 2274, 2277-2279;
post Second World War 2501, 2507, 2509- with scale economies 2952-2954; sectors
2510, 2513-2516, 2521, 2525, 2529; poverty 2245, 2260, 2771; and technology 2242,
2560, 2562-2563, 2567-2568, 2574, 2583- 2256-2261; see also newly industrialized
2584, 2587-2590, 2593, 2596, 2599, 2601- countries; trade and industrial policy reform
2603, 2606-2610, 2616-2622, 2626, 2628, infinite horizon 2085, 2093, 2144-2146
2630-2631, 2633; poverty, institutions and inflation 1791-1792, 1794-1796, 2523, 2710-
environment 2373, 2380, 2391, 2423-2426, 2711, 2723; see also disinflation; high; low
2431-2432, 2439; pricing infrastructure informal credit 2175-2182; loans 2176; money
services 2824, 2833; public investment 2810; lenders and informal banks 2179-2180;
regime switches 2073; research and pawning 2181-2182; rotating savings and
development 2273, 2275; savings, credit and credit associations 2176-2179; tied 2180
insurance 2127-2128, 2135, 2159-2160, 2162, information 2303, 2306, 2308-2309, 2316,
2170, 2173, 2175-2176, 2180-2181, 2199; 2318-2319, 2325, 2327, 2333, 2338-2339,
Second Plan 2561; Statistical Institute 1799; 2341-2342, 2346-2347, 2351, 2354, 2357,
structnral adjustment 2890; technology 2362; arguments, imperfect 2196-2197;
2218-2219, 2233, 2235, 2242-2243, 2246- environment 2173; generation 2134; matrix
2247, 2255, 2258, 2260, 2266-2268, 2278- test 1817; needs 2791; problems 2790;
2281, 2285-2286, 2300; Third Plan 2506, processing role 1929
2561; trade and industrial poliy reform infrastructure 2775-2790, 2993, 2995;
2932, 2935, 2938, 2940, 2942, 2946, 2954; agriculture 2780; decentralization and
transport costs 2808; see also International privatization 2806; growth and human
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid capital 2777-2779; growth and physical
Tropics; Reserve Bank capital 2779-2781; health 1936; human
Indonesia: Agrarian Land Law (1870) 2741; capital 2777-2779, 2783-2787;
agricultural land relations 2672, 2704, 2717, microeconomic links 2783-2789; national
2726; BKK 2133, 2175, 2187; econometric and cross-country evidence 2776-2782; poor
tools 1828, 1831; education 2825; human households 2788; and productivity 2783;
capital investments 1923, 1928, 1932, 1936, publicly provided 2794, 2796; quality 2780;
1940, 1944; human resources 1898, 1905, and returns to investment in education
1967, 1973, 1983, 2024; intervention and 2785; schooling/wages/farm output 2784;

services 2773-2775, 2779-2780, 2788, 2790- Index
2792, 2794, 2796-2797, 2801, 2806-2809,
2835-2836; social indicators 2781-2782; 2288-2289; protection 2269-2271; technology
technology 2209, 2217, 2227-2236, 2244, 2233, 2244-2246, 2249, 2251, 2261, 2271,
2289; and welfare 2788; see also human; 2278, 2282-2283, 2286
physical; price/pricing Inter-American Development Bank 2723
inter-industry intervention flows 2236
innovation 2209, 2215, 2226, 2231, 2239, 2249, interdependencies, intersectoral 2235-2236
2252, 2359, 2984, 2987-2990; induced 2224- interest groups 2328, 2330-2332, 2334, 2337,
2225; see also institution/institutional 2340-2341, 2350
interest rates 1854, 2507, 2512, 2521, 2528,
input 1671, 1886, 1889-1890, 1911, 1920, 1948- 2535; real 1852, 1853
1951, 1953, 1955-1956, 1962-1964, 1976, international agricultural research centers
2661, 2666, 2676, 2709, 2712-2715, 2717, 2231, 2252, 2274-2275
2724, 2734, 2755, 2925-2927; lumpy 2671, International Bank for Reconstruction and
2694, 2696-2698, 2707, 2714; -output 2513 Development 2850, 2852
International Center for Diarrheal Disease
Institute for Nutrition in Central America and Research-Bangladesh 1943, 1979
Panama 1891 international comparisons 1808-1812~ 2883
International Crops Research Institute for the
Institutionalist School 2305 Semi-Arid Tropics 1892; Burkina Faso
institutions/ institutional 2303-2363; 2000; econometric tools 1859, 1869; human
resources 1897-1898, 1904-1905, 1907, 1940,
arrangements 2305, 2307-2310, 2313-2314, 1970, 1974, 1980; India 1801, 1855, 1857,
2317-2319, 2321-2322, 2324-2325, 2334, 1912, 1976, 1985, 1988, 2002, 2147, 2154,
2338-2341, 2347, 2356; changes 2301, 2305, 2169, 2357, 2594, 2705-2706; savings, credit
2319-2325, 2328-2333, 2341-2343, 2347-2349, and insurance 2148, 2171
2362; choice 2316, 2324-2325, 2359, 2361; International Financial Institutions 2482, 2848,
collective action and the state 2319-2342; 2852-2854, 2876, 2886
decollectivization of farming in China 2358- International Food Policy Research Institute
2360; definition 2306-2307; demand and 1801, 1892
changes see transaction costs below; international institutional failure 2434-2437
development 2287; effects 2943-2944; International Labor Office 1808
empirical problems 2353-2361; environment International Labor Organization 2563, 2601
2619; failure, international 2434-2437; International Monetary Fund 2482; data 1808,
functions 2301, 2307-2310; household 1814; policy lessons post Second World War
farming system diffusion 2361; irnportance 2510-2512, 2524, 2532, 2534, 2538;
2301, 2304-2305, 2307, 2313-2315, 2362; structural adjustment 2851-2855, 2868, 2876-
inertia 2315, 2324; innovations 2319, 2326- 2877, 2884, 2886-2887, 2890; trade and
2327, 2338, 2346-2347; interdependence industrial policy reform 2928, 2931
2301, 2305, 2310-2313; logic 2306-2315; International Patent Classification 2235
non-market 2304, 2308, 2311; process of international policies 2282-2283
development changes 2342-2353; property International Rice Research Institute 2253-
rights 2360-2361; reforms 2336-2342; rigidity 2254, 2261, 2275, 2281
and inertia 2314; service, shifts in the intersectoral interdependencies 2235-2236
demand for 2319-2322; sharecropping 2353- intertemporal trade 2129-2131
2358; supply see col]ective action and the interventions 2615-2638; targeted 2552, 2615-
stare above; transaction costs 2315-2325; see 2617; see also interventions and large farms
also under poverty interventions and large farms 2674-2676, 2738-
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living 1813 2758; Africa 2750-2758; Asia 2738-2742;
instrumental variables 1824, 1834-1838, 1872, Europe 2742-2745; Latin America 2745-2750
1899-1900, 1911, 1930, 1948-1950, 1952, intra-household allocations 1993-1996
1977 invention 2209, 2212, 2214, 2219, 2223-2225,
insurance 2157, 2680, 2689, 2700, 2708-2709, 2229-2230, 2233-2234, 2236-2238, 2245,
2714-2716, 2718, 2722, 2724, 2728-2729, 2257, 2264, 2270, 2275-2276, 2278, 2288,
2736; crop 2157, 2159-2161, 2621; informal 2290; capabilities 2238; domestic 2258;
2165-2169; social 2528, 2559, 2621, 2629; inventive adaptation 2252-2253; inventive
substitute 2699; see also formal; health; and
under savings

intellectual property rights 2221-2222, 2227-
2230, 2989-2990; domestic 2288; policy

Index Jansen, D. 2509
Japan 2478, 2487-2488; agricultural land
germplasm 2223, 2237, 2239, 2250, 2252-
2253', models 2221-2224; process 2222 relations 2672-2673, 2677-2678, 2683, 2685,
investment 2124-2126, 2128-2131, 2137, 2139, 2709, 2726, 2731, 2750; endogenous growth
2146, 2189, 2191, 2193, 2198, 2201, 2502- theory 2987; institutions 2337; intervention
2504, 2506-2508, 2513; behavior 2269-2271; and large farms 2674, 2740-2741; policy
capabilities 2238, 2263-2264, 2286; lessons post Second World War 2515;
complementary 2290; Computable General poverty 2599; public investment 2796;
Equilibrium model 2050; direct foreign savings, credit and insurance 2190;
2210, 2237, 2240, 2263, 2265-2266, 2288, technology 2245, 2253, 2257, 2260-2261,
2291; human capital 2853, 2892; human 2269, 2277, 2279; Tokyo Round Proposals
resources 2786, 2793, 2803; in irrigation 2060; trade and industrial policy reform
2148; in labor training 2284; in learning 2935, 2939, 2944-2945, 2948-2949, 2972
2214; licensing 2504; model of schooling Jappelli, T. 2134
1932; pre-technology sciences 2290; public Jarvis, L.S. 2732
2244, 2289-2290, 2513, 2539-2540, 2773- Jefferson, G. 2970
2774, 2782, 2802, 2810; and technology Jenkins, G.M. 1842, 1845
2211-2216, 2213, 2251; see also human Jensen, M.C. 2316
capital; private sector; public Jeong, J. 1837
IOM see industry of manufacture Jimenez, E. 1789, 1933, 1938, 1951, 1956,
IOMD see industry of manufacture domestic 1958, 1965, 1967, 2001-2002, 2164, 2467,
IOMF see industry of manufaeture foreign 2480, 2564, 2631-2632, 2724-2836
IPC see International Patent Classification Jodha, N.S. 2320, 2425-2427, 2574, 2696,
IPF see innovation possibilites ffontier 2699, 2722
IPRs see intellectual property rights Johansen, F. 2831
Iran 2678, 2685, 2726, 2800 Johnson, C. 2945, 2947
Iraq 2338, 2726 Johnson, D.G. 2958
Ireland 2187, 2708 Johnson, G.E. 2170
Irfan, M. 2587-2588 Johnson, P. 2165, 2181
Irish, M. 1974 Jolly, R. 1973, 1982
IRRI see International Rice Research Jones, C. 2933
Institute Jones, E. 2307, 2314
irrigation 2392, 2562, 2571, 2609, 2622-2623 Jones, L. 2945, 2958, 2969
Isaacman, A. 2691, 2755 Jones, S.R.H. 2322
Isaacman, B. 2691, 2755 Jöreskog, K.G. 1828
Isenman, P. 2567 Jovanovic, B. 2191
ISHARE (dummy variable) 2355-2356 Julius, D.A. 2812, 2829
ismail, A.F. 1932 Julka, A.C. 2626
Israel 2228, 2392, 2536, 2781, 2873, 2875, Jung, H.-S. 2580
2890 Jung, W.S. 2939
Italy 2337 Junker estates 2661, 2685-2689, 2693, 2729,
IV estimator 1899 2732, 2743, 2746
Ivan IV; Tsar 2744 Just, R.E. 2192, 2710
Justman, M. 2289
Jacobian method 2036, 2090
Jacoby, H. 1957-1959, 1962-1964, 1978, 1980- Kadekodi, G.K. 2423, 2425, 2565
Kahn, C. 2198
1981, 2789 Kakwani, N. 2567, 2578, 2579-2581, 2583-
Jaeger, D. 1907
Jaffe, A.B. 2252, 2256 2585, 2603, 2604, 2781
Jain, S. 1803 Kaldor, N. 2489-2490, 2984, 2986
Jamaica 1893, 1923, 2523, 2589, 2724, 2822 Kalfayan, J. 2680, 2700, 2711
James, C. 2912 Kanbur, R. 1986, 2565, 2567, 2573, 2576,
James, D.E. 2380, 2392
James, E. 2541, 2790, 2806, 2810, 2811, 2817, 2580-2581, 2604-2607, 2610, 2613, 2616-2617
Kanninen, B.J. 2386
2820, 2827 Kaplan, J.J. 2848
Jamison, D.T. 1962, 1967, 2226, 2558, 2592, Kaplan, R. 1971

2631, 2784, 2786

lii Index

Kapur, I. 2903 Kikuchi, M. 2313, 2320, 2322, 2354, 2716,
Karoly, L.A. 1801, 1806 2721, 2733
Katko, T.S. 2829
Katrak, H. 2266, 2937-2938 Kilby, P. 1978
Katz, J.M. 2239, 2748-2749, 2813-2814, 2935 Killick, A. 2570
Kaufman, R. 2863, 2882 Killick, T. 2890
Kaufmann, D. 2002, 2805, 2964 Killingsworth, M. 1959
Kay, C. 2687, 2689, 2733, 2746 Kirn, J.-I. 1920, 2279
Kazmi, N. 2590 Kim, K.S. 2514, 2517, 2519, 2849
KDI see Korean Development Institute under King, E.M. 1923, 1925, 1932, 1965, 1990
King, M.A. 2574
Korea King, P.N. 2382
Keen, M. 2616 King, R.G. 2193, 2685, 2726, 2729, 2893
Keesing, D. 2518 Kirman, A.P. 2033, 2059
Kehoe, T.J. 2027, 2031, 2087-2088, 2093-2094 Kish, L. 1797-1798, 1817-1818
Keirstead, T.E. 2741 Kislev, Y. 2222-2224, 2697
Keller, W.J. 2047, 2058 Klein, H.S. 2696
Kelley, A.C. 2094 Kletzer, K.M. 2168, 2962, 2989-2990
Kendrick, D. 2027, 2777 Klinedinst, M. 2938
Kennan, J. 1836 Klitgaard, R. 2826
Kennedy, C. 2489 Kloek, T. 1818
Kennedy, E. 1997, 2380, 2595 Kneese, A.V. 2389, 2435
Kenya: agricultural land relations 2676, 2678- Knight, J.B. 1836, 1965, 1967-1968, 2610
knowledge 2230-2234, 2252-2256, 2986-2988
2679, 2683, 2687, 2708, 2722, 2727, 2730, Knudsen, O. 2060
2732; Computable General Equilibrium Koenig, M. 1943
model 2053; data 1801, 1809; econornetric Koenker, R. 1819-1821
tools 1825, 1836; health and education Koo, A.Y.C. 2685
services 2820; human resources 1939, 1969; Kooiman, P. 2072
infrastructure 2785; intervention and large Koopmans, T.C. 2086, 2089, 2395-2396, 2398-
farrns 2675, 2752-2753; Nairobi speech 2563;
policy lessons post Second World War 2516, 2399, 2414
2517, 2523; poverty 2563, 2592, 2595, 2599; Korea 2473-2474, 2478, 2486-2488; agricultural
poverty, institutions and environment 2380,
2409, 2427; pricing infrastructure services land relations 2678, 2685, 2726, 2731;
2819, 2821; savings, credit and insurance Computable General Equilibrium rnodels
2128, 2132, 2147, 2170-2171, 2197; 2027, 2059; data 1790, 1807, 1809;
technology 2242-2243, 2277, 2300; trade and education 2825; endogenous growth theory
industrial policy reform 2947; water prices, 2986; exports and imports 2518; gross
public and private 2801 dornestic product 2515, 2954; infrastructure
kernel 1834, 1862-1865, 1867-1870; estimators 2781; institutions 2336, 2338; Korean
1862, 1870, 1872; quartic 1863-1865; Development Institute 2945; policy lessons
regression 1867, 1869 post Second World War 2507, 2510, 2514-
Kessides, C. 2776, 2779, 2787-2788 2517, 2519, 2523-2524, 2536-2537, 2540,
Keynes, J.M./Keynesianisrn 2072, 2472, 2500- 2542; poverty 2562, 2592, 2627; pricing
2501, 2554, 2557, 2569, 2869, 2872 infrastructure services 2824; public
Keynes-Olivera-Tanzi Effect 2869 investment 2809; savings, credit and
Keys, A. 2596 insurance 2135, 2176; schooling/wages/Iarrn
Keyzer, M.A. 1778, 1782, 2026-2101 output 2784; structural adjustrnent 2848-51,
Khan, A. 2174 2854; technology 2228, 2235, 2242-2244,
Khan, M. 2534, 2884, 2887-2888 2246-2247, 2253, 2258, 2260, 2264-2265,
Khan, S. 1957, 1967 2278-2279, 2285-2288, 2300; trade and
Khandker, S.R. 1963, 1965, 1967, 1970 industrial policy reform 2931, 2935-2937,
Kiguel, M. 2873, 2875 2941-2949, 2956, 2957, 2968, 2972
Kihlstrom, R.E. 2158 Korenman, S. 1961
Kihwan, K. 2958 Kornai, J. 2311, 2342, 2961
Kikeri, S. 2958 Kortum, S. 2220, 2223
Kostecki, M.M. 2930
Kotlikoff, L.J. 1805, 2001, 2093-2094

Index |iii

Kotwal, A. 2192, 2605, 2700, 2713, 2727, India 2739; Indonesia 2741; Japan 2740-
2735 2741; Kenya 2753; Malawi 2754; Mexico
2748-2749; Mozambique 2755; Philippines
Kramer, R.A. 2160 2741-2742; Prussia 2743; Sokotho Caliphate
Krause, L.B. 2958 2754; South Africa 2756; Sri Lanka 2742;
Kravis, I.B. 1779, 1808, 2583 Tanganyika 2757; Viceroyality of Peru 2750;
Kreimer, A. 2414 Zimbabwe 2757
Krepps, M.B. 2335 labor market 1801, 1819-1820, 1824, 1833;
Kreps, D. 2440 outcomes 1886, 1908, 1920-1921, 1967,
Kriger, N.J. 2691 1972; reforms 2896, 2900
Krishna, R. 1887 Labrador, Montagnais Indians of 2320
Krishna, V. 2440 Laferrière, R. 2830
Kriström, B. 2386 Laffer curve 2869
Krueger 2468 Laffont, J.-J. 2159, 2354, 2356-2357, 2411,
Krueger, A. 2467, 2846, 2849, 2851, 2863, 2714-2715
Lagrange, J.L. de 1838, 2038-2039, 2148,
2876, 2881-2882, 2917 2163, 2404, 2759
Krueger, A.B. 1835-1836, 1907, 1919, 1921, Lai, E.L.C. 2989
Lakshaman, T.R. 2780
1966, 1971 Lal, D. 2170, 2341, 2544, 2935, 2948
Krueger, A.O. 2324, 2341, 2352, 2472-2475, Lall, S. 2238, 2241, 2257, 2266, 2286
Lallement, D. 2393
2498-2546, 2608, 2609, 2737, 2931-2932, Lam, D. 1923, 1965-1966, 1967, 1969-1970
2935-2936, 2943-2944, 2948, 2967 Lambert, S. 1962-1964
Krugman, P. 2492, 2861-2862, 2868, 2878, Lamoreux, N.R. 2175
2891, 2949, 295l, 2953, 2990, 2994-2995 Lancaster, K. 2569, 2736
Krutilla, J. 2435 land 2555, 2560, 2562, 2564, 2600-2601, 2618,
Kuhn-Tucker Theorem 2403, 2759 2622-2623, 2626-2629, 2634, 2637, 2673;
Kumar, D. 2428 area 2702; chronic poverty 2623-2628;
Kumar, N. 2266 concentration 2721, 2724; consolidation
Kumar, S.K. 2432 2729; -credit links 2707-2718; invasions
Kuo, S.W.Y. 2514, 2562 2693; landholdings 1791, 1800; laws 2686,
Kuo, WJ. 2288 2687, 2741; ownership 2699, 2726, 2729;
Kuran, T. 2315, 2346 pawning 2181; policy 2718-2734; price 2708,
Kurup, B. 2587 2710; quality 1824, 1832; record 2720;
Kurz, M. 2089, 2397, 2446 redistribution 2626-2628; registration and
Kutcher, G.P. 2703-2705 titling 2659, 2665, 2718-2723; rent 2659,
Kuznets, S.S. xvi, xvii, 2192, 2279, 2304, 2662, 2701, 2707, 2712-2718, 2729-2730;
2384, 2559, 2603-2064 rights 2420-2426, 2664, 2669-2670, 2674,
2720, 2736, 2744, 2746, 2753; sales 2659,
La Croix, S. 2320 2664-2665, 2669, 2687, 2694, 2696, 2707-
labor 2661-2666, 2669-2682, 2686-2691, 2694- 2712, 2719, 2725-2727, 2736; tax 2665,
2723-2725, 2752; tenure 2422-2424; and
2705, 2708-2710, 2712, 2717-2718, 2725, water 2372, 2391-2393; see also land reform
2728, 2730, 2732, 2734, 2736-2737, 2739- land reform 2659-2660, 2664-2665, 2674, 2683-
2758, 2760-2761; bonded 2661, 2671, 2673; 2694, 2697, 2701, 2716, 2719, 2725-2726,
-demanding growth 2571; earnings 1888, 2730-2732, 2737, 2739, 2743; delayed:
1900-1901, 1921; income 1852, 1856; revolts and civil wars 2690-2693; market-
indentured 2672, 2674, 2676, 2694, 2736, based economies 2685-2688; redistributive
2741, 2750, 2756; mandamiento 2747-2748; 2730-2733; socialist economies 2688-2690
marginal productivity 2626; market reforms Landes, D.S. 2214-2216
2900-2901; mobility 2674, 2744-2745; and landlord estates 2661-2662, 2671, 2677-2678,
poverty 2551, 2591-2593; productivity 1886, 2685, 2688, 2696, 2709, 2732, 2738, 2740-
1908-1909, 1912, 1917, 1960, 2429, 2431; 2742
supply 1806-1807, 1883-1884, 1888, 1893, Landsberger, H.A. 2351
1897, 1908-1917, 1959-1961, 1963, 1970, Lange, O. 2500
1973-1974, 1997-1998; see also wages
see also family; labor levies; labor market
labor levies: Algeria 2751; Angola 2751-2752;
Chile 2746; China 2739-2740; Egypt 2752;
El Salvador 2747; Guatemala 2747-2748;

liv Index

Lanjouw, P. 2574-2575, 2586 Leland, H. 2141-2143
Laos 2242-2243, 2300 Lele, U. 2630
Lardy, N.R. 2967 Lenaghan, T. 2567
Laroque, G. 1846-1847, 1854, 1856, 2144 Lenin, V.I. 2686
Larrain, F. 2846 Lentzner, H. 1922, 1932, 1939
latent variables 1828 Leonard, J. 2571
Latham, M. 1908 Leonor, M. 2566
Latin America 2483, 2485; agricultural land Leontief production and utility functions 2046
Lepine, N. 2266
relations 2678, 2686, 2689, 2696, 2698, Lerman, S. 1792, 2940, 2947, 2968
2703, 2723, 2741, 2752; econometric tools Leslie, J. 1921, 2786
1854; education 2785; Free Trade Area Lesotho 1811, 2822
2505; human resources 1969, 1973, 1978, Less Developed Countries 1787, 1789, 2477;
1983; institutions 2312, 2323, 2325, 2334,
2340, 2352; interventions and large farms autarky 2140, 2144, 2147, 2149-2150; data
2745-2750; policy lessons post Second World 1790-1792, 1799, 1802, 1804, 1809, 1811-
War 2505, 2521, 2525; poverty 2554, 2559- 1814; econometric tools 1817, 1826, 1835,
2560, 2566, 2584-2585, 2627-2629, 3236; 1841-1842, 1850, 1852, 1855, 1873; financial
pricing infrastructure services 2822, 2833; markets characteristics 2134-2135;
public investment 2799; savings, credit and institutions 2306, 2309, 2312, 2315, 2320,
insurance 2164; structural adjustment 2846, 2324, 2333-2335, 2337-2339, 2341-2342,
2848, 2852, 2857, 2887, 2893-2894; 2349, 2351, 2362-2363; mechanisms for
technology 2268, 2274-2276; trade and sustaining trade 2132, 2133; poverty 2554,
industrial policy reform 2927, 2930, 2935, 2558-2559, 2561-2562, 2565, 2570, 2575-
2942, 2944, 2947, 2965, 2968; see also 2576, 2584, 2586, 2589, 2591-2592, 2596,
Southern Cone countries; and under 2599-2600, 2607-2612, 2615, 2617, 2620,
individual countries 2534 2631, 2634, 2636-2638; research and
Lattimore, R. 2910-2912 development 2275; savings, credit and
Lau, L.J. 1887, 1962, 2279, 2558, 2592, 2631, insurance 2126-2128, 2152, 2156-2160, 2162,
2703, 2776, 2778, 2784 2170, 2172, 2174-2175, 2182, 2192; and
Lavy, V. 1923, 1928-1929, 1932, 1934, 1936, technology 2211-12, 2214-2218, 2221-2222,
1939-1940, 2787, 2819 2225, 2228, 2230, 2233-2234, 2236-2237,
Lawry, S.W. 2722 2245-2246, 2248, 2252-2253, 2256-2258,
Lazear, E. 2575 2260, 2262, 2265, 2267, 2271, 2276, 2278-
LDCs see Less Developed Countries 2279, 2281-2282, 2284-2286, 2290, 2292
Le Roy Ladurie, E. 2679 Levhari, D. 2402
Leach, M. 2571 Levin, R.C. 2261, 2270
Leamer, E.E. 1840, 2939 Levine, R. 1808, 2193, 2493, 2893, 2940, 2985
learning see education Levinsohn, J. 2970
Lebanon 2348 Levinson, F.J. 2589
Lecaillon, J. 2606 Levinthal, D.A. 2256
Lechene, L. 1998 Levison, D. 1932
Ledyard, J. 2411 Levy, B. 2288, 2935, 2947, 2952, 2964
Lee, C.H. 2945 Levy, S. 2091
Lee, J.-H. 2474, 2519, 2542 Lewis, A. 2984
Lee, J.-W. 2492-2493, 2778-2779, 2937, 2950 Lewis, H.G. 2556, 2588
Lee, K.-S. 2787-2788, 2794, 2809 Lewis, J.D. 2067, 2960
Lee, L.-F. 1947 Lewis, M. 2822
Lee, R.B. 1973, 1981, 2343 Lewis, W.A. 1777, 2112, 2218, 2304, 2321,
Lee, T.K. 2222 2362, 2502, 2559, 2561
Leechor, C. 2903 Leys, C. 2727, 2732
legitimacy 2332, 2335-2336, 2338-2339, 2342 Li, Z. 2342
LeGrand, C. 2693 Libecap, G.D. 2320, 2323, 2726
Lehman, D. 2717, 2732 Libya 2392
Leibenstein, H. 1908, 2564 Lichtenberg, F.R. 2220
Leibowitz, A. 1921 Liedholm, C. 1978, 2600
Leith, J.C. 2903