Military History_ The Definitive Visual Guide to the Objects of Warfare

349

AIR–SEA COMBAT THE BATTLE OF LEYTE GULF

THE BATTLE
OF LEYTE GULF

The warfare between the Japanese Imperial Navy and the
US Navy in the Pacific during World War II was remarkable
for the significant role of aircraft and the epic scale of the
combat.The Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 was one
of the largest sea battles ever fought.

By autumn 1944 Japanese naval Yamashiro, was among the ships sunk
aviation was a battered remnant of by armor-piercing shells. Only a
the force that had shocked the United handful of crew survived.
States with its attack on Pearl Harbor
almost three years earlier. Japan still Meanwhile, the approach of the
possessed an impressive array of other Japanese naval force through
battleships and cruisers, but without the Sibuyan Sea on October 24 had
adequate air cover, a sortie by these triggered a fierce air–sea battle.
heavily gunned warships had become Halsey’s carrier aircraft swarmed
almost suicidal. Nonetheless, when to attack the battleship Musashi,
the United States began amphibious one of the largest, most powerfully
landings on Leyte Island in the gunned warships ever built. Hit by
Japanese-occupied Philippines on 19 bombs and 17 torpedoes in five
October 20, the Imperial Navy sent successive air strikes, the massive ship
every available vessel to attack the sank with the loss of over 1,000 lives.
landing force.The Japanese divided Attacks by Japanese land-based aircraft
their striking forces in two, one sailing inflicted some damage on US naval
south of Leyte Island and the other to forces, but little in relation to their
the north. Land-based aircraft on the own losses of pilots and machines.
Philippines would supply air cover,
while Japan’s few remaining carriers In the hope of at least dying to
were used as a decoy.Without their some effect, a group of Japanese pilots
aircraft they headed away from the volunteered to carry out suicide
action, in the hope that the carriers attacks, crashing their aircraft into
of Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.’s enemy ships.The first American ship
Third Fleet would follow. sunk by kamikaze pilots was the escort
carrier USS St. Lo on October 25.
The Japanese southern force,
including two battleships and four THE END OF AN ERA
cruisers, was ambushed by Admiral
Thomas Kinkaid’s Seventh Fleet The battle almost ended badly for
while attempting the passage of the Americans. After the sinking of
the Surigao Strait on the night the Musashi, Halsey accepted the bait
of October 24–25. American of the decoy Japanese carriers and
destroyers and PT boats first made pursued them to destruction. In
torpedo runs, scoring a series of the absence of the main American
hits that sank the battleship Fuso carrier force, Japanese heavy cruisers
with all hands.The Japanese then slipped through the San Bernadino
encountered the American main Strait and surprised escort carriers
force of six battleships and eight and destroyers supporting the troop
cruisers, some equipped with landings.The US Navy was briefly at
advanced radar fire control that the mercy of Japanese naval guns, but
allowed them to hit Japanese bold torpedo runs by the destroyers
warships at a range of over 20,000 and attacks by aircraft from the escort
yards (18,280m) in the dark. carriers drove the Japanese off. Having
The second Japanese battleship, lost three battleships, eight cruisers
and four carriers, the Imperial Navy
had fought its last major battle.

350

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5 KEY DEVELOPMENT

TANKS AND INFANTRY
IN WORLD WAR II

Land-based conflict in World War II extended across the globe, from
the North African desert to the jungles of New Guinea and the streets
of Berlin. Tanks and trucks made warfare more mobile, but did not
eradicate the need for grueling infantry combat.

▲ A SUITCASE RADIO Between the two World Wars, a number of through Allied lines in the Ardennes. Mobile radios
The British Mk III Suitcase Transceiver army officers, including J. F. C. Fuller in the solved the communication problems of WorldWar I,
was designed for use by agents of UK, Heinz Guderian in Germany, and Mikhail allowing generals to keep in touch with advancing
Britain’s Special Operations Executive Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union, explored the forces, and facilitating combined ground and air
(SOE) and resistance groups. All use of tanks as the key strike force. Developments maneuvers. As the war progressed, countermeasures
its components were miniaturized, in tank design—improving speed, reliability, and were introduced, including mines, anti-tank guns,
although it still required valves, as armament—lent this vision credibility. and infantry anti-tank weapons.The development
transistors had not yet been invented. of self-propelled guns provided artillery support
for mobile forces, and also gave extra firepower to
BLITZKREIG destroy advancing tanks.
Nazi Germany gave fullest rein to armored war,
and defeated Allied ground forces in France in Most infantry entered the war with the same
May–June 1940. Using their Blitzkreig (“lightning bolt-action rifles issued in World War I, although
war”) tactics, German tanks and motorized infantry, the US Army had adopted the semi-automatic M1
supported by aircraft as “aerial artillery,” broke Garand in 1936. By the end of the war, German

▶ TANK WARFARE
Following variable battlefield
performance in WorldWar I, the
tank became a crucial part of land
forces in World War II, both for
Allied and Axis armies.

KEY FIGURE

GENERAL PATTON

1885–1945

George S Patton first commanded
tanks during World War I. During
World War II, he became America’s
most aggressive practitioner of
armored warfare, from North Africa
and Sicily, to the spectacular dash
across France in the summer of
1944. He excelled in defeating a
desperate, final counteroffensive
by the Germans in the Ardennes,
in the winter of 1944–45.

▲ Patton was a controversial
commander, often feared as
well as respected.

351

troops had the Sturmgewehr, the first assault “The real secret is speed—speed of attack TA N K S A N D I N FA N T RY I N WO R L D WA R I I
rifle. Heavy, general-purpose, and light machine- through speed of communication”
guns were ubiquitous, as were submachine-guns,
including the British Sten and the American GENERAL ERHARD MILCH, DISCUSSING BLITZKRIEG, 1939
Thompson (“Tommy”) gun. Cavalry were mostly
absent, although some armies still used horse-drawn ◀ US MARINES ON
supply trains—Germany assembled over 600,000 GUADALCANAL
horses for its 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union. World War II soldiers had to fight in
a wide variety of environments.The
TACTICS AND FORCES Pacific island of Guadalcanal, the scene
Airborne troops emerged as a new elite branch of of intense combat between American
infantry, delivered to battle by parachute or glider. and Japanese troops in 1942, was
The Allies also conducted amphibious operations difficult jungle terrain.
on a massive scale—particularly the US Marines in
their “island-hopping” campaign against the Japanese
in the Pacific. Resistance groups mounted guerrilla
warfare in occupied territory, and irregular forces
fought behind enemy lines.

However, land warfare in World War II was
not only about mobility; infantry fought at close
quarters for long periods at Stalingrad in the Soviet
Union in 1942–43, and on Iwo Jima in the Pacific
in 1945. Often, defensive positions were attacked
by artillery barrage and infantry assault, supported
with armored vehicles—similar tactics, albeit with
improved technology, to those used inWorldWar I.

KEY EVENTS

1919–45

◼ 1919 British Army officer
J. F. C. Fuller presents a plan for
offensives based on penetration in
depth by a strike force of massed
tanks, supported by aircraft and
motorized infantry battalions.

◼ 1928 American engineer
J. Walter Christie completes
his design for a high-speed
tank with a revolutionary
suspension system.

◼ 1936 The US Army adopts
the semi-automatic M1 Garand
rifle, with an eight-round “en-bloc”
clip (with cartridges and clip
inserted in a fixed magazine)—
a significant advance on existing
bolt-action rifles.

◼ May–June 1940 German
Blitzkrieg tactics combine tanks,
aircraft, and motorized infantry
to break deep into enemy territory.

◼ May 1941 An invading force of
German paratroopers land on Crete.

◼ July 1943 Massed German
tanks are defeated at the Battle of
Kursk by Soviet defenses, including
minefields and anti-tank guns.

◼ 1945 American troops make
extensive use of flamethrowers
on Iwo Jima and Okinawa.

352

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5 ALLIED ARMORED 47mm SA 35 Also armed
FIGHTING VEHICLES main gun with a 7.5mm
machine-gun
Although Allied tanks seldom reached the standard of their German
counterparts in terms of technical excellence, they were far better equipped
to meet the demands of mass production.This was especially the case with
the SovietT-34/85 and the US M4 Sherman tanks, which were manufactured
in the tens of thousands and played a pivotal role in defeating the Germans
on both the Eastern andWestern fronts. France produced some good tank
designs in the 1930s, but failed to use them effectively when Germany
invaded France in 1940. British tanks often proved inadequate for combat
conditions, although the gunned-up Sherman Firefly proved to be a potent
battle-winning weapon.

▼ CHAR B1-BIS HEAVY TANK The French army’s B1-bis was a ▲ SOMUA S35 An effective 1930s design that utilized a
formidable tank in its day, even if it powerful main gun and a cleverly sloped
Date 1936 Origin France was slow and not very reliable. Heavily Date 1936 Origin France armor, the three-man SOMUA equipped
Weight 30.8 tons (28 tonnes) armored, it had the unusual distinction Weight 21.5 tons (19.5 tonnes) France’s cavalry divisions, complementing
Length 203⁄4ft (6.37m) of being equipped with two main Length 18ft (5.38m) the infantry’s Char B1-bis. One drawback,
Top speed 17mph (28kph) armaments—a howitzer for firing high Top speed 25mph (40kph) however, was that the commander
Engine Renault 6-cylinder explosives against enemy fortifications, Engine SOMUA 8-cylinder was also required to act as the gunner
307hp (229kW) gasoline engine and a turret-mounted anti-tank gun. 190hp (142kW) gasoline engine inside the very cramped turret.

Also armed with 75mm 47mm turret-mounted gun ▶ M4A1 MEDIUM TANK 76mm main gun
hull-mounted howitzer and (SHERMAN)
two 7.5mm machine-guns Also armed with
Date 1941 Origin US a .5in machine-
gun and two .3in
Weight 35.6 tons (32.3 tonnes)
machine-guns
Length 19ft (5.84m)

Top speed 30mph (48kph)

Engine Continental R975
400hp (298kW) gasoline radial engine

The M4 tank was the most important tank
fielded by the Western Allies, equipping
the armored divisions of the US and UK.
Although easy to produce and maintain,
it was inadequately armored and its gun
could not take on the Panther and Tiger
tanks of the German armed forces.

▼ CRUISER MK VIII (A27M) One of the more successful British Also armed with
CROMWELL TANK tanks designs of WorldWar II, the five- two 7.92mm
man Cromwell combined reasonable machine-guns
Date 1943 Origin UK armored protection with an effective
main gun. It was widely used in a
Weight 30.7 tons (27.9 tonnes) reconnaissance role because of its
Length 203⁄4ft (6.35m) impressive top speed, reliability,
and ease of handling.
Top speed 40mph (64kph)

Engine Rolls RoyceV12 603hp
(450kW) gasoline engine

Rear drive
sprocket

353

Turret fitted 75mm M6 gun Commander’s ALLIED ARMORED FIGHTING VEHICLES
with 37mm cupola
M6 main gun
Also armed
with two .3in
machine-guns

▲ T17E1 STAGHOUND Although designed and built in the US, the ▲ M24 CHAFEE LIGHT TANK The US Army’s requirement for a light tank
LIGHT ARMORED CAR Staghound was used almost exclusively by with a more powerful armament than the
British and Commonwealth forces. Reliable Date 1944 Origin US standard 37mm gun led to the introduction
Date 1943 Origin US and popular with its crew, a number of variants Weight 20.2 tons (18.4 tonnes) of the M24 with a 75mm gun. Reliable and
were developed, which included a close- Length 161⁄4ft (4.99m) swift, it was a popular armored fighting
Weight 15.3 tons (13.9 tonnes) support version armed with a 75mm howitzer, Top speed 35mph (56kph) vehicle, operating with a crew of five.
and an anti-aircraft version with two .5in Engine Two Cadillac M44T24 However, it only arrived at the front
Length 18ft (5.49m) Browning machine-guns. It was operated 110hp (82kW) engines line in Europe during the closing stages
by a crew of five. of World War II.
Top speed 55mph (89kph)

Engine Two GMC 270 6-cylinder
97hp (72kW) gasoline engines

85mm ZiS-S-53 main gun Auxiliary ◀ T-34/85 MEDIUM TANK
fuel tank
Also armed with two Date 1944 Origin Soviet Union
7.62mm machine-guns Christie suspension
Weight 35.3 tons (32 tonnes)
75mm main gun
Length 22ft (6.68m)

Top speed 31mph (50kph)

Engine 12-cylinder 496hp
(370kW) diesel engine

TheT-34/85 represented a superb
combination of firepower, armor
protection, and mobility.When
the Germans first encountered the
T-34/85 in 1941, armed with
the smaller 76.2mm gun, they
realized they were facing a tank
far superior to anything they could
field. Even after the development
of a new range of German tanks,
it remained a formidable armored
fighting vehicle.

Wide tracks for use 17-pounder main gun
in snow and mud

Also armed with
.303in co-axial

machine-gun

Front idler ▲ M4 MEDIUM TANK The lack of a powerful main gun
(SHERMAN FIREFLY) hampered the standard M4 tank, but
this was rectified by the introduction
Date 1944 Origin US/UK of a British 17-pounder main armament
in the Firefly.This high-velocity gun
Weight 36.4 tons (33 tonnes) was capable of taking on German heavy
Length 191⁄4ft (5.89m) tanks, although the tank’s light armor
remained inadequate for operations in
Top speed 25mph (40kph) Northwest Europe in 1944–45.

Engine Chrysler 425hp
(317kW) multibank engine

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5354 20mm KwK Also armed with a
30 cannon 7.92mm machine-gun
AXIS ARMORED
FIGHTING VEHICLES ▲ PANZERKAMPFWAGEN II The Panzer II, manned by a crew
LIGHT TANK, AUSF F of three, was originally created to
As the nation that developed the concept of Blitzkrieg, it Date 1935 Origin Germany function as a training tank. However,
was hardly surprising that Germany should develop some of the Weight 11 tons (10 tonnes) the shortage of more powerful models
most advanced and effective armored fighting vehicles (AFVs) of Length 151⁄4ft (4.64m) brought it into the front line, where
WorldWar II.The Panther and Tiger tanks struck fear in their Allied Top speed 34mph (55kph) it was used in huge numbers for the
opponents, but, unlike the Allies, German tank manufacturers could Engine Maybach 6-cylinder invasions of Poland and France.
not utilize the methods of mass production, as their vehicles were 140hp (104kW) gasoline engine
slow and expensive to build. Germany’s Axis partners, Italy and Also armed with
Japan, produced some effective designs in the 1930s, but were 6.5mm machine-gun
unable to develop them further as the war progressed.
Mantlet
37mm Type 98 main gun Also armed with
two 7.7mm Type 97
machine-guns

▲ TYPE 95 HA-GO LIGHT TANK Entering service in the 1930s, this ▶ CARRO VELOCE L3-33
Date 1936 Origin Japan three-man tank was typical of its time. FLAMETHROWER
Weight 8.1 tons (7.4 tonnes) While it proved successful during the
Length 141⁄4ft (4.38m) war in China, it was outclassed by US Date 1936 Origin Italy
Top speed 28mph (45kph) armor and anti-tank guns during
Engine Mitsubishi NVD 6120 WorldWar II. Weight 3.5 tons (3.2 tonnes)
6-cylinder 120hp (89kW) diesel engine
Length 101⁄2ft (3.17m)
Muzzle brake
Top speed 26mph (42kph)

Engine SPA CV3 43hp (32kW)
gasoline engine

Developed from the British Carden-
Lloyd tankette, this modified version
of the L3-35 replaced its twin
machine-guns with a flamethrower
nozzle.The flame fuel was carried
in a 132-gallon (500-liter) trailer
towed by the vehicle.

88mm KwK 43 main gun

Armed with 75mm KwK 40 main gun
as well as two or three 7.92mm machine-guns

▲ PANZERKAMPFWAGEN IV Intended to adopt the role of an
MEDIUM TANK infantry support vehicle, the Panzer IV
developed into a potent main battle tank
Date 1936 Origin Germany as a result of a series of upgrades that
improved protection and firepower.
Weight 27.5 tons (25 tonnes) With a crew of five, the Panzer IV was
Length 191⁄4ft (5.89m) the only German tank to remain in
service throughout the war.
Top speed 24mph (38kph)

Engine Maybach HL 120 TRM
12-cylinder 300hp (224kW) gasoline engine

355

50mm KwK 39 ◀ PANZERKAMPFWAGEN III The Panzer III entered service in 1939 AXIS ARMORED FIGHTING VEHICLES
main gun MEDIUM TANK, AUSF M as the German army’s main battle tank,
but by the end of 1941 its inferiority
Date 1939 Origin Germany to the Soviet T-34 had become evident
and it was adapted to act as a chassis
Weight 25.9 tons (23.5 tonnes) for other armored vehicles.This mark
was manned by five crew.
Length 21ft (6.41m)

Top speed 25mph (40kph)

Engine Maybach HL 120TRM 12-cylinder
300hp (224kW) gasoline engine

Road wheels Armed with a 75mm KwK 42
main gun as well as two or
three 7.92mm machine-guns

◀ PANZERKAMPFWAGEN V
PANTHER MEDIUM TANK, AUSF G

Date 1943 Origin Germany

Weight 49.4 tons (44.8 tonnes)

Length 221⁄2ft (6.88m)

Top speed 29mph (46kph)

Engine Maybach HL230 P30 12-cylinder
700hp (522kW) gasoline engine

Although designated as a medium tank,
the five-man Panther was an exceptionally
powerful armored fighting vehicle,
and, once initial teething problems
were rectified, it became one of the
most effective tanks of World War II.

Flamethrower Interleaved Bazooka plates
Drive wheel road wheels

88mm KwK 36 main gun

Muzzle Stowage bins
brake

Also armed with two Also armed with two
7.92mm machine-guns 7.92mm machine-guns

Spare track links

Front drive
sprocket

Steel towing
hawser

▲ PANZERKAMPFWAGEN VI Adopting a design philosophy
TIGER I HEAVY TANK, AUSF E that emphasized protection
and firepower, the Tiger was a
Date 1942 Origin Germany fearsome weapon, but it lacked
maneuverability. It was also
Weight 61.7 tons (56 tonnes) costly to manufacture.
Length 201⁄4ft (6.20m)

Top speed 24mph (38kph)

Engine Maybach HL230 P45 12-cylinder
700hp (522kW) gasoline engine

◀ PANZERKAMPFWAGEN VI The Tiger II (or King Tiger),
TIGER II HEAVY TANK, AUSF B which was operated by five
crew members, was arguably
Date 1944 Origin Germany the most powerful tank fielded
by any side inWorldWar II.
Weight 76.9 tons (69.8 tonnes) However, its immense weight
Length 233⁄4ft (7.26m) caused a series of reliability
problems, which hampered
Top speed 24mph (38kph) its battlefield performance.

Engine Maybach HL230 P30 12-cylinder
700hp (522kW) gasoline engine

356

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5 WOR L D WA R I I A R MOR E D V E H IC L E

T-34 TANK

Although crudely finished, noisy, and cramped, the Soviet Union’s
T-34 was perhaps the most successful tank of World War II, taking
on and eventually beating the formidable German panzers.

Designated the T-34/76, the tank first saw Commander’s
action in 1941. It mounted a 76.2mm main cupola
gun and two 7.62mm DT machine-guns,
85mm gun

one in the turret and one in the hull.The Fuel drum

coaxial machine-gun in the turret fired

tracer rounds to guide the main gun.The

T-34 had a four-man crew, with the tank

commander doubling as the main gunner. Track

Thanks to its simple design, the T-34 was wheels Caterpillar tracks SIDE VIEW

easy to mass-produce—nearly 40,000 were

built before the war’s end—and to repair. Loader’s Hatch for Exhaust

Relatively light in weight, it could achieve hatch starter motor pipes
an impressive 32mph (51kph) and coped Hull machine-gun

well with mud, snow, and broken ground. Coaxial

Its sloped armor, 4in (100mm) thick, gave machine-gun

good protection, while the high-velocity

gun penetrated enemy armor effectively. Driver’s
In 1944, with the T-34 outclassed by hatch

more advanced German tanks, the T-34/85

model entered service. Its upgraded 85mm PLAN VIEW
gun gave greater firepower, and the more
spacious turret, which had room for three SOVIET T-34/85
crew, allowed the roles of commander and The five-man T-34/85 had a longer main gun than
gunner to be separated. its predecessor. Its flatter turret gave it a lower
profile and made it a more difficult target.

TANK EXTERIOR

▼ DRIVER’S HATCH
The entrance hatch for the driver was
usually left open to give him a better
view of the way ahead.

▲ HULL MACHINE-GUN ▲ TOWING ROPE EYE
The machine-gun muzzle A wire hawser (large rope) ran
was able to pivot on its along the side of the tank. It
mounting. The hole above could be used to haul damaged
the muzzle is a gun sight. vehicles from the battlefield.

▲ FUEL DRUMS ◀ SPARE TRACK ON TURRET ▲ EXHAUST PIPES AND STARTER MOTOR HATCH
The drums of spare diesel fuel Spare links for repairing the T-34’s The exhausts tended to billow clouds of smoke when the
were a fire hazard in battle, so wide tracks were carried on the engine started up.The noisy engine could be heard from
they were usually emptied outside of the tank. 500 yards (450m) away.
before combat.

357

◀ TROOP CARRIER T- 3 4 TA N K
Several soldiers could ride into battle on the
rear platform of the T-34 and on the sides of
its hull, providing instant infantry support.

TANK INTERIOR

▲ LOADER’S SEAT
While dodging the main gun’s recoil,
the loader fetched shells from bins
under the turret floor.

▲ TURRET TRAVERSE WHEEL
The gunner turned a wheel to traverse (rotate)
the turret, and was responsible for firing the static
coaxial machine-gun, in the turret to the right
of the main gun.

▲ RUNNING GEAR ▲ AMMUNITION
The suspension was based on DRUMS
an American design that had Tracer rounds (often
been rejected by the US Army. fired as range finders)
for the coaxial machine-
gun lay ready to hand.

◀ DRIVER’S SEAT
Sitting beside the hull
machine-gunner, the
driver could see only
straight ahead. He steered
mainly to instructions
from the commander.

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5358 Armored shield Rectangular
frame sight
ANTI-TANK WEAPONS
◀ PAK 36 ANTI-TANK GUN
The advent of the tank forced arms designers to come up
with weapons powerful enough to counter this threat. For the infantry, Date 1934
who bore the brunt of the armored assault, armor-piercing rifles
came as a solution.Weapons such as the Panzerbüsche were also Origin Germany
successful, but improvements in tank armor during World War II
rendered them obsolete. Lightweight, short-range weapons Weight 723lb (328kg)
firing shaped-charge projectiles became more useful.The most
effective anti-tank weapon, however, was a Length 51⁄2ft (1.66m)
high-velocity artillery piece.
Caliber 37mm
▼ BOYS MK1 The Boys anti-tank rifle Tubular
ANTI-TANK RIFLE fired a heavy tungsten- split trail Armor penetration 11⁄2in (38mm)
steel round, and had a at 400 yards (365m)
Date 1937 correspondingly violent Multi-section barrel
recoil. However, it was Designed for warfare in the 1930s, the
Origin UK only able to pierce light light PAK 36 was obsolete by 1940.
armor, and was replaced It was nicknamed the “doorknocker”
Weight 36lb (16.33kg) by the PIAT. for the way its shells bounced off the
Barrel 353⁄4in (91cm) armor of Allied tanks.

Caliber .55in
Armor penetration 3⁄4in
(21mm) at 330 yards (302m)

Box magazine
holds five rounds

Muzzle brake

T-shaped monopod
supports weight of rifle

▶ FLAK 36 AA/AT GUN Designed as an anti-aircraft (AA) gun,
the famed “88,” as it was known,
Date 1936 was found to be highly effective as
Origin Germany an anti-tank gun. It could be put in
Weight 8.1 tons (7.4 tonnes) position very quickly—within three
Length 19ft (5.79m) minutes—although its bulk and
Caliber 88mm height made it difficult to conceal.
Armor penetration 61⁄4in It was able to fire up to 20 rounds
(159mm) at 1,094 yards (1,000m) per minute.

Road wheels

Ten-round
box magazine

▲ LAHTI L39 ANTI-TANK RIFLE Plywood skis ▼ PANZERBÜSCHE 39 The PanzerbÜsche 39 relied
for balance ANTI-TANK RIFLE on its very high muzzle
Date 1939 velocity and tungsten-cored
Date 1940 bullet to penetrate enemy
Origin Finland armor. It was, however,
Origin Germany expensive to manufacture,
Weight 109lb (49.5kg) Weight 273⁄4lb (12.6kg) and was only produced in
Barrel 41⁄4ft (1.3m) Barrel 31⁄2ft (1.08m) small numbers.

Caliber 20 × 138Bmm Folding stock Caliber 7.92 × 94mm
Armor penetration 11⁄4in (30mm) (extended)
at 109 yards (100m) Armor penetration 1in
(25mm) at 328 yards (300m)
The L39’s enormous size and weight
gave it the nickname “Elephant Gun.”
It was used to good effect during the
WinterWar of 1939–40.

Barrel with integral
recoil mechanism

359

Shoulder rest containing ▼ PIAT The PIAT (Projector, Infantry, ANTI-TANK WEAPONS
battery for electrical launch Anti-Tank), like the Sten, was
Date 1942 a wartime expedient design
Origin UK that put function before form.
Weight 32lb (14.5kg) It was actually a spigot mortar
Length 39in (99cm) that fired a bomb with a
Armor penetration 3in (75mm) shaped-charge warhead.
at 120 yards (110m)

▲ M1A1 “BAZOOKA” The Bazooka was essentially a Trough held bomb
Date 1942 tube that launched a solid fuel before launch
Origin US rocket with a shaped-charge
Weight 131⁄4lb (6kg) warhead. It was operated
Length 41⁄2ft (1.37m) by two men—one who
Caliber 60mm fired and one who loaded.
Armor penetration 43⁄4in
(120mm) at 150 yards (138m) Supporting ▼ M1942 FIELD/
monopod ANTI-TANK GUN
Double baffle
muzzle break Propellant charge Date 1942
contained in body tube
Breech Origin Soviet Union
Shield to
protect crew Weight 2 tons (1.73 tonnes)

Length 133⁄4ft (4.18m)

Armor penetration 33⁄4in
(98mm) at 545 yards (500m)

Although designed as a divisional
field gun, the M1942 could also
destroy armor with high-explosive
and armor-piercing rounds.

Split trail
Muzzle brake

8.8cm gun

Stabilizing 7.92mm MG-34 machine-
leg (unfolded) gun for local defense

Turretless Sloped frontal ◀ SD. KFZ. 173
main hull armor JAGDPANTHER

Muzzle Date 1944
brake
Origin Germany

Weight 50.7 tons (46 tonnes)

Length 321⁄2ft (9.9m)

Top speed 281⁄2mph (46kph)

Armor penetration 71⁄2in
(193mm) at 1,094yards (1,000m)

Arguably the finest armored fighting
vehicle of the war, the Jagdpanther
tank destroyer combined mobility,
armor protection, and a devastating
high-velocity main gun.

360

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5 TRUCKS, HALF-TRACKS, ▲ SDKFZ 251-8 AUSF C HALF-TRACK
AND LIGHT VEHICLES
Date 1940 Origin Germany
While tanks and other armored fighting vehicles have been
regarded as the most effective vehicles of WorldWar II, it was the trucks, Weight 8.6 tons (7.8 tonnes)
cars, half-tracks, and other light vehicles that provided the vital logistical
backup to the vast armies of the Allies and the Axis powers. For the first Length 19ft (5.8m)
time in history, troops in auxiliary services began to outnumber front-line
troops. Such support was vital. Not only was there a vast range of vehicles, Top speed 33mph (52.5kph)
but a specific model could also come in a bewildering range of variants, each
designed to suit a particular role in differing conditions. Engine Maybach HL 42 6-cylinder
100hp (74.6kW) gasoline engine
Fuel can
Although originally intended as an APC
(Armored Personnel Carrier), the SDKFZ
251 half-track proved so useful that at
least 22 separate variants were developed,
including this 251-8 battlefield ambulance.
Other variants included anti-tank, rocket
launcher, and anti-aircraft versions.

Armored Ax Unditching roller Helmet and canteen
sides on spare wheel,
▶ R75 MOTORCYCLE COMBINATION
▲ M3A1 SCOUT CAR Date 1941 Origin Germany mounted on sidecar
Date 1940 Origin US Weight 882lb (400kg)
Weight 4.4 tons (4.03 tonnes) Length 73⁄4ft (2.4m) Cylinder Side pannier
Length 181⁄4ft (5.6m) Top speed 59mph (95kph) head
Top speed 55mph (89kph) Engine Four-stroke 2-cylinder flat-twin
Engine Hercules JXD 6-cylinder 25hp (19kW) gasoline engine
110hp (82kW) gasoline engine
Manufactured by BMW, the R75 was powered
Developed as a light armored car to support by a 750cc engine and utilized a drivetrain that
American mechanized formations, the M3A1 powered the rear wheels of both the bike and
suffered from poor off-road mobility, although the sidecar. Many were armed with a 7.92mm
its best design features were incorporated into MG34 machine-gun.
the half-tracks that succeeded it.

Windshield (folded forward)

▶ WILLYS JEEP
Date 1941 Origin US
Weight 1.14 tons (1.04 tonnes)
Length 11ft (3.33m)
Top speed 55mph (89kph)
Engine Willys 4-cylinder 60hp (45kW)
gasoline engine

Technically known as a truck,
but more commonly called a jeep,
this iconic WorldWar II vehicle
was rugged, reliable, and
eminently versatile. It
had space for four crew.

Wheel with four-wheel-
drive transmission

361

▶ DODGE T214-WC56 COMMAND Engine Radio aerial TRUCKS, HALF-TRACKS, AND LIGHT VEHICLES
RECONNAISSANCE LIGHT TRUCK hood
Date 1942 Origin US
Angled Weight 2.7 tons (2.45 tonnes)
armor Length 14ft (4.24m)
plate Top speed 54mph (87kph)
Engine Dodge T214 6-cylinder
92hp (69kW) gasoline engine Spare wheel Fuel can
One of a series of light trucks, the command
reconnaissance (WC56) was often used by senior Rear machine-gun Forward machine-gun
officers. It was fitted with map boards and internal Fuel can
lighting, as well as a canvas top and side-screens. Haversacks slung on
external rail
Engine hood

Radiator
grill

Fuel
can

▲ GMC 2½-TON 6X6 TRUCK Caterpillar tracks

Date 1939 Origin US Spare wheel ▲ M5 HALF-TRACK ▼ SCHWIMMWAGEN

Weight 5.05 tons (4.58 tonnes) Date 1942 Origin US Date 1942 Origin Germany

Length 211⁄4ft (6.5m) Weight 10.2 tons (9.3 tonnes) Weight 2,006lb (910kg)
Length 121⁄2ft (3.83m)
Top speed 45mph (72kph) Length 203⁄4ft (6.33m)
Top speed 50mph (80kph); 6mph
Engine 6-cylinder 90hp (67.3kW) Top speed 42mph (68kph) (10kph) on water
gasoline engine
Engine International Harvester RED- Engine 4-cylinder air-cooled
Nicknamed the “Jimmy,” the GMC-produced 450-B 6-cylinder 141hp (105kW) 25hp (18.4kW) gasoline engine
truck was one of the workhorses of American gasoline engine
logistics in Europe from 1944 to 1945. Based on the Volkswagen, the
Reliable, with a good cargo load, the six- Designed to provide mobility and protection Schwimmwagen (swimming car) was a
wheel-drive vehicle could cope with all for infantry advancing into battle, this M5 fully amphibious four-wheel-drive vehicle,
but the roughest conditions. was broadly similar to its more famous M3 which could tackle snow, mud, and water
cousin. More than 40,000 half-tracks of obstacles encountered on campaign.
Fuel can various specifications were used by the US
duringWorldWar II. Paddle in case of
engine failure

Fold-down
windshield

Tow hook
Leaf suspension

Watertight hull Front wheels used for
steering in water

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5362 ◀ FELDMÜTZE

UNIFORMS AND EQUIPMENT Date 1934

During World War II, military uniforms went through a transitional Origin Germany
phase as old gave way to new.Traditional uniforms—such as those
worn by the Japanese infantryman—distinguished the soldier Material Wool
from both the enemy and civilians, and provided him
with a sense of solidarity with his fellow troops.The Nicknamed the Schiffchen (little
new functional uniforms, however, typically worn ship) by the ordinary soldier, the
by specialists such as fliers and armored troops, Feldmütze (side cap) was issued to
were designed with practical considerations Panzer (tank) troops, and included
in mind.This approach to uniform would the famous death’s head insignia
become increasingly common in of Prussia’s Black Hussars.
the post-war era.

Leather
peak

Rank insignia ▲ PANZER JACKET Panzer crews were
Date 1930s issued with black, hip-
▲ IMPERIAL JAPANESE Origin Germany length, double-breasted
ARMY UNIFORM Material Wool jackets.The color helped
Date 1930 conceal oil and grease stains.
Origin Japan
Material Cotton (wool ▶ BRODIE HELMET Helmet pressed from Cuff title of SS-Leibstandarte
in winter) single steel sheet Adolf Hitler division, Hitler’s
Date 1939 personal bodyguard
Formation
Origin UK insignia P40 “austerity
version” without
Material Steel pleated pockets

Designed by the British inventor and front fly
John Brodie, this was the
standard steel helmet worn
by British troops during both
world wars. Based on the shape
of a medieval kettle hat, the
helmet gave protection from
shrapnel and shell splinters.

This infantryman’s uniform ▶ BATTLEDRESS JACKET
was worn during the early
stages of WorldWar II. It Date 1942
consisted of a peaked cap and
the single-breasted M90 tunic, Origin UK
which had a stand-and-fall collar.
Material Wool

Battledress was a new uniform
adopted by the British Army
from 1939 onward.
It included trousers
and a short jacket (or
blouse).This simpler
P40 battledress
jacket utilized less
fabric and was
introduced in 1942.

363

US Army Air UNIFORMS AND EQUIPMENT
Force insignia

Apron to protect Webbing with red
lower abdomen quick-release tab

▲ FLAK JACKET Designed to protect US bomber crews
Date 1942 from low-velocity fragments, these
Origin US early examples of flak jackets consisted
Material Nylon, steel of steel plates sewn into a multi-layered
nylon jerkin.

◀ B10 FLYING JACKET Issued to US air crews, the B10 featured
a fur collar and zip opening. It also had
Date 1943 knitted wrists and waistband to help its
wearer retain body warmth.
Origin US
Sergeant’s rank insignia
Material Cotton (with on shoulder board
alpaca lining)

Web harness

Magazine ▲ M1936 PISTOL BELT First-aid kit Pocket
pouch Leather holster for
Date 1930s M1911 pistol ▲ TELOGREIKA The telogreika (body warmer) was a quilted
Entrenching Date 1930s jacket issued to Soviet troops during the
tool Origin US Upper-leg tie Origin Soviet Union winter months.The fabric of the jacket was
Material Cotton, cotton wool stuffed with cotton wool, which helped
Material Webbing, leather keep out the worst of the cold.

The pistol belt was developed for
non-riflemen, such as officers or
tank crews, and typically included
a pistol holster, ammunition
pouches, water bottle, and, in
this instance, a web harness.

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5364 ▲ MAUSER The Gewehr 98 was issued
INFANTERIEGEWEHR 98 to the German army during
SELF-LOADING RIFLES both world wars. Although
Date 1898 somewhat cumbersome
The old bolt-action rifles developed during the final years Origin Germany when used in confined spaces,
of the 19th century were still in service at the outbreak of World Weight 9lb (4.15kg) the rifle was rugged, reliable,
War II, and despite their age remained highly effective. But Barrel 29in (74cm) and accurate.
the war proved to be a transitional stage for the rifle.The first Caliber 7.92mm
major breakthrough took place with the introduction of the Fixed-focus
self-loading rifle, which allowed repeated shots to be fired by eyepiece
simply pulling the trigger.The key development, however, came
with the German Sturmgewehr 44, the first assault rifle and
forerunner of the AK47, its revolutionary medium-powered
7.92 × 33mm cartridge allowing soldiers to deliver effective
automatic fire for the first time.

▶ MOSIN-NAGANT The M1891/30 was the Cocking handle
M1891/30PU standard rifle of the Red
Army duringWorldWar II.
Date 1930 Selected models of the rifle
Origin Soviet Union were fitted with a 3.5-power
Weight 83⁄4lb (4kg) PU telescopic sight, to be
Barrel 29in (73cm) used by snipers.
Caliber 7.62mm
Rear sight

▲ M1 GARAND RIFLE Safety catch ▲ LEE ENFIELD Ten-round detachable
RIFLE NO. 4 box magazine
Date 1932 Integral five-round
magazine Date 1939 A successor to the SMLE
Origin US Origin UK rifle of WorldWar I fame,
Weight 9lb (4.1kg) the Lee Enfield rifle No. 4
Weight 91⁄2lb (4.31kg) Barrel 25in (64cm) had a heavier barrel and a
Caliber .303in relocated rear sight, and was
Barrel 24in (61cm) designed for mass production.

Caliber .30-06

Designed by John Garand, the
M1 rifle was the first general issue
self-loading rifle to be accepted
for military service. By the end
of World War II, over five million
of them had been manufactured.

▲ MAUSER KAR98K Rate-of-fire selector
Pistol grip
Date 1935

Origin Germany

Weight 81⁄2lb (3.9kg)

Barrel 231⁄2in (60cm)

Caliber 7.92mm × 57

The “Karabiner” 98K was a
modified version of the Gewehr 98,
and became the standard German
rifle of World War II. More than
14 million were manufactured
between 1935 and 1945. During
that time, the design was further
simplified to speed up production.

365

Cleaning rod Perforated sheet- SELF-LOADING RIFLES
steel hand guard

Ten-round detachable ▲ TOKAREV SVT40 During the 1930s, the
box magazine Date 1940 Soviet designers worked
Origin Soviet Union on the development of a
Weight 81⁄2lb (3.9kg) self-loading rifle, and this
Barrel 24in (61cm) led to the introduction of the
Caliber 7.62mm × 54R SVT40—usually issued to
NCOs or trained marksmen.
Cocking handle

Sling attachment

15-round detachable ▲ M1 CARBINE The M1 carbine was a popular
box magazine Date 1941 lightweight weapon. It used
Origin US an intermediate cartridge, the
Weight 51⁄4lb (2.4kg) power of which was between
Barrel 18in (46cm) that of a rifle and pistol. It was
Caliber .30in Carbine also produced with a folding
butt for paratroopers.

Cocking handle

Semipistol
grip

▲ GEWEHR 43 The German army’s request Ten-round
Date 1943 for a self-loading rifle to increase detachable magazine
Origin Germany infantry firepower led to the
Weight 91⁄2lb (4.35kg) introduction of the successful
Barrel 22in (56cm) Gewehr 43. A number of them
Caliber 7.92mm × 57 were fitted with telescopic
sights and used as sniper rifles.

Rear sight Fore sight Steel butt plate

Gas cylinder cap/
stacking hook

▲ STURMGEWEHR 44 ▼ MOSIN-NAGANT CARBINE M1944 In 1910, the Mosin-Nagant rifle was Folding
Date 1944 modified to produce a carbine by cruciform bayonet
Date 1943 Origin Soviet Union shortening its barrel. In 1938, it was
Weight 81⁄2lb (3.9kg) revamped, and in 1944, it attained
Origin Germany Barrel 201⁄4in (51.7cm) its final form with the addition of
Caliber 7.62mm × 54R a folding bayonet.
Weight 111⁄4lb (5.1kg)

Barrel 161⁄2in (41.8cm)

Caliber 7.92mm × 33 Kurz

One of the most influential firearms
of the 20th century, the StG 44 was
manufactured using pressed-steel that
was easier to produce. Its medium-
powered cartridge enabled properly
controlled automatic fire.

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5366 ▶ COLT M1911A1 Recoil spring
housing
PERSONAL WEAPONS Date 1924
Butt houses
While the rifle was the prime weapon of the infantryman, other Origin US seven-round
troops, such as officers, NCOs, tank crews, and airmen, required something removable magazine
more maneuverable for their personal protection.The solution to their Weight 21⁄2lb (1.1kg)
requirement was provided by submachine-guns, pistols, and revolvers— Receiver
all of which used the light but low-powered pistol round. In practice, Barrel 5in (12.7cm) machined from
revolvers and pistols were rarely used in combat, but the submachine-gun, solid steel billet
which was light and had a high rate of automatic fire, proved to be a key Caliber .45in ACP
weapon of WorldWar II. It was particularly useful in close-combat
conditions, such as house-clearing and jungle fighting. Adopted in response to demands
for a handgun with guaranteed
stopping power, the Browning-
designed M1911A1 replaced the
M1911 of World War I. It was
used by the US armed forces
during World War II and after.

▶ THOMPSON M1921 Forward Magazine
pistol grip release catch
Date 1921
Rear pistol
Origin US grip
Weight 103⁄4lb (4.88kg)
Barrel 101⁄2in (26.7cm)

Caliber .45 ACP

Nicknamed the “Tommy Gun,”
the Thompson submachine-gun
was an effective weapon but
expensive to manufacture and
somewhat difficult to maintain.

Eight-round Winder for 50-ROUND ▶ BROWNING GP35
magazine clockwork DRUM MAGAZINE Date 1935
mechanism Origin Belgium
▲ TOKAREV TT MODEL 1933 Weight 35oz (990g)
Date 1933 ▼ ASTRA M901 Barrel 43⁄4in (11.8cm)
Origin Soviet Union Date 1927 Caliber 9mm Parabellum
Weight 291⁄2oz (830g) Origin Spain A Browning-designed pistol, the
Barrel 41⁄2in (11.6cm) Weight 43⁄4lb (2.1kg) GP35 was used by both Allies and
Caliber 7.62mm Barrel 61⁄2in (16cm) Germans during World War II.
Caliber 7.63mm Mauser It proved to be both rugged and
The Tokarev TT33 was the first This self-loading pistol was part of reliable and continues in use today.
self-loading pistol to be issued the Astra 900 series, a copy of the
to the Red Army. It lacked a Schnellfeuer (“Rapidfire”) version 20-round
safety catch, but could be put of the Mauser C/96. It had an fixed magazine
on half-cock. automatic-fire capability, but was
difficult to control in that mode.

367

▶ PPSH-41 Over five million PERSONAL WEAPONS
Date 1939 examples of this sturdy
Origin Soviet Union and dependable weapon
Weight 73⁄4lb (3.5kg) had been manufactured
Barrel 101⁄2in (27cm) for the Red Army by the
Caliber 7.62mm end of WorldWar II.

Rear sight adjustable for Cocking-handle cover Flash suppressor
windage and elevation acts as safety catch
The M3 “Grease Gun,”
Retractable ▲ M3A1 and the improved M3A1
skeleton butt Date 1940s version, was cheap to
Origin US produce and simple to
Carrying Weight 8lb (3.66kg) strip, clean, and maintain.
sling Barrel 8in (20.3cm) It fired the same heavy
Caliber .45in ACP pistol round used in the
Colt M1911A1.
30-round detachable
box magazine

Wooden butt stock, ▶ MP40 Skeleton butt
removable in some models stock (folded)
Date 1940
32-round
Origin Germany magazine

Weight 9lb (4.03kg)

Barrel 10in (24.8cm)

Caliber 9mm Parabellum

The MP40 had a revolutionary design that
used simple steel pressings, die-cast parts,
and plastics. It was an improved version
of its predecessor the MP38, and was
much cheaper to produce because it
had fewer machined parts.

Rear sight

Fixed steel
butt stock

▲ STEN MARK II Cheap and easy to
Date 1941 manufacture, the
Origin UK Sten was a stop-gap
Weight 81⁄4lb (3.7kg) weapon that was to
Barrel 73⁄4in (19.7cm) prove itself an effective
Caliber 9mm submachine-gun.The
gun was fitted with a
Butt houses 13-round 32-round magazine.
removable magazine

▲ BERETTA MODELLO One of the finest
1938/42 weapons of its type to
see service during World
Date 1942 War II, the M38/42 was
Origin Italy well-made, reliable, and,
Weight 71⁄4lb (3.27kg) for a submachine-gun,
Barrel 81⁄2in (21.3cm) surprisingly accurate.
Caliber 9mm
High-quality Double trigger Extended
wooden stock for automatic 40-round
and single-shot fire magazine

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5368 ▶ VICKERS MK I Canvas Water jacket
ammunition belt with fabric
WATER- AND AIR-COOLED Date 1912 cover
M AC H I N E - GU NS
Origin UK Water can condensed
The air-cooled machine-guns of WorldWar II marked steam from jacket
a shift away from the water-cooled models of World War I, Weight 40lb (18.1kg) for recycling
although a notable exception was the tried-and-testedVickers. Fore sight
Another trend was the twin development of the light machine- Barrel 281⁄2in (72.1cm)
gun, with examples such as the Bren and the Breda, and the
heavy machine-gun, exemplified by the Degtyarev DShK1938 Caliber .303in
and the Browning M2 HB.The key technological development
came from Germany, however, with the introduction of the Employed in both world wars,
MG34.The first general-purpose machine-gun, it combined the water-cooled Vickers was
the sustained-fire role of the heavy or medium machine-gun an extremely reliable medium
with the portability of the light machine-gun. machine-gun, and, when firing
the Mk 8Z bullet, was capable of a
range of up to 2.54 miles (4.1km).

Rear sight Ammunition
belt feedway

▶ BROWNING M1919 Trigger
Pistol grip
Date 1919

Origin US

Weight 31lb (14.06kg)

Barrel 24in (61cm)

Caliber .3in

The M1919 was an air-cooled
version of the earlier M1917,
and it proved to be a first-rate
medium machine-gun, supporting
US infantrymen throughout
WorldWar II.

▼ BREDA MODELLO 30 The standard light machine-
Date 1930 gun of the Italian army, the
Origin Italy Breda Modello 30 utilized
Weight 223⁄4lb (10.32kg) a novel 20-round-strip feed
Barrel 201⁄2in (52cm) system, but proved chronically
Caliber 6.5 × 54mm unreliable and too delicate
for battlefield conditions.

Wooden stock

Tripod leg

▼ FM MODEL 1924/29 With a firing mechanism based 25-round Folding magazine Bipod
Date 1930s on that of the Browning BAR, detachable
Origin France the FM M1924/29 suffered box magazine Bipod
Weight 191⁄2lb (8.93kg) from cartridge problems, which (folded)
Barrel 20in (50cm) were resolved by the time it
Caliber 7.5 × 57mm became the French army’s
standard light machine-gun
inWorldWar II.

Dual triggers for semi- Fore end or hand guard
and fully automatic fire

369

Spade grips WAT E R - A N D A I R - C O O L E D M AC H I N E - G U N S

▲ BROWNING M2 HB Ammunition belt ▼ MG34 The MG34 was a revolutionary
Date 1933 supporting box Date 1935 design—light, yet robust enough
Origin US Origin Germany to deliver sustained fire at 900
Weight 84lb (38.1kg) Flash suppressor Weight 251⁄4lb (11.5kg) rounds per minute. However,
Barrel 33⁄4ft (1.14m) Barrel 243⁄4in (62.7cm) it was difficult and expensive to
Caliber .5in Caliber 7.92 × 57mm manufacture and was subsequently
The highly effective “fifty cal” replaced by the MG42.
M2 HB (heavy barrel) has been
used as key armament in aircraft, Ammunition
on armored vehicles, and by belt feed
ground troops. It remains in
service even today.

Barrel jacket

30-round ▼ BREN GUN Originally developed in Brno,
detachable Date 1938 Czechoslovakia, and modified at
box magazine Origin UK Enfield in London (hence its name),
Weight 221⁄4lb (10.15kg) the dependable Bren was the British
Rear sight Barrel 25in (63.5cm) Army’s light machine-gun during
Caliber .303in World War II, and remained in
service until the 1980s.

Left-hand grip

Cocking handle Gas cylinder Adjustable
gas regulator
Tripod
attachment point ◀ MG42
Date 1942
▼ DEGTYAREV DSHK1938 Employed as the Red Army’s Muzzle brake Origin Germany
Date 1938 heavy machine-gun, the Weight 251⁄4lb (11.5kg)
Origin Soviet Union DShK1938 was similar to Barrel 21in (53.3cm)
Weight 731⁄2lb (33.3kg) the .5in Browning M2. It Caliber 7.92 × 57mm
Barrel 31⁄2ft (1m) enjoyed a similar range of A successor to the MG34, the
Caliber 12.7 × 108mm uses and longevity—some MG42 had an extraordinarily high
are still in service. rate of fire—over 1,200 rounds
per minute—and, when used with
Ventilated Lafette 42 a tripod, was capable of sustained
barrel shroud heavy tripod long-range fire.

Pad for ease
of carrying

Nondisintegrating steel
ammunition belt

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5370 ◀ 40MM BOFORS Considered to be one of the
ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUN finest anti-aircraft guns of
A RT I L L E RY Date 1934 the war, combining accuracy,
Origin Sweden range, and a decent-sized
The story of artillery in WorldWar II was one of Weight 2.6 tons (2.4 tonnes) projectile, the Bofors was
evolution from the firepower of the previous world Length 71⁄4ft (2.25m) exported throughout the
war. Field pieces gradually became more mobile, ranges Caliber 40mm world, and used by both
increased, and radio communications improved tactical Range 41⁄2 miles (7.2km) Axis and Allied armies.
flexibility. One new development, however, was the
widespread introduction of rocket artillery, such as Automatic
the German Nebelwerfer, which were able to cover ammunition feed
large areas with a carpet of high explosive. Artillery
continued to play a key role in both attack and defence, Road wheels
and this was the reason that the Soviet armed forces
described it as the “Red God of War.”

▼ 50MM LIGHT MORTAR 36 Stabilizing
Date 1936 outrigger
Origin Germany
Weight 31lb (14kg) Muzzle brake
Caliber 50mm
Range 5681⁄2 yards (520m) Long 40-caliber barrel

Despite its designation as a light ▶ 155MM M1A1 GUN The M1A1 was the
mortar, with the tube and baseplate Date 1941 mainstay of US long-range
combined the M36 was a somewhat Origin US artillery during World War II,
heavy mortar, and its complex and Weight 15.3 tons (13.9 tonnes) capable of firing a 95lb (43kg)
costly design led to it being phased Length 24ft (7.36m) high-explosive shell. Other ammunition
out of service from 1941. Caliber 155mm included smoke, chemical, illuminating,
Range 141⁄2 miles (23.22km) and even anti-tank rounds.
Carrying
handle

Muzzle of short
howitzer barrel

Baseplate

▼ 122MM M1938 HOWITZER Also known as the M30, this
Date 1939 field howitzer was a mainstay
Origin Soviet Union of the Red Army’s artillery
Weight 3.4 tons (3.1 tonnes) division. Maintained by a
Length 191⁄4ft (5.9m) crew of eight, it was capable
Caliber 122mm of a rate of fire of six rounds
Range 71⁄2 miles (11.8km) per minute.

Recoil Steel wheels and pneumatic ▲ 75MM M1A1
system tires of M8 carriage PACK HOWITZER

Trail handles Date 1940

Origin US

Weight 1,440lb (653kg)

Length 12ft (3.68m)

Caliber 75mm

Range 51⁄2 miles (8.79km)

Developed for use on rough
terrain, where it could be broken
down into separate pieces to be
carried by pack animals, the
lightweight M1A1 howitzer was
also successfully assigned to US
airborne forces.

371

▼ 25-POUNDER One of six electrically ◀ 150MM NEBELWERFER 41 Initially developed to fire A RT I L L E RY
GUN-HOWITZER (MK II) fired rocket tubes Date 1941 poisonous gas and smoke
Date 1940 Origin Germany (for battlefield concealment),
Origin UK Weight 1,195lb (542kg) the six-barreled Nebelwerfer
Weight 2 tons (1.8 tonnes) Caliber 150mm could also fire high-explosive
Length 15ft (4.6m) Range 41⁄4 miles (6.9km) rounds to devastating effect
Caliber 88mm against target areas.
Range 73⁄4 miles (12.25km)
An effective compromise between Split-trail carriage from
the gun and the howitzer, the 37mm anti-tank gun
25-pounder came into its own
in the North African Campaign, Muzzle cap
where it was pressed into service
as an ad hoc anti-tank gun. Trail spade

Range cone

Trail

Baseplate
wheels raised

for firing

Firing platform

Tripod for support

Recoil mechanism

Barrel raised in ▲ 4.2IN MORTAR The 4.2in mortar was the
firing position Date 1942 British Army’s heavy mortar,
Origin UK and was manned at divisional
Weight 805lb (365kg) level by crews from the Royal
Caliber 4.2in Artillery. It was capable
Range 21⁄2 miles (3.75km) of firing up to 20 rounds of
20lb (9.1kg) high-explosive
ammunition in a minute.

Heavy split-trail leg Road wheels fitted in
traveling configuration

LANDING BEHIND ENEMY LINES
Allied forces land by parachute and glider near
Arnhem in the German-occupied Netherlands
during Operation Market Garden.The attempt
to seize and hold the bridge over the Rhine
at Arnhem was ambitious and, ultimately, a
costly failure.

373

AIRBORNE ASSAULT OPERATION MARKET GARDEN

OPE R AT ION
MARKET GARDEN

Launched in September 1944, Operation Market Garden was
the largest airborne assault to date, aimed at seizing tactical
objectives in the Netherlands. It might have shortened the
war; but its successes and eventual failure showed both
the strengths and weaknesses of airborne forces.

In August 1944, British and American in heavy fighting, they succeeded in
airborne troops were placed under repelling German counterattacks
unified command as the First Allied but failed to take the vital bridge at
Airborne Army. General Bernard Nijmegen; meanwhile a second round
Montgomery of the British Army of airdrops and glider landings that
planned to use this force to open a should have brought reinforcements
path through the German-occupied was delayed by poor weather.The
Netherlands and into northern British corps successfully made contact
Germany. Airborne troops, both with 82nd Airborne on September 19,
parachute and glider infantry, were to but the bridge was not taken until the
seize and hold a series of bridges and next day, after a high-casualty river
canals to allow the British 30th Corps, crossing by troops in rowing boats.
advancing from the Allied front line,
to move toward the German border. BEST-LAID PLANS
These delays placed Britain’s First
The scale of the airborne operation Airborne Division, attempting to
was unprecedented.Taking off from take the final bridge over the Rhine
England on September 17, the first at Arnhem, in a desperate situation.
wave involved over 20,000 troops The paratroops had landed too far
packed into more than 1,500 transport from their target; with radio and
aircraft and 500 gliders. Allied air navigation problems, they lost
supremacy allowed this aerial armada coherence in the advance toward
to fly to its target areas in daylight, Arnhem, and only one battalion
dropping parachutists and their reached the bridge. German counter-
equipment with varied accuracy. attacks, meanwhile, were ferocious.
The gliders, towed by “tug” aircraft, The presence of two SS panzer
also mostly landed safely. But once divisions in the area had been reported
on the ground, the airborne forces by intelligence sources before the
were in a risky position. Although operation, but the information had
some heavy equipment was landed been ignored: now, infantry divisions
with them, they were unsupported with only light artillery support
infantry deep inside hostile territory. found themselves fighting for their
Once the enemy recovered from the lives against German tanks.
surprise of the initial assault, the lightly
armed troops would have to resist The arrival of the Polish Parachute
counterattacks until the arrival of Brigade to reinforce the British was
the British corps’ tanks and artillery. delayed until September 21, and even
then they were dropped in the wrong
US 101st Airborne Division landed place. After heroic resistance, the
near Eindhoven, closest to the Allied battalion at the bridge surrendered,
front line.They quickly took four of on the same day. On September 25,
the five bridges assigned to them and efforts turned to evacuating surviving
were joined by the advancing British soldiers across the Rhine. In total
armored forces on September 18. 2,398 were saved, but 1,485 had been
US 82nd Airborne were assigned killed and 6,414 taken prisoner.The
responsibility for seizing crossings of operation had failed.
the Maas and Waal Rivers. Engaged

374

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5 AIRBORNE FORCES ◀ M2 PARATROOPER The airborne helmet had a
UNIFORM AND KIT HELMET D-ring chinstrap holder and a
spray-paint camouflage, applied
WorldWar II witnessed an expansion in the Date 1942 by its owner.The “Gingerbread
use of parachute-equipped troops.The strength of Origin US Man” was the emblem of the
airborne formations was their strategic mobility, Material Steel 509th Airborne Battalion.
but once the paratrooper landed he became a
heavily burdened infantryman, lacking both tactical Unsprayed collar
mobility and firepower. Miniaturized motorcycles
and simple folding bicycles were used to improve D-ring “Gingerbread US identification badge
his capability but had limited success. Light mortars chinstrap holder Man” emblem (covered during night
and shoulder-launched anti-tank weapons, used by operations)
conventional infantry, provided the paratrooper
with portable “artillery.”

▶ M1942 JUMP JACKET The olive green jacket was
Date 1942 spray-painted at unit level.
Origin US The uniform was sprayed
Material Cotton poplin while on the body, the soldier
covering his head with a
cardboard box.This left the
collar untouched by paint.

▼ JUMP BOOTS Waistbelt ▼ M1A1 CARBINE The M1 Carbine had already proved
Date 1942 to gather in Date 1942 to be popular with soldiers who
Origin US bulky jacket Origin US needed a lightweight weapon. For
Material Leather, rubber, canvas Weight 51⁄4lb (2.36kg) airborne forces, this special M1A1
The coveted status symbol of the Additional Barrel 18in (45.7cm) variant was produced, complete
US airborne forces, jump boots support provided Caliber .3in with a folding stock for use during
were designed for parachuting by high-leg boot parachute drops.
safety, with reinforced toecaps,
internal ankle supports, and Pockets double-stitched
a beveled heel to prevent to prevent ripping
the heel from snagging on
the uneven aircraft floor. when carrying grenades
Chromed leather
Built-in
canvas Rear sight
ankle
support

Heel beveled
backward

Detachable 15-round Wooden stock
box magazine

Folding stock

375

Attachment ◀ M36 MUSETTE BAG ◀ TYPE T5 PARACHUTE AIRBORNE FORCES UNIFORM AND KIT
straps
Date 1936 Date c.1940

Origin US Origin US

Material Canvas Material Silk (later rayon)

This versatile mini-haversack held The T5 was the standard parachute
ammunition, rations, and personal used by the US Army throughout
effects.The rope was included in case World War II. Static lines attached to
the soldier needed to free himself the plane automatically deployed the
from a tree or building on landing. parachute as the paratrooper jumped
from the aircraft.

Rope 33ft (10m) Pull-out Leather washers
in length panel covering form grip
main parachute
Standard issue raincoat
folded under flap Recurved quillons

Leg straps of
cotton webbing

Folding sight ▼ FG42 AUTOMATIC RIFLE ▶ MK3 FIGHTING KNIFE

Date 1943 Date 1943

Origin Germany Origin US
Weight 81⁄2oz (240g)
Weight 10lb (4.53kg) Length 111⁄2in (29.5cm)

Barrel 193⁄4in (50.2cm) Based partly on the British Fairburn-
Sykes commando knife, the Mk3 was
Caliber 7.9mm intended for hand-to-hand combat.
Paratroopers strapped the knife on
The FG42 was a fully automatic to their lower leg for ease of access.
weapon designed to provide long-
range firepower to paratroopers on the Metal Diamond-
ground. It pioneered a “straight-line” butt stock section blade
butt-to-muzzle layout and employed
a gas-operated firing mechanism.

Spike Bipod Sprocket with
legs Birmingham
▶ AIRBORNE Small Arms
GRAVITY KNIFE Slanting pistol grip (BSA) logo
Date 1937
Origin Germany Rear red lens light
Weight 121⁄2oz (350g)
Length 10in (25.3cm) ▶ BSA FOLDING BICYCLE
Date 1943
Issued to German paratroopers, Origin UK
this knife could be opened Weight (Frame) 41⁄2lb (2kg)
with one hand.When the The armed forces had used folding
operating lever was opened, bicycles extensively during World
the blade fell forward due War I, but this lightweight model was
to gravity. It was intended designed especially for commandos
primarily to help the soldier and airborne forces, to provide them
free himself from a tangled some much-needed mobility.
parachute harness.

T H E WO R L D WA R S 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 4 5376 ▶ SOE JUMP SUIT

RESISTANCE WEAPONS Date 1941
AND EQUIPMENT
Origin UK
Formed in July 1940, the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) was
given the task of conducting irregular warfare throughout German-occupied Material Weatherproofed cotton
Europe, providing support to local resistance movements. SOE placed a
premium on lightweight, covert communications equipment, so that when Designed for use by covert-action
its agents were operating behind enemy lines they could maintain contact with personnel parachuting into occupied
Britain.There was also a requirement for stealth weapons that could silently territory, the camouflage suit protected
eliminate sentries or assassinate selected individuals. SOE was subsequently the clothing underneath from damage.
joined in its espionage operations by the American Office for Strategic It also had numerous pockets to hold
Services (OSS), which placed a similar emphasis on specialized weapons. vital equipment.

RADIO ANTENNA

Headset

Microphone ◀ SOE S-PHONE TRANSCEIVER Inner pockets to
Date c.1942 hold kit securely
Origin UK
Type Ultra-high frequency duplex Full-length zipper
radio telephone to allow quick

A miniaturized transmitter and removal of jump suit
receiver, the S-Phone weighed just
15lb (7kg), and enabled an agent Radio concealed
to speak to the pilot of an aircraft in leather suitcase
30 miles (48km) away at a height of
up to 10,000ft (3,050m).

Cable

DUPLEX TRANSCEIVER

▶ SOE TYPE 3 (MK II)
SUITCASE RADIO
Date c.1942
Origin UK
Type Portable transmitter/receiver station

Designed for agents working in enemy territory,
the radio could transmit and receive messages
to ranges of up to 500 miles (800km). It
contained a modular receiver, transmitter,
power supply unit, and miniature Morse key.

377

Bowie-knife RESISTANCE WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT
style blade

Rubber
loops

Horn grip with “beaked”
pommel and five rivets

Embossed leather Crossbow frame
sheath

▲ V44 SURVIVAL KNIFE Originally ordered by the US Army Air Metal bolt
Date 1934 Corps as a survival aid for downed aircrew,
Origin US this fearsome-looking weapon became
Weight 21⁄2lb (1.1kg) popular with US troops fighting in the
Length 131⁄2in (34.5cm) Pacific Theater of Operations—the area of
operations of US forces during the PacificWar.

Windlass handle to
tension rubber loops

T-shape fits in palm CROSSBOW

▲ “MIDDLE EAST” PATTERN Cast from a single piece of brass, this knife BOLT ▲ “BIG JOE” CROSSBOW
KNUCKLE-DUSTER KNIFE had four protruding studs on the hilt for AND BOLT
punching.The steel blade had a single cutting Barrel containing baffles Date c.1943
Date c.1943 edge that swept upward to a point, making and wipes to suppress sound Origin US
Origin UK this knife suitable for stabbing upward. Weight 83⁄4lb (4kg)
Weight 153⁄4oz (450g) Breech block Length 26in (66cm)
Length 113⁄4in (30cm)
This OSS crossbow was powered
▲ WELROD Combined fore sight by rubber loops that were tensioned
SILENCED PISTOL and trigger guard by a windlass handle before firing.
The front frame and shoulder stock
Date c.1943 Developed at SOE’s Station IX, could be folded for ease of transport.
Origin UK the Welrod was an exceptionally
Weight 21⁄2lb (1.2kg) quiet assassination weapon, ◀ FP-45 LIBERATOR PISTOL
Barrel 12in (30.5cm) especially when firing subsonic Date 1942
Caliber 9mm ammunition.The sights were Origin US
marked with fluorescent paint Weight 153⁄4oz (450g)
Pistol grip for low-light conditions. Barrel 4in (10cm)
containing Caliber .45in
six-round Cocking handle
magazine Designed by OSS as a simple and
very cheap gun, the Liberator was
intended to be paradropped to
resistance groups. It had ten rounds
of ammunition and was delivered with
illustrated strip instructions for use.

◀ STEN MK6 The silenced version of the
Date 1944 Mk5, the Mk6 featured
Origin UK improvements such as a wooden
Weight 10lb (4.5kg) butt stock and pistol grip. It was
Barrel 73⁄4in (19.7cm) produced on request from SOE
Caliber 9mm for guerrilla operations in Europe.

HIROSHIMA IN RUINS
The city was targeted partly because there were
no hills to deflect the force of the explosion.
Only earthquake-proof structures of reinforced
concrete were left standing; the rest were
destroyed in the blast or went up in flames.

379

N UC L E A R WA R FA R E THE BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA

THE BOMBING OF
H I RO SH I M A

When US aircraft dropped atom bombs on the Japanese cities
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 in a bid to end
World War II, it opened a new perilous chapter in the history
of warfare. For the first time, weapons had been created that
were so destructive that their use had to be avoided at all costs.

The first test of a nuclear device took Hiroshima had been chosen as the first
place at Alamogordo in the New target because it was arguably of military
Mexican desert on July 16, 1945.The significance, with a barracks and port,
explosion was equivalent to nearly and was also largely undamaged, unlike
20,000 tons of TNT and generated most Japanese cities already devastated
temperatures three times hotter than by conventional bombing.A large and
the core of the Sun.The detonation flat urban area with a population of
was the culmination of the top-secret 300,000, Hiroshima would demonstrate
Manhattan Project, which had been the maximum effect of the bomb.
initiated in December 1941 and
headed by General Leslie Groves. Colonel Tibbets chose to lead the
operation in person. He piloted the
The objective of the project was to B-29 designated to carry the “Little
produce an atom bomb and deliver it Boy” bomb and had his mother’s
on an enemy target, and to this end maiden name, Enola Gay, written
Groves had not only directed teams on the aircraft’s side.
of scientists and engineers, but also
set up a special flying group to drop The Enola Gay was escorted by
the bomb. Group 509 of the US Army two other B-29s and arrived over
Air Force, commanded by Colonel Hiroshima at 8:15am on August 6
Paul Tibbets,was equipped with the after an uneventful flight from Tinian.
Boeing B-29 Superfortress, America’s The aircraft released the bomb from
latest bomber aircraft, which had the an altitude of 30,000 feet, and it
range to strike Japanese cities from detonated in the air a minute later
US-held Pacific island bases. over the center of the city.

In late July and early August, TOTAL DESTRUCTION
components for a uranium-based
atomic bomb, codenamed “Little Boy,” The destruction surpassed all
and several plutonium-based bombs, expectations: almost every building
codenamed “Fat Man,” were delivered was destroyed over an area of
to the island of Tinian in the Marianas, 7.5 miles (12 square km) and
where Colonel Tibbets’ B-29s were estimates of the death toll range
based.The intention was to drop the from 80,000 to 140,000. Of this
bombs on selected Japanese cities number, those not killed immediately
as soon as the components had by the effect of the heat flash and blast
been assembled and when weather died of radiation sickness over the
conditions permitted. following months.

On July 26, after the Potsdam Three days later the “Fat Man”
conference attended by America, plutonium bomb was dropped on
Britain, and the Soviet Union, the another city, Nagasaki. It killed an
US and its allies called on Japan to estimated 35,000 to 80,000 people
surrender or face “prompt and utter —a lower figure because hills had
destruction.”When this call was restricted the bomb’s effectiveness.
rejected by Japan two days later, Japan surrendered on August 15,
preparations for the world’s first heralding the end of World War II.
nuclear strike went ahead. No nuclear device has been used
in warfare since.

THE1 9 4 5 –P R E S E N T

NUCLEAR
AGE



I N T RODUC T ION

After World War II, developments in military systems and military satellites. Although World War III
technology were driven by the Cold War never materialized, much of the non-nuclear technology
confrontation between the two “superpowers” was tried out in the 1960s and 1970s, in wars between
—the United States and the Soviet Union. At the Israel and its Arab neighbors, and by the US in Vietnam.
same time, guerrilla warfare and terrorism have However, it was the 1991 Gulf War—the first major
proved enduringly resistant to the world’s most post-Cold War conflict—that revealed the true scale
advanced military arsenals. of technological progress, showcasing such wonders
as smart bombs, stealth aircraft, and cruise missiles.
From the late 1940s, a nuclear arms race between the
US-led NATO alliance and the Soviet Union created The post-WWII era has also seen the rise of guerrilla
weaponry of awesome destructive power.With long-range warfare and terrorism. Although they generally lack access
bombers replaced by missiles as nuclear delivery systems, to advanced weaponry, guerrillas have benefited from
by the 1960s the world had entered the era of MAD— modern infantry weaponry and explosives,while the arms
Mutually Assured Destruction. Peace between the industry has fueled low-level conflicts across the globe
superpowers was maintained by the certainty of with a ready supply of automatic weapons and ammunition.
unbearable losses in the event of a nuclear war. At Despite the fact that technological progress made the
the same time, each side sought to surpass the other need for a mass citizen army outdated by the end of
in every area of conventional military technology, from the 20th century, when major powers fought guerrilla
the performance of aircraft and submarines, to guidance forces, they found there was no alternative to putting
troops on the ground and sustaining the losses this entailed.

KEY DATES

1945

abovYeeatgUheSre Asflii1rpeeseF9odtrh4coeef7BspieollluotnXd-C1huactk
usefiNogAfThtnfiOheruerslcsaitll,TTcleihhoaaaiaeerprntndSceKd11creooestovrviih99iemseecatbef45n;afiotUrrs90nmWtibmea–eoreatendnxi5wttnweeceehl3nisnlsutiesdjv,eeeistttshtehfierst

firstThheydSr1oovgi9eetn5Ub3oniomnb tests the
withairt-htTeoh-eaUiSrS1iAdime9riswisF5inlored6cereentheerast sseerevikicneg
imnistiscihnloteeesmTrTCech(huIoeecbClnatBofii1U1nsrSMnseset99)Mantitnsnoa56asdrulilcenl9te2ubehcdaaleClerlrei-ipasSlsatrirooisvycimeweedatdrUnion
bomabnidnfgobrecofTgeishneNstoorUs1tSuShs9otcVuaoiit6enhmten5Vmdiiatestmngarmound

the esttThaoheHfbelgairotsUCrvhhShey,eirmnnoSeehrnsymtdTeedrernruotCfosigmviiaeadlnnen,cvBWoeb1elapiorjrmoie9pnmrmsigebumsd4neiuelsn1ntt7tts–9ionf4590
ThhyedraoUtgSoellcn,airbrnioetsmhbeotuPetsatic,tisfiocnfirOsEtcneisawunectcoe1kssf9ul52

byaTthVieeDitFerneMincnBihhenagruePehrrduilelfae1sat9ed54
FidetlagkCueaesrtprriololwaleercaiadnsm1pCaaui9sbguanc5cteo6ssf–ul59
detvircoeosTphsaerienfirsVuitseetndniagbhymt1vUiSs9io6n0s
tedleeivpinlAsatolirHtyoio-etnd1d-uuTgdcChbueeieoysdbrrteLesathodcceeoakanlWthtUntaelShaal,iecesitdksyeneacBhnVlhiecbalneeioctoclknmoaobiabipgrsrtycmedrraasrf11hteiag99nh-d6647

NUCLEAR BUNKER, MOSCOW—1956 OPERATION CEDAR FALLS—1967 THE APACHE HELICOPTER—1984

THE TWIN TOWERS—2001 Atraoabi-breactirwrsabtefaoy(teTStfneAhPiTsniMeanhB)ltueetFreshisamrtethelanikiiniasjSYlnaiastooaiicnvmlonakedinsnesisnatdK-bglaWisepgAutgaoaperpirfgirunpnrerslfiiosnistevrWtai1deifsInaosmwarraus9au1i1garervhl8flie9tia9nce2e7r7-s 30 LimtithaetiToUhnSe1ToSapo9lvekinse6t(SS9tUArnaLiTtoe)ngicanAdrms
gAinuiUdOaSep-gdleaeoIridrmtanahtsuqcietonornaiuItrclsiaihDoetniesneomssnameinarcuutdgass1altSeKiatsnwrou9sderrptamdr8pgsIe1raoca3sinsq9siao–nn98d- 18 BridbgoemTibhnse1NtUooS9rtdhue7ssVeti2rseotylnaasTemhra-gnuhided
BAGHDAD—2003 forcmiensisasiTTniohlewmeAs1a1afrSgehoh9n9aavatwigene87karitsint3s9CUasertnnruivioUiscneSe-bbaecckoemdesgueenrgrailglaed
deMWfueoasrbltaliodmnSmeTibrenrbaaxvirMdtaadresaemiikmonCeinnienstngthtost,efehNrdAeKA;eafoTgstvsOhthyoreaovanouyUiisrsWeSNtafeaoolnwerrf2a1cdYaeosse09rrkia09’sl 19 of tWhealTlChomeld1afraWk9llsar8othf e9theendBerlin
COMBAT IN AFGHANISTAN—2010
in suppNoArtTOofairrebfoelrsceisn iLnitb2eyrav0en1e 1 (UAVU)nmeTnahtneen1rUsedS9seAPr9erveri5icdaealtVoerhicle

PRESENT IprraoqvfgoiodrgcinUgUeglsSSesi92a2Pnn5aavd-0nr0adeodeBre00gdarremiet30vieisechlsovNpisieigodhn,t Vision

384

THE NUCLEAR AGE 1945–PRESENT KEY STRUCTURE KEY DEVELOPMENT

NUCLEAR THE COLD WAR ERA
SHELTER
The end of World War II witnessed the emergence of the Soviet Union
Away from the cataclysmic center and the US as global superpowers, and their ideological hostility was
of a nuclear explosion, people to define international politics for the remainder of the 20th century.
sheltering in deep underground
bunkers would have a chance of The enmity between these two superpowers was invented the hydrogen bomb in the mid-1950s:
survival. But the ensuing radioactive made especially dangerous by the advent of nuclear the blast from the first hydrogen explosion was
fallout would force survivors to weapons.The US, the first of the two nations to measured at 10.4 megatons, 450 times more
remain underground for extended develop an atomic bomb, used its nuclear supremacy powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki.
periods, requiring supplies of to devastating effect against the Japanese cities of
uncontaminated food, water, Hiroshima (see pp.378–79) and Nagasaki in 1945; it Nuclear weapons were initially carried in
and recyclable air. lost its lead in 1949, however, when the Soviet Union bomber aircraft, but their vulnerability to air-
developed its own atomic bomb.This marked the defense systems soon became apparent.The
beginning of an arms race, as the two superpowers solution was to supplement the use of bombers
developed ever-more powerful weapons and more with ballistic missiles, which were difficult to
complex and accurate delivery systems. Scientists intercept.They could be fired from concealed
concrete silos and had the range to hit population

▲ This nuclear bunker was built in
Moscow in 1956, anticipating the
fear of an all-out nuclear conflict.

KEY EVENTS

1945–1955

◼ August 6, 1945 A US B-29
aircraft drops an atomic bomb
on Hiroshima, marking a new
era of nuclear warfare.

◼ May 22, 1947 President
Harry S. Truman commits the US
to providing military assistance to
any nation threatened by Communist
aggression. This becomes known
as the Truman Doctrine.

◼ April 4, 1949 The North
Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) is formed, to provide
a military bulwark against the
Soviet Union.

◼ November 1, 1952 The US
carries out the first successful test of
a hydrogen bomb, on the Eniwetok
atoll in the Pacific. The Soviet Union
follows suit in 1953.

◼ May 14, 1955 The Warsaw Pact
is agreed, a mutual defense treaty
between the Soviet Union and the
Communist states of eastern Europe.

▶ A US NUCLEAR
TEST, NEVADA
US troops watch the mushroom
cloud of an atomic explosion while
on a field exercise in Nevada, in
November 1951.They are just
6 miles (9.5km) from the explosion.

385

“Mankind must put an end to war or war will put T H E C O L D WA R E R A
an end to mankind”

US PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY, SEPTEMBER 25, 1961

centers deep within the territory of any potential operate in a radiation-contaminated atmosphere. In
enemy. Further refinements included the use an attempt to ensure the continuity of government
of multiple warheads on a single missile, and in the event of nuclear onslaught, extensive
submarines that were able to fire nuclear weapons underground bunkers were constructed to shelter
while hidden underwater. officials at the onset of war.

The US, exploiting its technical superiority NUCLEAR DEADLOCK
over the Soviet Union, made repeated attempts In terms of civilian casualties, however, it was
to construct missile-launched anti-ballistic-missile clear that hundreds of millions of people on both
systems, of which the space-based “Star Wars” sides would be killed if a full nuclear exchange
defense was the most ambitious. None, however, took place, and that life for those who did survive
were successful. Meanwhile, some soldiers were might well be unendurable.Thus,US military policy
equipped with NBC (Nuclear, Biological, Chemical) during the 1960s was driven by the doctrine of
suits to help those who survived an initial blast to Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), the acronym
reflecting the conviction that a nuclear war was
effectively unwinnable. ▲ AN UNDERWATER LAUNCH
A Trident ballistic missile is fired
This was the Cold War, when the antagonism from a submarine far out in the
betweenWest and East was, paradoxically, moderated ocean.The Trident missile has a
by the power of nuclear weapons, each side fearing range of 4,400 miles (7,100km)
the consequences of an all-out “hot war” (although and can carry eight independently
during the Cuban missile crisis of 1962, East-West targeted nuclear warheads.
tensions almost let to nuclear war, after US spy
aircraft discovered Soviet missile bases in Cuba.)This ▼ AN NBC SUIT
fear did not, however, prevent the leaders of the US The Nuclear, Biological, Chemical
and the Soviet Union from aggressively pursuing (NBC) suit provided basic protection
their interests elsewhere. In what became termed against radiological and other hazards.
“limited warfare,” the armies of the Communist East It could be worn for several days
and capitalistWest engaged in military operations to before needing to be replaced.
establish dominance over each other.They refrained
from direct confrontation, and instead supported
other states or groups in secondary conflicts.

In many cases, local disputes became proxy wars
between the superpowers. InVietnam (see pp.398–
99), the people’s attempt to overthrow colonial
rule was transformed into full-scale war by the
provision of Soviet (and Chinese) military
aid to the Vietnamese Communists,
countered by US aid to France, and finally
full US military involvement. In the
Middle East, the US aligned itself with
Israel, while the Soviet Union supported
Israel’s Arab opponents. In conflicts in
Africa, and Central and South America,
military assistance given to one side was
countered by similar support from the
rival superpower.The ColdWar may not
have resulted in nuclear war, but the
tactic of avoiding direct conflict
between the superpowers
had the side-effect of
exporting warfare all
around the globe.

386

THE NUCLEAR AGE 1945–PRESENT NUCLEAR BOMBERS Swept-back wings Aircraft carried two 30mm Aden
AND INTERCEPTORS cannon and two Firestreak or
▼ TUPOLEV TU-95 “BEAR” Red Top air-to-air missiles
For twenty years after the attacks on Hiroshima (see pp.378–79) and Date 1955 Origin Soviet Union
Nagasaki in 1945, the long-range strategic bomber—which had to be Wingspan 1641⁄2ft (50.1m) Although equipped with turboprop
fast and capable of carrying a heavy payload—remained a vital element in Length 1511⁄2ft (46.2m) engines, the Tu-95 demonstrated
every nuclear power’s arsenal.A new type of fighter aircraft was produced Top speed 562mph (905kph) high performance characteristics
to counter this threat—the exceptionally fast “interceptor,” whose role Engine Four 15,000 Kuznetsov that included an exceptional range
was to shoot down bombers before they could do any significant damage. NK-12M turboprops (with bomb load) of 9,300 miles
By the mid-1960s, however, the development of Intercontinental Ballistic (15,000km) without refueling.
Missiles (ICBMs), such as the submarine-launched Polaris missile,
rendered the strategic bomber obsolete; the role of the interceptor Swept-back wings
was reduced accordingly. (350 angle)

Tail armed with two Twin-jet
20mm cannon mounting

Landing gear

▲ BOEING B-47 STRATOJET One of the first jet bombers to serve
with the US Strategic Air Command,
Date 1950 Origin US the B47 featured a swept-back wing
Wingspan 1161⁄4ft (35.4m) and a substantial internal bomb load.
Length 1063⁄4ft (32.6m)
Top speed 606mph (980kph)
Engine Six 7,185lb (3,266kg)
General Electric J47-GE-25 turbojets

▼ BOEING B-52 STRATOFORTRESS The long-serving B-52 was Turboprop engine
designed to drop nuclear
Date 1955 Origin US bombs on the Soviet Union Hydraulically
Wingspan 185ft (56.4m) (which it never did), but powered rudder
Length 161ft (50.2m) subsequently evolved
Top speed 650mph (1,046kph) into a launch platform
Engine Eight 13,750lb (6,237kg) for cruise missiles and
Pratt &Whitney J57-43WB turbojets a conventional bomber
of awesome power.

▼ AVRO 698 VULCAN B2 During the late 1950s, the Aircraft carried four nuclear Twin tail fins
British nuclear deterrent was free-fall or 20 AGM-69
Date 1956 Origin UK spearheadedVulcan B2. It had SRAM missiles, or up to Underwing
Wingspan 1111⁄4ft (33.9m) a distinctive delta wing that 60,000lb (27,200kg) fuel tank
Length 100ft (30.5m) helped ensure good load- of conventional bombs
Top speed 640mph (1,029kph) carrying capabilities and
Engine Four 22,000lb (9,992kg) a high subsonic speed.
Bristol Siddeley Olympus turbojets

Delta wing Aircraft carried twenty-one 1,000lb
(454kg) bombs, nuclear bombs, or a
single Blue Steel missile

Cockpit

387

Single-seat cockpit ◀ ENGLISH ELECTRIC LIGHTNING F.1A ▼ DASSAULT MIRAGE III C The delta-winged Mirage III NUCLEAR BOMBERS AND INTERCEPTORS
series has been exported to
Date 1960 Origin UK Date 1961 Origin France 21 countries, including Israel,
Wingspan 343⁄4ft (10.6m) Wingspan 27ft (8.2m) which used the aircraft with
Length 503⁄4ft (15.5m) great success during the
Length 50ft (15.2m) Top speed 1,460mph (2,350kph) Six-Day War of 1967.
Engine 13,225lb (6,000kg) SNECMA
Top speed 1,386mph (2,230kph) or Mach 2.1 Atar 9B afterburning turbojet

Engine Two 16,000lb (71.17kN) Rolls Royce
Avon 301R turbojets

The Lightning was the first British aircraft to exceed
Mach 2 (twice the speed of sound) in level flight.
This, combined with its excellent rate of climb,
made it Britain’s main air-defense fighter.

Armed with seven 23mm NR Aircraft carried two 30mm Underwing Delta wing
cannon in three turrets and DEFA cannon, a single Super fuel tank
nose, a 44,092lb (20,000kg) 530, and two Sidewinder or Cockpit with
bomb load, or a single AS-3 Aircraft carried nuclear and three-man crew
standoff missile Magic air-to-air missiles conventional bombs

23mm autocannon Tail armed with This highly ambitious supersonic Under-fuselage
in tail turret 20mm M61 nuclear bomber utilized many fuel pod
rotary cannon of the latest advances in aviation Afterburning
▼ MCDONNELL DOUGLAS technology. Although difficult turbojet
F-15C EAGLE ▲ CONVAIR B-58 HUSTLER to fly, it was capable of a high
Date 1976 Origin US Date 1961 Origin US maximum speed. Twin fins
Wingspan 42¾ft (13m) Wingspan 563⁄4ft (17.3m)
Length 63¾ft (19.4m) Length 963⁄4ft (29.5m) Armed with four AA-6
Top speed 1,650mph (2,660kph) Top speed 1,319mph (2,122kph) or Mach 2 air-to-air missiles
Engine Two 17,450lb (77.62kN) Pratt & Engine Four 15,020lb (6,815kg) General
Whitney F100-100 augmented turbofans Electric J79-GE-5A/B/C afterburning turbojets

Built as a response to the MiG-25, the F-15C
Eagle emerged as one of the world’s foremost
fighter and strike aircraft, utilizing advanced
avionics with immense power and performance.

Bubble cockpit canopy

Hughes APG-63 radar ▲ MIKOYAN-GUREVICH
scanner in nose MIG-25 “FOXBAT”

Aircraft armed with a single 20mm Date 1970 Origin Soviet Union
cannon, four AIM-7F/M Sparrow,
and four AIM 9L/M Sidewinder Wingspan 46ft (14m)
air-to-air missiles
Length 643⁄4ft (19.8m)

Top Speed 1,868mph (3,000kph)
or Mach 3.2

Engine Two 24,651lb (11,200kg)
Tumansky R-15B-300 turbojets

Built for speed and high altitudes, the
MiG-25 caused consternation in the West.
Capable of exceeding Mach 3 (three
times the speed of sound), it remains
the world’s fastest combat aircraft.

388

THE NUCLEAR AGE 1945–PRESENT NUCLEAR ATTACK SUBM ARINE Bridge Sail Propeller
Flat deck area
USS NAUTILUS

When the Nautilus entered service in 1954, it was the world’s first Torpedo tube doors Sail SIDE VIEW
nuclear-powered submarine. Its advent in the early part of the Cold Radar antenna Rudder
War (see pp.384–85) marked a revolutionary step in naval warfare.
Hydroplane
Three reactors enabled the Nautilus to travel The Nautilus was not especially fast
for long periods without having to surface underwater and carried only conventional Torpedo Crew’s Attack PLAN VIEW
or refuel, unlike conventional submarines. torpedoes. Apart from the reactors, its room quarters center After crews quarters
In 1955, the ship set a new record for a major innovations were dispensing with
submerged voyage, covering 1,381 miles a deck gun, providing a bunk for each Ballast Engine
(2,222km) in 90 hours.Three years crew member, and (on its 1958 sub-Arctic
later it became the first submarine to trip) an inertial navigation system. By tank Reactor room
travel under the ice cap to the North Pole. 1959, the Nautilus was being superseded
by submarines that, through improved hull Batteries CROSS SECTION
On the Nautilus’s upper deck was the design and the use of new materials, could
attack center—the heart of the ship’s role travel faster and reach greater depths than USS NAUTILUS
as a warship. Forward of that were captain’s before. Nuclear submarines would soon Displacing 3,533 tons (4,092 tons submerged), the
and officers’ quarters.The lower deck dominate naval warfare, either as torpedo- Nautilus was 323½ft (98.6m) long and carried a crew
housed the control room, from where the carrying attack submarines or as nuclear of 116. It had a top speed of 23 knots and could dive
ship was steered when underwater, and missile carriers. Retired in 1980, the to a maximum depth of 700ft (213m).
the crew’s mess and galley.The engines Nautilus is now a museum.
and reactors were near the stern.

OPERATING SYSTEMS

▲ ALARMS ▲ WATER LEVELS ▲ DISPLAY PANEL
Alerts were sounded before Dials indicated the amount Prior to diving, this panel was checked
the craft began to dive or if of water contained in the to determine the status of the craft’s
there was danger of a collision. ship’s ballast tanks. numerous hatches and vents.

▲ CONTROL ROOM ▲ ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES ▲ SONAR ROOM
Two planesmen operated the hydroplanes These devices detected signals from other Sonar equipment and displays were used to locate
to adjust the ship’s angle and depth. To their vessels and helped foil attempts to track the ships and other submarines, follow target objects,
right, the helmsman operated the rudder. ship from its own transmissions. and avoid underwater collisions.

▶ SUBMARINE SAIL
When travelling on the surface, the Nautilus
was steered from the bridge, located at the
top of the submarine’s “sail” (conning tower).

389

LIFE ON BOARD BATTLE STATIONS

▲ WARDROOM ▶ TORPEDO
The captain and officers dined and The only armaments
relaxed in the wardroom. For the first on the Nautilus were
time on a submarine there was an attempt torpedoes. Some
at decoration, with pipes and ducts were kept in the
covered by panels. tubes, ready for
firing. Others were
stored on racks in
the torpedo bay.

▲ GALLEY ▲ CREW’S QUARTERS ▲ TORPEDO BAY
The crew’s meals were made in a stainless- Each crew member had his own bed— In the bow were 24 Mk 14 torpedoes, and the
steel galley. There were also ice cream and an improvement on previous submarines, launching mechanisms. The door of one of
drink machines. which used a shift system for bunks. the six torpedo tubes can be seen on the left.

▶ ATTACK CENTER
Combat instructions were given from this area,
which housed two periscopes, torpedo-firing
controls, and navigational equipment.

THE NUCLEAR AGE 1945–PRESENT390

KEY DEVELOPMENT

GUERRILLAS AND
TERRORISTS

Guerrilla warfare has existed for centuries, but it was the Chinese
Communist leader Mao Zedong who, during the Chinese civil war, gave
it its modern form. Mao gathered support within rural communities,
and built a grass-roots force that he used to wage a campaign of armed
harrassment against the Chinese government. Mao later expanded his
guerrilla forces to conduct conventional military operations.

Guerrilla war, inspired by leaders such as Mao was followed by elections, which the US sabotaged KEY FIGURE
and, later, Cuban revolutionary Fidel Castro, for fear that NorthVietnamese Communist leader
gained enormous influence in the postwar period, Ho Chi Minh would win.This, in turn, was the MAO ZEDONG
when nationalists in Asia and Africa were fighting trigger for hostilities between the Communist
for independence from European colonial rule— north and the US-backed south. 1893–1976
notably the Algerian nationalists against the
French in Algiers. However, the emergence of At first, it seemed inevitable that the better- The son of a farmer, Mao went
the ColdWar (see pp.384–85) complicated matters, equipped US would crush the insurgency to university in Beijing, where he
because it tended to polarize all such conflicts into with superior weapons and air power.The studied the works of Marx, and
a broader struggle of East versus West. Vietnamese Communists received extensive co-founded the Chinese Communist
military assistance from China and the Soviet Party (CCP) in 1921. In contrast to
CONFLICT IN VIETNAM Union; although this consisted mainly of World the conventional Communist reliance
This polarization was epitomized by events during War II-era rifles and machine-guns to begin with, on urban workers, Mao mobilized
the war in Vietnam, which saw the development the Vietnamese were also tenacious and focused the rural peasants, who became the
of a new model of guerilla warfare. Adopting on their objectives, while the Americans lacked bedrock of his military revolution.
Mao’s strategy as an initial template, aVietnamese a coherent counterinsurgency strategy.Years of
Nationalist–Communist coalition rose up against bitter guerrilla warfare failed to secure victory
the French administration in 1945. Using classic for the US; disillusioned and exhausted, it
guerrilla hit-and-run tactics, their lightly armed, withdrew its forces in 1972—a prelude to a
highly mobile forces wore down the French army, North Vietnamese takeover of the country.
and then, in 1954, defeated it in a pitched battle
at Dien Bien Phu.The subsequent peace settlement With the demise of colonial empires by the
mid-1970s, guerrilla conflicts became more
diverse.The US sponsored its own insurgent

▲ After defeating the Nationalists
in 1949, Mao dominated Chinese
political life until his death in 1976.

◀ GUERRILLA WEAPONS
Iraqi insurgents often use RPGs
(an abbreviation of the Russian for
“manually operated anti-tank grenade
launcher”), and improvised explosive
devices (IEDs), which are cheap but
effective against occupying forces’
vehicles. Other tactics include sniping,
mortar strikes, and suicide bombings.

391

◀ AMERICAN GUERRILLAS AND TERRORISTS
AIRBORNE ASSETS
Troops from the US First Cavalry
Division leap from a UH-1 Iroquois
helicopter ( a “slick” Huey), in
Vietnam. Although the Americans
exploited their aerial advantage with
skill, they were unable to prevail.

KEY EVENTS

1945–PRESENT

◼ October 1, 1949 The People’s
Republic of China is founded, after
more than two decades of warfare,
under Mao Zedong’s leadership.

◼ May 7, 1954 French
forces besieged in Dien Bien
Phu, in Vietnam, surrender to the
communist Vietminh. The French
had hoped that they could defeat
the Vietminh in a conventional
military operation, but found
themselves totally overwhelmed.

◼ March 8, 1965 US Marines
land near Da Nang, as part of
an American effort to combat
communist insurgency.

“Politics is war without bloodshed, while ◼ October 13, 1977 A Lufthansa
war is politics with bloodshed” airliner is hijacked by guerrillas in
support of the German Red Army
MAO ZEDONG, ON PROTRACTED WAR, MAY 1938 Faction. German special forces
subsequently storm the aircraft
campaigns—the Contras, against the left-wing in support of the Palestinian cause in the 1970s, in Mogadishu, Somalia, and release
Nicaraguan government, and the Mujahideen, and assassinations in Spain by the Basque separatist the 86 passengers unharmed.
against the Soviet Union’s Red Army in Afghanistan. movement, ETA. However, for theWest, the most
Toward the end of the 20th century, low-intensity, worrying trend was the emergence of radical ◼ December 24, 1979 The Soviet
guerrilla-style warfare had also become endemic in Islamist terrorists in the 1990s. Characterized occupation of Afghanistan begins,
parts of Africa—notably in the failed states of the by resentment toward the US and its allies, prompting the US to supply Afghan
the Congo basin and the Horn of Africa—as warring their attacks on the World Trade Center and the Mujahideen resistance fighters
bands fought for local supremacy. Guerrilla wars Pentagon in the US, in 2001, ushered in a new covertly with money and arms.
were predominantly rural in origin and character, era in which the threat of large-scale terrorist
while terrorism was mainly an urban phenomenon. attacks on civilian populations is never far from ◼ December 29, 1992 A hotel
Typical terrorist tactics such as assassination, the public consciousness. in Aden, used by US troops on
extortion, kidnapping, and bombings were used their way to Somalia, is bombed.
by guerrilla groups—but from the 1960s onward, It is al-Qaeda’s first attack.
terrorism began to develop a character of its own.
◼ September 11, 2001
If guerrilla insurgencies were violent attempts Al-Qaeda (see p.408) launches
to gain control of a state, terrorism was an terror attacks on America.
extreme form of protest, often an attempt
to publicize a cause, or destabilize a ▼ HECKLER & KOCH MP5
society.Terrorism took many forms, Used by anti-terrorist forces, this
reflecting the differing backgrounds and submachine-gun is accurate, reliable,
grievances of its participants. It included and has a relatively low recoil,
middle-class angst against the capitalist enabling controlled automatic fire.
state, given violent form by the German
Red Army Faction, the spate of plane hijackings

THE NUCLEAR AGE 1945–PRESENT392 Sling swivel In-line plastic
Rear sight butt stock
ASSAULT RIFLES
Fire selector ▲ M16A1 ASSAULT RIFLE
After World War II, there was a demand for infantrymen to be Date 1967
equipped with fully automatic rifles, but the full-powered rifle cartridge Origin US
was too powerful for accurate automatic fire.The solution lay in the Weight 8lb (3.64kg)
intermediate cartridge that had been pioneered in the German StG44, Barrel 20in (50.8cm)
a development followed by the widespread reduction in caliber sizes Caliber 5.56 × 45mm
that led to the NATO 5.56 × 45mm cartridge replacing the heavier Introduced in theVietnamWar,
7.62 × 51mm equivalent.The resulting weapon—the assault rifle— the M16 series has developed into
was further adapted to incorporate other new ideas, among them the one of the world’s key small arms.
“bullpup” design in which the trigger group was fitted forward of This example is fitted with an
the magazine, making the rifle more compact. M203 grenade launcher.

Muzzle brake

▲ FN FAL PROTOTYPE The FAL was originally developed
Date 1950 with the German 7.92 × 33mm
Origin Belgium intermediate cartridge, although
Weight 91⁄4lb (4.2kg) it went on to become a major
Barrel 231⁄2in (60cm) export success (the basis for the
Caliber .280 British SLR) when rechambered
for the 7.62 × 51mm NATO round.

Rear sight

▲ AK47 TYPE 56S The most famous assault rifle in 30-round Stamped
Date 1957 the world, the AK47 has under- detachable steel body
Origin China gone a number of changes over magazine
Weight 111⁄4lb (5.13kg) the years and has been widely 30-round detachable
Barrel 161⁄4in (41.4cm) copied.This Type 56S civilian Shrouded box magazine
Caliber 7.62 × 39mm variant was made in China. rear sight

▲ STONER 63 Designed as a modular Butt stock
Date 1963 firearm, the Stoner 63 can
Origin US be assembled to produce 30-round Cocking handle
Weight 73⁄4lb (3.52kg) different variants that include detachable
Barrel 20in (50.8cm) a carbine, assault rifle (shown box magazine 35-round
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm here), and several machine- detachable magazine
gun configurations. Tubular butt stock
▶ GALIL folds to the right
Date 1972 The Galil is based on the
Origin Israel FinnishValmet M62, itself
Weight 83⁄4lb (3.95kg) derived from the AK47.The
Barrel 18in (46cm) Galil comes in a number of
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm variants that include a standard
assault rifle, light machine-
gun, and sharpshooter rifle.

393

“Birdcage” ASSAULT RIFLES
flash hider

M203 grenade
launcher tube

Grenade-launcher trigger

30-round Butt Plastic ▲ AK74 GP25 grenade
detachable magazine Date 1978 launcher
box magazine Origin Soviet Union
Weight 71⁄4lb (3.3kg) Based closely on the AKM,
Barrel 161⁄4in (41.5cm) the AK74 is an improved version
Caliber 5.45 × 39mm rechambered for the high-velocity
intermediate 5.45 × 39mm
▼ L85A1 (SA80) Although dogged by early cartridge.The example shown
Date 1985 development problems, the here has been equipped with
Origin UK “bullpup”-configured SA80 is now a GP25 grenade launcher.
Weight 11lb (4.98kg) firmly established as the infantry
Barrel 201⁄2in (51.8cm) rifle of the British Army, featuring 1.5-power
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm the use of high-impact plastics and optical sight
optical sights as standard.
Flash suppressor

Bipod (folded) ▲ STEYR AUG Dating back to the 1970s, the
Date 1978 futuristic and highly successful
Carrying handle Origin Austria AUG was among the first assault
containing sights Weight 9lb (4.1kg) rifles to utilize an integral optical
Barrel 20in (50.8cm) sight, plastic components, and
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm a “bullpup” configuration.

◀ FAMAS F1 A “bullpup” design, the FAMAS
Date 1978 F1 is a very compact weapon,
Origin France and has been used by the French
Weight 8lb (3.61kg) armed forces since the late
Barrel 191⁄4in (48.8cm) 1970s. Like many assault rifles,
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm it makes full use of plastics
and metal stampings.
Carrying
handle High-impact
plastic butt stock

▲ HECKLER & KOCH G41 A progression from H&K’s 7.62mm Safe, semi,
Date 1981 G3 rifle, the G41 was rechambered burst, and fully
Origin Germany to take the 5.56 × 45mm NATO automatic settings
Weight 9lb (4.1kg) round, and could be fitted with other
Barrel 18in (45cm) NATO standard features including a
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm universal sight mount and magazine.
It had limited military use.

THE NUCLEAR AGE 1945–PRESENT394 ▼ RPG-7V The shoulder-launched RPG-7
fires a projectile with a
INFANTRY FIREPOWER Date 1961 two-stage launcher/sustainer
Origin Soviet Union propellant. As well as optical
Although the modern assault rifle is a highly capable weapon, Weight 133⁄4lb (6.3kg) sights, the weapon has backup
it lacks sufficient firepower to support infantry fighting on their own, Barrel 371⁄2in (95cm) iron sights and a passive
and for this reason portable weapons with greater firepower were Caliber 40mm infrared sight.
developed.The light machine-gun (LMG) is one of the oldest support Range 5463⁄4 yards (500m)
weapons, capable of providing sustained automatic fire. At the next Grenade type AT, AP, HE, Barrel contains tail of
level is the grenade launcher, followed by the mortar, which provides thermobarbic expelling charge, with
infantry with miniaturized artillery. Portable anti-tank devices have launching cartridge and
also proved highly successful—ranging from the light RPG-7V to stabilizing fins folded
the just-portable MILAN, which fires missiles that the operator
guides by wire to avoid defensive countermeasures.

Butt plate contains Muzzle, into which
cleaning kit projectile is loaded

▲ PKM Ammunition belt Bipod leg Trigger
Date 1969
Origin Soviet Union A general-purpose machine-gun Skeleton light-alloy
Weight 161⁄2lb (7.5kg) (GPMG), the PKM is gas-operated, butt stock
Barrel 251⁄4in (64.5cm) belt-fed, and air-cooled. It is an
Caliber 7.62mm × 54R improved variant of the Mikhail
Kalashnikov-designed PK.The
butt plate is hinged and contains
a cleaning kit.

▶ MILAN ANTI-TANK MISSILE Missile exhaust tube

Date 1972

Origin France,West Germany

Weight (Loaded) 75lb (34kg)

Length 4ft (1.2m)

Caliber 125mm

Armor penetration 251⁄2in
(650mm)

The MILAN is an anti-tank weapon
that enables an operator to guide the
missile to its target via signals sent
along long, thin wires attached to
the missile. Although many MILANs
are vehicle-mounted, they can be
deployed by a two-man infantry crew.

Carrying handle

Adjustable bipod
(folded)

Retractable butt ◀ FN MINIMI An outstanding gas-operated,
stock (extended) Date 1975 air-cooled light machine-gun,
Origin Belgium the Minimi has been adopted
Weight 15lb (6.83kg) by the British Army and the
Barrel 181⁄4in (46.5cm) US Army, among others,where
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm it has been designated the M249
Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW).

Ammunition Bipod leg
belt container

395

Optical sight INFANTRY FIREPOWER

Muzzle brake

▲ RPK74 The light machine-gun version Venturi nozzle
Date 1974 of the infantryman’s AK74 to shield blast
Origin Soviet Union assault rifle, this weapon features
Weight 101⁄4lb (4.7kg) a heavier, chrome-plated barrel, a
Barrel 231⁄4in (59cm) modified receiver, a bipod, and an
Caliber 5.45 × 39mm extended magazine.

Wooden heat shield to Optical sight
protect operator’s shoulder

▼ NEGEV Israel Military Industries’ Negev Six-chambered Folding butt
Date 1988 is one of a breed of lightweight cylinder stock (open)
Origin Israel automatic weapons that has blurred
Weight 15¾lb (7.2kg) the distinction between LMG and The Milkor is a semiautomatic
Barrel 18in (46cm) GPMG. Chambered for the SS109 multiple grenade launcher (MGL)
Calibre 5.56mm NATO bullet in 5.56mm caliber, that fires its projectiles from a
it can deliver automatic fire at 700 six-chambered revolver-style
or 900 rounds per minute (rpm). magazine.The Milkor has
been exported to more than
Bipod folded under Fore sight ▲ MILKOR MGL 30 countries, including the US.
gas cylinder
Barrel Date 1983 Mortar tube
Origin South Africa
British SUSAS Weight 113⁄4lb (5.3kg)
optical sight Barrel 113⁄4in (30cm)
Caliber 40mm
Range 3823⁄4 yards (350m)
Grenade type HE, HEAT,
anti-personnel, pyrotechnic

Hinged folding
butt stock

Canvas
heat
shield

Trigger guard Safety catch

▲ HECKLER & KOCH MG43 A rival to the FN Minimi, ▶ SOLTAM COMMANDO This lightweight mortar can
Date 2001 the MG43 is a belt-fed light MORTAR be carried and fired by a single
Origin Germany machine-gun that features person. Its high rate of fire—up
Weight 183⁄4lb (8.55kg) a folding butt stock and a Date 2006 to 16 rounds per minute—makes
Barrel 183⁄4in (48cm) quick-change barrel. In Origin Israel it a valuable asset for infantry.
Caliber 5.56 × 45mm a slightly modified form, Weight 133⁄4lb (6.2kg)
it has been designated the Length 21in (53.3cm)
MG4 by the German army. Caliber 60mm
Range 8743⁄4 yards (800m)

THE NUCLEAR AGE 1945–PRESENT396 Foliage slot

US MARINE UNIFORM ▶ M1 HELMET T1 pressure clip
AND KIT
Date 1960s
When the US Marines were first deployed inVietnam in 1965,
they were ill-equipped for an environment in which terrible heat Origin US
exhausted the infantrymen and incessant rain ruined their kit and
uniforms. And so, lightweight, camouflage uniforms were issued Material Manganese-steel
in 1966–67, replacing the heavy olive-green “Utility” uniform.
The hazards of patrols and sweeps in Vietnam—where ambushes The M1 was a slightly modified
and booby-trap devices inflicted a heavy toll of casualties—meant version of the famousWorldWar II
that personal protection was of high priority, hence the wearing of helmet. It featured a pressure clip,
flak jackets and the eventual adoption of reinforced jungle boots. which was introduced to reduce
the risk of choking.
▶ COAT TROPICAL WR CLASS II
Date 1960s Manganese-steel
Origin US helmet under
Material Cotton, poplin
camouflage cover
The tight weave on this shirt made it
wind-resistant and almost waterproof. Rope ridge to
The fabric was found to offer a good prevent slippage
mix of breathability and defense of weapon sling
against biting insects.

Camouflage
pattern for
tropical zones

▼ JUNGLE BOOTS Eyelet for
hanging
Date 1960s equipment

Origin US M14
magazine
Material Leather, canvas,
nylon, rubber pouch

These tropical combat (or jungle)
boots were among the most common
type issued to Marines.Their hard
rubber soles were directly molded
on since stitching tended to rot in the
hot climate. From 1967, Panama sole
boots were issued, with an embedded
steel plate to protect against
punji-stick booby-traps.

M6 M19 canteen M1943 The straps of the M61 webbing
scabbard carrier insulated first-aid kit looped over the Marine infantryman’s
shoulders to help take the weight
Drainage with wool ▲ M61 WEBBING of the equipment hung around
eyelet Date 1960s his waistbelt.
Origin US
Material Nylon

397

▶ 1941 PACK MAP OF SAIGON BASE AREA ANGLE HEAD US MARINE UNIFORM AND KIT
Date 1941 PARACHUTE FLARE FLASHLIGHT
Origin US
Material Nylon, cotton

This small pack was used to hold
rations and personal effects, while
the rolled sheet of camouflage
canvas formed half of a “pup” tent
when joined to a second sheet.

Mitchell-pattern
camouflage issued
only to Marine Corps

◀ M1955 ARMORED VEST M1943 folding ▼ M14 RIFLE Designed to use the then-
entrenching shovel Date 1959 standard NATO round, the US
Date 1960s Origin US M14 replaced the old M1 rifle.
Rear sight Weight 93⁄4lb (4.4kg) The M14 possessed a fully
Origin US Barrel 22in (55.8cm) automatic fire capability and
Caliber 7.62mm was equipped with a larger
Material Fiberglass, plastic, nylon magazine. By the late 1960s,
it was replaced by the M16.
The Doron-armored (fiberglass and
plastic) vest—heavy and unsuitable
for tropical conditions—would have
little chance of stopping a bullet,
but it was an effective defense
against shrapnel.

Flash hider

20-round Safety
detachable pin ring
magazine

▼ M79 GRENADE LAUNCHER With a maximum range of 985ft Fold-down leaf ◀ M67 GRENADES
Date 1961 (300m), the M79 grenade launcher sight, graduated
Origin US bridged the gap between the hand to 1,150ft (350m) Date 1960s
Weight 6lb (2.75kg) grenade and the mortar. As well
Barrel 12in (30.5cm) as firing high explosive, the M79 Heat shield Origin US
Caliber 40mm could fire antipersonnel, smoke,
Range 985ft (300m) and illuminating rounds.Two were Weight 1lb (0.45kg)
issued to each rifle squad. Length 31⁄2in (89mm)

The M67 “baseball” grenade had
a notched-wire interior designed
to fragment into many small
pieces on the detonation of its
high-explosive charge.

Rubber pad Carrying ▼ M60 MACHINEGUN
absorbs recoil handle
Date 1963
Feed cover Fore sight
Origin US

Weight 23lb (10.51kg)

Barrel 231⁄2in (59.9cm)

Caliber 7.62mm

The M60 was the US example of
the general-purpose machinegun—
inheriting some design features from
the German MG42. It was widely
used by the US Marine Corps in
Vietnam and is still in service today.

Pistol grip Bipod (folded)

SOLDIERS ON PATROL
US troops continue a “Search and Destroy” patrol
in Vietnam, while an armored vehicle secures
the helicopter landing area.The strategy was to
airlift in troops to destroy the enemy and their
supplies, then airlift troops out again, instead of
taking and holding enemy territory.