Military History_ The Definitive Visual Guide to the Objects of Warfare

99

Elaborately decorated head Wooden shaft covered MONGOL ARMOR AND WEAPONS
with polished rayskin

▲ IRON MACE This iron mace dates from the period Small iron grip
Date 14th century when the Mongols, under Kublai Khan, Leather wrist loop
Origin China or Mongolia overthrew the native ruling dynasty
Weight 21⁄2lb (1.17kg) of China and took power.The intricate Ivory-inlaid handle
Length 153⁄4in (40cm) decoration suggests that it belonged
to a warrior of high status.

Silver blade ▲ MONGOL DAGGERS Various types of short swords and daggers
with deep fuller Date 14th century were used by Mongol warriors for
Origin Mongolia close-quarter combat.These are modern
replicas in the style of the 14th century.

Quiver carried
about 60 arrows

Silver inlaid crest

▲ BOW CASE

Date 15th century

Origin Mongolia

Material Leather

Mongol warriors protected
their precious composite
bows by carrying them in
leather cases, which were
slung on their left side while
riding.They were designed
to give the warrior easy
access to his bow while
on horseback.

Animal hide string

◀ BOW IN MONGOL STYLE ▲ QUIVER Steel neck
protector
Date 18th century Date 15th century
Tip recurves ▲ NOGAI HELMET This late Mongol helmet of
away from Origin China Origin Mongolia Date Late 16th century the Nogai people (descendants
archer Origin Russia of Genghis Khan) retains the
Weight 21⁄2lb (1.07kg) Material Leather Material Steel, iron, silver conical shape of earlier types,
but the neck guard is made of
Length 311⁄4in (79.4cm) A Mongol quiver was divided mail rather than leather.
into a number of sections,
The composite bows used by the allowing the warrior to quickly
Mongols were made up of select different arrows for different
laminated layers of wood, horn, purposes: heavy ones for piercing
and sinew, which gave them greater armor, or light ones for long-range
elasticity and thus a longer range firing.Arrows with scissor-shaped
than a simple wooden bow.These heads were designed to make
bows had maximum strength for deep flesh wounds in the bow
minimum length, a valuable arms of their enemies.
attribute on horseback.



101

STEPPE HORSEMEN T H E M O N G O L S AT WA R

THE MONGOLS
AT WAR

Under the leadership of Genghis Khan from the early 13th
century, the Mongols created the largest empire in history.
Their secret was the ability to blend the traditional fighting
tactics of nomadic horsemen with technology adopted from
the settled civilizations that they subjugated.

WARFARE ON THE STEPPE Born Temüjin, the son of a tribal chief, to augment their traditional mounted
After the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongols the future Genghis Khan spent two bowmen with armored cavalry
often fought one another in a series of bloody decades uniting the various Mongol equipped with swords and lances, and
power struggles. Here sword-wielding Mongol and Turkic peoples of eastern Central protected by metal armor, instead of
cavalry pursue defeated rivals, who are shooting Asia. Although they had similar their usual felt or silk tunics. Rather
their composite bows from the saddle. lifestyles—living in tents and in than avoiding close combat, this heavy
close proximity to their horses—the cavalry would charge an enemy
Mongols, Merkits, Naimans, Keraits, already weakened by the bowmen,
Tatars, and Uighurs were traditionally and deliver the final, crushing blow.
hostile to one another. However, using
a combination of savage warfare and Overall, their approach to warfare
cunning diplomacy,Temüjin united was ruthlessly practical: they would
them into a vast steppe confederation. lure the enemy into a position of
In 1206, the tribes formally weakness, then destroy them. Speed
acknowledged his authority and of maneuver was therefore of the
he assumed the title Genghis Khan, essence.Traveling light and living
or “lord of all.”With a huge army at off the land, they could overcome
his disposal, Genghis embarked on the more cumbersome armies of
campaigns that reached from Beijing settled civilizations.
(Zhongdu) in China, to the wealthy
Central Asian cities of Samarkand and THE OLD AND THE NEW
Bukhara (in modern-day Uzbekistan),
before his death in 1227. However, if traditional steppe warfare
was the foundation for Genghis
The Mongols’ style of warfare Khan’s empire, then its expansion
originated from hunting.With their was strongly based on new technology
powerful composite bows and sturdy, adopted from conquered territories
nimble horses, large groups of riders in China and the Muslim world. From
would pursue herds across the steppe, Beijing in 1214–15 to Baghdad in
then encircle and kill the animals with 1258, the Mongols demonstrated
arrows; this is also how they attacked their skill at siege warfare, battering
their enemy in battle.The Mongols had city walls with projectiles hurled by
none of the obsession with personal mangonels and trebuchets.They were
bravery and honor that governed also pioneers in the use of gunpowder
medieval European knights at the as a military explosive and incendiary
time. A traditional steppe horseman material, using primitive bombs
would use his bow to kill from a hurled by catapult, and handheld
distance whenever possible, instead devices that were ancestors of the
of risking his life in a close-quarters flamethrower and the handgun.
encounter. Similarly, Mongol
commanders directed battles from a At their peak the Mongols were a
position of safety, using flags, smoke near-unstoppable military force, but
signals, and trumpets to convey their high-casualty tactics prevented
orders; they considered it foolish to the long-term consolidation of their
risk personally leading their men into far-flung realms. By the end of the
combat. However, they also learned 14th century, the mighty empire that
Genghis had so skillfully founded was
reduced to fragments.

102

KNIGHTS AND BOWMEN 500–1500 EAST ASIAN WEAPONS Hachi or
AND ARMOR helmet bowl

Lamellar (scaled) armor—made from small rectangular iron, Fukigayeshi
leather, or bronze plates laced together—originated in the classical (turnbacks) covered
world, but was perfected by the Japanese: from the 11th century with stencilled doeskin
onward, nobility wore the o-yoroi (armor), specifically designed for
mounted archers. By the 14th century, the design of Japanese swords Shikoro Standing flanges
reached its peak; a superior tachi or curved blade, worthy of an or neck guard protecting the neck
expensive mount (hilt and scabbard), was a symbol of high status, and
samurai wore their swords not only on the battlefield but also when
in civilian dress. In China, lamellar armor was replaced by armor
made from plates riveted to a fabric backing, similar to the European
brigandine. Following the Mongol invasion of China in the 13th century,
curved swords influenced by the steppe saber became more widely
used alongside the classic straight-edged jian, and by the middle of
the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), many swords had also been imported
from Japan into China. It was during this period that Chinese
gunpowder weapons were first used in battle.

Kuwagata crest ▶ O-YOROI

Date c.1340

Origin Japan

Material Iron, copper gilt, rawhide, silk,
leather, lacquer

The cuirass of the o-yoroi (armor) was made
of two parts, with a separate iron plate tied to
the body on the right-hand side.The standing
flanges on the shoulder straps prevented the
shoulder guards from hurting the neck when
a soldier raised his arms to draw his bow.

◀ RED-LACED O-YOROI
Date c.1360
Origin Japan
Material Iron, copper gilt, rawhide,
silk, leather, lacquer

This spectacular o-yoroi was made
as a votive offering for the Kasuga
Shrine in Nara.All the major pieces
are decorated with copper gilt
ornaments depicting tigers in
bamboo. Large kuwagata (stylized
deer horn) crests adorn the peak.

Large shoulder guards in
lieu of a shield

Kuzasuri
(thigh guards)
in four sections

103

▶ KOBOSHI KABUTO Hachi or helmet bowl ▶ YUMI EAST ASIAN WEAPONS AND ARMOR

Date 15th–16th century Honda Date 19th century
family crest
Origin Japan Origin Japan
Shikoro
Material Iron, copper gilt, or neck guard Weight 73⁄4oz (220g)
leather, silk, lacquer
Length 41⁄2ft (1.36m)
High-sided, multi-studded helmets
in the style known as koboshi kabuto The design of the yumi (Japanese
could contain as many as 2,000 bow) has been unchanged since
rivets. It was quite common for a at least 1000ce. It was built with
good helmet bowl to be recycled: bamboo glued to the back and
this one was refurbished with a front.The grip was positioned
new neck guard, visor, and crest near the lower end to allow the
ornaments, for a member of the bow to be used on horseback.
Honda family.

Shortening shown by original hole for grip at end of tang Flat-sided blade without a ridge
Reinforce ring
▲ TANTO BLADE Daggers were thrust through
Date 1400 a sash on the left-hand side when
Origin Japan wearing armor.The tanto (dagger)
Weight 5oz (145g) blade was acutely pointed and
Length 81⁄2in (21.8cm) sturdy, designed to pierce armor
when opponents were engaged in
hand-to-hand combat.

▶ IRON CANNON This small cannon was fired from a
Date c.1400 trestle-like stand. It was cast with
Origin China a bulbous breech region to resist
Length 181⁄2in (47cm) pressure. Rather than firing a single
Bore 10cm projectile, it was loaded with a
number of smaller missiles.

Swollen Muzzle
breech region

Monster motif Wooden scabbard
on hand guard bound in gilt iron

Cutting edge ▲ JIAN The jian (Chinese straight sword)
Date Early 15th century was the favored weapon of figures in
Origin China both Taoist and Buddhist mythology.
Weight 23⁄4lb (1.3kg) This sword, with a richly decorated
Length 351⁄2in (90.3cm) hilt and scabbard, was made for
presentation to a Tibetan monastery.
Tang to fit bamboo arrow shaft
Rattan binding to prevent
joints weakening from damp

▲ YA NO NE Japanese archers used many ▼ TACHI The tachi was a long sword worn
Date 18th century shapes of ya no ne (arrowheads). Date 18th century slung from the belt, attached by
Origin Japan These examples are forked heads Origin Japan the sageo (cord) on its scabbard.The
Weight 3⁄4–11⁄2oz (20–40g) called karimata because of their Weight 41⁄2oz (130g) tachi was superseded by the katana
Length 7–91⁄2in (18–24cm) resemblance to a skein of geese. Length 291⁄4in (74.5cm) for civilian wear by samurai, but
They have a long tang to fit into remained the proper weapon
Wooden hilt covered with the bamboo shaft. to be worn with armor.
rayskin and bound with silk
Sageo (cord) of Bronze kojiri (tip guard)
gilded Dutch leather decorated with a butterfly

Wooden scabbard covered
with lacquered cloth

KNIGHTS AND BOWMEN 500–1500104

EPIC FORTIFICATION

THE GREAT
WALL OF CHINA

The longest defensive fortification ever built, the Great
Wall of China protected northern China from incursions by
mounted warriors from the steppe. First constructed more
than 2,000 years ago and rebuilt in the 15th century, it was a
piece of military infrastructure on an unprecedented scale.

China’s settled civilization was always and blades, although deadly when
vulnerable to the nomadic, bow- used in a pitched battle, would be
wielding horsemen living in the vast unsuited to assailing fortifications.
spaces of inner Asia to the north and
west.The wealth of Chinese cities and In 1474, work began on a new
agricultural lands had long attracted Great Wall made from brick and
these highly mobile steppe raiders, stone, strong enough to withstand
from the Xiongnu and the Jurchen attack by the horsemen. Built mostly
to the Mongols and the Manchu. along the line of the old Qin Wall,
Qin Shi Huang, known as the first in many places the remains of the
emperor because of his unification of original earth structure were used
China in 221BCE, created the original as foundations.Vast resources of
Great Wall by joining up a number of human labor were devoted to
existing fortifications, some already building 3,510 miles (5,650km)
500 years old. Built mostly of packed of fortification, much of it across
earth, with some wood and stone, difficult terrain.The function of
over successive centuries, the QinWall this wall was partly symbolic—to
was only partially and sporadically mark the territory in which Chinese
maintained, leaving northern China civilization held sway. But it was
exposed to pillage. mainly a practical, utilitarian military
structure. As a physical barrier, it was
THE NEED FOR DEFENSES sufficiently solid to repel the parties
of horsemen armed with composite
The Ming dynasty came to power bows and bladed weapons. Sturdy
in the 14th century, and represented fortresses were sited along its length,
a reassertion of Chinese national pride protecting key towns, mountain
after a period of rule by Mongol passes, or river crossings. More than
conquerors. At first, the Ming were 7,000 lookout towers enabled small
expansionist in outlook, seeking to garrisons of soldiers armed with
extend Chinese territory by sea into pikes, swords, and crossbows to keep
the Indian Ocean, and by land into watch for intruders, and signal for
Central Asia. But ambitions to subdue reinforcements in case of attack.The
the steppe tribes came to a halt in walkway along the top of the wall
1449, when Emperor Zhengtong allowed for the rapid movement of
was defeated and captured by Oirat infantry from barracks or forts to
Mongols on the frontier at the Battle any point that was under threat.
of Tumu. As well as this military
disaster, the need for protection The wall outlasted the Ming
against the steppe horsemen had dynasty, which disintegrated in the
become more acute since 1421, 17th century.The invading Manchu
when the northern city of Beijing was horsemen were only able to conquer
made the official Ming capital, instead China because Chinese General Wu
of the more southerly city of Nanjing. Sangui, guarding the GreatWall at the
Beijing was virtually a frontier town, Shanhai Pass, deliberately opened its
and was critically exposed to attack. gates to allow them through to Beijing.
However, the steppe warriors’ bows The wall itself remained an effective
feat of military engineering.

MOUNTAIN DEFENSES
The builders of the Great Wall made extensive
use of natural features, such as mountains and
rivers, to enhance defensive effectiveness. Its
walkway provided a means of moving troops
through otherwise almost impassible terrain.

106

KNIGHTS AND BOWMEN 500–1500 KEY DEVELOPMENT

WARRIORS OF
PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA

The first substantial records of war in Mesoamerica relate to the Maya, who ruled
parts of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras from around 250CE until the 16th century,
when the Spanish conquistadors arrived, ushering in the end of an era.

From 250–900ce, the Mayan lowlands were provinces to a hereditary nobility.A series of

divided between city-states such as Tikal, Copan, well-built roads linked all parts of the empire,

and Yaxchilan, which were in a state of constant and a network of relay stations made it possible

war with each other. Mayan warriors fought with to send messages, enabling efficient central control

spears and sometimes with wooden clubs that of the provinces.To help rule a vast area that

were inset with stone or obsidian blades. Records stretched from Ecuador to northern Chile, the

indicate that armor and shields were rarely used by Inca built hilltop fortresses and fortified outposts

Mayan warriors: their equipment appears to have in the border regions of the empire, such as

been more suitable for sporadic raids than large- southern Bolivia.

scale battles. Mayan armies were small and Inca armies’ success on the battlefield was not

aristocratic, and Tikal’s army, the largest, would reliant on superior weaponry, but instead on

have numbered no more than 1,000 warriors. numerical advantage and better use of tactics.

Their equipment was equal to, or even less

AZTEC TRADITIONS advanced than, that of their rivals; unlike the

The Aztecs (Mexica) originated from theValley of neighboring Amazon tribes, they did not even

Mexico and eventually settled at their future capital, use bows and arrows.Their warriors fought

Tenochtitlán, in 1325, but emerged as an imperial mainly with clubs (initially of stone, then of

power only in the mid-15th century. They built up a bronze fitted with stone spikes), slings, and

system based on tribute, which ennobled successful short wooden lances, and they were protected

warriors and created a society that valued military by padded armor.To swell their ranks, they

training, encouraging commoners to join the Aztec instituted compulsory military service for all

army. With a core of trained veterans and a ready men between the ages of 25 and 50, producing a ▲ PLACE OF SACRIFICE
The Aztec ruler Axayacatl (1468–81)
supply of fresh warriors, the Aztecs were able to field vast pool of recruits; in combat, warriors would is seen presiding over a human
sacrifice of captives at the Pyramid
armies of over 8,000 men and could overwhelm their employ their long-range weapons (principally the of Huitzilopochtli, in the Aztec capital
Tenochtitlán.The skulls of the victims
opponents by sheer force of numbers. In battle, they slings) before closing in for hand-to-hand combat. were placed in racks at the foot of
the temple steps.
relied on a barrage of arrows and slingstones, If they suffered a setback in one area, they were

followed by an advance of close-order fighters armed able to call on substantial military resources from

with axes, maces, and clubs.Warriors wore body elsewhere in the empire. Just as the Aztecs fought

armor of cotton or leather, and elite soldiers covered “flower wars” (see box, right), the Inca seem to

these with the skins of fierce animals, such as jaguars.

THE INCA EMPIRE “And the curs fought back furiously,
From 1438, under Pachacutí, the Inca, who dealing us wounds and death with their
had controlled a small state in the Cuzco area lances and their two-handed swords”
of Peru, took over the whole of the central
Andes, absorbing other civilizations, such BERNAL DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, THE TRUE HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO, c.1568
as the Chimú of northern Peru. As well as
looting the capital, Chanchan, of its gold and ◀ OBSIDIAN SPEAR
precious stones, the Inca borrowed aspects Inca warriors usually carried one
of Chimú organization to consolidate their or two throwing spears made of
rule, handing control of the growing empire’s wood, featuring blades edged
with sharp flakes of stone capable
of inflicting deep cuts.

107

KEY EVENTS WA R FA R E I N P R E - C O L U M B I A N A M E R I C A

have engaged in a form of ritual warfare known as 800–1550
“tinkuy.” The spilling of blood on the ground was
believed to ensure the earth’s fertility, so the ◼ c.800–830 The Classic Mayan
purpose of this type of conflict was not outright civilization collapses. The main cities
conquest. As in their major battles, the Inca forces’ of the Maya—Calakmul, Tikal, and
superiority in numbers would also have helped Yaxchilan—are abandoned one by
them in this ritualized form of combat. one, for reasons that are not clear,
but may have included the effects
THE COMING OF THE EUROPEANS of overpopulation on poor land.
The arrival of Europeans, in Mexico in 1519, and
in Peru in 1532, heralded the rapid collapse of the ◼ 1428 The Aztecs of Tenochtitlán
principal pre-Columbian civilizations. Although form a triple alliance with the
Spanish military technology was superior—they neighboring city-states of Texcoco
possessed firearms, horses, and metal armor— and Tlacopan, marking the start
their numbers were vastly inferior.They achieved of the Aztec rise to power in the
a series of victories through their advanced Valley of Mexico.
weapons, but also through military aggression,
by disregarding Aztec and Inca ritual proprieties ◼ c.1470 After a series of
(such as the Inca reluctance to fight at the new campaigns, the Pachacuti Inca
moon), and by exploiting the resentment that conquer the Chimor capital at
existed among the subject peoples of the two Chanchan, giving them dominance
empires. Once the vulnerability of the Inca and in the Andes.
Aztec emperors had been established, the Spanish,
who then arrived in greater numbers, never ◼ 1519–21 The Spanish, under
allowed their opponents to regain their strength. the command of Hernan Cortes,
The Aztec empire lasted only until 1521, when it overthrow the Aztec empire.
was overthrown by the Spanish; by 1572, the last
Inca stronghold had also fallen. ◼ 1529–33 Led by Francisco
Pizarro, the Spanish overthrow
the Inca, capturing and killing the
Inca emperor Atahuallpa.

KEY TRADITION

AZTEC FLOWER
WARS

The Aztecs and neighboring tribes
indulged in a type of ritual fighting
known as “flower wars.” At an
agreed time and place, restricted
numbers of warriors armed with
non-lethal weapons would fight;
captives on either side were taken
off and used for human sacrifice.

▲ Aztec warriors as depicted in the
Codex Mendoza, an Aztec pictorial
record dated around 1541.

◀ WARRIOR GOD
Mixcoatl was the Aztec god of hunting
and warfare, and is normally pictured
with warpaint, a bow, and his kills.

KNIGHTS AND BOWMEN 500–1500108 ▶ AZTEC CHIMALLI
Date 1400–1500
PRE-COLUMBIAN WEAPONRY Origin Mexico
Diameter 30in (75cm)
Weapons technology did not advance significantly in the
Americas in the thousand years before European contact in the late An Aztec warrior’s chimalli (shield)
15th century.The most common weapons were thrusting spears, was usually made of fire-hardened
slings, and wooden clubs, with padded cotton armor forming the bamboo, tied together with fibers
principal protection.Warfare, although common (especially between from the maguey plant.They were
the Mayan cities of Mesoamerica), occurred on a small scale until the backed with cotton or leather
14th and 15th centuries.This period saw the emergence of the more and covered with feathers, which
organized Inca and Aztec states, which were able to construct large often hung down in tassels.The
empires dominating most of Peru and Mexico, respectively. It was object pictured here is a replica.
their ability to deploy resources effectively, rather than superior
military technology, that ensured their supremacy. Human
silhouette
▶ MAYAN AXEHEAD Axes were not commonly
Date 9th century ce employed by Mayan warriors
Origin Mexico in battle—this axehead bearing
Length 121⁄2in (32cm) the form of human silhouettes
Material Obsidian was probably ceremonial.The
Mayans instead used mainly
spears and long clubs.

Gold
headdress

Cavity for Small human head
turquoise decoration
This gold breastplate in the form of
Image of ▼ MIXTEC GOLD a deity came from the Mixtec people
Sicán Lord BREASTPLATE of Monte Alban, near modern-day
Oaxaca. Mixtec nobles fought with
Date 1300–1450ce thrusting spears, while commoners
Origin Mexico probably used slings and atlatls.
Material Gold

Face of
Mixtec god

Wide, semi-
circular blade

▲ CEREMONIAL TUMI Tumis were ceremonial knives with
semicircular blades, characteristic
Date 9–11th century ce of the Sicán and the Moche,
Origin Peru pre-Inca peoples of Peru.They
Length Approx. 133⁄4in depicted the mythical founder of
(35cm) the Sicán people, the Sicán Lord,
Material Gold, bronze and were used in sacrifices to
slit the victim’s throat.

109

Ring for attaching Obsidian or flint PRE-COLUMBIAN WEAPONRY
leather carrying strap teeth inserted into

wooden club

▲ AZTEC FLINT KNIFE This flint knife is of an earlier Tooth-shaped ▲ AZTEC MAQUAHUITL
Date 1400–1530 type than the wood and flint blade
Origin Mexico maquahuitl.The sharp stone blade Date 1400–1500
Length Approx. 8in (20cm) could inflict serious gashes, but Long groove for
Material Flint was more difficult to repair placing javelin Origin Mexico
than a wooden broadsword.
Length Approx. 231⁄2in (60cm)

Material Wood, obsidian

The maquahuitl (broadsword)
was a long war club that was
used as one of an Aztec warrior’s
primary shock weapons.Although
made of wood, it was often
studded with razor-sharp
flakes of obsidian or flint.

Feathers line outer Finger holes to grip onto ▲ AZTEC ATLATL The atlatl—a device into
edge of shield atlatl when making a throw Date 1400–1500 which a javelin or long dart was
Origin Mexico placed—was retained in the hand
Maguey-plant Length 231⁄2in (60cm) when the projectile was thrown,
fiber straps Material Wood giving it around 60 percent more
force than a normal spear-throw.
The darts or javelins were held
in the hand and not in a quiver.

◀ AZTEC SLING Slings complemented bows as
Date 1400–1530 the main long-range Aztec missile
Origin Mexico weapons. Made of maguey-plant
Length Approx. 191⁄2in (50cm) fibers, they were used to fire
Material Maguey-plant fibers specially shaped spherical stones
for maximum effect and had a
range of up to 656ft (200m).

Pouch for Green quetzal
slingstone feathers

▶ MOCTEZUMA’S HELMET
Date 1500–1520
Origin Mexico
Material Gold, feathers

This is a reproduction of a
helmet said to have belonged
to Moctezuma, the last ruler
of the Aztecs. It was made of
gold, with 400 feathers
of the sacred quetzal
bird bound together
with beadwork.

Feathers end
in a tassel

Beadwork
binding

MOCTEZUMA’S PALACE
The Spanish, holding Moctezuma hostage
in his palace, are besieged by hostile Aztec
warriors.The Aztec had difficulty adjusting
to the European intruders and their fighting
methods, which had no equivalent in the Aztecs’
previous experience.

111

NEW WORLD CONQUEST AZTECS AND CONQUISTADORS

AZTECS AND
CONQU I STA D OR S

From 1519, the Aztec Empire faced an invasion by Spanish
conquistadors—men from an alien military tradition with
superior technology.The struggle for control of the capital,
Tenochtitlán, revealed the Aztec army’s dependence on stone
weaponry and their ritualistic attitude to warfare.

The Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II The primary objective of a warrior
at first welcomed the Spanish and was not to kill his opponents but to
their Indian allies, the Tlaxcaltec, maim them and capture them alive.
into his palace in Tenochtitlán, but Nonetheless, after battle was joined
relations soon soured.The Spanish the Spanish suffered steady attrition.
took Moctezuma hostage, and the The tide was turned not by the
Aztec population became increasingly conquistadors’ few gunpowder
hostile. In June 1520, fighting broke weapons or their steel swords, but by
out. Moctezuma was killed—whether their horses—animals unknown to the
by the Spanish, or his own people, is Aztecs before the Europeans’ arrival.
not known—and the Spanish were The Spanish commander Hernán
besieged in the royal palace. On the Cortés led a small cavalry charge
night of June 30, they attempted to into the Aztec ranks and ran down
escape along the causeways that linked their commanders.The psychological
the city, built on an island in Lake impact of this bold and unexpected
Texcoco, to the shore. Aztec warriors action routed the Aztecs, who soon
in war canoes attacked the Spanish, abandoned the field in disarray.
shooting arrows and climbing onto the
causeways to strike them with clubs. THE TAKING OF TENOCHTITLÁN
Of about a thousand conquistadors,
probably two-thirds were killed, The following year, reinforced with
taken prisoner, or wounded. large numbers of Tlaxcaltec and
other native allies, Cortés placed
THE SHOCK OF THE NEW Tenochtitlán under siege. In the
defense of the city the Aztecs proved
Under a new emperor, Cuitláhuac, far more resolute than in open field.
the Aztecs sought to complete their They fought fiercely to hold the
victory by pursuing the remnants of causeways giving access to the city
the Spanish force. An Aztec army set across the lake, until these were
out, splendidly arrayed, the officers made untenable by the fire of small
wearing elaborate feathered displays cannon mounted in Spanish boats.
on bamboo frames and marching Then they defended their city street
under colorful standards.They by street. Confronting crossbows,
caught up with the Spanish at the arquebuses, and steel swords with
plain of Otumba.The Aztecs greatly their weapons of wood and stone,
outnumbered their enemy, probably they repeatedly repelled incursions
by at least twenty to one.Their noble by the Spanish and their allies,
warriors, hardened to warfare from throwing missiles from the rooftops
an early age, were physically fearless and ambushing isolated groups
fighters.They had no metal weapons, of soldiers.The Aztecs remained
but their wooden clubs and spears undefeated through 10 weeks of
were edged with razor-sharp black siege, but eventually the Spanish
obsidian blades. As well as bows and blockade of the city led to a shortage
arrows, they had javelins that could of food, forcing them to surrender.
be launched to considerable distance In August 1521, the Aztec civilization
using a throwing stick, or atlatl. came to an end.

AND1 5 0 0 –1 6 8 0

PIKES
GUNPOWDER



I N T RODUC T ION

Around 1500, warfare entered a phase of intensive The conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires by small Spanish
innovation.The growing impact of gunpowder forces, in the 1520s and 1530s, was atypical of European
weapons led to a re-evaluation of siege warfare, military achievement—the most effective army in the
battlefield tactics, and the training of soldiers. 16th century was arguably that of the Turkish Ottoman
At sea, sailing ships armed with cannon gave Empire.The largest wars of the 17th century were fought by
Europeans unprecedented control of the seas. the Manchu in China, while Europe’s incessant religious and
dynastic conflicts were stimuli for technological development.
Although military developments varied worldwide, there
were certain trends. In 16th-century Japan, for example, The armored knight evolved into the cavalryman, armed
commanders realized that peasant footsoldiers, if equipped with pistol and sword. Adapting successfully to the challenge
with firearms and properly disciplined, could be a match for of cannon, fortifications became ever more elaborate, as did
the elite mounted samurai.A similar idea underpinned the the techniques used to besiege them. In the Mediterranean,
strict drills of European musket-armed infantry, who learned war fleets still consisted of oared galleys but, in the Atlantic,
to fire in volleys and maneuver together on the battlefield. sailing ships evolved into remarkable weapons platforms,
In Europe, the use of massed pikemen became standard: with a single ship mounting as many cannon as an entire land
the issue of how to combine muskets and pikes in battle army. Permanent regular armies—drilled, disciplined, and
preoccupied European military theorists for a century and uniformed—eventually replaced the former European
a half, before the advent of the bayonet, in the late 17th military traditions of mercenaries, feudal retainers, levies,
century, made the issue redundant. and militias.The wealth of increasingly centralized European
states sustained these expanding military establishments.

KEY DATES

1500 trace italienne

to sfporrteiTafihdceaitcin.onE1usry5ospte0em0 begins
cofontDeqihnuueae,rbPPiIloonneSsrsdystitreuitah1s1gasheniue55oeaAOsnrncOe10adtetobsafio69Eanai,gclm–niyaaanpfnSn1ttgeneaoTrs7unhrtikhpassendtdBooafitrmtlieeanratmes
fForeu innocfdmhptIPAohnabrreyntqIiautnpMne11hadtiubtegaur5,5shaSoillalvpeli22eroacstniwEi65sonsarmhnyt,pBidharaaebettpuidrtkPeheafteveoimaaetB,naItottfplalletayyhean

introPodrutcue1gufi5ersee4ars3amislotros Japan
BattSluspeeanoNwifosoafrhbJNTufiaahrornfpgeuealaaaigesnrD11naheiiudsmtnsne5e5cmophtaae67whtknaeRedrts8e5lehvoNneodrelctedtechiesbaOirelgdvgaaaeiinnndsssta long

canbneoShnipnaadnnisdfihelfiArdtmeafaCrkoreetmriisegfiffcnfiearoclteitaid,ovnifesrnouIstmealy1o,f t5he03 Marybe builtThiwseitohEnneggluisonfhpofisrrthsistpt1o511 umsaetcihlnocEkucr.omp1uesk5et30 thceMlau“ssclihatrwimGaihntecearhotlnBmehdwaa”ethnttCleaMheehcrleiltodisoroitcfstcieekafLrnormerpeapigsnnafitaenligoltalcnehosn.tty,irnoa11fltgdeue55ctse7610 fiaorfsnftdtthmiheed-AozPcooerrteasungbuneeatsvewalee1bnat5le82
Rose ASzHtpeeracnniasEnhmCpCioorrent,eqsiuinsdteaMs1tderxoior5cyeos1thue9nd–er21
SÜLEYMAN I—1494-1566 MtahgeniTBfihacteetlnetOttodfoefmeMaaotnshaatcrsh,emiynHoufHnugSnaulrgieaayrnysmaa1nt t5he26 The
into

comes fFroeuTnghcheht

is
the

THE BATTLE OF MOHACS —1526 THE BATTLE OF NAGASHINO—1575

THE SPANISH ARMADA—1588 AnodfaeftEetneagmtlapontfeddthfaeSiplAsa,rnmwisaihtdhain1tvhae5sio8n 8 usinmg oEdIunerronP1piezere5assina8S,eaSxf7hapavehirdtsAfbobrcaess I
defeiarotnKocoflardae1a“Jn5atupar9adtnlmee2sirseahliflpYesie”tSiunnstihne uses
tercios pNikaessaaundDimumptcurhoskveelestaditnheferanMdtcrraiyu.ll1rioc6fe o0f 0 QdtShpiisneamgBndiusToeirsshdaeuihtjiygsMEinhTDrnnohutetaufllgeyaoeirnte,ndso1n1fi11cceYtefphsBrhyeto—wse,6aa6u66utoAaitrianftntndsdwt4h023ldhmeebWiaoCatcnac4ir0h09hriroargatrssmeiatfriirenvlo,lbetmWiaeBrehiiMsnnsaeehteeanatisntiEstacenlceuterwitoiztrrcuheeMooosnnopdfotaeuueDTfigcrnrgaoeothiwoamntfinsnpts a
the fiAgnhgEtlnofg-oD1lraunn6tdcahv5aaWnl2dasru–tsph7reemN4aetchyerinlands
THE BATTLE OFWHITE MOUNTAIN—1620KingcavvGiacultrsoytaryvcuhaosatfrAgCBcdeairosvesliptialtlhenewundsfeaTefinhrlodsedef,lsdiGSSnwtieaeherJrgemdateieplalpnaenoernyfrey11imoOidnps66aloky31as 15 EuroispeinaTnthreowcdpa.ul1rcufegad6rebi7anytoo0net
infFarnetnrcyhAetntdhethBienadtEtoluemroionpfaenRacnoecrwooaif,rfSFaprraaenn1ciseh,6th4e 3
THE BATTLE OF BREITENFELD—1631
side infotrhmeedTEhnebgyliNsthehweCiMPviaolrdWleialamrA1ernmt6y 4is 5
andlVeaacuodbninadgnucfetoomrrterreogsfesssideaegssceisg.F1nraenr6ce6’s 0
VatuhfbeoarnSiKesigunecgceoLsfosufMuisallayXsItcVroi1cnhdt6uct7s 3
1680

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680116

KEY DEVELOPMENT

PIKES AND MUSKETS

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe was a continent almost constantly
at war. Over the course of these decades of conflict, European armies
experimented with fighting methods that bestowed new importance
on infantry armed with pikes and firearms.

Medieval European foot soldiers were often enemy pike square or help hold off a cavalry ▲ MUSKETEER’S KIT
effective but were generally seen as being of low charge. Mobile field cannon—of bronze and Musket soldiers in the English Civil
repute. In the early 16th century, however, the firing iron shot—also began to make their mark Wars (1642–51) rarely wore armor.
Renaissance rediscovery of the military techniques on the battlefield. The red coat was the uniform of men
of Ancient Greece and Rome—the Greek phalanx of Parliament’s New Model Army.
and the Roman legion—suddenly made infantry INFANTRY DISCIPLINE
fashionable.The most admired fighting men When they could afford it, 16th-century
of 16th-century Europe, such as the German infantry wore extensive plate armor for
Landesknechte and the Spanish tercios, fought protection against arquebus fire, as well
on foot, utilizing massed bodies of pikemen.This as against pikes, swords, and halberds. But
technique had been pioneered by the Swiss, but during the second half of the 16th century,
now firearms were added to the formations: the matchlock musket came into use. A
although some foot soldiers continued to use heavier weapon that required a forked rest
the bow, the matchlock arquebus overtook it as to aim, the musket could penetrate most plate
the key infantry missile weapon during the Italian armor at moderate range, and the proportion
Wars (1494–1559).The arquebus was neither of foot soldiers carrying them gradually increased.
accurate nor powerful, but it could weaken an The importance of discipline in the effectiveness of

“Advanced within musket shot of the enemy, the foot ▼ BATTLE OF MARIGNANO
The tomb of King François I of France

on both sides began to give fire” is decorated with this image of his
victory at Marignano in 1515. In it,
François leads his knights in a charge

with couched lance against Swiss

FUTURE KING OF ENGLAND, JAMES II, DESCRIBING THE BATTLE OF EDGEHILL, 1642 pikemen backed by field artillery.

117

◀ SPANISH TERCIOS PIKES AND MUSKETS
Spanish royal troops fight in a deep
pike formation during the EightyYears’
War (1568–1648) against the Dutch.
The Spanish tercios were considered
the best infantry in Europe.

infantry was already apparent from the pike square impact of gunpowder weapons on European siege KEY EVENTS
—a man with an 18ft (5.5m) pike was formidable warfare, however, was far more rapid than that
as part of a tight formation, but useless on his on field battles.Tall stone castle walls were obsolete 16th–17th century
own. However, as the use of firearms increased, by 1500, but during the Italian wars they were
so did the need for further precision in drills: gradually replaced by star forts that were designed ◼ 1503 At Cerignola, the Spanish
loading and firing the gun was a complex not only to resist bombardment by cannon, but demonstrate the effectiveness of
operation, particularly en masse, and its success in also to enable the defenders to make optimal use firearms and cannon deployed
battlefield formation depended on tight discipline. of cannon and firearms themselves. As a result, defensively behind field fortifications.
The 17th century saw musket-armed troops sieges became even longer and more elaborate than
maneuvering in formation alongside pike squares, before, with besieging infantry forced to spend ◼ 1513 Swiss pikemen attacking
firing in volleys—either together for shock effect, long months in trenches that protected them from in dense columns beat the French
or in sequence to maintain a continuous fire.The the defenders’ firepower. at Novara.

◼ 1525 French armored cavalry
suffer heavy losses to Spanish
arquebusiers in the defeat of François
I by Habsburg forces at Pavia.

◼ 1580s The matchlock musket
comes into use.

◼ c.1600 Dutch commander
Maurice of Nassau trains and
organizes his pike-and-musket
infantry to carry out flexible
battlefield maneuvers.

◼ 1619–48 During the Thirty
Years’ War, the proportion of
musket-armed infantry increases,
sometimes outnumbering pikemen.

◼ c.1660 The flintlock musket
begins to replace the matchlock
musket as the key European
infantry weapon.

KEY STRUCTURE

STAR FORT

Originally called the “trace italienne,”
the star fort’s projecting triangular
bastions enabled its defenders to
cover all approaches to the walls
with converging musket fire. The
walls themselves were thick and
low, surrounded by a wide ditch
and an earth slope—the glacis.

▲ Plans for fortifications at Hunningen
were drawn up in the 1670s. Star forts
often had additional outworks, as here
across the Rhine.

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680118 ▲ BRONZE FALCON WITH This falcon was cast by a
TEN-SIDED BARREL Flemish master gun-founder
FIELD ARTILLERY for Henry VIII as part of a
AND NAVAL CANNON Date c.1520 consignment of 28 guns. It
Origin England or Flanders fired balls weighing 21⁄4lb (1kg).
Artillery was established as an effective battlefield weapon by the early Length 9ft (2.78m)
16th century, leading to the appearance of a wide range of ordnance, including Caliber 6.6cm
practical field artillery and lighter pieces for naval use. Improvements in gun- Range 2621⁄2 yards (240m)
casting technology led to the replacement of wrought-iron guns with stronger
bronze cannon, while the introduction of superior corned gunpowder in the late
16th century allowed the construction of longer-range guns with short barrels.
By the time of the Thirty Years’War (1618–48) and English CivilWar (1642–51),
artillery was firmly established, with gun units integrated into infantry regiments.

▲ BRONZE FALCON Octagonal- Tudor rose symbol Figure of wyvern (mythical
Date c.1520 shaped barrel dragonlike creature)
Origin Flanders or France Like many early guns, the saker
Length 81⁄4ft (2.54m) ▲ BRONZE SAKER was named after a bird of prey—
Caliber 6.3cm Date 1529 in this case, the saker falcon.This
Shot c. 23⁄4lb (1.3kg) Origin England one was acquired from an Italian
Length 71⁄4ft (2.23m) master craftsman as part of Henry
The falcon was a light cannon typical Caliber 9.5cm VIII’s campaign to enlarge his
of the early 16th century.This model Range 11⁄2 miles (2km) army’s artillery force.
was ordered by HenryVIII, possibly
from Flanders, because England
did not have an established gun-
manufacturing industry at the time.

Winged mermaid
(facing outward)

Elaborately ▲ BRONZE ROBINET Weighing 4251⁄2lb (193kg), this is
decorated barrel Date 1535 an extremely ornate example of
Origin France the robinet, a light cannon.This
Small-bore Length 73⁄4ft (2.39m) model was made in Metz, France.
barrel Caliber 4.3cm It was seized in Paris by Allied
Shot 1lb (0.45kg) troops in 1815.

▲ BRONZE MINION Minions, light cannon that were ▼ IRON BREECH-LOADING Pivots that allowed a gun to fire
Date c.1550 particularly well adapted for use SWIVEL GUN across a wide arc turned a fixed barrel
Origin Italy at sea, saw service on many English into a swivel gun, especially useful
Length 81⁄4ft (2.5m) ships during their engagement with Date 16th century aboard a ship when firing on other
Caliber 7.6cm the Spanish Armada (see pp.148–49). Origin Europe moving vessels.This model was used
Shot 31⁄4lb (1.5kg) Length 51⁄4ft (1.63m) in an antipersonnel role, shooting
Caliber 7.6cm stone ammunition. Wrought-iron
Shot 31⁄2lb (1.5kg) or grape shot band around barrel

Lever for
pivot

119

Bronze barrel ▼ BRONZE DEMI-CULVERIN This naval version of a F I E L D A RT I L L E RY A N D N AVA L C A N N O N
Date 1636 demi-culverin, a medium
Lifting handles in the Origin France cannon, was cast for Cardinal
shape of dolphins Length 91⁄2ft (2.92m) Richelieu, who reorganized
Caliber 11cm the French fleet and established
Shot 83⁄4lb (4kg) a foundry at Le Havre.

▼ BRONZE DEMI-CANNON This demi-cannon, a heavy piece Reinforcing
Date 1643 designed for naval use, was cast in bronze strips
Origin Flanders the famous Flemish gun-foundry
Length 101⁄4ft (3.12m) at Malines. It was capable of firing Ornamental figure
Caliber 15.2cm heavy shots, which could cause of pouncing lion
Shot 26lb (12kg) devastating damage at short range.

Widely flared
muzzle

▶ MALAYSIAN These light cannon were Decoration depicting arms of
BRONZE SAKER designed for long-range Prince Maurice of the Netherlands
attack.This ornate model
Date c.1650 was cast in Malacca, ◀ BRONZE BREECH-
Origin Malaysia Malaysia, by local craftsmen LOADING SWIVEL GUN
Length 71⁄2ft (2.29m) who probably followed a Date c.1670
Caliber 8.9cm Dutch model. Origin Netherlands
Shot 41⁄2lb (2kg) Length 4ft (1.22m)
Caliber 7.4cm
Slots for wedge to Shot 21⁄2lb (1.16kg) or grape shot
secure breech chamber This swivel gun was owned by
the Dutch East India Company,
and was most probably used as
an antipersonnel weapon.

120

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 EUROPEAN INFANTRY Spike
ARMOR AND WEAPONS
Back fluke MORION ▼ SPANISH
Peacetime armies hardly existed prior to the 16th century: TERCIO ARMOR
professional troops were either bodyguards or employed for Movable Date c.1570
garrison duties. However, during wartime troops were gussets at Origin Italy
recruited and mercenaries hired. Permanent infantry units, armholes Material Iron, leather
such as the Spanish tercio (see p.117), were established in the
early 16th century.They were drilled in battlefield tactics and Italy, and especially Milan, made
trained in the effective use of their weapons. Such forces, together munition armor of this type
with the increased availability of handguns, challenged the supremacy in large quantities.This cuirass
of the fully armored knights. Manufacturers in Italy, Germany, was worn with full arms and an
and the Low Countries increased their production of swords, staff Blade open helmet such as the morion
weapons, handguns, and armor, transporting them all over Europe shown.The tercios were armed
to equip these new military units. with a pike or gun and a sword.

Gorget

▶ HALBERD Langet

Rivet-holes SALLET Date c.1500
where visor Breastplate
was attached Origin Germany

Weight 41⁄2lb (2.01kg)

Length (Head) 161⁄4in
(41.2cm)

The halberd was a versatile
weapon—the blade was used
for cutting, its spike for
thrusting, and the back fluke
for pulling men off horseback.

The langets protected the
shaft from being cut.

Couter Embossing
on breast
plate and
tassets (thigh
guards)

Skirt or fauld Splints

Elongated, plated guards
protected the hands

▲ ALMAIN RIVET In 1512, King HenryVIII ordered 2,000 of these
(MUNITION ARMOR) simple armors from a merchant in Florence.The
arm defenses, called “splints,” consisted of gutter-
Date c.1520 shaped plates attached to a dished couter over the
Origin Italy elbow.The plates and the couter were joined by
Material Iron, leather leather on the inside. Instead of gauntlets, a series
of laminations covered the hands.

121

Pommel Quillon EUROPEAN INFANTRY ARMOR AND WEAPONS
Ricasso

Ring guard Lugs ▲ TWO-HANDED SWORD These swords were popular in Germany,
Date 1550 particularly with those defending the
▼ MUNITION ARMOR Tubular backsight Origin Germany company banner.They were carried
Date c.1560 Snapping lock Weight 7lb (3.18kg) on the shoulder.When used at close
Origin Germany Length 41⁄2ft (1.4m) quarters, the grip could be shortened
Material Iron, leather Shoulder stock by grasping the base of the blade, the
lugs protecting the hand.
Infantry armors were a staple product
of the German armor-producing ▲ SNAPPING MATCHLOCK Henry VIII ordered 1,500 of these
centers.They were made in different Date c.1540 guns from the Venetian Republic
configurations and qualities to suit Origin Italy in 1544. A year later, some of them
the clients’ needs. Many, such as Weight 73⁄4lb (3.5kg) were aboard his flagship, the Mary
this example, were decorated with Barrel 31⁄2ft (1.05m) Rose, when it sank. Experiments
polished bands, the remaining surface Caliber .47in with a modern replica showed that
being left black from the hammer. they could penetrate up to 0.2in
(6mm) of steel at 30 yards (27m).
Burgonet Pommel

Almain collar—a Knuckle guard ▲ LANDSKNECHT SWORD These swords are characterized by
gorget with shoulder and ring guards Date c.1550 the figure-eight shaped quillons.
Origin Germany This example is also provided with
and upper arm Weight 31⁄2lb (1.54kg) side bars, becoming in effect a type
plates attached Length 373⁄4in (96cm) of basket-hilted sword.They were
widely used by the infantry of
Brass hilt and quillon Germany and northern Italy.

Blade of flattened diamond section

Mail sleeves ▲ LANDSKNECHT DAGGER These simple weapons, in use
Date c.1520 over much of Europe, were
Origin Germany invaluable in hand-to-hand fighting.
Weight 111⁄4oz (330g) Most had double-edged blades with
Length 121⁄4in (31cm) a flattened diamond-shape in cross-
section. Blades were to become
slimmer as the century progressed.

Pivoted ◀ BURGONET
peak
Date c.1570
Roped comb
Origin Germany
Embossing
on skull and Material Iron, leather
cheekpieces
This burgonet with its roped comb
Articulated and embossed leaf decoration must
gorget plates have formed part of a superior armor.
It differs from those of munition quality
in having articulating lames for the rear
gorget plate and a pivoted peak or fall.

▶ COMB MORION One-piece
Date c.1580 skull
Origin Italy
Material Iron, leather and brim

Long tassets The comb morion eventually developed Lining
almost to the knees into the pikeman’s pot. Early examples have rivets
the comb, skull, and brim forged in one piece,
while later examples were made in two halves.
The earpieces on this example are missing.

122

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 SIMPLE BUT EFFECTIVE FIREARM

MATCHLOCK MUSKET

The invention of the matchlock hackenbüsche, or pivoting holder, swung down and touched off a small quantity
arquebus, cannot be dated precisely, but evidence points of priming powder held in a pan, which lit the main gunpowder
to it being around 1475, of German origin. Its source of charge via a narrow touch-hole. Matchlocks were superseded
ignition was a length of smouldering “match”—cord soaked by flintlocks in the early 1600s, but were still used until the
in saltpeter. On pulling the trigger, the match, held in a end of that century, due to their simplicity and low cost. Musket rest

▶ MATCHLOCK MUSKET Matchlock mechanism
Date Mid-17th century
Origin Britain Octagonal barrel
Weight 131/4lb (6.05kg)
Barrel 491/2in (126cm) Trigger
Caliber .75in
FULL VIEW

▲ MATCHLOCK MUSKET Trigger guard
While the matchlock was a significant Leather belt
improvement over the hand-cannon, it was
still a very clumsy weapon. Early examples
were unwieldy and not very accurate. Even in dry
weather, the match could be extinguished all too
easily, and its glowing end was a giveaway at night.

▶ BANDOLIER
This “collar of charges,” worn diagonally over the
shoulder, carried around 12 wooden flasks, each
of which held a measure of powder for one shot.

Wooden flask

IN ACTION 123MATCHLOCK MUSKET

MATCHLOCK DRILL Octagonal barrel

In the first of these pictures from a Dutch drill manual, the match
in the musketeer’s left hand is already lit. In the second, he pours
gunpowder from a flask on his bandolier. He then rams down a
musket ball, before preparing to pour priming powder into the
pan from a priming flask, keeping the smoldering match at a
safe distance in his left hand.

▶ Good dexterity was required to load matchlocks in the field.

Manually operated “Serpentine” match-holder
pan cover carries the smoldering fuse

Iron lock plate anchors firing mechanism,
including pan and match-holder

▼ MUSKET REST ▶ POWDER FLASK Plain spout without
The earliest military matchlocks were This example is made of wood covered with velvet measuring device
massive, and required the use of a rest, and reinforced with iron. It is designed to hold fine-
which had to be of sturdy design and grained priming powder—the narrow spout makes
increased the gunner’s load. By about it easier to pour into the pan.
1650, guns had become light enough
for rests to be dispensed with. ▼ LEAD BALL
Matchlock muskets fired a ball made from
lead that was cast slightly smaller in diameter
than the bore of the gun.This was because
residues from the burning powder quickly
fouled the barrel, making loading difficult.

Sling is decorative as
well as functional

UPHILL STRUGGLE
Catholic Imperial cavalry attack uphill against
a Bohemian Protestant army holding the high
ground atWhite Mountain. Dense smoke covers
the center of the battlefield where gunpowder
weapons are being fired.

125

PIKE AND M ATCHLOCK MUSKET THE BATTLE OF WHITE MOUNTAIN

THE BATTLE OF
WHITE MOUNTAIN

In the Thirty Years’War, fought in central Europe between
1618 and 1648, all armies used infantry armed with pikes
and matchlock muskets.This distinctive form of warfare is
exemplified by the Battle of White Mountain, an important
encounter in the opening phase of the conflict.

The Battle of White Mountain A SHORT ENGAGEMENT
was fought outside Prague on
November 8,1620, when Bohemian The Protestants were first to take
Protestants, rebelling against the the offensive.The squares of pikemen
authority of the Holy Roman advanced down the hill, directed by
Emperor, were confronted by a mix sergeants marching at the flanks with
of Catholic Imperial forces. Both their halberds. Lowering their long,
armies numbered between 20,000 unwieldy weapons, the pikemen
and 30,000 men—quite substantial intended to engage the enemy infantry
amounts by the standard of the time. at close quarters with a “push of
Commanded by Christian of Anhalt, pike.” The cavalry also came forward,
the Bohemian Protestants had taken riding knee-to-knee at a steady jog
an advantageous defensive position on rather than a gallop. Following the
high ground, but the Catholics, led by established tactics of the time, each
Johann Tserclaes, Count von Tilly, body of horsemen advanced toward
were more experienced and enjoyed an enemy pike square and discharged
superior morale. their pistols in a volley at as close a
range as possible before turning away.
PIKE SQUARES
Count von Tilly, however, was
On both sides the pikemen confident in the quality of his troops
formed up in tightly packed squares, and not inclined to stand on the
a practice that had been commonplace defensive. He ordered his own
in European warfare for over a cavalry and infantry aggressively up
century.The smaller number of the slope.The Protestant musket
infantry equipped with firearms— troops were trained to fire in rolling
predominantly matchlock muskets— volleys—the front row fired, then
were either positioned in a “sleeve” moved to the back to reload while
around the outside of the pike square, the second row fired, and so on—
or formed into squads known as to compensate for the slowness of
“horns” at the four corners of each reloading the matchlock, theoretically
square. Influenced by recent tactical allowing a continuous fire to be
developments initiated by the Dutch, maintained. But the Catholic squares
the Protestants deployed their advanced relentlessly forward through
pikemen in shallower squares than the thickening fog of gunpowder
the Catholics, with fewer lines from smoke, and their cavalry drove the
front to back. Like the infantry, the Protestant horsemen into flight.
cavalry were deployed in tight
formations. Each rider carried several Unable to sustain an unsupported
wheellock pistols, preloaded in encounter with determined Catholic
preparation for the battle.Their pikemen and pistol-armed cavalry at
armor was less extensive and close range, the Protestants’ pike
elaborate than that of a medieval squares began to break up and the
knight, but the steel plate provided pikemen were swiftly routed, fleeing
some protection, even against for their lives. Almost 5,000 men
musket balls. were killed in the battle—a victory
for the Catholics that was completed
in less than two hours.

126

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 KEY FIGURE

GUSTAVUS
ADOLPHUS

1594–1632

King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden,
known as Gustavus Adolphus, was an
innovative tactician who emphasized
the central battlefield role of the
cavalry charge. From 1630, he
intervened in the Thirty Years’ War
in Germany. Initially victorious, he
later died in battle at Lützen, in 1632.

▲ Proud and aggressive, Gustavus
Adolphus was dubbed “The Lion
of the North.”

▶ CAVALRY AND ARTILLERY
The Battle of First Breitenfeld,
in 1631, was a triumph for King
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. It
showed how effective cavalry could
be when used alongside pike-and-
musket infantry and artillery.

KEY DEVELOPMENT

FROM LANCE TO PISTOL

In the gunpowder age, cavalry lost their dominance on the battlefields of Europe.
Fresh tactics had to be invented to restore a vital role to cavalry, working in
combination with infantry and artillery.

▶ PROTO- At the start of the 16th century, European armies when he was struck by an arquebus ball.The
MORTUARY- were still led by bodies of chivalrous knights, following year, the French aristocratic cavalry
SWORD clad in elaborate armor, and employing the suffered at the hands of arquebusiers at the Battle of
Unique to Britain, charge with couched lance (in the attacking Pavia, in the Italian War. From the 1550s, however,
“mortuary-swords” position).Traditions such as jousting were heavier, bulletproof armor began to appear.
had a barred iron hilt also at the height of their popularity—as
to protect the hand. late as 1559, King Henri II of France A NEW ERA
Some featured images died after a lance splintered With infantry rising in status and the lance
of King Charles I against his visor in a joust. On the approaching obsolescence, new technology and
after his execution battlefield, however, infantry often tactics began to emerge. Mounted troops were
in 1649, hence their prevailed, and horsemen with lances unable to use matchlocks because these required two
modern name. hands to operate, and they needed one hand to
were rarely able to break up formations of pikemen. control their horses. However, the invention of the
Full plate armor was supposed to protect self-igniting wheellock allowed cavalry to use pistols.
In the 1540s, the Reiters, German mounted
against firearms—breastplates were tested by the mercenaries, adopted firearms and reduced their
manufacturers by firing a ball at them—but this did armor to a helmet, cuirass, and arm defense. For use
not always work in practice. Its limitations were against pike squares, they invented the “caracole”—a
shown by the death of the renowned Chevalier de
Bayard, in 1524, whose armor could not save him

127

KEY EVENTS FROM LANCE TO PISTOL

1500–1650

◼ 1515 King François I of France
wins the Battle of Marignano,
with a charge by fully armored
horsemen with couched lance.

◼ c.1540 German cavalry, the
Reiters, adopt the wheel-lock
pistol as their main armament.

◼ 1562 Cavalry use the
“caracole” tactic at the Battle
of Dreux, during the French
Wars of Religion.

◼ 1590 At the Battle of Ivry,
Henry of Navarre triumphs
using a cavalry charge with
pistol and sword.

◼ c.1600 European armies
introduce dragoons—horsemen
who fought dismounted with
carbines (shorter muskets).

◼ 1610 Polish hussars defeat
the Russians and Swedes at the
battle of Klushino.

◼ 1630 In the Thirty Years’
War, the Swedish combine
cavalry with other arms.

◼ 1640s In the English Civil
Wars, Oliver Cromwell’s
Ironside cavalry fights in a
disciplined close formation.

maneuver in which the horseman turned his “God made them as stubble to our
horse to one side and then the other, enabling swords. We charged their regiments of foot
him to discharge a pistol to the left and right.The with our horse, and routed all we charged”
pistoleers rode at the pikemen in a column and fired
at close range, each rank firing a volley and then OLIVER CROMWELL, WRITTEN AFTER THE BATTLE OF MARSTON MOOR, 1644
retreating to reload as another line took its turn.
◀ CAVALRY CHARGE
By the start of the 17th century, European The English Civil War battle at
cavalry had largely abandoned the lance, and also Marston Moor, in July 1644, was
the percussive weapons that had been essential won by the Parliamentarians through
against full armor, such as the war-hammer. A the success of Oliver Cromwell’s
cavalryman’s armament consisted of a sword and cavalry, the Ironsides.Their charge
a firearm, or sometimes several preloaded pistols. scattered the Royalist horses, leaving
Companies of dragoons rode to the battlefield, but their infantry open to attack.
fought unmounted with firearms, like musketeers.
Commanders were, however, unwilling to abandon
the cavalry charge: it was seen as glamorous, and
could still be decisive in battle.

In the hands of leaders such as King Gustavus
Adolphus of Sweden, cavalry recovered its shock
effect. Deployed on the flanks of infantry, horsemen
would first charge the opposing cavalry.Then, after
discharging their firearms, they would attack with
swords drawn; breaking through the lines would
allow them to overrun enemy cannon. Bodies of
musketeers augmented the mounted firepower,
combining to drive the opponent’s cavalry from
the field, exposing enemy infantry to attack.

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680128 ▶ FIELD ARMOR Louvered
visor for
CAVALRY ARMOR Date c.1630 improved
AND WEAPONS vision
Origin Germany
As firearms became more common, armor was made thicker Strap for
and its less important features were abandoned to reduce its weight. Material Iron, leather pauldron
At the beginning of the 17th century, cavalry—armed with wheellock (shoulder guard)
pistols and swords—still wore knee-length armor. New tactics At the beginning of the 17th
such as the caracole, which involved successive ranks of riders century, heavy cavalry cuirassiers
discharging their pistols before riding to the rear to reload, were wore three-quarter-length armors
developed in order to defeat pikemen. By the middle of the century, such as this, with the lower legs
most cavalry, now called harquebusiers due to the weapons they protected by boots.The lance was
carried, wore only a heavy cuirass and an open helmet over a buff coat. mostly abandoned in favor of a
sword and a pair of pistols carried
Comb in holsters at the saddle.

Decorated rosette
Peak of rivets

Piercing for Face plate
breathing Bevor

▲ FLEMISH Most helmets of this period were made
CUIRASSIER’S HELMET in two halves that were joined along the
comb.The bevor covering the chin and
Date c.1600 the peak pivoted at the same point.
Origin Holland Attached to the peak was an almost flat
Material Iron, leather plate covering the face; the plate was
pierced for vision and breathing.

Striking surface Cock
Flint

Heavy gauntlet

▲ FLINTLOCK PISTOL Steel stock

Date c.1650 Long tassets (thigh
guards) to the knees
Origin England

Weight 4lb (1.78kg)

Barrel 6in (15.3cm)

Caliber 15mm

This all-steel pistol is interesting
because its mechanism is exposed
on the outside of the stock. A
spring-loaded tumbler that runs
through the stock governs the
striking action of the cock when
the trigger is pulled.

129

▶ BUFF COAT Lacing ◀ TRIPLE-BARRED POT C AVA L RY A R M O R A N D W E A P O N S
Neck guard
Date c.1640 Riveted shoulder strap Date c.1640

Origin England Origin England

Material Leather Material Iron, leather

These coats were made Troopers on both sides wore
from cowhide about these simple helmets during
1⁄4in (3–4mm) thick. the English Civil War.The
They provided fair two-piece skull is fitted with
protection from swords a neck guard—embossed to
and long-range pistols. simulate lames—a pivoting
The lacing on this coat peak with a barred face
has been added for guard, cheekpieces, and
display: the original a neck guard.
fastenings were hooks
and eyes. Barred
face guard

◀ HARQUEBUSIER’S
CUIRASS

Date c.1640

Origin England

Material Iron, leather

This simple cuirass was
worn over a buff coat.The
breastplate was thick—
sometimes double-layered—
and bulletproof.The backplate
was thinner, but robust
enough to resist blade thrusts
in close-combat skirmishes.

Skirt split at Buff-leather belt
the front and Ramrod
back for riding

Wheel ▲ WHEELLOCK PISTOL Military wheellock pistols were
Date 17th century expensive and used only by cavalry.
Origin Italy Pairs of these pistols were carried
in holsters in front of the saddle.
Mother-of-pearl inlay This example is more decorative
than most, having mother-of-pearl
Basket hilt, formed inlay in the stock.
from a single plate

Shell guard ▲ MORTUARY SWORD Many mortuary swords are decorated ▼ PAPPENHEIMER SWORD This style of sword was popularized
Date 1640 with a chiseled portrait head amid Date 1625–50 by Count Pappenheim, a Bavarian
Origin England foliage—the head supposedly of the Origin Northern Europe field marshal in theThirty Years’ War.
Weight 2lb (0.89kg) executed King Charles I—giving Weight 21⁄2lb (1.17kg) It is characterized by the pommel,
Length 361⁄4in (92.1cm) the swords their name.They were Length 41⁄4ft (1.28m) the complex side bars, and the pierced
used by both sides in the English plate or shell guard on either side of
Civil War. the blade.

Rounded Rapier blade
pommel

130

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 KEY DEVELOPMENT

THE ISLAMIC
EMPIRES AT WAR

The Muslim empires of the Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids ruled a large swathe
of Eurasia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Their armies combined Asian tribal
heritage, reflected in the importance of horsemen, with gunpowder weapons.

The Mughals originated from Central Asia. Led by lances, javelins, and swords, they were supported ▲ MUGHAL WAR ELEPHANT
Zahir-ud-Din Babur, they conquered Afghanistan by lighter horsemen with composite bows, Elephants were widely used in Mughal
and northern India in the early 16th century, known as akinji, who acted as scouts, raiders, and armies. Commanders rode them into
founding the Mughal Empire. Under Babur’s skirmishers.The power of Ottoman cannon was combat, and used them both as heavy
successors, Mughal rule extended over the Indian famous, and their artillery boasted almost 3,000 cavalry and as vantage points from
subcontinent through near-constant campaigning. gunners by the late 16th century.Their navy, which to survey and direct the battle.
meanwhile, dominated the eastern Mediterranean.
The Mughal emperors recruited nomadic ◀ OTTOMAN JANISSARIES
tribesmen from Central Asia, who fought as light THE SAFAFIDS Elite Janissaries head for war on
horsemen with powerful composite bows.The army The Safavids came to power in Persia in 1501. At horseback to the beat of drums.
also absorbed the forces of conquered Indian states first, their army consisted of tribal horsemen, the Ottoman soldiers were noted for
such as the Rajputs—aristocratic Hindu warriors Kizilbash. Lacking firearms, they were defeated their good discipline and morale.
armed with swords and daggers. Other Indian by the Ottomans along the border of their two
nobles supplied peasant infantry from their lands. empires. But the Safavid monarch Shah Abbas (ruled KEY FIGURE
1587–1629), created a standing army that combined
Mughal foot soldiers carried matchlock muskets, cavalry with musket-armed infantry and gunpowder SULEYMAN I
made by imitating foreign models; they also used artillery, drawing on European expertise.This more
brass and bronze cannon. In battle, musket- or balanced force kept the Safavids in power until 1732. 1494–1566
spear-armed infantry lined up alongside field guns
to form a block in front of the commanders, who Suleyman the Magnificent ruled
sat on elephants that served as mobile command the Ottoman Empire from 1520.
posts. Light horsemen on the flanks rode forward to He alternated campaigns in Europe
shower the enemy with arrows, before the armored with attacks on Safavid Persia,
cavalry in the center charged with mace, sword, and and his triumphs included the
lance.Their engineers built roads and mined under conquest of Hungary in 1526,
walls during sieges.Their main weakness was their and the capture of Baghdad in
infantry, a low-status, undisciplined rabble. 1534. He failed, however, in a bid
to take the island of Malta in 1565.
THE OTTOMANS
The Ottoman Turks were originally from Central
Asia but, by 1500, they had ruled most ofTurkey and
the Balkans for over 100 years. In the 16th century,
they extended their empire into Hungary, west Asia
to the Persian border, Egypt, and North Africa.

The Ottoman army comprised infantry, cavalry,
and artillery.Their elite infantry were Janissaries,
seized as children from Christian families in the
Balkans and raised as Muslim slaves.They carried
firearms, and formed a disciplined corps of musket
troops as part of the sultan’s household guard.The
household troops also featured a core of cavalry,
the sipahis, who served in return for the right to
raise rent from land.With mail-and-plate armor,

“I am the sultan of sultans, the sovereign of ▲ In his younger years, Suleyman
sovereigns, the shadow of god on earth” was an imposing figure, known for
his chivalry as well as his valour.
SULEYMAN I, IN A LETTER TO THE KING OF FRANCE, 1536 He later suffered from poor health.

131

◀ MUGHAL CHARGE T H E I S L A M I C E M P I R E S AT WA R
The armored cavalry of Mughal ruler
Akbar the Great charges its enemies
in the 1560s, using swords and lances.
Akbar was fond of war elephants,
with 5,000 in his army, although they
are reputed to have been panicked by
gunpowder weapons.

KEY EVENTS

1500s–1700s

◼ 1514–17 Ottoman Turks
defeat the Persian Safavids at
Chaldiran, and the Egyptian Mamluks
at Raydaniya, exploiting the use
of gunpowder weapons against
opponents who lack them.

◼ 1526 Led by Babur, the Mughals
defeat the Sultan of Delhi at the
battle of Panipat, their cannon
terrifying the Sultan’s force of
war elephants.

◼ 1571 Ottoman war galleys,
short of gunpowder weapons,
are defeated by a Christian fleet
at Lepanto (see pp.154–55).

◼ 1587 In Persia, Shah
Abbas I begins a successful
modernization of the Safavid
armed forces, employing
European military experts.

◼ 1658–1707 The Mughal Empire
reaches its greatest extent under
the rule of Aurangzeb, gradually
declining after his death.

◼ 1683 The Ottoman defeat
at the Siege of Vienna marks
the beginning of a sharp and
irreversible decline in the
success of the Ottoman army.

132

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 OTTOMAN ARMOR ◀ ÇIÇAK Made with a one-piece skull,
AND WEAPONS Date 16th century this helmet also had face, neck,
Origin Turkey and ear protection.The skull,
At its height, during the 16th century, the Ottoman Material Iron, textiles earpieces, and peak still
retain the quilted red fabric
Empire extended from modern-day Algeria in the west to the lining.The central band and
neck guard are engraved with
Caspian Sea in the east, pushing north into Central Europe. Koranic text.

The Janissaries, a well-paid and well-equipped infantry

corps, were credited with the empire’s success.They were

primarily archers, who later fought with guns and their

characteristic swords (yatagans).The cavalry was divided

into two groups: the akinji, the lightly armored archers

whose primary roles were reconnaissance and harrying

of the enemy; and the sipahis, the heavy cavalry, who

wore mail and plate and rode armored horses,

fighting with bows, lances, maces, and axes. Concave

neck guard

Ivory hilt inlaid with Kite-shaped cheekpiece Adjustable
arabesque pattern pierced for hearing nose guard

◀ KHANJAR ▶ ZIRH GOMLEK Turkish mail coats were made
Date Late 15th century of alternate rows of welded
Date c.1520 Origin Turkey and riveted links, with
Material Ferrous metal, inserted overlapping plates.
Origin Turkey copper alloy, leather Also called jawshan, they
were a part of the armor
Weight 131⁄4oz (376g) Converted worn by the heavy cavalry,
Persian helmet the sipahis. Some coats
Length 151⁄4in (39cm) had religious inscriptions
stamped on each link.
The sturdy cross section of the
blade is designed for piercing
mail. An area of unsharpened
blade below the quillons allowed
the soldier to grip closer to the
quillons for greater control.

Kalkan

Composite
bow

Mail and Plates
plate shaffron
Mail and
▶ SIPAHI ARMOR plate bard

Date Early 16th century
Origin Turkey
Material Ferrous metal,
copper alloy, leather, textile

This display of a soldier (sipahi)
carries a kalkan, bow case,
quiver, and an early straight-
bladed sword.The medieval
Persian helmet was modified
in Turkey to include a peak,
a nasal bar, and earpieces.

▶ KILIC The characteristic sword “Pistol grip” Side plate with 133 OTTOMAN ARMOR AND WEAPONS
Date 1625 of the Ottomans, the kilic, pommel holes for straps
Origin Turkey with its enlarged point ◀ KORAZIN
Weight 261⁄2oz (750g) section, was designed for Date c.1656
Length 28in (71cm) slicing. The hilt is made Origin Turkey
of horn, while the quillon
assembly is of gilded This mail and plate cuirass,
copper.The blade is worn over a mail coat, had
chiseled and inlaid at plates around the neck and
the forte (the strong back.The front and back were
part of the blade). fastened together with straps
and buckles. It was worn with
Forte
a helmet, tubular plate arm
guards, and thigh guards.

Chiseled inlaid
decoration

Curved steel blade Cane wrapped
in colored silks
▶ KALKAN
Date 17th century
Origin Turkey
Weight 4lb (1.9kg)
Diameter 201⁄2in (52.5cm)

This shield is made from a spiral
of cane with a central iron boss.
The four inner rivets were
for the handgrips; the six outer
rivets were for straps that held
Mail the shield to the body.

▼ MIQUELET RIFLE By the 17th century, the Ottoman
Date 18th century army had adopted a version of the
Origin Turkey Mediterranean miquelet lock for its
Weight 51⁄4lb (2.39kg) firearms. Most of these guns were of
Barrel 31in (78.5cm) high quality, with rifled barrels and
Caliber 16mm elaborately inlaid stocks.The lock
and mounts of this example are
lavishly decorated with gold inlay, Handgrip rivets
while the barrel bands are silver.

Ball trigger ▼ GURZ Made of iron, this mace has a
Hollow shaft Date 18th century spirally fluted hollow shaft and
Origin Turkey a ribbed head, surmounted
Weight 21⁄2lb (1.16kg) by a gilt finial. It was primarily
Length 271⁄2in (70cm) a horseman’s weapon.

Ribbed head

SULEYMAN AT MOHACS
Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, seated on a
white horse, observes his gunners firing their
cannon and his Janissaries in action with their
arquebuses.The Ottomans showed far greater
tactical subtlety than their Christian opponents.

135 THE BATTLE OF MOHACS

CAVA L RY A N D CA N NON

THE BATTLE
OF MOHACS

In 1526, Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent of the Turkish
Ottoman Empire led a powerful army into the territory of
King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia. Meeting Louis’ army
at Mohacs, Süleyman’s forces resisted with skillfully deployed
weaponry and traditional fighting skills.

When Suleyman’s army marched out this. His impressive array of cannon
of Constantinople on April 16, 1526, were tied together to form a barrier
its goal was no secret. Expanding across the battlefield, reinforced by
his empire in southeastern Europe, the Ottomans’ elite Janissary infantry
Süleyman had already taken the armed with arquebuses (small-bore
Serbian capital, Belgrade, in 1521. matchlock weapons). In front of this
Hungary was the next stepping stone line of gunpowder weapons he placed
toward his ultimate goal, the Habsburg his own heavy cavalry, the sipahi.
city ofVienna. King Louis had time They were less well armored than
to prepare his defenses during the their Christian counterparts, and
Turks’ slow progress north. Appeals many were still armed with the
to other Christian leaders for military composite bow of their Central
aid fell on deaf ears, however, and Asian ancestors. On the flanks, the
even the Hungarian nobles who owed light irregular horsemen, the akinji,
Louis allegiance were reluctant to awaited the chance to harass, pursue,
accept his authority. and plunder.The sultan himself took
up position in the rear, surrounded
Through a wet summer that made by his household cavalry.
progress arduous, Suleyman’s army
advanced along the bank of the The Hungarians opened the battle
Danube, accompanied by a fleet of by firing their cannon.Then the
supply boats. On August 14 they armored knights, with King Louis
reached the Drava River, a tributary in their midst, thundered forward
of the Danube that formed Hungary’s toward the Ottoman army. Most
natural border. Louis’ best policy likely following a prearranged tactical
might have been to defend the river plan, the sipahi melted away in front
crossing here, but the Ottoman of the knights’ onslaught, revealing
forces crossed the rain-swollen flood the line of cannon behind them.
unmolested. It took them five days As the knights bore down upon the
to move 300 cannon and an estimated muzzles of the guns, the Ottomans
50,000 to 100,000 men across a opened fire. Amid a carnage of
skillfully constructed bridge of slaughtered horses and fallen riders
boats. Louis, meanwhile, awaited the charge was brought to a halt.
the invaders near Mohacs, blocking The Ottoman cavalry then launched
their road to his capital, Buda. a counterattack, and a savage mêlée
ensued. Meanwhile the akinji had
KNIGHTS AND CANNON stolen around to the Christian rear,
and were plundering the camp and
The battle took place on August 29. massacring the camp followers.
Most of Louis’ army consisted of
armored knights, although he also Louis’ army disintegrated.The
had a significant number of cannon. individual survivors sought to escape
In the tradition of Christian Europe, through woods and swamps, and the
he intended to gamble on the shock king himself died while fleeing—his
impact of his charging knights to body was not found for months. Buda
win the day. Suleyman arranged his was occupied and Hungary became
variegated forces in anticipation of an Ottoman territory.

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680136 Scalloped plates
protect the skull
MUGHAL ARMOR
AND WEAPONS Heaviest links
over chest
The Mughal Empire had its beginnings in 1526,
when steppe nomads from Central Asia swept into
India from the northwest, occupying much of the
subcontinent by the late 17th century.They were
heavily influenced by Persia, and brought with them
similar weapons, including guns.The Mughal army
was divided into cavalry, infantry, and artillery.
In similar style to the Mamluks, the heavy cavalry
wore mail and plate armor and rode armored
horses, fighting with bow, lance, and sword.
Armored elephants saw limited use because
they were unreliable and difficult to control.The
infantry fought chiefly with guns and swords, but
lacked a coordinated command structure, which
limited their effectiveness.

▼ ELEPHANT ARMOR Panels of mail and plate were used
for elephant armor.These were inset
Date c.1600 with plaques that were decorated with
flowers, fish, and running elephants.
Origin India A pair of swords could be sheathed
above the tusks.
Material Ferrous metal,
copper alloy, leather

Mahout controlling Fighting ▲ TOP
elephant man
Date 17th century
Mail and plate
head section Origin India

Material Ferrous metal,
textile (lining fragment)

Made of horizontal bands
of vertically arranged
plates joined by mail, this
helmet originally had a
heavily padded lining.The
triangular section of mail
hung in front of the face.

▶ ZEREH BAGTAR

Date Early 17th century

Origin India

Material Ferrous metal,
copper alloy, leather, red silk,
gold threads

A Mughal horse-warrior wore
a plated cuirass combined
with a coat of mail that
reached his knees. It was often
zinc-plated to prevent rusting
and damage to the padded
garment worn underneath.
Although it did not offer
the level of protection of an
all-over plate armor, it was
relatively light and flexible.

▼ TALWAR The carved ivory grip is ▶ DHAL 137 MUGHAL ARMOR AND WEAPONS
Date Early 17th century different from the usual iron
Origin India Indo-Muslim hilts fitted to Date 18th century Upturned
Weight 21⁄4lb (1.04kg) talwars, but is typical of the rim to catch a
Length 373⁄4in (95.7cm) luxurious tastes of the Mughal Origin India weapon’s point
court.The early blades, such
Brocade facings as this, were slightly less Weight 51⁄2lb (2.5kg) Solid ends, called
curved than later models. siyahs in Persian
Iron quillon block Diameter 231⁄2in (60cm)
decorated with gold Ivory grip carved Velvet hilt pad
koftgari (inlay work) as a lotus bud This domed shield was made
of thick rawhide dried in Gilded basket hilt
Side-bar a mold and coated with ◀ KAMAN
lacquer to keep the moisture Date 18th century
out.The four iron bosses, Origin North India
which secure the handgrips Weight 191⁄2oz (550g)
on the inside of the shield, Length (Strung) 371⁄2in
are decorated with gold (95cm)
koftgari (inlay work). Mughal bows were made from
horn and sinew glued onto a
Cross- wooden core. Unstrung, they
handles bent the opposite way to when
strung.The ends of the limbs
Religious Scabbard worn were solid, acting as levers to
inscription through sash assist in drawing.

in gold ◀ KATAR Reinforcement
Date 1760 decorated with
Thickened Origin India floral pattern
mail-piercing Weight 181⁄2oz (525g)
Length 171⁄2in (44.6cm) ▶ KHANDA
blade tip Date Early 19th century
Fletching The tip of the curved blade Origin India
of this dagger is thickened to Weight 23⁄4lb (1.3kg)
pierce mail, while the sunken Length 363⁄4in (93.3cm)
panels have been etched to The blade of this sword is
show the structure of the made of wootz steel, which
wootz steel.The katar was held could only be produced in
by gripping the cross-handles, limited quantities.When
with the side-bars extending hammered out into a sword, it
on either side of the wrist. was of necessity rather thin and
had to be reinforced to stiffen
Ivory nock it.This sword was made for
the Great Exhibition of 1851.
Wootz steel Grip
blade

▶ TARKASH AND TIR Limb

Date 18th century

Origin India

Weight 25oz (710g);
(Arrow) 3⁄4oz (18g)

Length (Arrow) 283⁄4in (73cm)

This embroidered velvet quiver
(tarkash) was worn on the right
hip, balanced by a matching
bowcase on the left. The painted
bamboo arrows (tir) were fitted
with ivory nocks, three low-
cut fletchings, and armor-
piercing heads.

138

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 KEY EVENTS KEY DEVELOPMENT

16th–17th century CONFLICT IN EAST ASIA

◼ 1543 Portuguese voyagers land In the 16th and 17th centuries, a number of large-scale wars were fought
in southern Japan and introduce the throughout Japan, Korea, China, and southeast Asia. Many of these conflicts
matchlock arquebus, which is quickly used innovative technology, including early gunpowder weapons and
copied by Japanese craftsmen. heavily armored ironclad ships.

◼ 1592 Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin In Japan, the era from 1467 to 1615 is known as prowess, which was at its peak in 1592–98,
inflicts a crushing defeat on Japanese the Sengoku Period, “the age of the country at during which time Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin
naval forces at the Battle of war,” during which powerful regional warlords, won a series of battles with a fleet of cannon-
Hansando, leading Japan to abandon the daimyo, clashed regularly.The most ambitious armed, oar-powered ships—the panokseon and
its first invasion of Korea. of them—such as Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi the iron-armored kobukson (turtle ships).
Hideyoshi—aspired to unite Japan under single
◼ 1598 A second Japanese invasion rule, a goal eventually achieved by Tokugawa Ieyasu, After 1615, the Tokugawa shogunate ended
of Korea fails, after fierce fighting on founder of the long-lived Tokugawa shogunate. Japan’s era of civil war; in China, however, the
land, and naval defeats at Myongyang 17th century was still a period of major conflict.
and Noryang. THE SAMURAI AND THE ASHIGARU The Manchu, a federation of Jurchen tribes north
The samurai warriors of the warlords’ armies
◼ 1600 Victory in the Battle of were shifting away from their origins as mounted
Sekigahara enables Tokugawa Ieyasu archers, in favor of fighting on foot, using spears
to take supreme power in Japan. He and swords.Their main sword was the two-handed
founds the Tokugawa shogunate. katana, worn blade-upward so that a samurai could
draw it and deliver a cut in a single, sweeping
◼ c.1615 Jurchen warrior Nurhaci movement. Although individual samurai became
creates the Manchu Banner system, legendary for their fighting prowess, the peasant
a military organization that proves foot soldiers, the ashigaru, were also a notable force.
highly effective against the Chinese. After earlier experiments with Chinese firearms,
from the 1540s onward, the ashigaru adopted
◼ 1644 Allowed passage through the European matchlock arquebus, which could be
the Great Wall by a renegade used to great effect by trained, disciplined squads.
Chinese general, the Manchu occupy Castle-building was another important feature of
Beijing and establish the Qing dynasty.
the period, and many elaborate stone-and-wood
◼ 1673–83 Emperor Kangxi of structures were constructed at this time,
China defeats rebel warlords in the often with additional outworks.
War of the Three Feudatories, and
against Ming loyalists on Taiwan.

▼ A KOREAN TURTLE SHIP
Used against the Japanese in
the 1590s, Korea’s turtle ships
had their upper decks
enclosed with iron
plates and spikes,
while cannon fired
through portholes.

GUNPOWDER AND WARSHIPS
During the 1590s, Japan attempted to
invade Korea twice, led by Toyotomi

Hideyoshi. Chinese forces helped
defend Korea, and successfully
repulsed the invaders. Korean and

Chinese land forces had superior
gunpowder weapons, typified

by the Korean hwacha, a
multiple rocket launcher
capable of firing batches of
a hundred incendiary rockets.
The main reason for Korean
victory, however, was their naval

“As one man can defeat ten men, so can a
thousand men defeat ten thousand”

MIYAMOTO MUSASHI, THE BOOK OF FIVE RINGS, c.1645

of the Great Wall, created a military organization 139 CONFLICT IN EAST ASIA
known as the Eight Banners. In 1644, the decline
of the Chinese Ming dynasty led to political chaos ▲ EMPEROR KANGXI’S NAVY
that the Manchu exploited, seizing Beijing and The Manchu Emperor Kangxi
establishing the Qing dynasty. It took 40 years of completed the defeat of resistance
warfare, however, to extend Manchu rule over the to his rule on the island of Taiwan
whole of China. Originally steppe cavalry fighting with a victory for the Chinese navy
with bows, swords, and spears, the Manchu had at the Battle of Penghu in 1683.
to adapt to the use of mass peasant armies, naval
warfare on river and sea, and an array of Chinese ◀ THE BATTLE OF
gunpowder weaponry. However, the capture of NAGASHINO
Taiwan in 1683 by means of a seaborne invasion Fought in Japan in 1575, the Battle of
marked the final triumph of Emperor Kangxi of Nagashino is famous for warlord Oda
the Manchu over the Ming loyalists. Nobunaga’s use of firearms. Protected
by a wooden palisade, a mass of Oda’s
In southeast Asia, meanwhile, the warring foot soldiers firing arquebuses in
kingdoms of Burma and Siam were maintaining rotating volleys shattered the charging
a very different tradition of warfare, in which cavalry of Takeda Katsuyori.
armies were based around units of massed war
elephants used as a shock force. KEY FIGURE

TOYOTOMI
HIDEYOSHI

1536–98

Japanese warlord Toyotomi
Hideyoshi rose from peasant stock
to prominence in the service of
Oda Nobunaga. After Oda—by
then the most powerful man in
Japan—died in 1582, Hideyoshi
won succession. Despite two failed
invasions of Korea, he remained
in power up to his death.

▲ During his reign, Hideyoshi tried
to pacify Japan by banning peasants
from bearing arms.

140

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 EAST ASIAN SWORDS

The earliest Chinese swords were straight and double-edged, but single-edged ▲ KATANA BLADE Tang
swords date at least as far back as the late Han dynasty (206bce–220ce), their blade Date 15th century
shape evolving into a variety of forms. At first, the Japanese imported swords from Origin Japan This katana blade has been removed
China, but by 1000ce, they had perfected their own style of the single-edged, curved blade Weight 221⁄4oz (630g) from its mountings. It was secured
that did not materially change for the next 1,000 years. Japanese blades were designed Length 341⁄4in (87cm) into the wooden hilt by the taper
to be removable from the rest of the sword, enabling the same blade to be worn for of the tang, and by a bamboo peg,
generations, becoming an heirloom within a family.The blades were reset in new Disk-shaped which passed through the hole in
mounts, consisting of the tsuka (hilt or grip), tsuba (hand guard), and saya (scabbard). hand guard the tang and corresponding holes
Some swords, particularly short swords and daggers, had pockets in the scabbard for in the hilt.
a kozuka (a small knife) and a kogai, a skewerlike implement for dressing the hair.

▶ DAO This short, single-edged
Date 17th century sword or dao has a near-straight
Origin China yanmaodao (goose quill) blade.
Weight 181⁄4oz (520g) Primarily a cavalry weapon, its
Length 25in (64cm) single edge was used for cutting
and its point for thrusting.

Gold menuki (ornamentation) under Rayskin-covered grip
criss-crossed silk braid to improve grip

Kogai or tool for Shinogi-ji or the WAKIZASHI
dressing the hair area above ridge

▲ WAKIZASHI The samurai wore the SCABBARD
Date c.1640 wakizashi (short sword) as
Origin Japan an accompaniment to the
Weight 17oz (480g) katana. It was also the only
Length 21in (53.4cm) sword permitted to be worn
by other social groups.

Hole for a peg that held
the blade in the hilt

Nakago or tang

KATANA BLADE Sageo (heavy silk braid)
tied the sword into the belt

Tsuka (wooden hilt) Tsuba (hand guard)
wrapped in rayskin of iron or soft metal
under silk braid

Koi guchi or the BLADE IN MOUNT
mouth of the scabbard
Fretted and carved
Wooden hilt bound hand guard
with cord for grip
▲ EDO PERIOD KATANA During the 16th century, samurai began Eyelet for
BLADE AND MOUNT to wear an uchiganata (striking sword) (missing) tassel
thrust edge upwards through their
Date 17th century belt; it was easier to draw than the
Origin Japan earlier slung tachi (long sword).This
Weight 23⁄4lb (1.3kg) style of sword came to be known as
Length 31⁄2ft (1.06m) katana, and could be worn only by
the samurai class.

141

▶ TANTO Shinogi (ridge) TANTO EAST ASIAN SWORDS
Date 1792
Origin Japan Menuki (ornamentation) in SCABBARD
Length 111⁄4in (28.5cm) the form of Shimazu heraldry KOZUKA

Blade is a composite A tanto was a sword or dagger with a Decoration probably
of iron and steel blade less than 12in (31cm) in length. by Owari school
It was often worn as an alternative
to a wakizashi.This example is black- Signed by master
lacquered, with the scabbard housing swordsmith Masayoshi
a kogai on the outer face and a
kozuka at the rear.

Kissaki or point section KOGAI
Black lacquered wooden
saya (scabbard) ▶ TSUBA
Date 19th century
Origin Japan
Material Iron, gold
Diameter 23⁄4– 3in (6.5–7cm)

Originally, tsuba (hand guards)
were relatively plain, becoming
more decorative later.The
example with a silhouetted goose
flying in front of the moon and
clouds (left) is enhanced with
gold overlay, while the tsuba
with a floral motif (right) is
chiselled out of an iron plate.

Blade more than 231⁄2in Kissaki or
(60.6cm) long point section

Lacquered wooden
saya (scabbard)

▼ JIAN Straight, double-edged swords were Medial ridge
Date 19th century used in China for over 2,500 years, and
Origin China were regarded as one of the four traditional
Weight 331⁄2oz (950g) weapons.The blades were made of hard
Length 341⁄2in (88cm) steel, with a softer steel welded to each
side. Many had a medial ridge.

142

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 EAST ASIAN WEAPONS ▶ YARI Long wooden shaft

Staff weapons, the bow and the gun—rather than the Date 16th century Hook on rear
sword—were often the primary weapons of Japanese and edge of blade
Chinese military forces. Despite their technological advances, Origin Japan
east Asian armies’ firepower was initially limited: although
the Chinese had invented gunpowder, it was reintroduced in Length 31⁄4–191⁄2ft (1–6m)
a more effective form in the Middle East and Europe in the
16th century. Around the same time, in 1543, the matchlock The yari was a straight-headed spear.
gun arrived in Japan, and was used in large numbers; however, Its length ranged from 3ft (1m) to 20ft
during the peaceful Edo period (1603–1868), gun-making (6m).The longer versions were called
in Japan all but ceased. omi no yari, while the shorter ones were
known as mochi or tae yari.The longest
versions were carried by foot troops,
and the shorter versions by samurai.

Hand guard of brass

Brass-bound
shaft

▲ GUANDAO Staff weapons of this type, resembling Match-holder Elaborate sight block holds blades of
Date 19th century European glaives, had been in use for varying heights for different ranges
Origin China centuries in China. Made in the style of
Weight 111⁄2lb (5.2kg) a 16th-century weapon, this example has a
Length 81⁄4ft (2.52m) thin, flexible blade issuing from a cast-brass
guard that resembles a dragon’s head.

Lock and furniture made
of brass to resist corrosion

Trigger ▲ KAKAE ZUTSU Kakae zutsu (hand cannon), some with bores
Date 17th–19th century of up to 3⁄4in (2cm) in diameter, were used to
Origin Japan batter down doors and to launch incendiary
Weight 143⁄4lb (6.7kg) missiles.Their weight meant that they had
Barrel 261⁄2in (67.5cm) to be shot from the waist, or from a support.
Caliber 18.7mm The lock in this example has an internal
spiral spring to operate the match-holder.

Serpentine match-holder Bore standardized to simplify
is forward-facing ammunition supply

Owner’s heraldry

Brass lock cover plate

Decorative ▲ HI NAWA JU The hi nawa ju (matchlock gun) was Match-holder
brass inlay Date 17th–19th century introduced to Japan by the Portuguese
Origin Japan from their base at Goa, India, in 1543. Long
Weight 23⁄4lb (1.29kg) Within 25 years, manufacturing centers bar-trigger
Barrel 363⁄4in (93.7cm) were producing thousands of these guns
Caliber 15mm for arming foot soldiers, and the matchlock
had become a decisive weapon in battle.
Leather-covered grip The decoration in black and gold lacquer Steeply bent butt
was added later.

Disk-shaped guard

▲ CHANGDAO Chinese long swords of this kind are Thumb lever for
Date 16th century similar to the Japanese swords known cocking hammer
Origin China as ¯odachi. However, unlike the ¯odachi,
Weight 6lb (2.72kg) the changdao has a long tang riveted Stock made of red oak
Length 51⁄4ft (1.57m) through the brass pommel cap.

143

Hardened EAST ASIAN WEAPONS
cutting edge

Rattan bindings Habaki (soft metal collar) to transmit ▲ NAGINATA Naginata blades, mounted on oval wooden
the shock of a blow to the shaft Date 19th century shafts about 61⁄2ft (2m) long, were the standard
Breech Origin Japan weapon of foot soldiers in medieval Japan.
Loops for attaching Weight 41⁄4lb (1.95kg) Used as a spear or a fighting staff, they
Touch-hole gun to support Length 9ft (2.75m) were especially associated with warrior
Barrel decorated with monks, the so¯hei.
a dragon in silver
Muzzle ◀ CHINESE SILK GUN

Date c.1825

Origin China

Weight 3lb (1.42kg)

Length 373⁄4in (83.2cm)

Caliber 63.5mm

This cannon, designed for
portability, was made from a
copper tube wrapped with iron
wire and silk cord. It derived
from earlier guns, which were
made from bamboo wound with
cord. Chinese paintings show
soldiers lying on the battlefield
firing similar guns.

Stock of red oak Ramrod Decorative
expanded muzzle
Although not principally a weapon
▶ TSUKUBO of war, implements such as this Hollow metal shaft into which Spikes to prevent opponent
Date 19th century tsukubo (pushing pole) were used wooden handle was fixed from grabbing the weapon
Origin Japan to overcome and detain criminals
Weight 3lb (1.36kg) in Japan. In towns and cities, racks Blades to snag clothing
Length 271⁄4in (69cm) of these devices were positioned
at strategic sites for use by law
enforcement officers.

Red-painted stock

▲ CHINESE MATCHLOCK Unlike the matchlocks used in Japan, on most ▼ JAPANESE PILL-LOCK In 1853, American warships forced
Date c.1830 Chinese guns the match-holder and trigger CARBINE Japan to open its ports for trade,
Origin China are one piece, so that when the trigger is introducing new technology.Within
Weight 19lb (8.6kg) pulled up, the match-holder dips down to Date c.1850 a few years, the Japanese had adopted
Barrel 51⁄4ft (6m) apply the flame to the touch-hole.This is a Origin Japan percussion ignition for their guns.This
Caliber 15mm simple, functional example, undecorated Weight 8lb (3.64kg) example has an automatic dispenser
save for the stock, which is painted red. Barrel 261⁄4in (67cm) for detonating pills (its ignition primers).
Caliber 12.5mm
Barrel

Magazine for detonating pills “Captive” ramrod, permanently
fixed to gun to avoid loss

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680144 Supports for
missing crests
JAPANESE ARMOR
ZUNARI
Prior to the 16th century, Japanese armor was lamellar in
construction—made from scales of rawhide or lacquered iron, SODE
laced together with leather or silk braid. During the Japanese civil
wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, armor made of plate, which
was lighter and more effective, was devised.This development proved
fortuitous when guns were introduced from Europe in 1543. Although
the samurai owned their own distinctive armor, commanders issued
simple munitions, armor, and weapons to low-ranking troops.
During the peaceful Edo period (1603–1868), samurai were still
required to own armor, primarily as a symbol of status and rank.

Akodanari or
pumpkin-shaped helmet

O-sode or large
shoulder guards

Lamellar KUSAZURI
cuirass
without ▲ MOGAMI HARAMAKI This armor was given to King
hinges Philip II of Spain, in 1585. It
Date c.1570 opened down the back, with each
DO MARU plate in the body divided into five
Origin Japan sections and joined by individual
small hinges and sugake lacing.
Material Steel, lacquer, silk
braid, textiles

Red lacquer used for
all Ii family armors

KOTE

▲ DO MARU SUNEATE ▲ HINENO This hineno zunari kabuto, or Iron plates
ZUNARI KABUTO head-shaped helmet, was made joined by hinges
Date c.1610 This formal armor, decorated with for a retainer of the Ii family.The and lacing
the heraldry of Takeda Katsuyori Date c.1600 neck guard was made up of three
Origin Japan (1546–82), was given to King Origin Japan sections so that a spear would SUNEATE
James I of England as a diplomatic Material Iron, lacquer, silk braid exit through a gap rather than
Material Iron, lacquer, gift. It is signed by the armorer be deflected onto the neck.
rawhide, silk braid Iwai Yosaemon of Nara.

Demon’s face in 145 JAPANESE ARMOR
raised lacquer
Side crests in
the form of
buffalo horns

KABUTO

Toggles Wig of
yak hair

Plates sewn
to fabric, with
mail at the
elbow joint

Tekko or Crest holder
hand defense

Neck guard
of lacquered
iron plates

HISHINUI DO Leather pad prevents MEMPO
the armor rubbing
▲ HISHINUI GUSOKU against stirrup-leather
Date c.1750 when riding
Origin Japan
Material Iron, rawhide, Made in the Edo period, this armor ▲ KABUTO AND MEMPO The multi-plate helmet bowl (kabuto)
lacquer, silk braid, textiles was more decorative than practical.The is smoothly lacquered, and fitted with
gold finish was achieved by dusting wet Date c.1750 a brow plate and crests of lacquered
lacquer with gold dust. Some elements wood and yak hair.The helmet cord
of the armor were made of rawhide Origin Japan was tied to hooks on the cheeks of
to reduce the weight. the iron face mask (mempo).
Material Iron, rawhide,
lacquer, silk

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680146

SAMURAI AND FOOT SOLDIERS

THE SIEGE OF
OSAKA CASTLE

The Sengoku period in Japan was a 150-year era of civil
conflict when rival daimyo (feudal lords) and their samurai
vied for power.The Siege of Osaka castle in 1614–15 was the
climax and conclusion of this turbulent era.

The daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu, effective of inner defenses and fired down upon
ruler of Japan from 1600, took the from all sides.The Tokugawa, suffering
title of shogun (military dictator) for heavy losses, abandoned their assault
the Tokugawa family.The impressive and retreated to siege lines, where
castle at Osaka was the power base of they camped in the bitter winter
the rival Toyotomi clan, whose leader, cold.The defenders nestled inside the
Toyotomi Hideyori, had a better castle, living off plentiful food stores.
hereditary claim to the shogunate
than the Tokugawa. In 1614, Ieyasu A TREACHEROUS TREATY
invented a pretext to attack the
Toyotomi, assembling an army possibly Toyotomi Hideyori then made the
190,000-strong. Daimyo and samurai fatal error of negotiating a peace deal
discontented with Tokugawa rule with the Tokugawa. He was tricked.
flocked to join Hideyori in Osaka. As soon as the armies dispersed, the
They included many masterless Tokugawa ordered the Osaka moats
samurai, the ronin. An experienced filled in and the earthworks leveled.
warrior, SanadaYukimura, oversaw By the time fighting resumed in the
the strengthening of the castle’s spring of 1615—after Ieyasu pressed
defenses, ordering the digging of another spurious cause for war—
moats and the building of an earthwork Osaka castle was no longer defensible.
barbican outside the tall stone walls. The reassembled Toyotomi forces
instead sought to preempt a siege
The siege began in November 1614. by winning victory in the open field.
First the Tokugawa captured various The climactic encounter, known as
strongpoints in the country around the Battle of Tennoji, came in early
Osaka.They then confronted June.The Toyotomi adopted a plan in
Sanada’s earthworks, but their siege which part of their forces would use
weapons—a handful of imported a flanking movement to take the enemy
European culverins and several from the rear, and then a reserve
hundred Japanese or Chinese artillery would enter the battle at the crucial
pieces—were powerless against thick moment. But this strategy was too
earth walls.The Tokugawa decided to complex for their loosely coordinated
attack.They surged forward in their army. Many of the ronin attacked at
thousands, the ashigaru (peasant foot will, and arquebusiers assigned to the
soldiers) armed with long pikes or reserve opened fire without waiting
arquebuses, the samurai, dismounting, for orders. In the midst of a chaotic
wielding spears and swords. It was an struggle Sanada was killed and
impressive sight, the samurai arrayed his severed head displayed to the
in elaborate armor, the foot soldiers demoralized troops. A belated sortie
displaying a mass of fluttering flags by the garrison from the castle, led by
attached to their backs by poles. But Hideyori himself, was driven back
when they mounted ladders to scale through the gates. AsTokugawa cannon
the walls, the attackers were cut down battered the stone walls and parts
by arquebuses fired through loopholes of the castle caught fire, Hideyori
at the top of the fortifications.Where committed seppuku (ritual suicide).
they breached the outer wall they The Tokugawa shogunate was destined
found themselves trapped in front to last another 250 years.

MERCILESS MERCENARIES
Samurai on horseback and ashigaru foot soldiers
are packed together during the fighting around
Osaka castle. Some of the ashigaru carry the
distinctive Japanese naginata, a curved blade
on the end of a long wooden pole.

148

PIKES AND GUNPOWDER 1500–1680 KEY FIGURE

SIR FRANCIS DRAKE

1540–96

The English privateer Francis Drake
ravaged Spanish colonies and shipping
in the Caribbean and Pacific in the
1570s. His daring raid on Cadiz, in
1587, was said to have “singed the
king of Spain’s beard.” Drake was
made vice-admiral of the English
fleet that would resist the Armada.

▲ Drake was knighted in 1580,
as the first Englishman to sail around
the world.

▶ THE SPANISH ARMADA
Phillip II of Spain’s “Invincible
Armada,” which was sent to facilitate
a cross-Channel invasion of England,
is engaged by English galleons firing
cannon at the Battle of Gravelines,
in August 1588.

KEY DEVELOPMENT

EUROPEAN NAVAL
WA R FA R E

European sailors established oceanic sea routes linking Europe to Asia and
the Americas from the late 15th century. The rise of ocean-going sailing
ships ushered in a new era of naval warfare, while oared galleys fought
for dominance of the Mediterranean.

▲ FRENCH FIRESHIP Galley warfare peaked in the 16th century, as the the soldiers on board also carried firearms.
A ship was packed with combustible Turkish Ottoman Empire, aided by privateers, This firepower was no guarantor of success,
material, then set alight and steered sought control of the Mediterranean. Muslim however: although a Christian alliance won a
toward enemy vessels. galleys raided the coast of Italy and landed major naval victory at Lepanto, in 1571, the
armies on Christian-held islands, such as Rhodes, Muslims largely had the upper hand at sea.
Malta, and Cyprus. Christian states responded by
deploying large galleys rowed by prisoners using Galleys tended to dominate the Mediterranean
the clumsy but powerful “scalaccio” (echelon) at the end of the 17th century, while sailing ships
system, with five to seven men on each massive were traditionally considered of little use in
oar. Cannon were mounted on the galleys, and combat: dependence on the wind left them
outflanked by nimbler, oared vessels. However,