Exploring the World of Reptiles and Amphibians

BLUE-TONGUED SKINK

DKINDOYWO?U Teeth and Feeding predators such as brown falcons,
Blue-tongued skinks are omnivores. kookaburras, dingoes, monitor lizards,
Just like a dog, This means that they feed on a wide and snakes. Blue-tongued skinks were
a blue-tongued range of animals and plants. They once thought to be poisonous. In the
skink pants to prey on animals that move more past, many were killed by people.
cool down. slowly than they do. Favorite foods
include insects, fruit, flowers, leaves, Mother and Babies
The long tail fungi, snails, eggs, small vertebrates, Four different species of blue-
makes up about and the remains of dead animals tongued skinks give birth to live
half the length of (carrion). The teeth at the front of the young instead of laying eggs. The
the whole body. mouth are smaller than those farther number of young produced tends to
back and are used to pick up insects increase with the size and age of the
In the breeding and bite off pieces of plants. Snails female. While young skinks develop
season, males and insects are crushed in the hard inside their mother’s body, they are
fight fiercely over jaws before being swallowed. nourished by a body part similar to
the females. the placenta through which a human
The strong jaws of the blue-tongued baby receives food from its mother.
skink are also useful in defense, biting

This skink sticks out
its blue tongue and
hisses to deter predators.

50

Snakes and Lizards

Live Young may not breed every year, especially
There are many advantages to if there is a shortage of food.
producing live young instead of
laying eggs. The female is less likely Parental Care
to be attacked and eaten by predators After the baby skinks are born, they
than the eggs would be. This gives the have to fend for themselves. The
young a greater chance of survival. parents play no part in looking after
Blue-tongued skinks do not rely their young. Young skinks take three
on speed to escape from predators years to develop into adults.
or to catch food, so the pregnant
females are not affected too much Suburban skinks
by the weight of the developing
young inside them. The pregnant Many eastern blue-tongued skinks have made
females bask in the sun because the their homes in city gardens with plenty of shelter
warmth speeds up the development and food, such as caterpillars, plant material,
of their young. They tend to rest with snails, and slugs. They live in rockeries, pipes,
their back legs and tail raised off and the spaces under houses. Lawns and paths
the ground because of the size and are ideal places to bask. However, there are some
number of young inside them. disadvantages to the suburban lifestyle. Dangers
include the chemicals used to kill garden pests
There are also disadvantages and diseases. Many blue-tongued skinks are
to giving birth to live young. If a also killed by cats and dogs.
pregnant blue-tongued skink is
killed, all the young die with her.
Basking increases the danger of
attack by predators, as the blue-
tongued skink is out in the open,
away from the safety of her burrow.
Also it is not possible for a female
to give birth to several lots of young
lizards each year in the same way that
many egg-laying lizards lay several
clutches a year. In many parts of their
range, female blue-tongued skinks

51

BOAS

The boa family includes two of Boas are unusual snakes because they have
the world’s largest snakes—the tiny hip bones and the remains of back
giant anaconda and the common legs in the form of spurs at the back of their
boa or boa constrictor. Boas are body. Most other snakes do not have these
not poisonous snakes. Instead, features. Boas also have a working left lung. In
they kill by constriction, which other snakes the long right lung does all the
means they wrap their body coils work. The boa’s head may be covered in small,
around their prey and squeeze grainy scales, or large plate-like scales that are
the unfortunate victims until typical of other snakes. They have the flexible
they die of suffocation. Most skull that is a feature of advanced snakes.
boas give birth to live young
instead of laying eggs. Killing Coils
Boas grab and hold their prey with their small,
hooked teeth as they coil their muscular bodies

52

around what they have caught. Powerful Fact File
muscles steadily squeeze tighter and tighter
each time their victim breathes out. Eventually, BOAS
the prey stops breathing. Then the boa releases Families: Family Boidae—Subfamily Boinae
the dead prey and swallows it headfirst. It may (27‑species of typical boas) and Subfamily
take anything from a couple of minutes to an Erycinae (14 species of burrowing boas);
hour for a boa to swallow its prey. Larger prey Family Bolyeriidae (2 species of Round Island
causes a bulge in the stomach, making it hard boas); Family Tropidophiidae (25 species of
for the snake to move quickly. If the snake is dwarf boas or wood snakes)
attacked by a predator after a large meal, it may Order: Squamata
be forced to cough up its prey to escape. Where do they live?: Africa, North, South
and Central America, southeastern Europe,
Island Dangers India, Middle East, New Guinea, Sri Lanka
Many boas that live on islands are threatened
because their habitat has been cleared for Equator
farmland, or they have been destroyed by
goats introduced by people. Other introduced Habitat: Forests, mountains, grasslands,
predators, such as cats and mongooses, are also deserts, islands
a danger to island boas, such as the Haitian Size: Length 12 in. to 19.75 ft. (30 cm
vine boa. Mona Island boas are one of the most to 6 m); weight up to 400 lb. (200 kg)
threatened species because they live only on the Coloration: Brown, red, yellow, green,
small island of Mona off Puerto Rico. There, and black; often with camouflage markings
predatory domestic cats have escaped from Diet: Birds, lizards, and mammals
homes and now run wild in vast numbers. Breeding: Females bear 3–100 live young
after a gestation period (pregnancy) of
Burrowing Boas 6–8 months
Boas in the family Erycinae live in a wide range Life span: 20–30 years
of habitats. These burrowers are short, stout Status: Some rare or endangered
snakes, with blunt snouts and short tails.

The Madagascar ground boa is the largest snake
on the island of Madagascar. Brown and orange
markings on the snake’s back camouflage it
in the leaf litter of the forest floor.

53

BOAS

The tails of some boa species may be waved jaw so that these snakes can force their way
around as a “false head” to distract a predator’s through the ground without getting any sand
attention from the real head, which it hides in or soil in their mouths. Sand boas that live in
its coils. Many members of the Boinae family loose, sandy habitats “swim” underground,
have heat-sensitive pits around their mouths, while species that live in harder soil form
but burrowing boas do not. These pits would tunnels, often coming to the surface under a
quickly become clogged with sand or soil as stone. As in other burrowing snakes, the eyes
the snakes burrowed underground. of the sand boas are found on top of the head
so that they can ambush prey while they are
Sand Boas partially buried in the ground.
There are eleven species of sand boa (family
Erycinae). These snakes live in habitats from Boa Relatives
southeastern Europe and North and East Two families are given the common name “boa”
Africa, through the Middle East, to India. The even if this is not strictly correct. They are the
upper jaw of the sand boas overhangs the lower two Mascarene boas from Round Island in the

2

1 Common boa 1
2. Emerald tree boa
3. Rainbow boa
4. Dumeril’s boa
5. Pacific

ground boa

3

5

4

54

BOAS

True boas

The family Boinae includes the boa
constrictor, the anacondas, and the tree
boas. Tree boas have slimmer, flatter,
and lighter-weight bodies than their large
ground-dwelling relatives. This body
shape helps them to slide easily through
the trees. Tree boas also have long,
gripping tails that hold tightly to tree
branches while they climb or rest. Along
their lips, tree boas have pits that can
sense the heat given off by birds, which
are their main prey. Their long, curved
teeth help them to catch and hold onto
their prey. The smaller Mona Island boas
specialize in eating Anolis lizards, which
sleep on the tips of branches at night.
These agile boas catch the lizards by
hanging down from branches or plucking
them from their night-time roosts.

Indian Ocean (family Bolyeriidae) and the dwarf DID YOU KNOW?
boa from Central and South America (family
Tropidophiidae). One of the Round Island boas The largest boa constrictor was 18 feet
is probably now extinct. The surviving species long but theâ•‚smaller boas grow fewer
is the Round Island keel-scaled boa (Casarea than 39 inches long.
dussumieri). Dwarf boas are usually found under Young emerald tree boas are born
stones, logs, and in leaf litter. They come out at bright yellow or pink, but they turn
night. Two dwarf boas species are also known green as they mature.
as “banana boas” because they can be carried Rubber boas coil into a tight ball when
around the world on ships taking bananas from they are threatened.
Central America to other parts of theâ•‚world. The Calabar ground boa is an unusual
boa that lays eggs, rather than giving
birth to live young.

55

BUSH SQUEAKER

Squeakers are small African frogs named for their
short, high-pitched call, which sounds like the noise
made by a cricket. Females lay large eggs that hatch
into tiny frogs with small tails. These frogs do not have

a tadpole stage in their life cycle.

56

There are about seventy-nine species of squeaker frogs and toads
frog, most of which live in Central and West
Africa. The unusual hairy frog is from West Africa. Fact File
During the breeding season, the male develops hair-
like flaps of skin, which help him to take care of the BUSH SQUEAKER
eggs. The bush squeaker (Arthroleptis wahlberg) is Arthroleptis wahlbergi
one of just two species from southern Africa. Family: Arthroleptidae
Order: Anura
Squeakers prefer to live in damp places, which helps Where do they live?: Tropical parts
them to absorb oxygen through their skin as well of the east coast of South Africa
as through their lungs. During short periods of dry Habitat: Leaf litter under bushes,
weather, the squeakers retreat into burrows in the soil, hedges, and garden shrubs; can
crevices in logs, or hollow tree trunks. be seen in large cities
Size: HeadÂ

BUSHVELD RAIN FROG

The secretive bushveld rain frog spends most of its
time hidden in its underground borrows, emerging to
feed when it rains. These frogs can burrow as deep as
20 inches underground, using the “spades” on their

back feet to dig through the soil.

58

Bushveld rain frogs are most likely to be seen and frogs and toads
heard during the rainy season, when it is time
for breeding. Every evening, the males call from their Fact File
burrows or from underneath thick bushes to attract the
females. When a female turns up, the male produces a BUSHVELD RAIN FROG
sticky substance from his underside and glues himself Breviceps adspersus
to the female’s back. The female then uses her spadelike Family: Microhylidae
hind feet to dig backward down into the soil with Order: Anura
the male still on her back. Once the burrow is deep Where do they live?:
enough, the female lays her eggs in a small chamber, Southern Africa
often next to a buried rock or log. The eggs are quite
big, measuring about half an inch including the jelly Equator
surrounding them. The female may also lay a number
of empty jelly capsules, possibly to prevent the eggs Habitat: Dry grassland and sand
from drying out. The eggs develop and hatch into dunes in deserts
tadpoles inside the egg mass and do not feed. Soon Size: Up to 2 in. (4.7 cm)
after the tadpoles turn into tiny frogs, they emerge from Coloration: Pale gray with dark
the burrow. The young are about 0.25 inch in length. brown markings
The whole process takes between four and six weeks. Diet: Small invertebrates (animals
without backbones), especially
Rain Coat termites
In the dry season, bushveld rain frogs puff up their Breeding: Female lays small
bodies and produce a slimy waterproof coating that clumps of large eggs
stops water from escaping from their skin. The frogs Life span: Not known
then bury themselves in a burrow about 20 inches Status: Common—least concern
below the surface, surviving several months of dry
weather with their slimy coat around their body.
Resting through a dry season is called estivation.

The bushveld rain frog is a compact frog with a short
snout and short legs. Spade shapes on the hind feet
help these frogs dig their underground nests.

59

CAECILIANS

Caecilians are worm-like amphibians that live in
hot places and survive by burrowing in the damp

soil. There are about 160 different caecilians,
but their underground lifestyle means they are

difficult to observe and poorly understood.

60

Caecilians are unusual amphibians. They have no caecilians
bones in the legs, hips or shoulders, and their
bodies are made up of a series of rings called annuli. Fact File
Some species have a short tail, but most have no tail.
The skin is tough on the outside but the inner layers CAECILIANS
have special cells, such as slime glands and poison Families: Caeciliidae (89 species);
glands. Caecilians taste nasty to many predators and Ichthyophiidae (36 species);
may even be poisonous to eat. In South America, Rhinatrematidae (9 species);
however, coral snakes often prey on them. The bright Scolecomorphidae (6 species);
colors of some caecilians may act as a warning signal Typhlonectidae (13 species of South
to deter predators. American caecilians that live in
water); Uraeotyphlidae (6 species)
Bending and Burrowing Order: Gymnophiona
When caecilians are burrowing through the soil, they Where do they live?: Central Africa,
move in a straight line using their wedge-shaped heads Central and South America, India,
like a trowel as they push themselves along. Caecilians the Seychelles, Southeast Asia,
have a solid, bony skull, with a tough cap of skin that and Sri Lanka
fits tightly over it. As the caecilian creeps along its
burrows, it expands and contracts the muscles in its Habitat: Moist, loose soil and leaf
body, making the body wider or narrower in different litter in tropical forests; some burrow
places. Wider sections grip the sides of the burrow, in mud at bottom of water
allowing other parts of the body to stretch forward. Size: 2.75–27.5 in. (7–70 cm)
In turn, these parts expand and result in a sequence Coloration: Most blue–gray or black;
of “push-and-pull” cycles that ripple along the body. some yellow or orange
Diet: Insects, lizards, small rodents,
Sometimes caecilians find themselves on the surface, worms, and dead fish
perhaps after they are washed out of their burrows Breeding: Some species lay eggs;
by heavy rain. There they can move by bending their others give birth to live young after
bodies from side to side like a snake. a gestation period of 7–11 months
Life span: Not known
With its segmented body and lack of any limbs, Status: Varies according to species.
this small caecilian from Costa Rica looks almost Most are data deficient
exactly like a dark-colored earthworm.
61

CAECILIANS

DKINDOYWO?U Feeding Habits hold on to slippery prey, and they
Caecilians are long, thin amphibians, also have sharp cutting edges. As a
Caecilians have so they have to eat long, thin prey. caecilian chews, the backward curve
lungs—all except They also have to eat prey that lives of the teeth allows the food to move
one species. under the ground. Earthworms are down its throat.
therefore an important part of their
Some caecilians diet. Caecilians approach the worms Eggs and Young
have scaly slowly, grabbing them suddenly Female caecilians lay their eggs in
patches on their in their jaws. The jaws open in an burrows near the edges of streams.
skin, which are unusual way. The bottom jaw stays They coil around the eggs to keep
like fish scales more or less still, while the top jaw them warm. They hatch into larvae
rather than opens upward, rather like the jaws of that wriggle down into the water. The
reptile scales. a crocodile. This adaptation probably larvae have gills so they can breathe
makes it easier for caecilians to feed in the water. Eventually, they change
The young of in the restricted space of a burrow. into small adults and slither back
some caecilians onto the land. Some species skip the
develop inside The teeth of a caecilian are well larval stage. The eggs hatch out into
their mother developed on both jaws. They curve miniature versions of the adults.
for up to eleven backward, so that the caecilians can
months—longer
than babies
do inside a
human mother.

Some caecilians
spend almost all
of their lives in the
water. The rubber
eels are a group of
aquatic caecilians
that live in South
America. Some of
the species in this
group may grow up
to 2 feet or more.

62

caecilians

Some caecilians give birth to live Senses
young. The female keeps the eggs
inside her body until they are ready Most caecilians have small eyes, which are
to hatch. The young absorb the egg covered with skin or bone. The eyes are simple
yolk at first and then feed on the and detect only light and dark. The ears have no
“milk” produced in the walls of the openings but can pick up vibrations in the soil.
mother’s egg tubes. The developing Caecilians have a small tentacle on each side of
caecilians have tiny teeth to scrape the head, between the eye and the nostril. The
this milk off the walls. They also have tentacles can detect chemicals, so the caecilians
gills to take in oxygen, and perhaps probably use them to search for food. Burrowing
nutrients, from their mother’s own caecilians close their nostrils to stop them from
bloodstream. The young caecilians getting clogged up with soil. Instead, they use
shed their gills just before they are their tentacles to “smell” when they are under
born, or a few hours after birth. The the ground. Above ground, caecilians draw the
mother may eat the discarded gills. tentacles back inside their bodies and seal off
the opening. Below ground, they can extend
Seychelles Caecilians their tentacles using pressure from fluids
Seven species of caecilians live in produced by the orbital gland—a gland that
the Seychelles Islands in the Indian keeps eyes moist in other vertebrates.
Ocean. They live only in damp areas
and are becoming rare. Tourism is
a vital industry to the people of the
Seychelles, and they are draining
marshes to make way for new hotels.
People have also introduced many
predators, such as chickens and pigs.

Large numbers of a caecilian called
Hypogeophis rostratus have also been
killed by the endangered Seychelles
magpie robins. These birds have
increased in numbers since Birdlife
International started a conservation
program for them in 1989.

63

CAIMAN LIZARD

The caiman lizard looks more like a small member
of the crocodile family than a lizard thanks to its large,

heavy scales. Very little is known about the behavior
of this Brazilian lizard in the wild.

64

Caiman lizards live in the flooded forests, swamps, Snakes and Lizards
and streams within the Amazon River Basin in
South America. These large, powerful lizards spend Fact File
most of their time swimming, moving near the surface
with their head out of the water. Their flattened tail CAIMAN LIZARD
helps to propel them through the water. Caiman lizards Dracaena guianensis
often bask on roots or branches overhanging the water. Family: Teiidae
If they are disturbed or threatened, they will drop Order: Squamata
into the water and quickly swim away. The muscular, Where do they live?: Amazon River
whip-like tail is also used by the lizard for defense and Basin of South America
can deal a powerful blow to a predator. Young caiman Habitat: Swamps, riverbanks,
lizards are often eaten by birds and larger mammals. and flooded areas
People are the greatest threat to these lizards, since they Size: Length 36–42 in. (91–107
are hunted for the reptile leather trade. cm); weight 3–6 lb. (1.4–kg)
Coloration: Bright green, olive,
Snail Meals or brown body with orange head;
When they are foraging for food, caiman lizards dive young more colorful than adults
into deep water and walk across the bottom, flicking Diet: Mostly water snails
their forked tongue in and out to sense food. One of Breeding: Female lays 2 eggs
their favorite food items is apple snails. When a lizard Life span: Not known
finds a snail, it picks it up in its mouth, tilts its head up Status: Rarely seen
and rolls it toward the back of its jaws. The lizard then
uses its powerful jaws and flat, grinding teeth to crush 65
the shell. It swallows the soft body of the snail and
carefully pushes the shell fragments out of its mouth
with its tongue. During the dry season, when snails are
not available, caiman lizards often climb into trees in
search of insects and possibly even birds’ eggs.

The caiman lizard has a red-orange head and green
body, which is covered with large, heavy scales. The
long, flat tail helps to propel the lizard as it swims.

CAIMANS

Caimans are small, agile members of the crocodile
family, which also includes the alligators and

crocodiles. Strong, bony plates on the body of these
strong swimmers protect them from predators.

66

Caimans are closely related to the alligators in crocodilians
the family Alligatoridae. Like the true alligators,
caimans have rounded snouts and their lower teeth Fact File
generally do not show when their mouths are closed.
However, most caimans are smaller than alligators, and CAIMANS
they have longer, sharper teeth. The black caiman is Family: Alligatoridae (6 species:
an exception since it is the only species that can grow common caiman, Yacaré caiman,
bigger than an alligator. In fact, the black caiman is one broad-snouted caiman, dwarf
of the largest reptiles in the world—second only to the caiman, smooth-fronted caiman,
saltwater crocodiles of Southeast Asia and Australia. and black caiman)
Order: Crocodilia
Cunning Hunter Where do they live?:
The black caiman has sharp eyesight and a keen sense Central and South America
of smell, and it uses both of these senses to good effect Habitat: Swamps, lakes, and rivers
when hunting prey. The black caiman uses its powerful Size: Head–tail length usually around
tail to stun and catch fish. First, the caiman moves 7.75 ft. (2.4 m); black caiman may
quietly toward the fish. Then it lashes out with its tail, be up to 20 ft. (6.1 m) and weigh
using it like a hand to scoop up fish into its mouth. up to 500 lb. (227 kg)
Black caimans hunt at night, and it is possible to find Coloration: Black with lighter
them in the dark by listening for the smacking sound markings, especially in young
made by their tails on the surface of the water. Large Diet: Young eat invertebrates
caimans can hunt large mammals such as deer and (animals without backbones) and
tapirs when they come to the water to drink. small fish; larger caimans eat
bigger prey, including some
People have killed large numbers of black caimans mammals, such as capybaras,
for the reptile leather trade and to protect their cattle dogs, and pigs
from attack. The number of black caimans in South Breeding: Female lays 20–60 eggs,
America is now believed to be just 1 percent of the which hatch after 6–10 weeks
numbers that existed there a century ago. Life span: 30–50 years
Status: Least concern
The dwarf caiman is the smallest member of
the alligator family. Young dwarf caimans eat 67
invertebrates; the adults also eat fish.

CANE TOAD

Cane toads are large toads with big appetites and will
eat anything that fits in their mouths. They are very
adaptable amphibians, changing their lifestyle, diet,
and breeding habits to suit a variety of habitats. They

can even survive in the middle of bustling cities.

68

The cane toad eats a wide range of food, from frogs and toads
insects, smaller frogs and toads, and lizards, to
small snakes, birds, and mammals. Unlike most other Fact File
frogs and toads, which only hunt moving prey, cane
toads can smell animals. Cane toads use their keen CANE TOAD
sense of smell to locate food, and they will often gather Bufo marinus
in places where people have left out food for their pets. Family: Bufonidae
Cane toads also wait at the entrance to beehives to Order: Anura
snap up bees, and they visit garbage dumps where they Where do they live?: Central and
eat vegetable scraps. In the middle of cities, cane toads South America and southern Texas
hide under buildings by day, emerging at night to sit in the United States; introduced to
around the base of street lamps and snap up insects many countries, especially Australia
attracted by the light. When cane toads live side by side Habitat: Varies depending on
with other toad species, the cane toad is usually much location; includes towns and villages
better at finding food. This makes it difficult for the Size: Snout–rump length 4–9.5 in.
other toads to survive. Indeed, scientists have observed (10–24 cm); weight up to 3 lb.
that American toads nearly always die when they are (1.4 kg) in wild, up to 5.6 lb.
kept in cages with cane toads. This is not because (2.5 kg) in captivity
they are attacked, but because they give up trying to Coloration: Brown, sometimes
compete with the cane toads for food. with darker blotches
Diet: Varied, including insects and
Deadly Skin smaller vertebrates
Cane toads are immune to attack from almost any Breeding: Females lay up to 35,000
predator. Their skin contains many poison glands, eggs, which hatch within 2 days
with two very large glands located just behind the Life span: 5 years in the wild;
head. These glands exude strong poisons as a sticky, 15 years in captivity
milky sap. This usually oozes out of the glands, but Status: Common, reaching plague
cane toads can also squirt the sap up to 3 feet. numbers in places—least concern

Cane toads show a remarkable variety of colors 69
and markings on the back, ranging from gray to
brown or olive. They have much paler undersides.

CANE TOAD

DKINDOYWO?U If the poison gets into the mouth, Eggs and Tadpoles
eyes, or an open wound, it causes Cane toads breed at any time of year
The biggest severe pain, and a predator will drop in most types of water, including
recorded cane the toad immediately. Cats, dogs, ditches, ponds, and streams. In places
toad measured crows, monitor lizards, and snakes where it rains throughout the year,
15 inches. have died as a result of eating cane cane toads breed at different times.
toads. Even highly venomous snakes, Spacing out the breeding helps
Cane toads make such as Australian death adders, will to avoid competition between the
strong poisons die if they eat a cane toad. As well as tadpoles. The male cane toad calls to
that can easily kill their deadly skin poisons, cane toads attract a mate using a loud, tuneless
a dog or a cat. defend themselves by making their croak that sounds rather like an
bodies look even bigger than they outboard motor on a small boat.
The cane toad already are. To do this, the cane toad
was introduced to flattens its body, stands straight on Females lay thin threads of eggs
Australia to save two legs on one side of the body, and that can reach up to 20 yards in
sugarcane crops tilts the body toward the predator to length and contain up to 35,000
from pests. That look as menacing as possible. small, black eggs. The eggs usually
is how the toad hatch into tadpoles within two days.
got its name.

The cane toad
is a large,
round amphibian
with dry, warty
skin. These toads
have a bony head,
with distinct ridg-
es above each eye
that run down to
meet at the snout.

70

frogs and toads

Like the adults, the tadpoles do not What’s in a name?
taste very nice at first, but they lose
some of their poisons when they Cane toads are also known as marine toads.
turn into tiny toads. This happens The second part of their scientific name, marinus,
between twelve and sixty days after suggests that they are linked to the sea. This is
they hatch from their eggs. The not the case, however, although tadpoles have
hatchlings are small at first and been found close to the shore. These tadpoles die
swarm together like a mass of black in water containing more than 15 percent salt
flies. This is the time when they are water. So the tadpoles must have been living in
most in danger from predators and fresh water draining down to the sea.
many are killed before they are able
to develop into adult toads. Cane toads have been introduced
into many other regions or countries
Problem Toads to help control populations of pest
Cane toads have often caused insects, including Florida, Puerto
problems when they have been Rico, the Philippines, and many
introduced to other countries. They Pacific and Caribbean islands. In
compete with native frogs and toads most cases, they have upset the
for food and breeding places. They balance of nature in their new homes
also eat some of the local wildlife, and numbers are reaching pest levels.
which is a particular problem in
Australia where the wildlife is not
found anywhere else in the world.

Cane toads were introduced to
Australia in the 1930s in order to
control the beetles that were eating
sugarcane. The toads thrived in their
new home, partly because they had
no predators and few competitors.
They spread rapidly, eating helpful
insects as well as the harmful ones,
and cane toads are still spreading
across Australia today.

71

CAPE SKINK

The stocky Cape skink is probably the most familiar
lizard in southern Africa, except in the Namib Desert

and northern regions. It has spiny scales on its feet
that help it to grip the sandy soil.

72

The stout body of the Cape skink is covered with Snakes and Lizards
circular scales, and it also has a large scale under
each eye that extends to its top lip. The ear openings Fact File
are covered with small scales to prevent sand from
entering when the skink is digging. The Cape skink CAPE SKINK
has five long toes on each foot. The well-developed legs Mabuya capensis
allow it to escape predators, including birds such as the Family: Scincidae
fiscal shrike, by running quickly to its burrow. Order: Squamata
Where do they live?: Large parts
Cape skinks are only active on sunny days. They of southern Africa
emerge in the sunlight and bask in open areas for long Habitat: Varied, including coastal
periods until their body temperature is high enough bush, gardens, and grassland
for them to move around with ease. Size: Head–tail length 8–10 in. (20–
25 cm), females generally
Eggs or Young larger than males
Some Cape skinks lay eggs and some give birth to Coloration: Light brown, dark
live young. The reproductive strategy depends on the green, or gray, with three pale
climate and the habitat in which they live. In areas stripes and brown or black spots
with high rainfall and steady temperatures over much between the stripes
of the year, females lay between six and twelve eggs Diet: Insects, spiders, and worms
in November and December. The young hatch out Breeding: In some areas, 5–18
after about two months. In other areas, there are very young born after a gestation period
hot summers and cold winters. During the winter, the (pregnancy) of 4 months; in other
skinks go into a deep sleep called hibernation. The areas, females lay 6–12 eggs,
temperature is too low for eggs buried in the soil to which hatch after 2 months
develop. Instead, the female skinks keep their eggs Life span: Not known
inside their bodies for four months, which helps to Status: Common
keep them warm. In March, the female gives birth to
between five and eighteen young. 73

The Cape skink has three pale stripes running
down the length of its back. Dark bars run across
the back and extend onto the lizard’s sides.

CHAMELEONS

Most chameleons live in the 2 1
tropical forests of Africa and the
island of Madagascar. They are 3
unusual, slow-Â

Fact File

CHAMELEONS

Family: Chamaeleonidae (131 species divided
into 6 genera): Bradypodion (21 species of
dwarf chameleons); Brookesia (23 species

6 of stump-tailed chameleons); Calumna
(18 species of Madagascan chameleons from
humid areas); Chamaeleo (42 species from
Africa, India, southern Europe, the Middle
East, and Sri Lanka); Furcifer (19 species of
Madagascan chameleons from arid areas);
Rhampholeon (8 species of leaf chameleons)

Order: Squamata

Where do they live?: Most in Africa and
Madagascar, others in southern Asia,
southern Europe, and the Middle East

7

Equator

8 Habitat: Bushes and trees in mountains,
rain forests, and scrubland
backbones) to come within reach of their long
tongues. The tongue shoots out and back into Size: Head–body length 0.75–11.2 in.
the mouth in a fraction of a second. Rather than (1.8–28.5 cm)
being sticky, the tongue works like a rubber
sucker, but it needs to be moist to stick to the Coloration: Brown, green, and yellow;
prey. Muscles in the tongue squeeze together some species can change color
to propel the tongue from the mouth. After the
tongue hits the target, muscles contract to bring Diet: Mainly insects; some eat vertebrates such
the prey back into the chameleon’s mouth. as frogs, lizards, birds, and small mammals

Breeding: Females of most species lay 4–70
eggs at a time; some give birth to live young
after a gestation period of 4–7 months

Life span: 5–10 years

Status: Varies according to species. Vulnerable
in some areas

75

CHAMELEONS

chameleon senses Chameleons seem to have little or no
sense of smell. They press their tongues
Chameleons move their eyes against branches from time to time, but
independently from each other, which scientists do not known why they do
gives these lizards amazing wide-angle this. It may be a way of detecting the
vision. The eye sockets stick out from scent left by other chameleons.
the side of the head, but most of the
eye is covered by skin so the eyes look Chameleons have no distinct call, but
very small. Small eyes probably make it they do sometimes make a faint hissing
more difficult for predators to spot the sound. Unlike other lizards, they do not
chameleons. When a chameleon spots its have an external ear opening. However,
own prey, it swivels both eyes forward so it they can detect air vibrations through a
is able to judge the distance between itself membrane on each side of the skull. This
and the prey accurately. It then shoots out membrane is connected to the inner ear
its long tongue, and the prey “sticks” to inside the chameleon’s head, where the
the bulb-shaped tip. When the chameleon vibrations may be interpreted as sound.
laps water, it flattens its tongue.

76

CHAMELEONS

When the tongue is not being used, it is folded
like an accordion inside the mouth. Sometimes,
a chameleon may seize prey in itsâ•‚jaws if the
prey is too large to stick to the tongue or if the
prey is near enough to be grabbed easily.

Slow Movers
Chameleons move slowly and deliberately most
of the time, but they can move quickly when
they have to. The long legs bend at the knee and
elbow so that the feet tuck under the body. To
grip a branch tightly, a chameleon places two
toes around one side of the branch and three
toes around the other side. The opposing toes
provide a strong grip. Chameleons also have a
gripping (prehensile) tail, which can be curled
around branches like an anchor or extended
out behind their body for balance.

Defense and Camouflage Most chameleons spend much of their time
A chameleon’s best form of defense is to stay keeping very still, using their sharp sense of
still and rely on its camouflage colors for vision to search for prey or possible danger.
protection. Stump-tailed and leaf chameleons
are camouflaged by their shape as well as DID YOU KNOW?
their color. They “freeze” until the danger has
passed. The tiny Brookesia peyrierasi looks like Most chameleons have no voice,
a thin piece of wood when it keeps very still. but the veiled chameleon makes
Moss even grows on the skin of Rhampholeon a loud, hoarse hissing sound.
spectrum, making it look just like a dying leaf. An ailing chameleon usually turns
a sickly shade of yellow.
To escape a predator, a chameleon may Some chameleons have tongues
jump from one branch to another or fall to the that are almost twice the length
ground. Sometimes a chameleon will hiss, puff of their bodies.
up its throat, or sway with its mouth wide open.

77

CHAMELEONS

This is an attempt to make itself look larger some Madagascan chameleons, the males and
and fiercer than it really is. This tactic may fool females are different colors. Furcifer labordi
a predator into leaving the chameleon alone. males are green with white stripes, while the
Some chameleons play dead by lying sideways females have a red throat and blue sides.
on a branch or hanging under a branch with
their tongues lolling out of their mouths. Most Male chameleons start their courtship display
predators prefer to eat fresh prey, so they will by swaying their head slowly and changing to
leave the “dead” chameleon alone. a brighter color. Females that are ready to mate
Courtship and Young do not change color. Mating can take from a
Male chameleons often have some form of head couple of minutes to an hour or more. After
decoration, such as horns, a crest, or spurs, to mating, females change color to show that
attract mates during courtship. Females of some they are not “available” to other males.
species sometimes have these features, but they
are always smaller than those of the males. In Some chameleons lay eggs in a hole in the
ground. The eggs have leathery shells that
The gaping mouth of a chameleon usually shows absorb moisture while the baby chameleons
that it is too hot. Females of some species also develop inside them. When they are ready to
gape when approached by courting males. hatch, the young make slits in the eggs so that
they can push their heads through the shell.
The rest of their bodies stay inside the shell
until all the yolk has been absorbed. This may
take as little as an hour or as long as two days.
The young chameleons often hatch during
a wet period because the ground is softer and
it is easier to dig their way to the surface.

Some females keep the eggs inside their
body until the young hatch as live chameleons.
The gestation (pregnancy, or time carrying
live young) varies from four to seven months,
depending on the species and the temperature
of the surroundings. The young are born as tiny
versions of the adults and are able to look after
themselves. Most young chameleons are brown
to camouflage themselves against the branches
and twigs on which they live.

78

CHAMELEONS

Colorful Chameleons Most chameleons are well camouflaged in
Chameleons use color to attract or ward shades of green and brown, which helps to
off potential mates, or to threaten rivals or hide them among leafy tree branches.
predators. Males live in their own special
areas called territories. They use colorful DID YOU KNOW?
battle displays to warn intruders to keep
out of their territory. Females full of eggs About half of all chameleon species
or young often have very bright colors and lives on the island of Madagascar,
patterns. This warns males to keep away but off the coast of East Africa.
does not help to hide them from predators. The largest chameleon of all is
However, keeping still is good protection 27 inches long from head to tail.
from predators. Even a colorful chameleon Many male chameleons have horns
can be very hard to spot. on their heads.

Color changes are also related to the chameleon to absorb heat. When they are hot,
outside temperature. A cold chameleon is they often turn a lighter color to reflect the heat
usually dark, almost black, which helps the away from their body. Chameleons then look
for shade among the tree leaves.

79

Clawed toads

Named for the claws on their huge webbed back
feet, clawed toads have flat bodies and spend all of
their time in the water. They do not have a tongue
and most have a sensory organ, called a lateral line,

which they use to detect movement in the water.

80

Three main groups of clawed toads live in Africa. FROGS and toads
The dwarf clawed toads (Hymenochirus and
Pseudhymenochirus species) are small toads with grainy Fact File
skin and webbed front feet. Clawed toads from the
group Xenopus have three black, horny claws on their Clawed toads
large back feet (Xenopus means “strange feet”). Clawed Family: Pipidae (30 species
toads from the group Silurana have four bony claws in five genera)
instead of three. This group is named for the tadpoles’ Order: Anura
“whiskers,” which make them look like Silurus catfish. Where do they live?: Africa
and South America
Seven species of clawed toad live in South America.
They belong to a group called Pipa. They use their Equator
webbed back feet for courtship and egg-laying as well
as for swimming. Their front feet end in four-pointed Habitat: Lakes, ponds, reservoirs,
star-shaped structures that are sensitive to touch. rivers, small pools, and swamps
Size: Snout–rump length 1.5–
Feeding and Breeding 7.75 in. (4–20 cm); weighs up to
Clawed toads use their lateral line to detect prey such 5.6 oz. (160 g)
as small fish and water invertebrates. They suck in the Coloration: Dull gray or brown
prey with a mouthful of water. They can also use their Diet: Carrion, invertebrates, fish,
clawed feet like forks to stuff prey into their mouths. and amphibians—even its own larvae
Breeding: Females lay 40 to
Unlike most frogs and toads, clawed toads do not several hundred eggs; females
have vocal cords. Males attract females by moving two from the genus Pipa carry the
bony rods in their throats. This makes a clicking or eggs on their backs
buzzing sound. Females from Xenopus and Silurana Life span: About 10 years
attach their eggs to underwater plants. Females from Status: Varies according to species;
Hymenochirus lay their eggs on the surface of the water. most lower risk—least concern
Eggs laid by Pipa females are collected by the males
and placed on the female’s back, where they stick fast.

The African clawed toad lives in the ponds and rivers
of South Africa. These amphibians swim very quickly,
hunting for small fish such as minnows and guppies.

81

Cobras

Cobras are secretive snakes with Cobras are highly venomous snakes.
angular heads and lithe bodies. They are related to other dangerous
When a cobra feels threatened, snakes, including coral snakes, death adders,
it lifts the front part of its body and mambas. All these snakes have short,
off the ground, spreads the hood fixed fangs at the front of their mouths. The
on its neck, and hisses loudly fangs fit into slots on the floor of the mouth
to scare away enemies. If this when the snake’s mouth is closed.
warning display does not work,
the cobra can give a deadly bite. Most people can recognize a cobra by its hood.
When threatened, these snakes stretch their ribs
outward, which makes their hoods expand.

82

Cobras kill their prey by injecting venom Fact File
through thin pipes that run down the middle
of their fangs. These snakes never run out of Cobras
venom. As the venom is used up, the cobra Family: Elapidae (270 species, of which
makes more. Cobra venom works by stopping around 25 species are cobras)
its prey’s heart from beating. It also causes Order: Squamata
respiratory failure. Cobras rarely attack people
unless they are provoked. When they do bite, Where do they live?:
cobra venom acts quickly and can be fatal. Africa and southern and southeast Asia
In the most severe cases, people can die within
ten minutes of being bitten by a cobra. Habitat: Deserts, grasslands, forests,
scrubland, swamps, and water
Some African cobras can also spray venom
through openings in the front of the fangs. The Size: Head–tail length up to 18.5 ft. (5.7 m);
venom of these “spitting” cobras can travel more most range from 3–7 ft. (0.9–2.1 m); weighs
than 6.5 feet. It can make someone blind if it up to 20 lb. (9 kg)
gets into the person’s eyes. One type of spitting
cobra, called the rinkhal from southern Africa, Coloration: Color varies from gray, brown,
is the smallest of all the cobras. This snake or black to yellowish white; some species
measures about 4 feet in length. The rinkhal is have collars or crossbands
unusual because its scales are keeled (bumpy)
instead of smooth, and females give birth to live Diet: Birds, fish, frogs, lizards, toads, other
young instead of laying eggs. The rinkhal preys snakes, and small mammals such as rats
on toads. When it is threatened, it defends itself
by pretending to be dead. Predators prefer to eat Breeding: Females lay between 12 and 60
living prey, so they leave it alone. eggs that hatch after 45–80 days; rinkhals
give birth to 20–30 live young
Wearing a Hood
A cobra’s hood is skin that has been stretched Life span: Up to 30 years
across a series of long ribs. The cobra normally
keeps these ribs folded flat. The skin then Status: Varies according to species
rests against the body, and the cobra looks the
same as any other snake. When the cobra feels
threatened, it moves the ribs out to the side,
stretching the neck skin to form a wide hood.

83

Cobras

This makes the cobra look bigger and sends Egg Warmer
out a message: “I am dangerous and will bite The female king cobra is the only snake known
you if you come any closer!” It also makes the to make a nest for her eggs. The female uses her
cobra look too big for a predator to swallow. head and body to scrape together leaves and
Some cobras have bands, eye markings, or other other debris into a mound. She then lays her
patterns on the back of their hoods. These may eggs and covers them with the nesting material.
help to distract predators or frighten them away. The female sits on top of the eggs to incubate
King cobras have long, narrow hoods. Unlike them (keep them warm). She guards the eggs
other species, the hoods do not have markings. from predators until they hatch. The male king
cobra stays with the female and her eggs. The
A black-necked spitting cobra gets ready to male and female take turns guarding the nest
attack a predator in the Kalahari Desert. and hunting for food.

84

Cobras

DID YOU KNOW? charming snakes

The venom from one bite of a king cobra The Indian, or spectacled, cobra has a
is enough to kill a fully grown adult unique pattern on the back of its hood.
elephant or up to fifteen adult humans. There are two circles linked by a curved
line, making the cobra look as if it is
The king cobra is the world’s longest wearing spectacles. The Indian cobra is a
poisonous snake. It can rear up and popular species among snake charmers,
look a person in the eye. who remove the fangs for safety. It looks
as though the snake is swaying from side
King cobras eat other snakes, even to side in time with the snake charmer’s
highly poisonous species such as Indian music, but the snake is really following
cobras, kraits, and smaller king cobras. the movement of the flute. Snakes cannot
hear music like people do, but they can
The venom of a young cobra is as strong sense vibrations in the ground and are
as that of the adult. probably sensing the vibrations from
the tapping foot of the snake charmer.
A king cobra’s hiss sounds similar to a
dog growling.

The Hunt is On...
Cobras are active hunters. They chase after their
prey, quickly moving with their head raised off
the ground. They are also good swimmers and
may cross wide rivers. Cobras hunt mainly
at dusk, flicking their forked tongue in and
out to “taste” the smells in the air and get as
close as possible to their prey. The final attack
is a quick strike that injects a massive dose of
venom. The cobra’s fangs are 0.5 inch long and
penetrate the skin deeply. They inject venom
directly into the bloodstream of the prey. This
keeps the prey still so the snake can swallow
it. Cobras hang on to their prey until they are
sure enough venom has entered the wound.

Cobras have flexible jaws, so they can open
their jaws wide to swallow large prey. A large
meal takes days or weeks to digest. They can
survive for months without eating anything,
because their metabolism works so slowly.

85

Common Frog

In spring, these amphibians breed in water, but they will
spend the rest of the year on land, living in damp fields,
woodlands, as well as gardens in Europe and Central Asia.

Common frogs catch insects and other invertebrates
using their long, sticky tongues.

86

Common frogs are hardy amphibians. They can FROGS and toads
survive in cold places in Scandinavia and Russia
and even high up on mountains such as the Alps and Fact File
the Pyrenees in Europe. During the cold winter, these
frogs go into a deep sleep known as hibernation. They Common frog
hibernate in burrows, under piles of rotting leaves, or in Rana temporaria
the soft mud at the bottom of ponds. When the ponds Family: Ranidae
freeze over, the frogs survive by taking in oxygen from Order: Anura
the water through their skin. They can even survive
being frozen, thawing out when it warms up again. Where do they live?: Central and
northern Europe eastward to Siberia
Frog Life Cycle
Large numbers of common frogs migrate to breeding Habitat: Varies from bogs, ditches,
ponds in the spring to look for a mate. Some travel for fields, and hedges, to meadows,
6 miles or more. Male frogs croak to attract females. ponds, streams, woods, and
If successful, a male climbs onto the female’s back and sluggish rivers
fertilizes her eggs as she releases them into the water.
The eggs are protected by a jellylike layer and float to Size: Head–body length 2–4 in. (5–
the surface of the water where they can develop in the 10 cm); weighs 0.75 oz. (22.7 g)
warmth of the sunlight. After about seven to forty days,
the eggs hatch into tadpoles. The tadpoles have tails and Coloration: Varies from brown,
breathe underwater using gills. After nine weeks, the green, and yellow to pink or tan;
tadpoles develop lungs, which they use to breathe air dark “mask” behind eyes; dark
from the surface of the water. They grow hind legs at bars on back legs
six to nine weeks, and front legs at twelve weeks. After
seventeen weeks, the tadpoles complete this process of Diet: Invertebrates such as
change, called metamorphosis. The adults have no tail insects, slugs, and snails
at all and are about as long as an adult’s fingernail.
Breeding: Females produce between
The common frog has large brown eyes with inner 700 and 4,500 eggs that hatch
eyelids to protect them when they are underwater. after 7–40 days depending
A darker “mask” covers the eyes and eardrums. on the temperature

Life span: Up to 8 years

Status: Lower risk—least concern

87

Common toad

The common toad’s warty skin and short back legs
help to distinguish it from the common frog. These
toads can survive in drier places than frogs due to their
thick skin, which helps to seal in moisture. Common
toads may even burrow into the soil in dry weather.

88

The common toad is a secretive amphibian. It FROGS and toads
comes out at night to hunt small invertebrates.
These amphibians are useful to gardeners because Fact File
they eat pests such as slugs. Common toads are rarely
seen in the garden, however, because they hide away in Common toad
crevices, under logs, or in greenhouses during the day. Bufo bufo
They hide to avoid predators such as birds of prey, cats, Family: Bufonidae
dogs, and hedgehogs. When they are spotted, common Order: Anura
toads use their potent skin poisons in defense. Grass Where do they live?: Most of
snakes are immune to these poisons. Instead, the toad Europe, parts of northwestern
puffs up its body and stands high off the ground on Africa, and across Central Asia
stiff legs to look as big as possible. Habitat: Gardens, heaths, meadows,
and woodlands
Eggs and Tadpoles Size: Head–body length: 3–8 in. (8–
Common toads breed in water and migrate to ponds, 20 cm); weighs 9 oz. (250 g)
lakes, or slow-moving rivers in the spring. Many toads Coloration: Brown, gray, or reddish,
are killed by road traffic if the migration route takes with no markings
them across busy highways. As a result, local people Diet: Invertebrates such as
sometimes set up “toad crossings” to help the toads earthworms, insects, and slugs
cross the road in safety. Males compete to mate with Breeding: Females lay between
females. They swarm around one female and form 3,000–8,000 eggs, which
a large ball shape around her body. After mating, the hatch after 2–3 weeks
female lays eggs in double strings, measuring up to Life span: Up to 40 years
16 feet long. When the eggs hatch, the tadpoles form Status: Lower risk—least concern
shoals in the water. In a process called metamorphosis,
the tadpoles change into tiny toadlets. They measure 89
just 0.5 inch long. They will not breed themselves
until they are between three and seven years old.

The eyes of the common toad are orange with black
horizontal pupils. Two glands behind the eyes
produce a foul-tasting chemical to deter predators.

Congo eels

Congo eels may look like eels or snakes, but in fact
they are amphibians and closely related to

salamanders. Congo eels were named because
scientists used to think they lived in the African Congo,
but they are found only in southeastern North America.

90

Congo eels live in slow streams and swampy newts and salamanders
rivers. They hide in underwater burrows during
the day and emerge at night to feed. Adult Congo eels Fact File
have tiny legs and a few toes. There are three species:
the one-toed, two-toed, and three-toed amphiuma Congo eels
(Congo eels). In the larval stage, these amphibians Amphiuma spp.
have much larger legs that can be used to walk. Adults Family: Amphiumidae
wriggle along like eels, however, both in the water and Order: Caudata (Urodela)
on land. In very dry places, Congo eels burrow into the Where do they live?:
mud and rest in a slimy cocoon until rains fall once Southeastern North America
again. They can survive in this state for up to three Habitat: Slow-moving streams,
years. water-filled ditches, ponds,
and swamps
Congo eels eat more crayfish than anything else, but Size: Head–tail length up to 39 in.
they also eat earthworms, fish, insects, snails, and even (100 cm); weighs 5.5 lb. (2.5 kg)
clams, snakes, and turtles. If they are attacked, Congo Coloration: Black or dark brown with
eels can give a painful bite. They also have a slimy layer small, light spots
that covers their bodies, which makes it difficult for Diet: Aquatic creatures such as
predators to hold onto them. crayfish, fish, frogs, snails, and
water snakes
Eggs and Young Breeding: Females lay 50–150
In the winter, female Congo eels lay their eggs in eggs; eggs hatch after 20 weeks
burrows or small crevices. They coil around their eggs Life span: Captive Congo eels live
until they hatch several months later in summer. By for up to 27 years
this time, the nest cavities may be above the water. Status: One-toed amphiuma—near
The larvae breathe underwater using external gills. threatened; two-toed and three-toed
This stage does not last long, and the larvae lose their species—least concern
gills after about three weeks. Adults breathe using
lungs, but they keep a pair of gill slits—the openings 91
through which the gills emerge at the larval stage.

The two-toed amphiuma is a large, thick-bodied
salamander from the swamps of Florida, Virginia, and
Louisiana in the southeastern United States.

Copperhead

The copperhead lives in the forested hills of the
American southeast. Copperheads are common snakes,
but they are often overlooked because of their excellent

camouflage. These snakes are poisonous
but will bite only if disturbed or provoked.

92

Copperheads prefer to live in forests, with clearings snakes and lizards
in which to bask and warm up in the sunlight,
and rocky outcrops in which to hide and hibernate Fact File
(sleep through the winter). In very cold places, these
snakes may hibernate for up to six months of the year. Copperhead
They may share their hibernation sites with timber Agkistrodon contortrix
rattlesnakes and black ratsnakes. When people settle Family: Viperidae
in copperhead habitats, the snakes remain if there are Order: Squamata
enough natural areas left. These may be nature reserves Where do they live?:
and neglected farmland where there are woodpiles and Southeastern United States
empty buildings in which the snakes can find shelter. and northeastern Mexico
Habitat: Rocky areas and woody
Feeding and Breeding hillsides near ponds and streams
Copperheads are pit vipers. They have heat pits to Size: HeadÂ

Coral snakes

Coral snakes live in the Americas. These secretive
snakes are burrowing reptiles from the cobra family.
Their brightly colored rings of red, black, and yellow
warn other animals to leave them alone. Coral snakes

have a potent venom and are very dangerous.

94

Most coral snakes live in the rain forests. They snakes and lizards
search through the leaf litter for prey such as
smaller snakes. Other species live in deserts, scrubland, Fact File
or dry thorn forests. These snakes can be active during
the day or night, but mostly hunt at night to avoid the CORAL SNAKES
intense daylight heat. Many species from Central and Family: Elapidae
South America eat burrowing reptiles, especially worm Order: Squamata
lizards, which they follow through their tunnels. One Where do they live?: Americas
large coral snake, Micrurus surinamensis, spends a lot Habitat: Varies from deserts
of time in the water and preys on eels. to rain forests
Size: HeadÂ

Coral snakes

DKINDOYWO?U Hard-working Colors will be startled when it uncovers
The bright colors of coral snakes a brightly colored coral snake. It
The largest coral probably help them to survive in may draw back and hesitate before
snakes grow up several different ways. Surprisingly, it attacks. This gives the snake vital
to 5 ft. (1.5 m) the conspicuous colors provide good seconds to make good its escape.
in length. camouflage in the dappled sunlight When a coral snake moves quickly
The venom from of the rain forest. This makes it hard through dead leaves or green, leafy
a coral snake is for a predator to spot a coral snake plants, its bands of color flicker in the
strong enough in its natural habitat. Next there is light. Predators often find it hard to
to kill people, but the element of surprise. Any predator make out the shape of the snake and
attacks on people searching for food in the leaf litter figure out the direction in which it is
are very rare. moving. By the time it does this, the
Some coral The red milksnake mimics the coral snake has disappeared.
snakes have bright warning coloration of the
bands of only two coral snakes. Other animals think the If a predator persists with its attack,
colors, such as milksnake is dangerous when in fact it is a coral snake starts a warning display
red and yellow or to frighten the predator and show
black and white. that it is dangerous. It raises its tail,
The name of one coiling and uncoiling it over and over
genus, Micrurus, again to divert attention away from
means “flickering its head, which it often hides under
tail” and is named its body. Then it wriggles around,
for the snake’s thrashing its head from side to side
defensive display. and snapping at anything it touches.
The bright colors make this warning
display even scarier.

Color Copies
Predators seem to avoid animals with
bright colors instinctively. Very often
these animals are deadly or do not
taste good. Harmless snakes may
mimic, or copy, the bright colors of
venomous snakes to give themselves a
much better chance of surviving. This

96

snakes and lizards

survival strategy is known as Batesian Around the world
mimicry. It was named for the English
scientist Henry Walter Bates, who first The coral snakes from the Americas are the true
put forward this theory in the middle coral snakes, but there are many similar species
of the nineteenth century. Many coral in Asia and Africa. Confusingly, these snakes are
snake mimics, such as the milksnake, also called coral snakes and include species from
Lampropeltis triangulum, also thrash the Malaysian genera Maticora and Calliophis,
around if they are disturbed, making Aspidelaps lubricus from South Africa, and the
them look even more like the real Australian Simoselaps australis. The Malaysian
coral snakes. The sequence of colored blue coral snake (Maticora bivirgata; shown
rings on some false coral snakes does above) is one of a few snakes that has bright blue
not always match those of the real skin. When these snakes feel threatened, they
species, but predators cannot tell display their bright red undersides to warn other
the difference. When the predator animals that they are venomous and dangerous.
finds its meal, it has to make a quick Malaysian blue coral snakes have powerful
decision. In most cases, a predator will venom. The venom glands of these snakes
not risk attacking a snake with bright extend back from the head to about one-third
colors. of the length of the body. Malaysian blue coral
snakes burrow underground in search of snakes
Fake Snakes to eat. Large, wide venom glands on the head
Some of the false coral snakes, such would make this hunting tactic very difficult.
as the California mountain king
snake, Lampropeltis zonata, live in
places where there are no real coral
snakes. Even so, it is possible that the
false coral snakes may have lived side
by side with real coral snakes in the
past. Their predators also include
birds that move freely from place
to place—and may have seen coral
snakes in a different location. So their
bright colors will still help to protect
them from predators.

97

Crocodiles

Crocodiles have been around Most crocodiles live in or near fresh
for more than 265 million years. water. They hunt and feed in the
In fact, the ancestors of these water and then move onto land to bask in
reptiles lived at the same time the warmth of the sunlight. Females also lay
as the dinosaurs. Crocodiles are their eggs on the land. Many crocodiles once
the largest of all reptiles, with roamed the world’s oceans. They were fearsome
tremendous power in their huge predators of the sea. Today, only two species
jaws. These fearsome predators
show a remarkable level of care A saltwater crocodile opens its enormous
for their eggs, nests, and young. jaws.â•‹These fearsome predators will attack
animals as big as water buffalo. Attacks on people
are rare, but those that do occur are usually fatal.

98

Fact File

regularly swim in saltwater environments. They CROCODILES
are the saltwater crocodile from the Indo-Pacific
region, and the American crocodile from the Family: Crocodylidae—13 species: African
Caribbean. The Nile crocodile may venture dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis),
into the sea on rare occasions. All crocodiles African slender-snouted crocodile (Crocodylus
have salt glands at the back of their mouths. cataphractus), American crocodile (C. acutus),
This suggests that all the ancestors of crocodiles Central American crocodile (C. moreletii),
may once have lived in the sea. The salt glands Columbian crocodile (C. intermedius), Cuban
allow crocodiles to get rid of excess salt without crocodile (C. rhombifer), Johnston’s crocodile
losing too much water from their bodies and (C. johnstoni), mugger (C. palustris), New
becoming dehydrated. Guinea crocodile (C. novaeguineae), Nile
crocodile (C. niloticus), Philippine crocodile
Super Senses (C. mindorensis), saltwater crocodile
Crocodiles have much sharper senses than (C. porosus), Siamese crocodile (C. siamensis)
other reptiles. Since they tend to hunt at night,
their eyes have vertical, slit-shaped pupils, Order: Crocodylia Crocodylian Equator
which can be opened wider to allow more light
into the eyes. The eyes also have a reflective Where do Equator
layer on the retina, which makes the eyes glow they live?:
in the dark if a light shines on them. This layer Africa, southern
works like a mirror, reflecting back the available Asia, Australia,
light and helping to provide a clearer image. and Central and
Crocodiles have excellent vision in daylight, South America
and they can see in color. A see-through shield
covers and protects their eyes while underwater Habitat: Lakes,
and still allows the crocodiles to see well. rain forests, rivers,
swamps, and islands in tropical regions
If the water is muddy, crocodiles use their
keen sense of smell to detect their prey. They Size: HeadÂ