Exploring the World of Reptiles and Amphibians

WHIPTAILS

Habitat and lifestyle spots, as well as cover to conceal the
lizard if danger threatens. Jungle racers
Whiptails, such as the four-striped live in forest clearings and grasslands in
whiptail shown below, are diurnal reptiles, tropical regions. Tegus also live in the
which means they are active during the open forest, as well as along the banks
day. Early in the morning, these lizards of rivers and streams. Some racerunners
bask in the Sun to raise their body inhabit deserts and scrubland, including in
temperature and hunt for food. Whiptails North America. Desert species hunt in the
often live in forest clearings, including morning and at dusk and spend the hottest
those around farms and villages. In such part of the day in cool, shady burrows.
places, there are plenty of good basking Other racerunners live by the coast on the
islands of the Caribbean.
In the far north and south of their range,
whiptails hibernate in winter and may
only be active for six months of the year.

Whiptails eat mainly insects and other
small creatures. Tegus eat a range of prey
including fruit, snails, fish, frogs, other
lizards, and carrion (dead meat). The
teiids have good eyesight, which helps
them spot food from a distance. Like
snakes, these lizards also have long,
forked tongues to help them gather
scents in the air. The lizard then “smells”
the scent by touching the tongue on the
Jacobson’s organ in the roof of its mouth.

This is when food is most abundant. female, and they lay fertile eggs
Females lay between three and thirty without mating. Parthenogenetic
soft-shelled eggs. Some racerunners species include the desert grassland
can produce young without mating whiptail of Arizona. Females lay up
in a process called parthenogenesis. to four eggs that hatch into young
All the lizards of such species are with bright blue tails.

400

Snakes and Lizards

DID YOU KNOW? Spectacled Lizards
The spectacled lizards are named for their fused lower
The caiman lizard and the crocodile eyelids, which look a little like spectacles. There are
tegu live by the rivers and streams around 179 species, some of which are called shade,
of the Amazon River Basin. The creek, root, or cave lizards. Being small, spectacled
crocodile tegu has a flat tail like lizards are sometimes called microteiids. These shy
a crocodile, which it sweeps from creatures dwell on the ground in the leaf litter or
side to side to move through the under rotting tree stumps. They can be very hard
water. It eats frogs, fish, and to spot. Many have short limbs. Some are legless
other water creatures. and these can only move by wriggling like a worm.
Caiman lizards have two rows of Spectacled lizards eat caterpillars, grubs, and
scales running down their backs and worms. They breed by laying small clutches of eggs.

Rainbow whiptails are brightly
colored lizards that live in Colombia.

401

WORM LIZARDS

Worm lizards, or amphisbaenians, are slender, leg-
less reptiles. Like earthworms, they spend their lives
in underground burrows. Scientists know very little

about these unusual creatures.

402

Amphisbaenians are commonly called worm SnAkES AnD LIzARDS
lizards, but they are neither worms nor true
lizards. Scientists think that their closest relatives are Fact File
snakes and lizards. Experts in classification place the
unusual worm lizards in the same order (Squamata). WOrM LIZArDs
Snakes, lizards, and worm lizards are thought to be The suborder Amphisbaenia consists
descended from common ancestors. of three families: Amphisbaenidae
(155 species) Trogonophidae (short-
At first glance, amphisbaenians look exactly like headed worm lizards, six species)
earthworms, with their long, thin bodies and pink skin. and Bipedidae (two-legged worm
Most worm lizards do not have any legs, but three lizards, three species)
species have tiny forelimbs. Worm lizards have blunt Order: Squamata
heads and short, round tails. The word amphisbaenian Where do they live?: The Americas,
is a Greek word which means “to go both ways.” The Africa, southern Europe, Middle East
name may refer to the fact that it is often difficult to Habitat: Varied, including rain
tell the tail ends from the heads of these creatures. forests, woodlands, grasslands,
and deserts
Living Underground Length: Up to 30 in. (75 cm) long
Like earthworms, amphisbaenians are well-suited to Appearance: Long, slender, wormlike
their underground lifestyle. They have square scales white or pink reptiles; some species
arranged in rings around the body. The tiny eyes are have dark markings; most lack limbs;
covered by scales and show up as dark spots. Worm eyes show up as dark spots
lizards can tell light from dark, but their eyes cannot Diet: Insects and earthworms; large
produce a visible image. They have no external ear species also eat small vertebrates
openings, and their nostrils point backward so soil Breeding: Most lay eggs, a few give
does not enter while burrowing. Most species are pink birth to live young
or white, but some have darker markings. status: Mostly not known

Worm lizards spend their entire lives in tunnels. 403
Some species appear on the surface after heavy rain.

The worm lizard Amphisbaena vanzolinii is a legless
amphibian. The eyes of this wormlike amphibian are
dark spots that can tell light from dark.

WORM LIZARDS

Unlike most Most are only seen above ground if are 164 species of worm lizards.
species, the ajolote rain floods their burrows. They move Experts divide the group into three
has two small through their tunnels by sliding their families, of which the largest, the
forelimbs, which loosely attached skin forward over amphisbaenids, contains 95 percent
it uses to burrow their bodies, like pulling down the of the group. Members of this large
through the soil. sleeve of a sweater. Then they brace family are mostly found in tropical
their scales against the sides of the South America, southern Africa,
tunnel and pull the inner cylinder and parts of North America, North
of their body forward. When they Africa, southern Europe, and the
move quickly, this two-stage process Middle East. The Florida worm
produces a rippling effect. lizard is the only amphisbaenian
found in the United States.
Three Families
Amphisbaenians have only a limited The second family is the short-
ability to control the temperature of headed worm lizards (also called
their bodies. For this reason, they are the trogonophids). There are six
found only in warm regions. Various species in this small family. The
species live in rain forests, woodlands, bodies of this small group of worm
grasslands, and dry places around lizards are roughly triangular in
the world, including deserts. There cross-section. They specialize in
digging through loose, sandy soil
and are found in scattered parts of
North and East Africa, the Arabian
Peninsula, and on Socotra Island
in the Indian Ocean.

The third family, the bipedids,
contains just three species, which
differ from all the other worm lizards
in having small but strong front legs.
These tiny forelimbs are found near
the head and come with long claws
to help burrow through the soil.
These two-legged amphisbaenians
are found only in western Mexico.

404

Snakes and Lizards

Way of Life to snatch their prey and drag it DID YOU
Worm lizards move about their underground. The tunnel networks KNOW?
burrow networks to find food and often connect to an ant or termite
their mates. Most worm lizards feed nest, which provides a rich source The largest
on invertebrates such as insect grubs of food in the form of grubs. amphisbaenian,
and earthworms. Some large species the white worm
also prey on small vertebrates, such Scientists know little about the lizard of South
as lizards. Amphisbaenians usually life cycle of amphisbaenians. Most America, grows
eat creatures that fall into their lay eggs, with some species laying to 30 inches
tunnels. They also lie in wait just their eggs in ant or termite nests. long. The Florida
below the surface to ambush small When their young hatch out they worm lizard
creatures walking on the surface. feast on the insects. In some worm measures up to
When they sense movement above, lizard species, the female carries 16 inches long.
they break through the surface the eggs inside her body and then
gives birth to live young. Worm lizards live
in different parts
Tunnelling 1 of their burrows
techniques 2 to control the
3 temperature of
Worm lizards have hard, ridged their bodies. They
skulls to tunnel through the rest in the cooler,
soil. Many have pointed heads deeper burrows
to force their way through (1). to escape hot
Others have wedge-shaped weather but
heads and bony plates with hard live nearer
cutting edges to scrape at the soil the surface in
(2). They squash the soil against cold weather.
the tunnel by moving their head
up and down. A third group have
tall, narrow heads and squash
soil to the sides by swinging
their head left and right (3).

405

XENOSAURS

The word xenosaur means “strange lizard,” and these
reptiles certainly live up to their name. Members of

this small family all have flat heads and bumpy scales.
Scientists find it difficult to classify the xenosaurs.

406

Xenosaurs are odd-looking lizards with flattish SnAkES AnD LIzARDS
bodies and large, knobbly scales on their backs.
They range in size from 8 to 18 inches long. They have Fact File
strong limbs and long, thin tails. Their bodies are
covered with small scales mixed up with larger scales, XeNOsAUrs
forming a V-shaped pattern across the body. The ridged Family: Xenosauridae contains six
scales along the back and tail form a crest. These scales species, divided into two genera
rise from bony plates called osteoderms, which are (subgroups): Xenosaurus (knob-
embedded in the skin. The flat head of the xenosaur is scaled lizards, five species) and
roughly triangular in shape. Their strong jaws contain Shinisaurus (one species, the
many teeth. The short, broad tongue is slightly forked Chinese crocodile lizard)
at the tip. Some species have a pair of ridges on their Order: Squamata
head, which run over the eyes to the back of the neck.
Xenosaurs have fixed eyelids. Their ear openings are Where do they live?: Mexico
hidden by scales. The bodies of these reptiles are Xaennodsausrso(xuentohsawureidaset) ern China
brown with pale V-shapes pointing toward the tail.
Their front legs are often yellow. These subtle colors Equator
provide camouflage and help the xenosaur to blend
in with the forested areas in which it lives. Equator

Classifying Xenosaurs Habitat: Mountain forests, usually
Scientists have had problems classifying xenosaurs near water
and figuring out their relationship to other groups of
lizards. Their small scales suggest they are related to Length: 8–18 in. (20–46 cm)
beaded lizards. However, the bony plates beneath
their scales suggest a link with the family of slender, Appearance: Flattish lizards with
snakelike lizards called anguids. Xenosaurs are now strong limbs and long tails. Larger
placed in a group of their own. scales form a crest running along
the back and tail. Usually brown
The Chinese crocodile lizard is extremely rare in the with pale, V-shaped markings
wild. The survival of these xenosaurs depends on the pointing toward the tail
success of captive breeding programs by collectors.
Diet: Insects and plants; Chinese
crocodile lizard eats fish and tadpoles

Breeding: Females give birth to
2–10 live young

Lifespan: At least 7 years

status: Varies from endangered
to data deficient

407

XENOSAURS

DKINDOYWO?U The xenosaur family contains huge sections of Earth’s crust called
just six species, which are divided tectonic plates. These plates are not
Most xenosaurs into two subgroups. One group, fixed but slowly drift across the face
have dark eyes, commonly called the knob-scaled of the planet, driven by churning
but one species lizards, contains five species. These currents in the hot, liquid rock in
has bright scarlet xenosaurs live in the mountains of Earth’s center. Many millions of years
irises. This led Mexico and Guatemala in Central ago, Earth’s continents were not in
people to believe America. The second group contains their present positions but linked as
it was a type of just one species, the crocodile lizard, one huge landmass called Pangaea.
beaded lizard which lives in southwestern China. Over time, the landmass gradually
and therefore The Chinese crocodile lizard was split apart.
poisonous. identified in 1928, but it was not As the continents drifted apart, so the
Xenosaurs use classed as a xenosaur until the 1960s. species that had once roamed freely
scent to detect The two groups of xenosaurs are across Pangaea became isolated.
their prey. The thus found on different continents, The discovery of xenosaur fossils
forked tongue thousands of miles apart, which is in Europe, where there are no
collects scents extremely unusual. xenosaurs today, provides some
floating in the air. support for this theory.
The lizard then So how could this widely scattered
“smells” the scent distribution of the xenosaurs have Breeding Habits
by touching the come about? Scientists explain Xenosaurs live alone for most of the
tongue on the the presence of the two groups year. If two lizards meet, a fight will
Jacobson’s organ on separate continents using the often break out. Males in particular
in the roof of the theory of tectonic drift. According will bite one another ferociously.
lizard’s mouth. to this theory, the continents sit atop Scientists think that these lizards
breed every other year. In all species,
The Chinese the female carries the eggs inside her
crocodile body and gives birth to living young.
lizard Litters contain between two and
is often found ten offspring. Studies of one species
resting on the suggest that mothers cooperate
branches above
shallow ponds
and streams.

408

Snakes and Lizards

Way of life to prey on small vertebrates. The Chinese
crocodile lizard is a strong swimmer
Five species of knob-scaled lizards live in and often visits the water to catch fish,
forests in the mountains of Mexico and tadpoles, and other aquatic creatures.
Guatemala. These creatures are usually
found near water. They dwell on the Xenosaurs show little fear of predators
ground or under stones, but some species or people. If an intruder appears they
climb into shrubs in search of food. The freeze and rely on their camouflage to
Chinese crocodile lizard lives near water hide them. If the enemy approaches, they
and is a semiaquatic species. Xenosaurs open their mouth wide to reveal a black
are active at dusk and at night. Knob- membrane. If this warning display fails to
scaled lizards feed on ants and winged scare off the intruder, their powerful jaws
termites, but the largest species also eat can deliver a painful bite.
flowers and fruit and have been known

to care for their young, which is “creche” or crib that is guarded by
extremely unusual. Researchers several females until the young are a
report the babies are placed in a few months old.

409

Glossary

adaptation Any feature of cannibalism The eating of the conservation The act of
an animal’s body or behavior flesh of an animal by another protecting the natural world
that makes it suited to live in a animal of the same species and saving rare species
particular environment captivity When an animal is courtship Any behavior
aggression Hostile, violent, held in an enclosed space, such that occurs between males and
or destructive behavior as a farm, wildlife park, or zoo females before mating
agile To be able to move carrion The decaying remains crustacean Water-living
quickly and easily of dead animals creatures, such as shrimp
algae Simple, plantlike living classification The process and water fleas, that form the
things that grow in water or wet by which all living things are main diet for the larval stages
places and make their own food grouped according to similarities of many amphibians
ambush To lie in wait and and differences. Classification
make a surprise attack on a helps scientists to study living desert A very dry region with
prey animal things and to suggest how they few plants and less than ten
annuli (singular annulus) may have evolved over time inches of rainfall each year
Ringlike structures on the body claypan An Australian word dewlap A fold of loose skin
of a caecilian used to describe a shallow, that hangs from the throat of
aquatic Living in the water bowl-shaped dip in the ground some animals
arboreal Living fully or partly where water collects after it has
in trees been raining
Arctic The region around climate The average weather
the North Pole conditions in a broad region
over a long period of time
bask To lie in the Sun to warm clutch The group of eggs
up the body laid by a female at any
beak The narrow, protruding one time
jaws of a tortoise or turtle cocoon A tough,
biome A major zone of the protective covering for
living world, such as a desert an animal’s body when
or rain forest, and all the living it is developing
things within it
burrow A tunnel or series of
tunnels in the ground made by
an animal in which to live

camouflage Patterns or
colors that allow an animal
to blend in with its
surroundings to escape
predators, or creep up on
prey without being seen

410

digestion The process of food web All the different food home range The area that
breaking down food into small chains within a habitat an animal uses during daily
pieces so the body can absorb it fungi Living things that are activities such as foraging
direct development The neither plants nor animals. hormone A chemical that is
process of development in which Fungi cannot make their own carried by the blood to other
young amphibians hatch out food and feed on living things parts of the body where it
of the eggs looking like adults or their dead remains causes a specific response
instead of tadpoles gator A shortened name for humus A brown or black
diurnal Active during the day an alligator, which is often used crumbly material in the soil,
domesticated animals in the United States which consists of the remains
Animals that are farmed or gestation period The time an of plants and animals
tamed by people animal spends developing inside
its mother’s body immune The state of being
ecosystem A habitat such as a gill A flaplike structure in resistant to poisons or disease
patch of forest and all the living aquatic animals through which introduced Describes an
things found within it the exchange of oxygen and animal or plant brought by
embryo The early stage in the waste gases takes place people to an region in which
development of a living thing it is not naturally found
estivation The sleeplike state habitat The place in which invertebrate An animal
some animals adopt in summer an animal or plant lives without a backbone
to avoid heat and drought hatching To break free from an
evolution The gradual egg into the outside world larva The early stage in the
process of change in species hatchling An animal that has development of an animal after
that produces new species just emerged from its egg hatching from an egg
extinction The process by heat pit A hole containing leaf litter A layer of leaves and
which a species dies out forever heat-sensitive cells that are other debris that collects on the
on the side of the head, or surface of the soil in woodlands
family A group of related living along the lips, of some groups
things forming a classification of snakes mammal An animal with
category that ranks above a hibernate To spend the winter fur that maintains its own
genus and below an order in an inactive sleeplike state to temperature and feeds its
fang A long, pointed tooth that conserve energy young on milk
may be used to deliver venom
fertilization When a female
egg cell and a male sperm cell
join to form a new living thing
floodplain A wide, flat area
near the mouth of a river, which
is often flooded when the river
spills over its banks
food chain All the different
feeding relationships between
animals and plants

411

metamorphosis The change kills and eats other animals Antarctic Circle in the south
in body shape that takes place pregnant When a female is tentacles Slender, flexible
when some animals grow into carrying one or more developing organs on an animal’s head,
their adult form young inside her body which are for feeling, exploring
molt Shedding the skin so that prehensile A grasping or grasping
it can be replaced with new skin structure, such as a tail, that terrestrial Living wholly or
gives an especially strong grip partly on the ground
nocturnal Active at night prey An animal that is caught territory A feeding or breeding
nutrient Food that gives an and eaten by another animal area occupied by one animal or
animal energy to grow a group of animals
rain forest A habitat that is of the same species
omnivore An animal that eats hot and wet all year round and transparent Something that
a wide range of foods, both is dominated by tall trees that is seethrough
animal and vegetable form an overhead canopy tropical grassland Hot
orbital gland A gland near a grassland, with wet and dry
vertebrate’s eye that produces scale A thin, platelike structure seasons, which occurs both
fluids that keep the eye moist that forms part of the surface north and south of the equator
order A classification group covering of various vertebrates,
ranking above family and such as reptiles and fishes venom A chemical produce by
below class scrubland A dry habitat that some animals that can paralyze
osteoderm A boney lump is dominated by plants such as or kill prey or predators
in a reptile’s skin that provides low-growing shrubs vertebrate An animal with a
protection against predators shrubland A biome that backbone. All amphibians and
contains plants such as shrubs reptiles are vertebrates
placenta An organ that and short trees
develops inside the mother’s skull The boney framework warning color The bright
womb to help the embryo that encases and protects a color on an animal’s body
obtain nourishment from its vertebrate’s brain that warns it is poisonous
mother during gestation species A scientific term that or tastes bad and should
pod A term used to describe a means a type of living thing that be left alone
group of young alligators can breed with others of its own webbed feet Having skin
predator An animal that kind to produce offspring that stretched between the toes,
can also interbreed successfully which helps the animal to swim
suffocation Killing an animal wetland A habitat with a lot
by stopping it breathing of water on the surface, ranging
from marshes, swamps, and
tadpole The earliest stage of flooded forests to rivers,
development of an amphibian streams, and lakes
temperate zones Two broad
regions of the Earth between yolk sac A large sac containing
the Tropic of Cancer and the stored nutrients, which is used
Arctic Circle in the north and to feed the embryos of reptiles
the Tropic of Capricorn and the and amphibians

412

FUrTHEr rEsoUrCEs

BOOKS Parket, Janice. Reptiles INTERNET RESOURCES Guide to Reptiles,
(Life Science). Weigl Amphibians, and Herps
Beltz, Ellin. Frogs: Inside Publishers, 2007. All About Reptiles Not-for-profit organization
Their Remarkable World. Rebman, Renee. Detailed account of set up to help save
Firefly, 2005. Turtles and Tortoises. reptiles and amphibians, animals and plants.
Davies, Valerie. Benchmark Books, with some fantastic links www.reptilesweb.com
Incredible Reptiles (Wild 2007. to more information. Herper charity website
Life!). School Specialty Singer, Marilyn. Venom. www.livescience.com/ Information about reptiles
Publishing, 2007. Darby Creek Publishing, reptiles and amphibians and how
Harrison, Paul. Reptiles 2007. Amphibians and Reptiles to look after them.
(Up Close). PowerKids Sneddon, Robert. of Europe www.herper.com
Press, 2007. Amphibians (Living Web site with lots of Iowa and Minnesota
Harrison, Paul. Snakes Things). Smart Apple image and information Field guides to the
(Up Close). PowerKids Media, 2007. about little-known reptiles and amphibians
Press, 2007. Sneddon, Robert. amphibians and reptiles. of the two states.
Huggins-Copper, Lynn. Reptiles (Living Things). www.herp.it www.herpnet.net
Ravenous Reptiles (Killer Smart Apple Media, Amphibians and Reptiles IUCN Red List of
Nature!). Smart Apple 2007. of North Carolina Threatened Species
Media, 2006. Solway, Andrew. Deadly A comprehensive study Worldwide assessment
Huggins-Copper, Lynn. Reptiles (Wild Predators). of North Carolina’s cold- of the conservation
Revolting Reptiles and Heinemann, 2005. blooded fauna. status of species of
Awful Amphibians (Qeb Somerville, Louisa. www.herpsofnc.org living organisms.
Awesome Animals). Qeb Snakes (World of AmphibiaWeb www.iucnredlist.org
Pub, 2008. Animals). Brown Bear Detailed Web site Reptile and Amphibian
Huggins-Copper, Lynn. Reference, 2008. that lets you search Resources for Kids
Slithering Snakes (Killer Stone, Lynne M. Box amphibians by family and Full of Web sites to visit
Nature!). Smart Apple Turtles (Nature Watch). location. to find out more about
Media, 2006. Lerner Publications, www.amphibiaweb.org amphibians and reptiles.
Johnson, Sylvia A. 2007. California Reptiles and http://research.
Cobras (Nature Watch). Taylor, Barbara. Nature Amphibians calacademy.org/
Lerner Publications, Watch: Snakes. Lorenz A fascinating study research/
2007. Books, 2008. of all the reptiles and library/biodiv/biblio/
Mattison, Chris, Val Townsend, John. amphibians in California zrepamph.htm
Davies, and David Incredible Reptiles. in the United States. Society for the Study of
Alderton. Reptiles and Raintree, 2005. www.californiaherps. Amphibians and Reptiles
Amphibians (Facts at Williams, Brian. com Charity to promote
Your Fingertips). Brown Amazing Reptiles and Enchanted Learning the conservation and
Bear Books, 2007. Amphibians (Amazing Life Check out everything to education of amphibians
Miller, Ruth. Reptiles Cycles). Gareth Stevens do with reptiles. and reptiles worldwide.
(Animal Kingdom). Publishing, 2007. www.enchantedlearning. www.ssarherps.org
Raintree, 2005. Wilsdon, C. Snakes com/subjects/reptiles/ World Wildlife Fund
Otfinoski, S. Alligators (Amazing Animals). printouts.shtml Find out more about
(Animals Animals). Gareth Stevens Exploratorium: Frogs wildlife conservation
Benchmark Books, Publishing, 2008. Another great exhibit www.worldwildlife.org
2008. from the Exploratorium Yahooligans!
includes cool information An introduction to
and activities. Check out amphibians and reptiles.
the frog tracker for great Click on the links to find
frog sounds. out more information.
www.exploratorium.edu/ www.kids.yahoo.com/
frogs animals

413

Picture CREDITS

Corbis: Michael & Patricia Fogden 60, Chris Mattison/ Picture Library: Tim MacMillan/John Downer Pr 206,
Frank Lane Picture Agency 42, David A. Northcott 64, Barry Mansell 10, Peter Scoonies 156; NHPA: Mark Bowler
Visuals Unlimited 18; Creatas: 24, 28, 79; Dreamstime: 172, Robert Erwin 186, Karl Switak 159; Photographers
Mikhail Blajenov 30, Miroslava Kopecka 44, 45, Direct: Ottmar Bierwagen 152; Shutterstock: Ivan Cholakov
Christopher Moncrieff 51, Paul Murphy 12, Photobunnyuk 172, 175, Rusty Dodson 189, Rafal Dubiel 183, Karen Givens
49, Photointrigue 29, Egidijus Skiparis 13, 15, Wouter 204, Iconex 198, Eric Isselée 215, Boris Katsman 148, Cathy
Van Der Wiel 55, Anke Van Wyk 34; FLPA: Piotr Keifer 214, Michael Ledray 181, Timothy Craig Lubcke
Naskrecki/Minden Pictures 2, 58; Fotolia: Outdoorsman 179, Dr. Morley Read 162, 208, 209, 211, Brad Phillips 188,
66, Prints2buy 48; Istockphoto: Patrick Gijsbers 68; S. Reynaud 212, Salamanderman 199, Snowleopard1 163,
Photographers Direct: Maik Dobiey Photography 46, Chris Specta 203, Frank B. Yuwono 202. Ardea: John Cancalosi
Mattison 38; Photolibrary: Oxford Scientific Films/Mills 258, Karl Terblanche 256; Corbis: Frans Lanting 230,
Tandy 56; Photoshot/NHPA: Anthony Bannister 16, Tony David A. Northcott 250; Creatas 218; Dreamstime: Mikhail
Crocetta 32, Ken Griffiths 38, 41, Daniel Heuclin 63, Blajenov 277, Clearviewstock 246, Rusty Dodson 242,
Kitchin & V Hurst 21, Chris Mattison 72; Shutterstock: Steffen Foerster 216, 217, Tapio Salmela 247, Wong Chee Yen
Blewisphotography 25, Joel Bauchat Grant 69, David 249; FLPA: Chris Mattison 226, 253, Foto Natura/Duncan
Hancock 71, Cathy Keifer 76, 77, Itinerant Lens 8, 67, Clara Usher 240; Fotolia: Robert Asento 245; Getty Images:
Natoli 27, Four Oaks 35, Dr. Morley Read 31, Natalia Visuals Unlimited/Jack Dermid 254; Istockphoto: Chrisho
Sinjushina & Evgeniy Meyke 1, 52; Valuestock: 22, 78. 248, Martin Ruta 270, David Thyberg 235, Alan Tobey
Ardea: Pat Morris 80; Corbis: Winfred Wisniewski/Frank 224; Nature Picture Library: Dietmar Nill 266; NHPA:
Lane Picture Agency 114; Creatas: 135, 137; Dreamstime: Daniel Heuclin 272, Karl Switak 238; Photolibrary: Olivier
Mikhail Blajenov 104, 105, Karel Broz 113, Vinayak Chittar Grunewald 236; Science Photo Library: Suzanne L Collins
139, Janpietruszka 128, Valery Kirsanov 122, 123, Kristina 264; Shutterstock: John Arnold 279, Stephen Bonk 260,
Mahlau 134; FLPA: Michael & Patricia Fogden/Minden Norma Cornes 222, Rusty Dodson 223, 243, Cathy Keifer
Pictures 94, 102, 116; Fotolia: 120, Caleb Foster 130t; 221, Bruce MacQueen 268, 269, Dr. Morley Read 278, 282,
Istockphoto: Nancy Brammer 109, Joe Clemson 87, Phil Snowleopard1 228, 229, 283, David Thyberg 233, 234, Bill
Drinkwater 130b, Eric Isselée 81, Gabriela Schaufelberger Wolfe 271, Michael Zysman 276; Value Stock Images 232.
119; Photolibrary/Oxford Scientific Films: Satoshi Ardea: John Cancalosi 336, Jean Paul Ferrero 289, Ken
Kuribayashi 126, John Mitchell 142; Photoshot/NHPA: Lucas 330; Corbis: Michael & Patricia Fogden 290; Creatas:
Nick Garbutt 124, Chris Mattison 107, Karl Switak 90; 302, 313; Dreamstime: Omar Ariff Kamarul Ariffin 304,
Shutterstock: BZ Photos 111, Simon Catesby 106, Lucian Jeremy Broad 348, Andy Butkaj 338, 339, Rusty Dodson 329,
Coman 84, Lyle E. Doberstein 141, Rusty Dodson 96, Susan Anthony Hall 307, Holger Leyrer 341, 342, Wouter Tolenaars
Flashman 98, Steffen Foerster Photography 108, Darren 295; FLPA: Yossi Eshbol 318, Martin B Withers 326; Fotolia:
Green 92, David Hancock 131, Lukás Hejtman 89, Iconex Michel Bazin 311, Kasi Lodrigue 308; Istockphoto: Henry
82, Cathy Keifer 140, Abramova Kseniya 88, Larsek 110, Chaplin 305, Karen H Johnson 303, John Pitcher 284, 285,
138, Steve McWilliam 86, Clara Natoli 136, Polushkin Kevin Ross 351, Ashley Whitworth 350; NHPA: James
Ivan Nikolaevich 144, Carsten Reisinger 118, Ian Scott 101, Carmichael Jr 292; Photographers Direct: Zafer Kizilkaya/
Snowleopard1 93, Socrates 85, Michael Steden 112, Lorraine Images&Stories 320, Thomas Mueller 323, Henk Wallays
Swanson 143. 306; Photos.com: 324, 328; Shutterstock: John Bell 296, 349,
Ardea: Greg Harold/Auscape 166; Corbis: Joe McDonald Piotr Bieniecki 316, 317, Troy Casswell 332, clearviewstock
164; Creatas: 194; Dreamstime: Jeremy Broad 178, Miroslav 335, Bobby Deal/ RealDealPhoto 299, Rusty Dodson 300,
Hlavko 168, 169, Marek Kosmal 177, Liquidphoto 191, 346, Cathy Keifer 344, T. H. Klimmeck 288, Joyce Mar
Paparico 149, Nico Smit 192, 193, Teddykebab 176; FLPA/ 314, 315, Steve McWilliam 340, Wouter Tolenaars 294;
Minden Pictures: Claus Meyer 200, Michael & Patricia Valuestock: 298. Corbis: Frank Lane Picture Agency/Chris
Fogden 188; Fotolia: Karl Keller 182, Getty Images: Visuals Mattison 364, 404, David A. Northcott 406; Creatas: 371,
Unlimited/Dr. Nathan Cohen 161; Istockphoto: Alina Hart 374; Dreamstime: Roger Degen 362, Marianne Lachance
196, Joe McDaniel 154, 155, Wolfgang Staib 171; Nature 390, 391; FLPA: Foto Natura 352, Minden Pictures/Piotr

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Naskrecki 402; Istockphoto: Nancy Nehring 399, 400, Amos 396, John Bell 357, 366, 367, Ryan M. Bolton 394, Joy
Phillip Stollery 378, 379, Alan Tobey 383; Photolibrary: Brown 368, 369, Efiplus 389, David Hamman 398, Innocent
Oxford Scientific Films/Olivier Grunewald 354; Photos. 382, Joern 363, Bruce MacQueen 395, William Attard
com 384; Photoshot/NHPA: Jordi Bas Casas 392, Andrea McCarthy 386, Steve McWilliam 388, Stephen Meese 372,
Bonetti 393, James Carmichael Jr 397, T. Kitchin & V. Hurst Snowleopard1 375, 377, Judy Worley 387.
409, Bill Love 358, Otto Pfiste 401; Science Photo Library:
Bob Gibbons 360; Shutterstock: Lynsey Allan 356, Bruce Artworks and maps © The Brown Reference Group plc

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