Exploring the World of Reptiles and Amphibians

GHOST FrOGS

Ghost frogs are a rare group of amphibians that live
in rushing water high in the mountains of southern
africa. they have different ways of gripping onto

rocks so they do not get washed away.

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Ghost frogs are medium-sized frogs that live in FrOGs anD tOaDs
and around the streams and waterfalls that flow
through the permanently cool, moist mountain forests. fact file
Adults are nocturnal (active at night) and clamber over
rocks in search of food. During the day, these frogs hide GHOst frOGs
away from predators such as hawks. They squeeze their Heleophryne species
flat bodies into the cracks between rocks. The color of family: Heleophrynidae
their skin camouflages them against the mossy rocks. Order: Anura
Where do they live?:
Breeding Southern Africa
Ghost frogs breed after the rainy season between
spring and midsummer. The males hide away beside Equator
waterfalls and call to the females at night. The females
are attracted by the calls, and the frogs then mate in Habitat: Fast mountain streams
pools. The females lay large, yellow eggs, which hatch and waterfalls
into tadpoles after about a week. The gradual change size: Head–body length 1.2–2.5 in.
from tadpole to adult is called metamorphosis. In this (3–6.5 cm)
process the larvae develop limbs to move on land. appearance: Tan, dark brown,
or green with stripes and blotches
Holding On of brown or yellow
Ghost frogs are well adapted for a life in rushing water. Diet: Adults eat insects, snails,
Adults have flat bodies that allow water to flow easily and other small invertebrates
over them. Triangular, sticky pads at the end of their (animals without backbones);
long toes help them cling to rocks. Tadpoles feed on tadpoles eat algae from rocks
water plants called algae that grow on the rocks of the Breeding: Females lay between 50
pools in which they live. A tadpole’s mouth is shaped and 200 eggs under damp rocks or
like a disk. The tadpole holds onto a rock by sucking in gravel on the banks of rivers and
on the surface, grating off algae at the same time. streams; tadpoles take 2 years to
become adult frogs
The Natal ghost frog lives in the mountain forests life span: Not known
of southern Africa. This species is in decline due to status: Two species critically
human activities such as deforestation for farming. endangered, most least concern

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GIANT GAllIWASPS

six different lizards go by the common name giant
galliwasp. Four species live in the Caribbean—one
in Jamaica, one in Haiti, and two in the Dominican
republic. the other two species live in Central america.

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Giant galliwasps are medium-sized lizards with snakes anD lizarDs
thick bodies, short legs, and pointed snouts.
Their shiny, overlapping body scales have round edges. fact file
Their heads are covered in large scales. These protect
their heads as they move through the damp mud of GIaNt GallIWasPs
swamps or the leaf litter on the rain forest floor. Celestus and Diploglossus species
family: Anguidae
lizard in Decline suborder: Sauria
Giant galliwasps are rare, and some are endangered. Order: Squamata
One species that lives in Jamaica may be extinct. The Where do they live?: Caribbean
main problem for these lizards is deforestation. People and Central America
have cleared large areas of rain forest in the Caribbean Habitat: Swamps and leaf litter
and Central America to plant crops to sell and provide on the rain forest floor
pasture where their livestock can graze. Another major size: Head–tail length up to 18 in.
problem for the giant galliwasps is their coloration. (46 cm)
They have bright stripes rather like some venomous appearance: Brown with yellow
snakes, and some local people also kill these lizards or orange stripes
because they think they are dangerous. yet another Diet: Plants and fish
problem is caused by introduced animals. In the past, Breeding: The eggs of most species
people came to the Caribbean to make a new home. hatch inside the female’s body, so
They brought cats to kill the rats and mice that might they appear to give birth to live young
damage food stores. They also brought mongooses to life span: Up to 25 years
kill venomous snakes. Harmless animals, including the status: Rare; some possibly extinct
giant galliwasps, were also killed.
153
Different zoos around the world are trying to help
giant galliwasps. At Nashville Zoo in Tennessee, nine
pairs of Haiti giant galliwasps have produced more
than 300 young. The young will be released into the
wild to increase populations of these rare lizards.

A giant galliwasp uses its short legs to push itself
through the leaves that collect on the rain forest floor.

GIANT PlATeD lIZArD

Giant plated lizards are big, heavily armored lizards
that live among the rocky outcrops of southern africa.

when these large lizards sense danger, they wedge
themselves into gaps between the rocks.

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Giant plated lizards have short legs and long snakes anD lizarDs
claws. They use them to scrape the soil beneath
bushes and around rocks to find food. These lizards fact file
clamber over rough ground but may slide down
gentle grass slopes on their bellies. Giant plated lizards GIaNt PlateD lIZarD
spend much of their lives near their burrows. These Gerrhosaurus validus
can be gaps among rocks or even a broken termite family: Gerrhosauridae
mound. They use their large eyes to keep a lookout for suborder: Sauria
predators Order: Squamata
such as eagles.When disturbed, the lizards disappear Where do they live?: Southern
into their burrows, puffing up their bodies to wedge Africa, including Namibia, Zambia,
themselves inside. long folds of skin along the sides and Zimbabwe
of the lizard allow the body to increase in size easily.
Equator
living and Breeding
Giant plated lizards spend most of their time feeding Habitat: Grassy hillsides with bare,
and resting. They warm up, or bask, in the morning rocky outcrops
sunlight. This gives them energy to digest food and to size: Head–tail length 14 in. (36 cm)
move around. These lizards are found in the same area appearance: Brown with whitish
but live alone. The exception is during the breeding throat and cream stripes along
season, from November to December, when males and the back
females meet to mate. The throats of the males change Diet: Insects, small lizards, baby
color to purple or blue to attract the females. tortoises, berries and flowers
Breeding: Females lay between
After mating, the female lays her white, leathery 2 and 5 eggs
eggs in the soil between rocks. The hatchlings emerge life span: Not known
around a month later. They are just over 6 inches in status: Common
total length. The mother does not look after her young.
Instead, they must search for their own food, which 155
includes small insects, and find their own burrows.

The flat bodies of giant plated lizards are covered in
thick rectangular scales. Underneath this armor they
also have bony plates, which protect the body inside.

GIANT SAlAMANDerS

Giant salamanders are the largest amphibians in the
world. these monsters are found only in freshwater
rivers in Japan and China and in damp forests along

the pacific coast of north america.

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the largest giant salamanders live in Japan and newts anD salaManDers
China. As adults, these massive amphibians can
measure more than 39 inches from head to tail, and fact file
they can weigh more than 12 pounds. The Chinese
giant salamander and the Japanese giant salamander GIaNt salamaNDers
both have flattened heads and bodies, and short, family: Cryptobranchidae
paddle-shaped legs. The tiny eyes of these two species Andrias species (Chinese and
are sunken into their wrinkly skin. Japanese giant salamanders;
two species)
Giant salamanders also live in North America. family: Dicamptodontidae
There is the California giant salamander, Cope’s giant Dicamptodon species (Pacific
salamander, the Idaho giant salamander, and the giant salamanders; four species)
Pacific giant salamander. All of them measure less than Order: Caudata (Urodela)
half the length of the two species from Asia. larger
than the other American species, the hellbender is the Where do they live?: China and
North American equivalent of the Asian salamanders. Japan and the Pacific coast of
North America
Different Habitats
Chinese and Japanese giant salamanders almost always Habitat: Mountain rivers, streams,
live in the rivers that flow down mountain slopes. The lakes, and moist ancient forests
rivers are usually about 50 feet wide and shallow, with
a stony riverbed.The larvae of these salamanders are size: Head–tail length up to 13 in.
always found at the riverbed among the loose stones. (36 cm) for Pacific species and up
However, adults live in rock crevices or burrows at the to 52 in. (1.4 m) for others
edge of the river. They may travel away from the river
bank when the ground is wet after rain. appearance: Reddish brown to gray
with mottled patches
Outside China and Japan, giant salamanders live
in the damp forests along the Pacific coast of North Diet: Crabs, crayfish, fish, and frogs
America. The West Coast has a high level of rainfall. in the water; lizards, mice, slugs,
and snails on the land
The Japanese giant salamander is the largest
amphibian in the world, and it can live for Breeding: Females lay between
fifty years or more in the wild. 80 and 600 eggs in water

life span: Up to 90 years

status: Chinese giant salamander
critically endangered; otherwise
varies according to species

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Giant salamanders

Wet air blows in from the Pacific underwater burrows. These burrows

Ocean and then falls as rain. The can be more than 39 inches deep. The

trees have moist bark dripping males fight for the right to breed with

with mosses and other plants, and the females. The largest and strongest

thousands of streams drain water males, called den masters, win and

from the forests. The salamander then breed with many females.

larvae live in these cool streams, but After mating, each female lays

the adults hide under bark and thick about 500 eggs in two long strings

moss, and in burrows in the soft soil inside her nest. For the next two

in hotter weather. They move about months, the den master patrols his

during the damp nights. territory, which may include the

nests of several females and contain

Den Masters thousands of eggs. The den master

The Asian giant salamanders breed guards the nests in his territory from

early in the fall, usually in September. other males that might wander in and

Males and females travel to breeding eat the eggs. When the eggs finally

sites along the rivers in which they hatch, the larvae measure about

The California live. Sometimes they travel 2,000 feet 1 inch in length. In a process called

giant or more from their usual living area metamorphosis, the larvae transform

salamander is to the breeding sites. The adults into the adult salamanders. This takes

reddish brown in then search for suitable places in the about five years, at the end of which,

color, with dark riverbank, where they can dig their the salamanders measure about

brown to black 12 inches. They continue to grow

markings on its throughout their lives.

back and head.

Feeding Habits

As larvae, the giant

salamanders from North

America start by eating

aquatic insects and other small prey.

As the larvae develop and grow

bigger, they eat bigger items, such

as frogspawn. The adults have huge

appetites.

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newts and salamanders

Hunting at night, they will eat just The salamanders growl at each A California
about anything from slugs and other and may lash out at their giant
snails to mice and worms. opponent’s head with their long tails. salamander feeds
They do this because the skin on the on a banana
Adult giant salamanders have tail creates a poisonous liquid that slug in the moist
sharp, curved teeth, which help stings their opponent’s eyes. forests of northern
them to grab anything that their California in the
mouths can fit around. Indeed, these Threats to Survival United States.
salamanders often fight and eat each The biggest threats to the survival
other. In a fight, the adults arch their of all giant salamanders are the
backs and hold their bodies off the destruction of their habitats and the
ground by stretching out their legs. increasing levels of pollution found
This makes their bodies look as big across the range of these amphibians.
as possible to intimidate their rivals.

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Giant salamanders

DID YOU Deeply folded and warty skin provides
KNOW? a greater surface area through which
the Japanese giant salamander can absorb
Pacific giant oxygen from the water.
salamanders
may climb as
high as 7 feet
up trees in the
forests in which
they live.

These giant
salamanders
group together
near springs and
stream sources
to breed. Females
lay eggs one at
a time and stick
them individually
to rocks or pieces
of sunken wood.

Pollution happens when the air or shade for the giant salamanders on
water in a region becomes dirty and the forest floor. There are also fewer
affects the health of animals and places for the salamanders to live
plants that live there. The rivers in and hide. Streams may dry up and
which the giant salamanders live are there are fewer places where the
polluted by waste from agriculture, larvae are able to survive.
mining, and many other human
activities. The water can become Eternal Youth
cloudy when soil washes off the
land. This happens when people Cope’s giant salamander spends all
cut down forests to sell the timber of its life in the clear, cold mountain
or to clear the land for farms or streams of Washington and Oregon
houses. Dirt in the water can make in the United States. This salamander
it difficult for amphibians to breathe usually never changes into the land-
through their skin and can clog up living adult form by the gradual
their gills. When the land is cleared process of metamorphosis. Instead,
of trees and fallen logs, there is less it remains as a larva. However, Cope’s
salamander is unusual because it can

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newts and salamanders

breed. This process is called neoteny. Skin breathers
It means that the adults retain some
of the characteristics of their young. Oxygen is vital for almost every living thing on
The California giant salamander the Earth. People breathe in oxygen from the
also displays neoteny but to a lesser air using their lungs, while fish absorb oxygen
degree. These salamanders transform dissolved in water using their gills. Amphibian
into mature adults, but some of them larvae generally hatch from eggs in water. They
retain the external gills of the larvae. breathe using feathery gills that stick out of the
sides of their necks or tucked inside folds of
Barking Salamander skin. Oxygen moves from the water into their
Unlike most salamanders,which do blood at the gill surface. The gills are feathery
not make any noise, Pacific giant to provide a large surface area for blood to pick
salamanders can make quite a loud up oxygen. During metamorphosis, the gills
call when startled. When they come change gradually into lungs inside the young
across a predator, such as an otter, body of the amphibian. Adult amphibians
water shrew, or weasel, they often breathe partly through their lungs. However,
make a short croaking sound, which they also breathe partly through their skin.
sounds rather like a barking dog. Adults need to live in damp places to keep their
If the predator launches an attack, skin moist. Damp skin allows more oxygen in
these salamanders resort to their the air to dissolve and move into their blood.
chemical defense—a terrible-tasting
milky liquid that oozes from glands
on the tops of their tails.

DID YOU KNOW?

The Chinese giant salamander
and its eggs are considered a
delicacy in southwestern China.
Sometimes they are reared on
special salamander farms.
The Japanese giant salamander
has been declared a national
treasure in Japan. People protect
the salamanders and their

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Glass frogs

Glass frogs are small, delicate-looking frogs with
large eyes set upon their relatively small, flat heads.
These amphibians get their name from their almost
transparent (see-through) skin, which is especially

noticeable on their undersides.

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Some glass frogs are unusual because they have FROGS and toads
green bones as well as green skin. Others are
unusual because the males have spines or hooks on Fact File
their forelimbs.The males use them to attack each
other when they fight over territory. The males sit on Glass frogs
their patch of leaves and call loudly to warn other Centrolene, Cochranella,
males away. A fight starts if the calling does not work. Hyalinobatrachium, and
Nymphargus species
Breeding Family: Centrolenidae
Female glass frogs lay their eggs on the leaves of Order: Anura
branches overhanging small streams. The leaves form Where do they live?: Central and
part of the male’s territory. Most females lay eggs on South America
leaves a few inches above the water, but some lay eggs
on leaves several yards above. When the tadpoles hatch, Equator
they drop into the water and swim away. Until then,
the male guards the eggs to stop predatory wasps from Habitat: Rain forests
eating them. The wasps carry the eggs to their nests Size: Largest species is 3.3 in.
one by one until there are none left. The males stand (8.5 cm) long
guard over the eggs and chase the wasps away. Appearance: Green with dark or
light mottled markings
T-shaped Toes Diet: Insects
Some glass frogs have special T-shaped toes. The toes Breeding: Females lay eggs on the
may help them to climb because they are often found leaves of branches overhanging
5 or 6 feet up in the trees. These glass frogs lay their small rivers and streams
eggs in water, not on leaves. They only grow to about Life span: Not known
an inch long. Their bodies are grayish green, gray, or Status: Varies according to species
bronze with darker markings. They also have small
warts on their heads and backs.

With its pale-green, see-through skin, the emerald
glass frog is a typical tree-dwelling species. It lives
in the rain forests of Central America.

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GlASS lIZArDS

Glass lizards look more like snakes than lizards
because they do not have any legs. they get their name
from their tails, which break into pieces like shattering
glass when they are shed in defense against predators.

164

Glass lizards may look like snakes, but they are snakes anD lizarDs
different in many ways. like snakes, glass lizards
have no legs, but there may be short, pointed flaps of fact file
skin where the legs should be. Glass lizards also have
eyelids, while snakes do not. Glass lIZarDs
Ophisaurus sp.
Most glass lizards are diurnal, which means they family: Anguidae
are active during the day. They move quickly by Order: Squamata
twisting their body from side to side like a snake. Where do they live?: Europe,
At night they sleep in the burrows of other animals, North America, North Africa,
such as owls and prairie dogs. During cold winters, India, and eastern Asia
glass lizards may stay inside their burrows for months Habitat: Prairies and open woodland
in a special sleep called hibernation. size: Head–tail up to 4.5 ft.
(1.4 m)
Breaking away appearance: Brown fading to yellow
Glass lizards are sometimes spotted by predators with lighter underside; darker stripes
such as foxes, hawks, or raccoons. When threatened, run down length of the body
glass lizards hiss and bite as the first line of defense. Diet: Invertebrates (animals without
If they are caught, however, the glass lizard has a backbones) such as beetles, snails,
special way of escaping. It twists its body and jumps grasshoppers, and spiders; also the
about until part of the tail breaks off. Sometimes the eggs of birds and reptiles
tail breaks into several pieces. even though they are Breeding: Females lay up to
broken, the pieces continue to wiggle around. The 12 eggs in a burrow once every
movements distract the predator, and this gives the 2 years
lizard a chance to escape. The tail will eventually life span: Usually up to 9 years;
regrow, although it will be shorter and darker in some may reach over 20 years
color than the original. The breaking and regrowing status: Varies according to species,
can only happen once in a lizard’s life, but it might mostly least concern
make the difference between life and death.
165
Glass snakes slither through grassland and across
woodland floors in search of small invertebrates
such as beetles, slugs, and snails.

Golden-tailed gecko

The tail of the tiny golden-tailed gecko is not purely
decorative. It forms part of this beautiful lizard’s
defense system. The tail shoots out a smelly and
nasty-tasting fluid to get rid of predators.

166

the tail of the golden-tailed gecko contains tiny snakes anD lizarDs
glands that produce a sticky substance. When
threatened, these lizards will try to scare predators by fact file
opening their mouths and swinging their tails. If the
predator persists, the golden-tailed gecko squeezes GOlDeN-taIleD GecKO
muscles around the glands and swings its tail to shoot Strophurus taenicauda
out the sticky liquid up to 18 inches or more. Scientists family: Diplodactylidae
think that the bright tail and body markings act as suborder: Sauria
warning signals to predators that might attack. Order: Squamata
Where do they live?: Australia
nocturnal life (eastern Queensland)
The golden-tailed gecko lives in Queensland, Australia, Habitat: Dry forests and woodlands
where it is hot and very dry. To avoid the daytime heat, dominated by eucalyptus trees
these lizards shelter under bark from trees or in hollow size: Head–tail length 4.75 in.
trunks or branches. They emerge at night to feed on (12 cm)
insects among pine, wattle, and eucalyptus trees. In the appearance: Gray with black spots
winter, the nighttime temperatures often drop below and a bright orange stripe running
freezing. In these cold conditions, the geckos may stop along the top of the tail
feeding and hide away for days or weeks on end. Diet: Invertebrates (animals without
backbones) such as flies
Breeding Breeding: Females lay 2 eggs,
Golden-tailed geckos breed in spring. Females lay eggs which take more than 2 months
in a damp place on the ground. The eggs’ shells are to hatch
papery and need moisture to stop them from drying life span: Up to 5 years; rarely
out. Females produce pairs of eggs every twenty days up to 15 years
or so for four or five months. The hatchlings cannot status: Common
squirt liquid from their tail. They rely on camouflage
(special body markings) to hide from their predators. 167

Like most other geckos, the golden-tailed gecko will
drop its tail to confuse predators when threatened.
The tail grows back again very quickly.

GrASS SNAke

the european grass snake lives near water but
catches most of its food on land. Grass snakes prey

on frogs and toads, which they swallow live and
headfirst. Grass snakes sometimes eat other prey

such as fish, mice, shrews, and slugs.

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Grass snakes are typically dark green or dull snakes anD lizarDs
brown in color, and they have characteristic
yellow collars behind their heads. These markings fact file
give these snakes their alternative common names—
the ringed snake or collared snake. The color and Grass sNaKe
markings may vary according to the place in which Natrix natrix
they live. In Britain, the grass snake is typically gray- family: Colubridae
green with black spots and a yellow or cream collar. suborder: Serpentes
The grass snake is the largest British reptile, reaching Order: Squamata
more than 4 feet in length. Where do they live?: Found
throughout Europe and parts of
keeping warm North Africa and the Middle East,
like all reptiles, grass snakes are cold-blooded animals. and a large part of Central Asia
Since they cannot generate their own body heat, they Habitat: Live near fresh water,
rely on the heat from the sun to keep their bodies including canals, lakes, ponds,
warm. The main problem for the european grass and slow-moving rivers
snake is that in many parts of northern europe the size: Head–tail length 4 ft. (1.2 m)
winters can be long and very cold, while the summers up to 6.5 ft. (2 m)
are very short. The grass snake still manages to survive appearance: Olive brown or olive
by being active during the day and basking in the green. In some parts of their range,
sunlight whenever it can in order to warm its body. grass snakes can be black, black
Grass snakes that live in the northernmost part of their and gray, or black with white specks
range sleep out the cold months between October Diet: Fish, frogs, newts, and toads
and March. They rest in hollow logs, on tree trunks, or Breeding: Females lay clutches
under rocks. This long sleep is known as hibernation. of between 8 and 40 eggs,
In some cases, many snakes curl up together to which hatch after 42–70 days
hibernate in old rabbit burrows, wall crevices, and life span: Up to 25 years
under piles of manure and roots of trees. status: Lower risk—least concern

Grass snakes sometimes hiss and strike out at 169
attackers. They usually strike out with their
mouth closed and they hardly ever bite.

Grass snake

to build up a fat supply so she can
survive hibernation during the cold

winter months. The eggs hatch
out after between forty-two
and forty-five days. The
young hatchlings measure
between 5 and 8 inches.

Female grass Breeding Methods of Defense
snakes are The eggs of all snakes develop best When a grass snake is
bigger than the when they are kept at a constant, attacked by a predator, it squirts
males and have steady temperature. Female grass out a foul-smelling substance from
longer, thicker snakes lay their eggs in hollow tree a gland near its anus (bottom). As it
trunks or under rocks. In the cooler does so, the grass snake twists and
170 temperate regions, grass snakes lay turns to smear as much of the stinky
their eggs in piles of decaying leaves liquid over its attacker as it can. If
or seaweed. As the leaves or seaweed this does not scare off the attacker,
rot, they produce heat that keeps the the grass snake opens its mouth and
grass snake’s eggs warm. Females hangs out its tongue so that it looks
sometimes lay eggs in compost and dead. The snake moves again only
manure heaps for the same reason. when it thinks it is safe.

Female grass snakes lay their eggs Conservation
between June and July. A typical Grass snakes usually live around
clutch contains between ten and ponds and lakes and in other damp
thirty leathery eggs. After laying the and boggy places. Many of these
eggs, the female spends the rest of habitats are being taken over for
the year hunting for food. She needs farmland. Sometimes these areas
are drained and the land used for
building new houses. When the
habitat of the grass snake disappears,
these reptiles have to move on. Some
move into gardens, but the food

snakes and lizards

DID YOU KNOW?

When they travel between
areas, grass snakes usually
travel along hedges or through
woodlands. A grass snake can
travel between thirty and one
hundred yards a day. Over a
year a grass snake may travel
a total distance of 2.5 miles!
Female grass snakes share
good egg-laying sites. The
record number is 3,500 to
4,000 eggs, which were laid
together in the cellar of a saw
mill in Germany.

supply there is usually limited. Swimming skills
In many parts of their range, grass
Sometimes grass snakes hunt for toads and frogs
snakes are facing extinction in the in water. Grass snakes swim in still or slow-
wild. These snakes are protected by moving water around the edges of lakes and
law in many countries, but numbers ponds. The snakes swim with their body just
are still in decline. One of the main below the surface of the water and their head
problems for the survival of these held above the water. If they are surprised, by a
snakes is that there are not enough predator for example, they can dive under water
sites for the females to lay their eggs. and stay there for up to thirty minutes!
In many places, such as gardens,
farms, and public parks, the land is 171
being cleaned up. So piles of leaves,
compost heaps, and other vegetation
are much rarer than they were in the
past. German zoologists are building
manure heaps so these snakes can lay
their eggs in them. People can also
help the snakes by building compost
heaps in gardens and leaving piles
of leaves in parks and woods.

Great South American river turtle

The largest turtles in South America live in
murky, muddy rivers. These wide, flat reptiles
rarely leave the water except when it is time for

the females to nest and lay their eggs.

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Turtles, Terrapins, Tortoises

The shell of the giant South American river turtle Fact File
is wider at the back than at the front. Its gray
head has a square jaw, and the chin has two dangling Great South American
barbels that look like short worms. The barbels are river turtle (arrau)
sensitive to touch. The turtle uses them to sense food Podocnemis expansa
and other animals swimming in the river water when Family: Pelomedusidae
it is too cloudy to see clearly. Both sexes look very Order: Pleurodira
similar, but the females are usually bigger. Some turtles
can weigh up to 100 pounds. Where do they live?: Brazil
and Venezuela in northern South
Nesting Season America; also on the Caribbean
Giant South American river turtles nest during the dry islands of Trinidad and Tobago
season, which falls between September and November
in Brazil and between March and April in Venezuela. Equator
During this time, the rivers in which the turtles live
have the lowest water levels. Habitat: Rain forests near
fresh water
During the breeding season, adult turtles mate in Size: Head–tail length 16–31 in.
the water. Females crawl onto the sandy beaches at (40–80 cm)
the edges of the rivers. There the females bask in the Appearance: Brown, olive green,
sunlight for one to two weeks to keep warm, which or black on top of shell, and yellow
helps their eggs to develop. Then each female digs a or gray underneath; head usually has
nest 3 feet wide and about 24 inches deep. She lays red, orange, or yellow markings
approximately eighty round, soft eggs in the sand. She Diet: Adults eat fruits, river plants,
covers them and returns to the river. About forty-five and seeds; young eat insects and
days later, the young turtles hatch and dig their way other river animals
out to the surface. The hatchlings are 2 inches long and Breeding: Females lay clutches of
have yellow spots on their shells for camouflage. These between 50 and 150 eggs, which
markings make the babies harder for predators to spot. hatch after about 45 days
Life span: Up to 20 years
The giant South American river turtle spends most of Status: Lower risk—conservation
its active life in the water. Even mating takes place in dependent
the water, although the young turtles hatch on land.

173

GreeN IGUANA

the green iguana is one of the most easily recognizable
lizards. this massive reptile lives in forest trees and
looks rather like a dinosaur, with tooth-shaped scales
forming a crest along its back and part of its tail.

174

Green iguanas have long toes tipped with sharp, snakes anD lizarDs
curved claws. They use them like grappling
irons to haul their long bodies through the trees. Green fact file
iguanas can fight with their claws. However, they often
just drop from trees into forest rivers. GreeN IGUaNa
Iguana iguana
sociable Young lizards family: Iguanidae
Adult iguanas tend to live alone most of the time suborder: Sauria
except during the breeding season, but the young are Order: Squamata
much more sociable. young iguanas hatch from eggs Where do they live?: Central and
that are buried underground in nesting chambers. South America and some islands
Immediately after hatching, the young lizards eat some of the Caribbean
soil. Bacteria in the soil help the young iguanas to Habitat: Rain forest and dry forests
digest their food. The hatchlings then emerge from the size: Head–tail length up to 6.5 ft.
nest together. This provides safety in numbers against (2 m); weighs up to 20 lb.
predators such as eagles and snakes, which become (10 kg)
confused by all the young moving at the same time. appearance: Young iguanas are
The young iguanas have a better chance of escaping as bright green but become brown,
a group than if they emerge one at a time. gray, or red with age; often have
dark stripes on the back and tail
The hatchlings move off into low shrubs together. Diet: Mostly leaves
They maintain contact by nipping, rubbing, and Breeding: Females lay between
licking each other. They may move off alone through 9 and 71 eggs, which hatch
the branches feeding on leaves, but they then group after about 3 months
together again at night to sleep. As they get older, the life span: Up to 35 years
young green iguanas move higher up into the trees status: Generally common
and form groups with the adults. The group usually
contains one large male and several females with 175
which he breeds, along with several youngsters.

Adult green iguanas are coated with green tough
scales. Tooth-shaped scales form a crest along the
back and part of the tail of the green iguana.

Green toad

Green toads are fairly common across Europe, Asia,
and North Africa. They often live in dry habitats,
usually nearby villages or towns. Like almost all
amphibians, green toads return to water-filled
ditches, ponds, and swamps to breed.

176

Green toads are plump animals with distinctive FrOGs anD tOaDs
markings, but they are not always easy to spot.
They spend their days hiding in cool places such as fact file
gaps under stones and logs, and they also scrape out
rough burrows with their tough hind feet. These toads GreeN tOaD
are most active at night when the temperature is cooler. Bufo viridis
family: Bufonidae
Feeding time Order: Anura
Green toads hunt for food such as ants, which they Where do they live?: Throughout
gather with their short sticky tongues. Glands behind Europe, including Russia; central
the eyes of the green toad release poisons, which make Asia; and North Africa
the animal taste bad for most predators, including cats, Habitat: Fields and woodlands with
owls, and waterbirds. Grass snakes still eat green toads sandy soil; ponds, reservoirs, and
and seem immune to the poisonous skin. water-filled ditches at breeding time
size: Head–tail length 3.5–4.75 in.
returning to the water (9–12 cm)
like nearly all amphibians, green toads live near water. appearance: Buff or light gray
They climb into it to cool down on hot days. They can with large, irregularly shaped green
remain in ponds for weeks during the breeding season blotches and pinkish warts
in spring. The adult males repeat a high-pitched trilling Diet: Small invertebrates (animals
noise that lasts about ten seconds each time. Females without backbones) such as ants
mate with males who make the clearest or loudest call. and worms
each female lays thousands of eggs in rows of strings. Breeding: Females lay between
In each string, the eggs are arranged in two or four 2,000 and 3,000 eggs in the water,
rows measuring up to 13 feet. The eggs hatch within a which hatch after 3 to 6 days
week, and it takes up to three months for the larvae to life span: Up to 10 years
develop into young toads. They usually leave the water status: Lower risk—least concern
on rainy nights when the ground is wet.
177
Variations in the colors and patterns of green toads
occur across their range, but most have green to dark
brown bodies with white or pale yellow undersides.

Green tree python

The green tree python is one of the few snakes in the world
that spends all of its life in trees. This large snake feeds,
breeds, and even lays eggs in the trees, coiling and
draping its body over the branches with ease.

178

the green tree python’s body is slightly flattened, snakes anD lizarDs
but it has a central ridge that is caused by the
snake’s backbone. The body is lighter and more slender fact file
than many other pythons. This is an adaptation for life
in the trees. If the python was too heavy, the branches GreeN tree PYtHON
might not be able to support its weight. Morelia viridis
family: Pythonidae
Adult green tree pythons move slowly through the suborder: Serpentes
branches. Their typical speed is only around one mile Order: Squamata
per hour. Their tails can grip the branches tightly while Where do they live?: New Guinea,
they arch the rest of their bodies onto the next branch. Indonesia, and northern Australia
Habitat: Rain forests, and garden
eggs in the trees trees and hedges in towns
Adult green tree pythons spend all their lives in the size: Head–tail length on average
trees. They even mate and lay eggs there. The female about 5.5 ft. (1.7 m) but can reach
often finds a hollow in, or a thick patch of ferns 7.2 ft. (2.2 m)
growing on, a tree. There she lays her white, leathery appearance: Adults are bright green
eggs and then coils up on top of them. Female green with blue or white markings running
tree pythons usually produce between twelve and along the back; young are yellow,
twenty-five eggs per clutch. Females kept in captivity orange, or red
have been observed supporting their eggs among their Diet: Adults eat mammals; young
coils. The female guards her eggs for about two months eat lizards and also frogs
until the young hatch. This ensures that no egg-eating Breeding: Females lay between
predators, such as eagles or monkeys, take the eggs. 6 and 30 eggs, but usually 10;
The female shivers if the air gets too cold. In this way, eggs hatch after 40–60 days
she produces enough heat to keep the young warm as life span: Up to 20 years
they develop inside their eggs. When they hatch, young status: Common in suitable habitat
snakes are usually a lemon yellow color, with broken
stripes and spots of purple and brown. 179

Green tree pythons have roughly heart-shaped heads
that are coated with small scales. All the scales
around the mouth have heat pits, for sensing prey.

Green tree python

Green tree
pythons often
drape over a
branch when they
are resting and
look a little like
a green saddle!

In some cases, a golden or orange variations in air temperature caused
snake may appear in the clutch. by approaching mammals such as
These bright colors fade to green mice. Mammals produce heat as they
as the snakes grow older. carry out everyday life processes such
as digesting food.
Hiding in the Trees
Green tree pythons often just rest Twitching a Meal
and wait for their prey to pass by. The tip of the tail of a young green
Their green skin color is similar tree python is black and white.
to the leaves and branches in which When the snake is hungry or has
they live. These tree snakes have seen prey moving nearby, it may
blotches of white or even blue on lower its tail and make it twitch.
their backs that look a little like the Frogs, lizards, and other prey become
dappled light shining through the attracted by this movement.
trees. The pythons remain so still that
other animals often cannot see them. The python then strikes when its
Pythons can see and smell well, but prey is close enough. It sinks long
they also have another way to detect fangs into the skin of its prey to get
prey in the dark forest. They have
deep pits in the skin around their
mouth. The pits can detect the slight

180

snakes and lizards

a good grip. It then kills its victim DID YOU KNOW?
by squeezing the animal’s body until
it can no longer breathe. Once the Sometimes adult green tree
prey is dead, the python searches for pythons are found that are
the animal’s head. It swallows the bright blue! These are highly
prey headfirst, gradually releasing prized by snake collectors.
the rest of the body from the coils. A Pythons have four rows of
large meal can sustain the python for teeth in their upper jaw. They
many weeks or even months. also have sharp fangs, but they
cannot produce poison like
many other types of snakes.

Color change

Green tree pythons hatchlings
are not green. They are usually
bright yellow, orange, or even
brick red. These colors stand
out from the green vegetation,
but look like fruits and flowers.
The lizards that these pythons
eat may be attracted to the
bright colors, making an easy
meal for the young snakes. The
young have dark lines on their
skin from their nose, across the
eye to the back of the head. This
makes it hard for other animals
to tell that it is a snake’s head.
Young snakes get their green
color when they are nine to
fifteen months old. The change
may be sudden and happen over
just a few days.

181

Green turtle

The green turtle is a large, heavy marine turtle. In the
water, it paddles gracefully along in shallow seas.

Green turtles move rather clumsily on the land, where
they lay eggs or, rarely, bask in the warm sunlight.

182

turtles, terrapins, tOrtOises

Green turtles are typical marine turtles. Unlike fact file
most land-dwelling turtles, green turtles cannot
pull their small heads inside their shells. The turtle’s GreeN tUrtle
paddle-shaped legs propel it through the water, and Chelonia mydas
the shell is streamlined so the turtle can glide easily. family: Cheloniidae
Order: Testudines
Marine turtles are massive because a bulky body
loses heat to the cool ocean waters more slowly than Where do they live?: Throughout
a small body. Nevertheless green turtles often swim at Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans
the surface to warm themselves in the sunlight. Green
turtles from Hawaii even crawl onto beaches during Habitat: Coastal regions where
the day to bathe in the sunlight. Scientists think they marine plants grow
might do this when there are lots of tiger sharks in the
water that might attack the turtles and eat them. size: Upper shell length up to 5 ft.
(1.5 m); weighs up to 700 lb.
under threat (317 kg)
Green turtles are an endangered species. In the past,
green turtles were heavily hunted for their meat and appearance: Shell is greenish
attractive shells. Changes to turtle habitats also affected brown with light stripes or blotches;
these reptiles. For example, hotel developments spoiled skin also green in color
some beaches, and coastal fishing damaged the turtles’
feeding grounds.Today, they are much better protected. Diet: Adults eat sea grass and
The beaches on which these reptiles breed are out of seaweed; young eat small crabs,
bounds to people at certain times of the year. jellyfish, and other marine animals

Green turtles are raised on ranches in some places. Breeding: Females lay between
People harvest eggs from beaches and raise the young 100 and 200 eggs up to 5 times
in pens. These turtles are often killed for meat and every year; eggs hatch after
souvenirs made of shells. This may seem cruel, but it about 65 days
should mean that fewer wild turtles are harmed.
life span: More than 80 years
The green turtle roams the tropical and subtropical
oceans throughout the world. Its paddlelike limbs are status: Endangered
well adapted for swimming in the ocean currents.

183

HArleQUIN TOADS

Harlequin toads are brightly colored for a reason.
the colors warn any predators that their skin is
poisonous. twenty years ago, these amphibians were
common but many species are now extinct in the wild.

184

Harlequin toads are diurnal, which means they FrOGs anD tOaDs
are active during the day. Their long, spindly
legs are good for walking over mossy rocks by streams fact file
and across grasslands in the Andes Mountains. They
also swim in the water using their webbed feet. At HarleQUIN tOaDs
night, these toads sleep on leaves out of the water. Atelopus species
family: Bufonidae
Harlequin toads face extinction in the wild. People Order: Anura
are generally to blame. In the past, people took too Where do they live?: Central
many from the wild and sold them as pets. This and South America
is because they are attractive and are a symbol of Habitat: Alongside streams on high
good luck to some local people. Harlequin toads are grasslands and in rain forests
also losing habitat because people are cutting down size: Head–body length 1–2 in.
rain forests. Scientists believe that the toads are also (2.5–5 cm)
disappearing due to infections caused by a fungus appearance: Skin comes in a range
(a plantlike mold) in stream water and because trout of colors, from bright golden yellow
introduced into South American rivers eat the tadpoles. and red to darker brown or black;
the skin may be plain or covered in
sending Messages stripes or blotches of bright color
One member of this group, called the golden frog, Diet: Small insects such as ants
communicates using gestures. This is easier than using Breeding: Females lay eggs in long
sounds when living by noisy, rushing streams. Males strings, which hatch after 24 hours
guard territories by streams in which the toads breed. life span: Up to 10 years
When another male moves into his territory, the male status: Varies according to species
makes his gesture. He slowly waves a forelimb to show but many critically endangered
he is ready to fight. Most males will be put off by the
gesture and move away. However, others may wave 185
back and attack. The loser of a fight stops waving
and lies still. Females mate with the toads that win.

The harlequin toad atelopus varius from the rain
forests of Costa Rica displays a range of bright
colors to warn predators that it is poisonous.

HellBeNDer

these flat, wrinkly inhabitants of mountain streams
have many curious names that suggest they should be

avoided. in fact this rather unattractive
salamander is harmless to people.

186

Hellbenders hide during the day and emerge newts anD salaManDers
at night to hunt crayfish and other aquatic
invertebrates (animals without backbones). They have fact file
small, beady gray eyes to detect light. They also have
light-sensitive dots all over their body. These help them HellBeNDer (mUD DevIl, DevIl
to make sure they are hidden—even their tails. DOG, Or alleGHeNY allIGatOr)
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
The adults breed in the fall, when males and females family: Cryptobranchidae
gather in certain areas of the river. each male scoops Order: Caudata
out gravel from under large rocks. He sits in the nest Where do they live?: Around
and drives passing females inside. The male keeps the the Appalachian Mountains of the
female in the nest until she lays her eggs, which he United States
then fertilizes (adding his sperm to the eggs). The male
drives the female away, guarding the eggs until they Tropic of
hatch into larvae with gills. The larvae live in the gravel Cancer
for up to eight years until they become adults.
Habitat: Clear, fast-flowing mountain
Falling numbers rivers and streams
The streams running from the Appalachian Mountains size: Head–tail length 12–29 in.
contain around ten hellbenders for every 120 square (30–74 cm)
yards. However, the population is in decline. Many appearance: Yellowish-brown to
streams are now unsuitable for hellbenders, because olive-green with dark black spots
much of the land surrounding the streams has been or blotches
cleared for agriculture and mining. These activities Diet: Mostly crayfish, but also other
produce runoff of soil or chemicals, which ends up in amphibians, snails, and small fish
the water. The water gets clogged up with the runoff, Breeding: Females lay between
and there are fewer gaps for hellbenders to hide in. 150 and 400 eggs in strings,
The slower-moving water contains less oxygen for which hatch after 45–84 days
hellbenders to absorb through their wrinkly skin. life span: About 25–30 years
status: Near threatened
Hellbenders are flat and wide with a wrinkled fold
of skin down their sides. This shape helps to stop
them from being washed away by fast-flowing water.

187

HOrNeD lIZArDS

studded with a collar of spiny horns around their
heads, horned lizards are unmistakable reptiles.
they live in hot, sandy parts of north and Central

america and feed almost exclusively on ants.

188

Horned lizards are unmistakable reptiles. They snakes anD lizarDs
have lots of spines that form a fringe around
their flat oval bodies. There are also lines of spines on fact file
the back and short tail. Some species have a crown or
coronet of larger spines pointing out from behind their HOrNeD lIZarDs (alsO
head. young horned lizards have smoother skin, but KNOWN as HOrNeD tOaDs)
they still have the spines. Phrynosoma species
family: Iguanidae
warming up and Cooling down suborder: Sauria
At night horned lizards dig into the soil which is still Order: Squamata
warm from the previous day’s sunlight. They dig by Where do they live?: United States
moving the spines on their bodies backward and and Mexico
forward. The temperature is very cold early in the
morning, so the lizards need to bask in the sunlight Equator
to warm up. like all reptiles, horned lizards are cold-
blooded creatures. They get their energy from the sun Habitat: Dry woodlands and dry,
and do not create it from their food. The lizards keep sandy scrub with scattered bushes
just their heads in the sunlight so blood under the skin size: Head–tail length 2.5–4 in.
can move heat around their bodies. As they warm up (6–10 cm)
further, they expose their backs to the sunlight. They appearance: Yellow, brown, or pale
flatten and tilt their bodies toward the sun to take in pink with darker bands across the
as much heat as possible. Only when they are warm body and a paler stripe along the
enough do these lizards become active. center of the body
Diet: Mostly ants
Sometimes horned lizards get too hot. When this Breeding: Females lay 25 eggs,
happens, the lizards may stretch their legs so their which hatch after about 60 days
bodies are not resting on the warm soil. They also life span: Between 5 and 8 years
make their bodies less flat so they do not warm up too status: Varies according to species
quickly. They may even seek the shade under a bush. but many least concern

Unlike its common name suggests, the Texas horned 189
lizard is not confined to one state but ranges across
the United States, from Colorado to northern Mexico.

horned lizards

DID YOU Some horned lizards have a special anthills and settle on a trail used by
KNOW? way of getting water. They stand up ants. They then sit and wait for ants
in the early morning as fog forms to walk by, flicking out their short,
Native Americans over high ground. Water vapor in the sticky tongues to capture them.
called the fog condenses on their horns and Horned lizards often eat more than
Anasazi thought trickles down onto their flattened 200 ants per day. They have a large
that the horned backs and toward their mouths. stomach to accommodate their prey,
lizard could and this gives these lizards a rounded
cure illnesses Ant Specialists appearance. For this reason, they are
if they were Some species of horned lizards will sometimes called horned toads.
treated well. occasionally eat beetles, caterpillars,
and spiders, but most feed solely Defending Themselves
Horned lizards on harvester ants. The bones of the The usual defense tactic adopted
are becoming lizard’s skull are adapted to their by the horned lizard is to keep still.
rare in some diet. Their jaws can gape open Their coloration and jagged shape
areas because rapidly to snap up their tiny prey. makes it very difficult for predators
the ants they like Horned lizards move between to spot them against the stony, sandy
to eat are being soil. Different species of horned
driven out by fire lizards have colors that match the
ants spreading
northward from habitat in which they live. When
South America. the camouflage does not work,
horned lizards suck in air to
The spines on the back and sides of inflate their bodies. This makes
the horned lizard are modified scales, them look much bigger than
but those on the head they are and makes their
are true horns. spines stick out. It becomes
hard for predators, such as
190 birds of prey, coyotes, ground
squirrels, roadrunners, and
snakes, as well as cats and dogs,
to pick up
the lizards. If they do manage to

do so, the lizards may become stuck
in their throats.

snakes and lizards

last line of defense can squirt several inches, and the lizard can
lose up to one third of its blood. The blood
When all else fails, the horned lizard has tastes very nasty because it contains tiny
a drastic last line of defense. If a predator amounts of poison from the ants they eat.
such as a fox or coyote manages to get hold The poison builds up and is strong enough
of the lizard, it squirts blood from its eyes. to deter predators from eating these lizards.
Horned lizards do this by bursting tiny
blood vessels around their eyes. The blood

191

HOUSe SNAkeS

House snakes are some of the most widespread and
familiar of all the african snakes. they live around
farms, villages, and other settlements because this

is where their favorite food—rats—are plentiful.

192

there are up to fifteen different species of house snakes anD lizarDs
snakes. They all have slender bodies covered with
shiny, diamond-shaped scales. Their heads are only fact file
slightly wider than their necks. Different species can
be told apart by their coloration and by where they HOUse sNaKes
live. Olive house snakes are green, while aurora house Lamprophis species
snakes have an orange stripe on their bright green family: Colubridae
bodies. The Seychelles house snake lives only in the suborder: Serpentes
Seychelles (islands off mainland Africa), while the Order: Squamata
brown house snake is found across the continent. Where do they live?: Africa south
of the Sahara Desert but also parts
Adult house snakes look alike, but females are much of Morocco
bigger than the males. This is an advantage because Habitat: Open fields and grassland,
they can store more eggs. Females may lay a clutch of scrub with scattered bushes, and
eggs every four to eight weeks through the summer in buildings
breeding season. In a year, they can produce more than size: Head–tail length 3 ft. to
thirty eggs. The hatchlings are like small versions of the 4.75 ft. (90–150 cm)
adults. They are about 6 inches long. They start to feed appearance: Pale orange-brown,
after they have shed their skin for the first time. brown, olive-green, or black; may
also have different colored stripes
Big appetites along body or on the head
House snakes have big appetites. They eat mostly Diet: Mostly mice and rats
rodents up to the size of rats, but they also prey on Breeding: Females lay between
bats and lizards. House snakes hunt at night. They 5 and 16 eggs, which hatch after
attack their prey by striking with their long, sharp 60–90 days
fangs. The snake then coils its body around the prey life span: Up to 15 years
and squeezes tight until the prey can no longer breathe. status: Varies according to species
like other snakes, house snakes can dislocate their jaws
and swallow their prey whole. 193

House snakes are welcomed in some farming
communities because they eat the rodents that
damage stores of human food such as grain.

Iguanas

The iguanas are one of the major There is no typical member of the iguana
families of lizards. All iguanas family (Iguanidae). The family includes
have four legs with five toes the true iguanas, such as the green iguana,
and long tails, but they vary which have stocky bodies, with crests along
greatly from species to species their backs, and long, whiplike tails. The
in size, shape, and color. heavyweight among the true iguanas is the
powerful rhinoceros iguana, which has tough

194

skin and horns on its massive head. These Fact File
large reptiles are probably the most familiar,
but other members of the iguana family are Iguanas
much more common. These include the slim, Family: Iguanidae
agile anoles, which live mostly in bushes on Suborder: Sauria
the Caribbean islands; the short, spiky horned Order: Squamata
lizards of the United States and Mexico (see Where do they live?: Americas, islands of
pages 48–51); and the basilisks. Basilisks have the Caribbean, and Madagascar
especially long legs, and they are fast runners.
Some can run even faster on their hind legs Equator
alone, so they lift their forelimbs off the ground
when running. Habitat: Ranges from deserts and rain forests
to the oceans
Passing on Messages Size: Head–tail length ranges from 4 to 72 in.
Most members of the iguana family use colors (10 cm to 2 m)
and body postures to communicate with other Appearance: Varies
members of their own kind. Generally, anoles Diet: Small invertebrates such as insects and
have bright green bodies, but these lizards also spiders; smaller lizards; some eat flowers, fruit,
have a patch of bright red skin called a dewlap. and leaves; one species eats just seaweed
This flat flap of skin covers a bone that sticks Breeding: Females lay up to 60 eggs 4 times
out from the lizard’s throat. The dewlap acts as a a year; eggs hatch after 30–60 days
signal to other anoles. For example, male anoles Life span: Up to 60 years
flick their dewlaps down to warn off other Status: Varies according to species
males that intrude on their territories. As they
grow older, large male iguanas often grow large DID YOU KNOW?
permanent dewlaps. These are a sign to
all the neighboring males that they are strong The thorntail iguana lives in holes high
enough to fight them. The intruders keep away up in the treetops. These reptiles have
from the dominant male’s territory and do not very fat, spiky tails. They often push
breed with the females that live there. their tails out of these holes to block
out any predators trying to get in.
Spiny tailed iguanas are large reptiles with In parts of Central America, the plumed
distinctive enlarged spiny scales on their tails. basilisk is known as the “Jesus Christ
Unlike their close relatives, the green iguanas, lizard.” This is because it can walk, or
these lizards are not very easy to tame. more accurately, run up to 62 feet
across water on its wide, webbed toes.

195

Iguanas

Other iguanas use color and body posture to Ocean Lizard
pass on messages to predators. The fringe-toed The marine iguana is unique among lizards
lizard has a white tail with bold black stripes on because it is the only species in the world to
its underside. When they spot a predator, these spend time in the ocean. Marine iguanas live
lizards raise their tails and wave them from side only in the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific
to side. The idea is to ensure that the predator Ocean. They are strong swimmers. They can
sees the signal. The message tells the predator hold their breath and swim under the waves to
that the iguana is so confident it can run fast, graze on seaweed growing on rocks. There are
that it does not need to hide, and therefore that special salt glands by their nostrils. The glands
there is no point in chasing it. It stops the lizard collect the excess salt from the food and seawater
wasting energy by running in the desert heat. that they take into their bodies,

Different habitats

Most iguanas live in temperate or tropical
rain forests, where they crawl among the
branches of tall trees. Some live on barren
oceanic islands, while others are found in
hot deserts. Many iguanas have special
adaptations for life in these different
habitats. Side-blotched lizards live beside
seabird colonies on islands, where they
eat fish dropped by seabirds or flies
attracted to the bird guano. Fringe-toed
lizards live in desert sand dunes. They
have long, pointed scales around their
toes. These give their feet a wide surface
so they do not sink into the shifting sand.
They also have flaps to prevent sand from
getting into their ears. To chase insects
in the sand, they listen and then dive
headfirst into the sand to catch them.

196

Iguanas

12

1 Cuban brown anole
2. Rhinoceros iguana
3. Fringe-toed lizard

3

which could make them sick. The iguanas keep Breeding Time
a grip on the slippery rocks above the sea using After mating, females of most iguana species
their long claws. They bask on the rocks in large dig a burrow in which to lay their eggs. The
groups to warm up after swimming in the cold female usually chooses a sunny area, so the heat
ocean. The black color of the skin helps them from the sun provides a constant temperature
warm up much faster. needed for the eggs to keep warm. After a short
incubation, the eggs usually hatch together. The
Feeding Time young iguanas then dig their way to the surface
Iguanas are usually herbivores, which means with no help from their parents. The young are
they eat only plant material such as leaves, then left to fend for themselves.
flower buds, fruits, and succulent shoots.
Some iguana species also eat insects such as Young iguanas face many dangers. There is
crickets and other invertebrates, such as worms. the habitat loss through human activities such
In turn, the iguanas themselves often become as deforestation, as well as the threat from
food for many meat-eaters, including people. introduced species, such as cats and dogs, that
In Central and South America, iguanas are bred prey on wild iguanas. Some species, such as the
and reared on farms for their meat. Jamaican iguana, face extinction in the wild
unless measures are taken to protect them.

197

INDIAN COBrA

the indian cobra rears up and spreads its hood wide
to look as big and as scary as possible. people have
every reason to fear the cobra’s deadly bite since these
snakes are some of the most poisonous on the planet.

198

the Indian cobra is the most familiar member snakes anD lizarDs
of the cobra family. Cobras are long snakes with
smooth scales and large shield scales on their heads. fact file
They are all venomous. Their front fangs are fixed in
their skulls. Grooves run along the outside of the fangs. INDIaN cOBra
venom moves from the venom glands (special cells) Naja naja
along the grooves to the end of the fang. Cobras use family: Elapidae
venom to kill prey such as toads, which they eat whole, suborder: Serpentes
or as defense against dogs, people, or mongooses. Order: Squamata
Where do they live?: India, Nepal,
Indian cobras lay their eggs in animal burrows, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka
piles of leaves, or termite mounds. The female forms a Habitat: Forest, grassland, fields,
rough nest in which she lays up to thirty-six eggs. The and gardens
hatchlings are 7–11 inches long and more aggressive size: Head–tail length 4–5 ft. (1.2–
than adults. They have just as much venom as the 1.7 m)
adults and their bite can easily kill an adult person. appearance: Brown or black with
white or cream “spectacle” marking
Hooded snake on the back of its neck
The hood of the Indian cobra is made of extra long Diet: Frogs, mice, rats, toads,
ribs. Skin stretches out over the ribs on either side of and other snakes
the cobra’s neck. This makes the cobra look like it has Breeding: Females lay 12–22 eggs,
a massive head. Cobras spread their hood when they which hatch after 8 to 12 weeks
feel threatened by another animal. The cobra also life span: Up to 30 years
raises the front part of its body off the ground to status: Rare and endangered locally
rear up to the same level or above the animal. It may
turn its head away to show off the spectacle marking 199
on its neck or sway slowly backward and forward. If
these displays do not scare the other animal, the cobra
strikes fast with its venomous fangs.

The hood of the Indian cobra folds back down when
the threat of a potential predator has past, so it does
not get in the way as the snake slithers around.