Class 8 Social Book PDF ( Subharambha Publication ) Anyflip

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is inclusiveness?
2. When was the first caste-based discrimination abolished by law in Nepal?
3. What do you understand by social exclusion?
4. Why do people experience aspects of life differently?

Short answer questions:
1. What do you think are the barriers for social inclusion in Nepal? Explain.
2. What is social exclusion? Why is it not good for the country?
3. How is Nepalese society divided according to Hindu caste system?
4. What policies have been adopted for inclusiveness in Nepal especially after
the People’s Movement-II?
5. What are the positive aspects of inclusiveness?
6. What problems do you see are there in social exclusion?
7. What do you think are the reasons for the backwardness of our country?
8. What are the roles of MWCSW towards women and children?

Long answer questions:
1. There is no doubt that inclusiveness is the demand of time. Realizing this
fact, Nepal has made some efforts to adopt this concept. What additional
policies and programmes do you think are needed to be taken in this regard?
2. Analyse the state of inclusiveness in the context of Nepal, and make necessary
recommendations.

Community Based Work:
There may be some government offices in your community. Conduct study of their
organizational staff structure, and find out how inclusive are they?

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 101

Lesson 4 FEATURES OF PRESENT
CONSTITUTION OF NEPAL

Introduction : Constitution

Constitution is a set of basic laws or principles for a country. It provides certain rights
and duties to its citizens and outlines the way in which the country is governed. It tells
the mode in which a country is organized especially the manner in which sovereign
power is distributed. It determines the powers and duties of the government. It is
the supreme law of the land. A government is formed and a country is administered
according to it. It determines the form of the government and distributes the state
power to different organs of the government. It provides directive principles to the
government and the people. It is considered as a mirror of a country where one can
see its actual nature. A nation without a constitution is like a ship without a compass.

People’s Participation in Writing the Constitution

This is the age of democracy. So the constitution should be written as per the will and
aspirations of the people. People should be given opportunity to participate in the
formulation of constitution. It is believed that a constitution framed by the people
themselves will reflect their will and aspirations. In our context, Constitution of Nepal
2072 BS has passed by constitution Assembly on 3rd Ashwin 2072 BS. It is the first
constitution of Nepal written by public representatives.

Characteristics of a Good Constitution

(a) Clarity: Provisions for constitutional Articles, Sub-Articles must be clear and
unambiguous.

(b) Flexibility: It should be flexible so that timely amendments can be made
according to the needs of time.

(c) Broad Based: It should embrace every aspect of the state: nature and scope
of the government, people’s rights and duties, political powers and so on.

(d) Fundamental Rights: It should provide, guarantee and protect the fundamental
rights of the people.

(e) Independent Judiciary: It should have provisions for an independent Justiciary.

Constitutional Development in Nepal

The history of constitutional development is not very long in Nepal. There was no
written constitution before 2004 BS. The first constitution of Nepal, Nepal Government
Legal Act (Baidhanik Kanun) was framed by Rana Prime Minister Padma Shumsher in
2004 BS.

Since then, six constitutions: Interim Government of Nepal Act 2007 BS, Constitution of
Kingdom of Nepal-2015 BS, Constitution of Nepal-2019 BS, Constitution of Kingdom of

102 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Nepal- 2047 BS, and Interim Constitution of Nepal -2063 BS. Constitution of Nepal 2072
BS. have been promulgated. Nepal is possibly one of the fast constitution changing
countries. So far we have had a constitution in every 10 years’ time.

Frequent changes in the constitution means there is no political stability in the country.
It is the indication of poor political health of a country. It is not good to keep changing
the constitution. It impedes the overall political stability, well-beings and economic
development of the country. This is what happening in Nepal.

Features of Present Constitution of Nepal:
The current constitution of Nepal is considered to be one of the most democratic,
flexible and progressive constitutions. The following are its features:

a. Formulate as per the aspiration of the people

The constituent assembly, the people's representative, formulated this
constitution. The assembly was formed in an inclusive way ensuring participation
of all kinds of parties and classes of people.

b. Federal Democratic Republican Constitution

According to Article 4 of the constitution, Nepal is declared an independent,
indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive, socialism-oriented, federal democratic
republican state. The distribution of legislative and executive power into three
levels i.e. national, provincial and local is in federal structure having the President
the head of the state.

c. State Power and Sovereignty Inherent in People

The state power and sovereignty of Nepal is inherent in people according the
provision mentioned in Article 2 of this constitution acknowledging the fact that
people are the source of government power.

d. Multiparty Democratic System of Government

This constitution supports for the competitive multiparty democratic system of
government. There is no restriction to open political parties, to run them and
obtain power by getting popular votes of people according to the spirit of the
constitution.

e. Bi-cameral Parliament

According to the new constitution, there is bicameral federal parliament in
Nepal i.e. House of Representatives and a National Assembly. However, there is
unicameral legislative body in each state.

f. Guarantee of Human Rights

This constitution has acknowledged the National Human Rights Commission as
a constitutional organ of Nepal. It has provided many fundamental human rights
to the citizens based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 103

g. Secularism and Religious Freedom

This constitution has officially recognized Nepal as a secular state. According to
this constitution, all religions are equal. No single religion will influence the civic
or political decisions of the state. The state will adopt a policy to preserve and
promote all religions followed in the country.

h. Independent Judiciary and Rule of Law

This constitution as accepted the democratic principles of independent judiciary
and rule of law. According to this constitution, all are equal in the eyes of laws, all
will get equal protection from the state laws and no one will be punished against
laws. There are three levels of judicial structure i.e. the Supreme Court in the
national level, High Courts in state and District Courts in local levels.

i. Inclusive Constitution

This constitution was formulated by people's elected assembly. There is a provision
of the widest possible practice of inclusiveness. According to this constitution, the
state should adopt a policy to provide opportunities of reasonable participation
of all kinds of people and their groups. For this purpose, the constitution has
established a new constitutional organ; the National Inclusive Commission in
Part 27.

j. Progressive Constitution

This constitution is considered to be one of the most democratic and progressive
constitutions in the world. It encourages the progress of Women, Dalits, Janajatis,
Madhesis, Tharus, Muslims and other underprivileged, marginalized and minority
groups having aimed to create state of justice, racial harmony and equitable
society.

Points to Remember :

C Constitution is a set of basic laws of a country that outlines the rights, duties and the
ways it is governed.

C Constitution determines the form of the government and distributes state powers to
different organs of the government.

C Constitutions should be framed as per the will and aspirations of the people.
C There are as many different types of constitutions as there are nations.
C Constitution of the USA is the shortest and the Indian constitution is one of the

longest.
C Clarity, flexibility, broad based, fundamental rights and independent judiciary are

features of a good constitution.
C History of constitutional development in Nepal started from 2004 BS, when Nepal

Government Legal Act was promulgated.
C Frequent changes in the constitution means there is no political stability in the

country.

104 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is a constitution?
2. When was the first constitution of Nepal enacted?
3. What do you understand by ‘sovereignty’?
4. What is a convetional type of constitution? Write with an example.
5. What type of constitution is there in Britain?
6. Why does a country need a constitution?
7. How many constitutions have been promulgated in Nepal so far?
8. What does it mean by the frequent changes of the constitutions?
9. When was constitution of Nepal 2072 Promulgated?

Short answer questions:
1. How many types of constitutions are there? Write with examples.
2. Express in a tree chart the salient features of the present constitution of Nepal.
3. If you were a member of the advisory Committee for the improvement of the
present constitution, which points would you give priority? Why?
4. Nepal is a democratic, independent, indivisible, sovereign and secular
country. Explain.
5. Which four of the features of the constitution you think are the most
important ones and why?
6. What are the characteristics of a good constitution?
7. A constitution should be formulated by the active participation of the people.
Why?
8. "A constitution is called the main law of the land". Justify.
9. High priority should be given to the will and aspirations of the people while
writing a constitution. Why?
10. Write a letter to your friend explaining the salient features of the present
constitution of Nepal.

Community Based Work:
(a) There may be some people in your community having interests in the
constitution. Ask them which points are to be amended in the present
constitution and prepare an editorial for a newspaper based on this.
(b) Meet a lawyer and find out what features of the Constitution-2047 are
included in the present Constitution-2072. Also write the down in points.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 105

Lesson 5 CITIZENS’ ROLES IN FEDERAL
DEMOCRACY

A conversation on the "Roles of Citizens’ between a Social Studies Teacher and some
students is given below.

Students: Good morning, Sir!

Teacher: Good morning Students! How are you today? We studied the salient
characteristics of our new constitution yesterday. I hope you all have well understood
the system of government our country has adopted.

Student A: Yes sir! We have got a new constitution. Our country, Nepal, is now a
Federal Democratic Republic, isn’t it?

Teacher: Yes, you are right. Today, we are going to learn about the citizens’ role
in federal democracy. Before we proceed on, let’s first recapitulate what’s federal
democracy, shall we?

Student B: That’s a good idea. May I begin, sir?

Teacher: You are welcome. Go ahead.

Student B: There are two words in ‘Federal Democracy’. It is a political system in which
citizens have equal participation in government. According to this system, a country is
divided into a number of states distinct from independent states. There are generally
three levels of government in a federal state: central, provincial and local. All the levels
of government have their own constitutions, legislature, laws and administrative
machineries. It’s a concept of government in which power or sovereignty is divided
between central, provincial and local governments. Generally, central government
retains foreign, financial and national defence matters and rest are given to states or
local levels.

Teacher: Very good. You have well understood the basic concept of federal democracy.
You know democracy is the rule of law. It is the rule of people, for the people, by the
people. And, as there is closer and deeper involvement or participation of common
people in this system, democracy is found to be more effective in federal democracy.

Student C: How do the people participate more closely in this system, sir?

Teacher: In federal system, as there are governments at different levels, people’s
participation will be more, closer and deeper. They elect their own leaders or
representatives at different levels. They get involved in making major decisions and
carrying out them. I hope you all understood what I mean. Now we will deal the main
subject for today i.e. ‘Citizens’ Roles in Federal Democracy’.

Students: Okay sir!

106 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Teacher: System of government is only a means, the end is the service, welfare and
well-being of the people. In democracy people enjoy many political, social and cultural
rights and previleges. It is the primary function of a government to provide effective
services for its citizens. At the same time, citizens also have important roles to play for
making this system effective and credible. As responsible citizens, we have moral and
legal obligations and responsibilities towards our country. It is the primary duty and
obligation of every citizen to respect and uphold the dignity of the constitution. We
can’t enjoy our rights without fulfilling our duties. Rights and duties go together. We
can’t imagine of one without the other.

There are some fundamental duties or responsibilities that we have to fulfill. They can
be categorized as: Moral Duty, Legal Duty, and Civil Duty.

Moral Duty: A duty which we ought to perform, as we
think it is right to do, but we are not legally bound to
fulfill is moral duty. We should learn to live morally and
ethically dignified life. We need to respect elders,
teachers, relatives and neighbours, and should
contribute to develop a social and harmonious society.

Legal Duty: This is a duty which we are required to fulfill
by law. It is every citizen’s duty to respect and abide by
laws of the land.

Civil Duties: As responsible citizens of a country, we
have to fulfill certain obligations towards our country.
Such obligations or duties are called civil duty. They can
be as under:

(a) To Serve the Nation: It is every citizen’s first and foremost duty to serve
one’s nation for its peace, well being and prosperity. Devotion and loyalty to
the nation is expected from every citizen. Unless, we all serve the nation in
various capacities, the nation can’t achieve peace, progress, social harmony
and economic development.

(b) To Obey the Law of the Nation: As citizens,
it’s our duty to honour and abide by the
laws of the land, which are made by our own
representatives for our own benefits. In front
of laws, everyone is equal. We should exercise
our rights without infringing the rights of
others.

(c) To Pay Taxes: A country requires human,
material and financial resources. Government
collects direct or indirect taxes from its citizens
to carry out various programmes. It is the duty
of every citizen to pay government taxes.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 107

(d) To Exercise Voting Right: Democracy is of the people, by the people and for
the people. In democracy, people elect their own representatives. Hence, it is
every eligible citizen’s duty to exercise their voting right wisely. They should
do it keeping in mind the overall welfare and well-being of the country. They
shouldnot come under any influence or pressure or temptation while voting.

(e) To Raise Voice in Favour of the Truth and
Justice: As responsible citizens, we should
always raise voice in favour of truth and
justice. One should not hesitate to speak
against anybody when the national interests
are infringed, fundamental rights are violated
and injustice is done to anyone.

As mentioned above, there are many roles that the
citizens have to fulfill in a federal democracy. No system can succeed without its
citizens’ full support and cooperation, can it? I hope you understand how important
role you have to play.

Students: Yes sir, we understand what roles as citizens we have towards our country.
Thank you very much sir for explaining us so nicely.

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What do you understand by the Federal System of Government?
2. Write any two features of our constitution.
3. What is responsibility?
4. Why is it important to fulfill our duty?
5. What happens if we don’t exercise our voting right properly?
6. What are the various responsibilities we have towards our country?

Short answer questions:
1. List out the responsibilities one should fulfill as the civil duty.
2. What are the differences between the moral and legal responsibilities? Write
with examples.
3. Rights and duties are two faces of the same coin. Justify.
4. Rights without duties mean anarchy. Explain with examples.
5. Differentiate between moral duty, legal duty and civil duty.

Community Based Work:
Find out the Interim Constitution of Nepal-2063 BS and study its preamble. What do
you understand by it? Write a report on it.

108 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Lesson 6 OUR LEGISLATURE

Introduction

Legislature is one of the most
important organs of the government.
It is the highest elected body which
may comprise of directly and
indirectly elected representatives of
the people. It is formed essentially to
formulate laws for the smooth and
effective functioning of the state. A
country functions as per the laws
made by the legislature within the
spirit of the constitution.

Legislature appeared as one of
the important organs of the state since the eighteenth century with the advent of
democracy. It is generally called parliament or the House of Representatives. However,
different countries have given it different names. It is called ‘Parliament’ in the United
Kingdom(UK), India, Sri Lanka and Nepal; ‘Congress’ in the United States of America;
National Assembly in France; ‘Diet’ in Japan, ‘National People’s Congress in China’;
‘Majilise Suda’ in Pakistan and so on.

Federal legislature:

Federal legislature of Nepal is called federal parliament. Parliament having single house
is called unicameral parliament and having two houses is called bicameral parliament.
According to Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 BS, Parliament of Nepal has single
house which is called 'Pratinidhi Sabha'. According to the Constitution of Nepal 2072
BS, legislature of Nepal has two houses:

• House of Representatives

• National Assembly

Legislature of different countries has different names. There are bicameral legislature
in US congress: the upper house is called senate and lower House is called House of
Representatives. In British Parliaments: Upper House is called the House of lords and
the lower House is the House of Representatives.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 109

Constituent Assembly
The historic election to the Constituent Assembly-I which is also called Legislative
Parliament took place on 28 Chaitra 2064 BS. It had 601 members: 240 directly elected
(First Past the Post – FPTP), 335 proportionately elected (Proportionate Representation
– PR) and 26 nominated by the Council of Ministers. There were twenty-five political
parties and two independent members in this legislature. Communist Party of Nepal
(Maoist) was the largest party with 227 members.

It was given two years time to draft new constitution but the term was extended time
and again because it was failed to draft constitution in defined time France work. It
got dissolved on 14th Jestha 2069 BS.

The Constituent Assembly - II got elected on 4th Mangsir 2070 Bs. In this election, 122
political parties were participated. No political parties got majority. Nepali congress
became largest party followed by CPN - UML, UCPN (Maoist) and Rastriya Prajatantra
Party Nepal. There were representation of 30 political parties in this elected body.

Constitution of Nepal 2072

Constitution of Nepal 2072 BS, was prolumugated on 3rd Ashwin 2072 BS by constitution
assembly. It is the first constitution of Nepal where people's representatives played
vital role to draft. Constitution of Nepal 2072BS, has addressed Nepal's independence,
sovereignty, geographical integrity, national unity, freedom, etc. It consists of 35 parts
308 articles and 9 schedules. It has attempted to institutionalize various changes
which have occurred in our country.

House of Representatives

According to constitution of Nepal 2072 BS, House of Representatives may consist
of 275 members. 165 members are elected through the first past the post electoral
system consisting one member from 165 electoral constituencies. Nepal shall consist
165 election constituencies based on geography and population. 110 members may
represent through proportional electoral system. Except when dissolved earlier, the
term of House of Representatives shall be five years.

National Assembly

Constitution of Nepal 2072 BS has stated that National Assembly is the permanent
house. It shall consist of 59 members where 56 members elected from electoral college
comprising members of:

 Provincial Assembly
 Chair Persons and vice chairpersons of village bodies
 Mayors and Deputy Mayors of municipalities councils

There consists eight members from each province including at least three women, one
Dalit and one person with disability or minority. Three members , including at least
one woman, to be nominated by president on the recommendation of Government

110 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

of Nepal. The tenure of National Assembly consists of six years from the first meeting
of National Assembly. The term of office of one third of the members of the national
assembly shall expire in every two years.

Qualification to be a candidate of House of Representatives / National
Assembly

 Should be a citizen of Nepal
 Minimum 25 years of age for the House of Representatives and 35 years of age

for National Assembly.
 No person shall be a member of both house at the same time.
 Not have been punished on any criminal or immoral charges
 Not holding government or any other office of profit.

 Not disqualified by any law of Nation.

Powers & Functions of Legislature

The main function of legislature in all countries is primarily to make laws. It has other
powers and functions as well. The specific powers and functions of the legislature vary
country to country. These powers and functions are provided in the constitution of the
respective country. The important powers and functions are as below:

(a) Legislative Powers and Functions: The primary function of the legislature
is to make laws. Being the highest body of people’s representatives, it is
entrusted with this important function of making laws. It formulates laws
keeping in mind the needs of time and people’s aspiration. The members of
the legislature engage in the discussion and formulation of laws. There are
different committees and sub-committees in the legislature where different
proposals are tabled and discussed and finally proposals as bills are put forth
for enactment in the legislature. Once these bills are endorsed or passed by
the majority in the legislature, and approved by the President, they become
laws of the country. This is why a legislature is also called a Law Factory,
where raw materials of public opinions are discussed and converted into
laws.

(b) Financial Powers and Functions: One of the other important powers and
functions of legislature is the control over the treasury of the country. It
approves the annual budget of the country. Practically the executive prepares
the country’s annual budget, but it must be passed by the legislature for its
execution. The government can only spend as allocated by the legislature. All
democratic countries follow the principle of: “No taxation without consent
of the people’s representatives”. The government has no power to raise and
spend a single paisa without the approval of the legislature. It is therefore the
legislature is called the custodian of the national coffer.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 111

(c) Administrative Powers and Functions: It is another important power and
function of the legislature. In all democratic countries, the legislature has
complete control over the executive. In the countries having parliamentary
system, the legislature forms and controls the government. The leader of
majority in the legislature forms the government as a Prime Minister and it
remains in power only as long as it receives support of the legislature. The
head of executive (Prime Minister) and the cabinet ministers are accountable
to the legislature. The members of the legislature control the executive by
asking questions, drawing attention, putting forth proposals, making critics
etc. It can also table no-confidence motions against the executive.

(d) Judicial Powers and Functions: The legislature also exercises certain
judicial powers and functions. According to the Constitution of Nepal
2072 BS, the Chief Justice and other Supreme Court judges are appointed
on the recommendation of the legislature. The legislature parliament
carries out hearing of each Supreme Court judge candidate before making
recommendation. It can also table impeachment motion against any Supreme
Court judges in case of incompetence or misconduct. In United Kingdom, the
Upper House or the House of Lords is the final court of appeal and in the USA,
the Upper House or the Senate is the court of impeachment for the trial of the
President and Vice-president.

(e) Constitution Amendment Powers and Functions: The legislative also has
the powers to amend the constitution. Most democratic countries have this
provision in their constitutions. Constitution of Nepal 2072 BS has provided
powers to the legislative parliament of amending the constitution by two-
third majority.

Points to Remember :

F Legislature, the highest body of people’s representatives is one of the most
important organs of the state.

F It has different names in different countries, but its primary function in all
countries is to formulate laws.

F Another organ of the state, the Executive is also formed and controlled by
the legislature.

F House of representatives consists 275 members where 165 from direct
election and 110 from proportional basis.

F National assembly consists 59 members where 8 members will be elected
from each province and three nominated by president.

F Its powers and functions includes: Legislative, financial, administrative,
judicial, and constitution amendment.

112 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is the legislature?
2. When was the historic election of the Constituent Assembly-II held?
3. Why is the legislature of Nepal called Legislative Parliament?
4. In which date constitution of Nepal 2072 BS, executed?
5. How many parts articles and schedules are there in our constitution? What
type of parliament is called bicameral parliament?
6. Write the name of two houses of our parliament.
7. How many members are there in House of Representatives and National
Assembly?
8. Why is the legislature called the guardian of the national treasury?
9. What is the primary function of legislature?
10. What is the major cause behind the end of the tenure of the Constituent
Assembly I?
11. How many political parties took part in the election of constituent Assembly
II?
12. Which was the largest party in the Constituent Assembly II ?

Short answer questions:
1. What are the criteria to be fulfilled to be a candidate of the Legislative
Parliament?
2. List out the Powers and functions of the Legislature.
3. What is a bill? How a bill is turned into a law?
4. What is the First Past The Post and Proportionate Representation?
5. What was the composition of the Legislative Parliament-2072 B.S?
6. What are the criteria to be a candidate of House of Representatives and
National Assembly.

Community Based Work:
(a) Find out and prepare a list of the political parties active in your district and
present in the class.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 113

Lesson 7 OUR EXECUTIVE

Introduction

Executive is one of the important organs of the state. It is the law executing body. It

executes or translates the laws made by the legislature to action. It is also known as

the Government or the Cabinet or the Council of Ministers. It prepares development

programmes and formulates policies according to the existing laws.

In the countries practicing parliamentary

system of government like in the UK, India

and Bangladesh, the Prime Minister is

the chief or head of the Executive or the

Government. In such countries, the King/

Queen or the President is the Head of State,

yet remains only as esteemed institution,

exercises no executive powers but acts only

as recommended by the Council of Ministers.

In the case of Nepal, the Prime Minister is

the head of Federal Executive. The Federal Singh Durbar
Executive body is formed under the

chairmanship of Prime minister. According to

the constitution of Nepal 2072, the president

can appoint, the parliamentary party leader of the political party with the majority in

the House of Representatives as a Prime - Minister. Council of Ministers can be formed

in the chairmanship of Prime minister. If there is no clear majority of any political party

president can appoint as a Prime Minister to the member of House of Representative

who has clear majority with the support of other political parties having representation

in House of Representative.

Importance of the Executive

All executive powers are exercised by the Executive in the name of the government. In
the broader sense, the executive is the supreme political and administrative hierarchy
from the President, Prime Minister down to the lowest level of administrative post in
the country.

The importance of the executive is expanding day by day. The major responsibilities of
the Executive are to run day to-day administration of the country, maintain peace and
order, carry out developmental activities, mobilize human and natural resources and
provide food, cloth, shelter, education, health and other basic facilities to the people.
The success of governmental plans, policies and programmes and implementation
of laws largely depend on how the executive implements and monitors them. The

114 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

development and prosperity of a country greatly depends on the performance of the
Executive.

Provincial Executive

There is the provision of provincial executive in part 13 of our constitution. The
executive power of province is vested upon the council of Ministers of the province.
The executive functions of province can be exercised in the name of provincial
government. Every province shall have a provincial head as a representative of the
federal government. The head of province shall be appointed by president for the
term five years except he/she is removed by president before the expiry of his/her
term of office. Same person can't be the head of same province for more than one
time.

Qualification of Provincial Head

Any person having following qualifications shall be eligible for the post of the provincial
Head:

a) Has attained 35 years of age.

b) He/she is eligible to be a member of the federal parliament,

c) He/She should not be disqualified by law of Nepal.
Functions of the Executive

Federal executive is responsible for entire executive works where as provincial
executive is responsible for issuing general directives, controlling and regulating the
administration of the province, implement provincial laws, etc. The functions of federal
executives are:

Administrative Powers and Functions: The main function of the Executive is to
administer the day to-day functioning of the country. There are ministries, departments,
branches, agencies and offices down the line under the executive to maintain law, order,
peace and security in the country. The Executive is responsible in formulating plan,
policies and programmes and directing controlling and coordinating the departments
and agencies of the government. It appoints the heads of various corporations under
the ownership of the government. It issues ordinances, directives, orders, messages
and declarations as and when required.

Diplomatic Work: It formulates foreign policy. It establishes diplomatic relations with
foreign countries. It appointments ambassadors and consulates to foreign countries
and receives ambassadors from friendly countries. It is responsible to negotiate and
sign treaties, agreements and protocols with foreign countries.

Financial Work: Financial administration is run by the executive. It prepares annual

budget and presents to the parliament for approval. Once the budget is passed, the

executive implements it. It proposes taxes in the parliament, and borrows loan if

needed.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 115

Legislative Powers and Functions: The executive also exercises legislative functions
and powers in the following ways:

(i) It summons, adjourns and prorogues the parliament session.

(ii) It can dissolve the parliament and call for new election.

(iii) Most of the bills are introduced by the respective ministers.

(iv) It issues ordinances when there is no parliament session or parliament.

An ordinance is a decree or law promulgated by a state or national government without
the consent of the legislature. It is issued by the government when there is no legislature
in session or in existence. Such an ordinance needs to be rectified by the legislature
within 6 months.

Judicial Powers and Functions: The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Constitutional
Council, which recommends for the appointment of the Chief Justice. The executive
has the power to pardon and remission or reduction of punishments. The executive is
also responsible for implementing the court decisions and maintaining law and order.

Military Work: In Nepal, the Prime minister is the Chairman of the Security Council,
which recommends the mobilization of the Nepal army. The President appoints and
dismisses the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS) on the recommendation of the cabinet.
The Defense Ministry is responsible for the overall administration and control of the
Nepal Army.

Points to Remember :

F Executive, law executing and administrative hierarchy from the President, Prime
Minister down to the lowest level of administrative post, is one of the important
organs of the state.

F All powers are exercised by the Executive in the name of the government.
F In parliamentary system, President or King is Head of State and Prime Minister is the

Chief Executive as the Head of Government, and in Presidential system, the President
can be both Head of State and Head of Government.
F The main function of the Executive is to administer the day to-day functioning of the
country.
F It formulates foreign policy, and establishes diplomatic relations with foreign
countries.
F Executive prepares annual budget and once passed by the parliament, it implements
it.
F It controls and mobilizes the military.

116 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Evaluation Activities

Very short questions:
1. Define federal executive and provincial executive.
2. Who exercises federal executive power in Nepal according to the Constitution
of Nepal 2072 BS?
3. What is the difference between executive president and ceremonial president?
4. Write two ways of forming federal government according to Constitution.
5. What are the different names of the Executive in different countries?
6. What is the difference between the Head of State and the Head of
Government?
7. Define ordinance.?

Short answer questions:
1. How are the Prime Minister and other ministers appointed in Nepal
accordingly to the Constitution of Nepal 2072?
2. Why is the Federal Executive important? Write an editorial for a national
daily.
3. If you become the Prime Minister, how would you develop the country?
Explain.
4. Write down the names of the Prime Minister of Nepal from 2063 to date.
5. How can you help the provincial government in your personal capacity?
6. How opposition for the sake of opposition harms the country and consensus
promotes development? Justify.
7. How is the provincial Executive formed in Nepal? Explain.
8. Identify the following personalities.



Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 117

Lesson 8 OUR JUDICIARY

Introduction : Judiciary

Judiciary is one of the important organs of the state.
It interprets laws and constitution and makes legal
decisions. It examines civil and criminal cases and
punishes wrong doers. It safeguards the constitution
and other laws of the land.

Importance of Judiciary

Judiciary is one of the important organs of the Judiciary
government. The legislature makes laws and the

executive implements the laws whereas the judiciary

interprets the laws and constitution. It is the fundamental duty of the judiciary to ensure

that other organs of the government run according to the laws.

It protects the fundamental rights of the people. If the rights are violated from any
quarters, it can be appealed to the Supreme Court. The welfare, security and sovereignty
of the people can be guaranteed only when there is effective, efficient and independent
judiciary.

Strong, impartial and independent judiciary is the backbone of democracy. As democracy
is the rule of law, democracy can’t foster without efficient, effective, impartial and
competent judiciary. Judiciary shouldn’t come under any pressure or influence. In such
a situation only, it can protect the rights and interests of the people.

The judicial power of Nepal are exercised by the Supreme Court, its subordinate courts
and judicial institutions. Municipalities and Rural Municipalities also exercise certain
judicial powers on minor cases of local interests.

Levels of Courts
Thee are three levels of Courts in Nepal: District Court, Appellate Court and Supreme
Court but Constitution of Nepal 2072 BS has clear provision of three levels of courts
which are supreme court, High court and District court.

District Court

District Courts remain in district level. Each district consists one district court. The local
level initial institutions established according to the provincial law remains under the
district court. District court can inspect, supervise and issue necessary instructions to
its subordinate judicial institutions.

118 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

A Nepali who is a graduate in law holding a gazetted second class post in the judiciary
for at least three years or a law graduate with at least eight years of experience in
advocacy can be appointed as a District Judge by chief justice on the recommendation
of judiial council.

High Court

The High Court is in between the district court and supreme court. In each province,
there shall be one High Court. A person who is not satisfied with the verdict of district
court can appeal to the high court. In addition to the chief judge, every High court
shall have judges in number as provided by federal law and they are appointed by
chief justice on the recommendation of the judicial council.

Qualifications to be judge of High Court

The following are the criteria and qualifications to be appointed as a Judge of the High
Court:

• Must be a Nepali citizen :

• Must be a graduate in law with at least 5 years of experience as a District Judge
or in a First Class Gazetted post in the judicial service or

• Must be a graduate in law with at least 10 years practice as a senior advocate
or

• Must be a graduate with 10 years teaching and research experiences in the
legal or judicial sector.

Supreme Court: This is the apex or

highest level of judiciary. It is also the

court of records. All of its proceedings

are recorded for perpetual memory

and testimony. As the guardian

of the citizens, it safeguards their

fundamental rights. It is the ultimate

interpreter of the constitution. It is also Supreme Court
the highest court of appeal. If a person

is not satisfied with the decision given

by the High Court, he or she can file a

case in the Supreme Court. Its decision or verdict is the ultimate and binding.

Composition of the Supreme Court: The chief of the Supreme Court is called the Chief
Justice. On the recommendation of the Constitutional Council, the President appoints
the Chief Justice. He can serve for 6 years term or up to the age of 65 whichever
comes earlier. The Chief Justice appoints other judges on the recommendation of
the Judicial Council. Besides the Chief Justice, there can be maximum 20 judges in
the Supreme Court. However, if there are too many cases at a particular time and the
number of judges can’t handle them properly, maximum ten temporary judges can
also be appointed for fixed term.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 119

Qualifications or Criteria to Become Chief Justice or a Judge of the Supreme
Court:

• Must be a Nepali citizen
• Must be at least 45 years of age
• To be appointed as the Chief Justice, one must have worked at least 5 years as

a judge of the Supreme Court.
For the appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court, the candidate must fulfill
one of the following criteria:

(i) Has worked as a chief judge of High Court or judge for seven years having
bachelor degree in law.

(ii) Has practiced law for at least 15 years as a law graduate advocate or senior
advocate, or

(iii) Is a distinguished jurist who has worked at least for 15 years in the judicial or
legal field or worked as a gazetted officer first class.

Powers and Functions of the Judiciary

Judiciary is a special organ of the state. The fundamental function of the judiciary is to
provide people free and fair justice on both civil and criminal cases according to laws.
The following are some of the important powers and functions of the Supreme Court:

To Provide Free and Fair Justice: Primary function of the judiciary is to provide
free and fair justice to the citizens within the parameter of the existing laws, rules
and regulations. It performs legal functions in accordance with the existing laws and
punishes the guilty. It decides on both civil and criminal cases. Supreme Court has
appellate jurisdiction in civil, criminal and constitutional matters. It hears appeals
against the judgment and order of the courts subordinate to it.

Formulation and Interpretation of the Constitution: Interpreting the constitution
and explaining and making clearer the meaning of prevailing laws is another important
function of the judiciary. While deciding the cases, it explains the relevant laws. Such
explanations take legal form and become precedents for future cases.

Protection of People’s Rights and Freedom: There are certain fundamental rights
and liberties provided to the citizens by the constitution. The judiciary is the main
custodian of these rights and freedom. If these rights and freedom are violated from
any quarters, the Supreme Court can be appealed. Supreme Court has extraordinary
powers for the enforcement of fundamental rights of citizens.

Advisory Functions: Judiciary provides advises, suggestions and solutions on various
legal and constitutional complicated issues and problems to the executive and
legislature when asked. This type of practice exists in most of the democratic systems.

120 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Points to Remember :

F Judiciary, which interprets laws and constitution and makes legal decisions, is one of
the important organs of the state.

F It ensures that the country is run according to the laws, and fundamental rights of
the people are protected.

F There are three levels of courts: District Court, High Court and Supreme Court in
Nepal.

F District courts, one in each district and subordinate to High Court, are the lowest
level of courts in Nepal.

F High Courts, which are 7 in number between District and Supreme Court, are Courts
of Appeal.

F Supreme Court, which is also the highest Court of Appeal and Court of Records, is
the apex court of Nepal.

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions.
1. What is the judiciary?
2. Why is the Supreme Court called the ‘Court of Records’?
3. Why is the Judiciary called the ‘Guardian of the Constitution’?
4. What is the head of the Supreme Court called?
5. Who exercises judicial powers in Nepal?
6. How many High courts shall be in Nepal?

Short answer questions:
1. Show in a chart the different levels of courts in Nepal.
2. What are the criteria and qualifications to be a judge of High Court?
3. What are the criteria and qualifications to be a Chief Justice and a Judge of
the Supreme Court?
4. What are the powers and functions of the Judiciary? List them out.
5. How do you think the judiciary also has legislative power?
6. All citizens are equal before the law. Justify this statement.
7. Judiciary is an important organ in democracy. Justify this statement.

Community Based Work:
There might be some people in your community either happy or sad on the verdict
of the court. Find out such people and ask them the reasons for being happy or
sad. On the basis of this, write a letter to the Supreme Court with your views on
giving right jurisdiction.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 121

UNIT

5

OUR EARTH

In this unit, you will learn the following subjects:
• Change of Seasons & Its Effects
• Elements of Climate Change
• Disaster Management (Earthquake, Cyclone)
• Introduction to Weather & Climate
• Temperature and Its Influencing Factors
• Drawing Map of Nepal
• Importance of Longitudes & Latitudes
• Opposite Points on the Earth (Pratilom)
• Continents of Africa
• Continent of North America
• Continent of South America

122 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Lesson 1 CHANGE OF SEASONS & THEIR
EFFECT

A division of the year marked by the changes in weather, ecology and hours of daylight
is known as a season. We experience mainly four types of seasons: summer, autumn,
winter and spring in a year. It is quite hot during summer (June-August), it is quite
cold during winter (December-February), but it is neither hot nor cold during spring
(March-May) and autumn (September-November). They are very important in our
lives. The change in season has profound effects on daylight, temperature, animals
and vegetations. It influences on what we wear, grow, eat and do including our mood,
behavior and weather.

Causes for Change of Seasons

The season occurs due to the revolution of the

earth on its oval orbit on which it is always tilted

at 23.5 degrees. Due to which the two poles

of the earth are inclined towards the sun for

half of the year. The hemisphere that is tilted

towards the sun has a longer day and receives

more heat of the sun. But the hemisphere,

opposite to it, has shorter day and receives

less heat of the sun as it is tilted away from the Earth Axis

sun. It means, the seasons are just opposite in

two hemispheres. However, there is no season

change on the equator which always receives direst rays of the sun and lies at the

same distance from the sun.

Earth's multiple motions — spinning on its axis and orbiting the sun — cause day
and night and the change of seasons. The temperature and wind make the world
move around the sun. Through the changes between earth rotation and sun, the
temperature increases or decreases, producing the four main seasons spring, summer,
autumn and winter.

The Earth's axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees, which makes the Northern Hemispheres point
more directly at the sun half the year, and the Southern Hemisphere do the same the
other half. In the Northern Hemisphere, days reach their maximum and minimum
lengths at the two solstices – when the top half of the planet faces directly toward
(summer solstice) or away from (winter solstice) the sun. Meanwhile, days and nights
are roughly equal during the two equinoxes.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 123

The seasons start

with solstices and

equinoxes. Solstices

occur every year in

June and December.

They mark the

beginning of

summer and winter.

At this time, the Earth

is found to be tilted

farthest towards

or away from the

sun. The equinoxes The Earth and its Path Around the Sun

occur in March

and September. On

March 20th or 21st, the sun seems to be right above the equator and moving towards

the north.

At the end of September, the sun passes the equator on its way to the south. Day and
night have the same length almost all over the planet. The exact day and time of a
season’s beginning always changes a bit.

As for why it is like this, there are two reasons:

• Our year is not exactly an even number of days;
• Earth's slightly noncircular orbit,
• The gravitational tug of the other planets.

They constantly changes our planet's orientation to the sun from year to year.

The change of seasons also has an effect on our weather. In June, the northern
hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The sun’s rays are more direct, and they do
not have to travel so far to reach the surface. More radiation reaches the Earth. The
days are longer and more light gets to the surface. At the same time the southern
hemisphere is tilted away from the sun. Rays have to travel longer to get to the surface
and there are fewer hours of daylight.

Although June and December mark the official beginning of summer and winter, these
months are not always the hottest and coldest of the year. Temperatures also depend
on the heat that is absorbed and reflected by land and the oceans. In most cases the
hottest months in the northern hemisphere are July and August and coldest times of
the year occur in January and February.

124 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Points to Remember :

C Seasons influence on our ways of life, mood and weather.
C The Earth spins around its axis and is tilted towards or away from the sun.
C Solstices occur every year in June and December, and they mark the beginning

of summer and winter.
C Day and night have the same length almost all over the planet in September.

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is change of season?
2. When does Solstices occur and what does it do?
3. When does Equinoxes occur and what does it do?
4. Which are the hottest and coldest months in the Northern Hemisphere?
5. How much is the Earth's axis tilted?
6. What is understood by the Earth's multiple motions?
7. When are there same lenght day and night all over the world?

Short answer questions:
1. What causes the change of seasons? Explain
2. What are the effects of change of seasons?
3. Draw a diagram of the Earth and its path around the Sun.
4. What would have happened if there was no change of seasons?

Community Based Work:
You might have experienced or observed change of seasons and their effects in and
around your locality. List out the seasons, and write what effects you have observed
in those seasons.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 125

Lesson 2 ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Introduction : Climate Change Climate Change

Our weather always keeps on changing and now
scientists are discovering that our climate does
not stay the same either. Weather is the current
atmospheric conditions including temperature,
rainfall, wind and humidity, while climate is
the general conditions. Climate change means
a long-term change in the earth's climate,
especially a change due to an increase in the
average atmospheric temperature. Climate, the
average weather over a period of many years,
differs in regions of the world that receive
different amounts of sunlight and have different
geographic factors, such as proximity to
oceans and altitude. Climates will change if
the factors that influence them fluctuate. To
change climate on a global scale, either the
amount of heat that is let into the system
changes, or the amount of heat that is let out
of the system changes. For instance, warming
climates are either due to increased heat let
into the Earth or a decrease in the amount of
heat that is let out of the atmosphere.

Most predict that future climate change could include:

• Higher maximum temperatures and more hot days in nearly all land areas
• More intense precipitation events over many Northern Hemisphere middle to

high latitude land areas
• Higher minimum temperatures and fewer cold days and frost over virtually all

land areas
• Reduced diurnal temperature range across most land areas
• Summer continental drying in some areas and associated drought risks

Elements of Climate Change

• Temperature
• Precipitation
• Ice and Snow (Cryosphere)
• Sea Level Rise

126 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Temperature

The global average surface air

temperature is estimated to increase

between 1.4°C and 5.8°C by 2100.

It is likely that nearly all land areas,

particularly those at high latitudes

in the winter season, will warm more

rapidly than the global average.

Most notable is the warming in the

northern regions of North America,

and northern and central Asia. This

can be seen in the image to the right. Projected temperature rise
In contrast, the warming is less than

the expected global mean over South

and Southeast Asia in summer and southern South America in winter. The surface

temperature is likely to rise the least in the North Atlantic and the circumpolar Southern

Ocean.

Precipitation

Globally, it is expected that water

vapour and precipitation will increase

along with the warming. However

this increase in precipitation will not

be evenly spread across the globe.

It is expected that precipitation will

increase over northern middle and

high latitudes and Antarctica in

winter. It is also expected that more Projected precipitation changes Image: PCC

precipitation will fall in larger single

events rather than spread over

numerous events. At low latitudes both regional increases and decreases of rainfall

over land areas are expected. Larger year-to-year variations are likely over those areas

where the mean precipitation is predicted to increase.

Ice and Snow (Cryosphere) Cryosphere
Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8
At high latitudes in the Northern
Hemisphere, snow cover and sea-ice
extent will continue to decrease. Glaciers
and ice caps are projected to continue their
widespread retreat. Over Greenland, the ice
sheet is expected to lose mass as a result
of ice melt runoff and iceberg calving. Only
the Antarctic ice sheet is likely to gain in
mass because of greater precipitation.

127

Sea Level Rise
The sea level is projected to rise between 0.09 and 0.88m above the 1990 level by 2100.
This rise is due primarily to thermal expansion of the warmer oceans combined with
melting of glaciers and ice sheets. Rising sea levels are expected to have severe effects
on many low-lying areas, forcing populations to move inland to higher levels.

How Climate Change Will Affect People Around the World
Climate change threatens the basic elements of life of people around the world. It
impacts on access to water, food, health, and use of land and the environment including
more frequent droughts and floods. On current trends, average global temperatures
could rise by 2 - 3°C within the next fifty years or so.

• Melting glaciers will increase flood risk during the wet season and strongly
reduce dry-season water supplies predominantly in the Indian sub-continent,
parts of China, and the Andes in South America.

• Declining crop yields, especially in Africa, is likely to leave hundreds of millions
without the ability to produce or purchase sufficient.

• Ocean acidification, a direct result of rising carbon dioxide levels, will have
major effects on marine ecosystems, with possible adverse consequences on
fish stocks.

• Rising sea levels will result in about tens to hundreds of millions people flooded
each year with a warming of 3 or 4°C. The sea level rise will increase coastal
flooding, raises costs of coastal protection, lead to loss of wetlands and coastal
erosion. It will increase saltwater intrusion into surface and groundwater.

• Climate change will increase worldwide deaths from malnutrition and heat
stress. Vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever could become
more widespread. In higher latitudes, cold-related deaths will decrease.

• By the middle of the century, about 200 million people may become permanently
displaced due to rising sea levels, heavier floods, and more intense droughts.

• Ecosystems will be particularly vulnerable to climate change. Strong drying over
the Amazon would result in dieback of the forest with the highest biodiversity
on the planet.

• Higher temperatures will increase the chance of triggering abrupt and large-
scale changes that lead to regional disruption, migration and conflict.

• Warming may induce sudden shifts in regional weather patterns like the
monsoons. Such changes would have severe consequences for water availability
and flooding in tropical regions.

• Melting or collapse of ice sheets would raise sea levels and eventually threaten
at least 4 million Km2 of land, which today is home to 5% of the world’s
population.

128 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Points to Remember :

C Not only weather but also the climate does not stay the same for a long time.
C Climate change means a long-term change in the earth's climate, due to an increase

in the average atmospheric temperature.
C The Earth has already warmed by 0.7°C since around 1900, and likely to continue

warming.
C Average global temperatures could rise by 2 - 3°C within the next fifty years or so.
C Globally, it is expected that water vapour and precipitation will increase along with

the warming.
C At high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, snow cover and sea-ice extent will

continue to decrease.
C Global mean sea level is projected to rise between 0.09 and 0.88m above the 1990

level by 2100.

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is climate?
2. What is climate change?
3. What is acidification?
4. What causes the climate change?
5. List out the elements of climate change.
6. What is the relation between the climate change and sea level rise?
7. What is cryosphere?

Short answer questions:
1. List out the elements of climate change and explain any two of them.
2. How people would be affected by climate change? Write down any four
major effects.
3. Climate change will increase worldwide deaths from malnutrition and heat
stress, how?
4. How is precipitation affected by climate change? Explain.

Community Based Work:
Your parents and grandparents must have experienced differences in the nature of
temperature, precipitation and ice and snow in their place over a period of time.
Interact with them about this and prepare a report on this subject.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 129

Lesson 3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Introduction : Disaster

Disaster is a serious disruption of the
functioning of a community or a
society. It disrupts progress and
destroys the life and property. It causes
widespread human, material, economic
or environmental losses. Such losses
may exceed the ability of the affected
community or society to cope up using
its own resources.

Causes of Disasters

Disaster is quite often sudden,
unpredicted and unexpected. It can
be natural or man made. It is mostly
caused by natural forces like earthquake,
cyclone, landslide, flood, avalanche,
storm, volcanic eruption, epidemic etc.
Human activities have nothing or have
very less to do with disasters caused by
internal forces. But, human activities are
directly or indirectly responsible to some
extent for landslide, flood, epidemic etc.

However, there are some disasters Man made Disasters
which are caused by human beings

intentionally or unintentionally. Disasters

caused by human beings unintentionally can also be called accidents. Wildfires, wars

and terrorist acts are some of the examples of intentionally caused human disasters.

Deforestation, environmental degradation, haphazard development, uncontrolled
population growth, poverty, proliferation of weapon of mass destruction (WMD) etc
are some of the causes of human made disasters. Whatever may be the causes or
forms of the disaster, it causes tremendous pain, hardship, suffering, deaths, injuries,
destruction and environmental degradation. Some disasters can be so huge in scale
that it will be be very difficult to be tackled by the affected community alone.

Disaster Prevention
There is a saying, “Prevention is better than cure.” Preventive measures can avoid man

130 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

made disasters and accidents, and minimize damages of the natural disasters. If we
take preventive measures and keep ourselves prepared we can minimize damages.

Disaster doesn’t come by knocking the door. It can occur any time in any scale. However,
there are certain indicators and trends. We should follow them and act accordingly.
It is important to keep ourselves prepared at least for the most potential disasters
like earthquake, cyclone, flood, landslide, fire, storm, epidemic, terrorist acts etc. We
should keep ourselves informed, and keep essential safety items and equipment ready
for such eventualities. We should establish weather stations and develop mechanism
of timely dissemination of information on weather condition. If the weather is bad, we
should quickly move to safe places. Fire-fighting and earthquake safety drills should
be practised on regular basis. Awareness programmes, anticipation and pre-planning
can reduce the damages of disasters.

Afforestation programmes can help prevent landslide, flood and air pollution.
We should protect, preserve and promote environment. We should use road, fire,
electricity, equipment and sensitive devices with much care. Production of weapons of
mass destruction should be stopped.

Disaster Management

The organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing
with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies is called disaster management. It is
a preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.
As disasters take place unexpected, we are often caught unprepared. It is a critical
period of time. Maximum restraint, calm and composure are required during disaster
management. We should handle the situation coolly and calmly. We should not get
panicked.

Disaster management may require a lot of resources in man, material and equipment.
Rescue and relief of victims, injured, wounded and dead will be challenging. We should
try to save life first. Injured should be given first aid and taken to hospital. Dead bodies
of human beings and animals if any should be properly disposed.

Nearby government agencies, security forces, clubs, social organizations should be
immediately informed of the disaster. Volunteers should be mobilized. One should
take command, control and coordination of the rescue and relief operation.

Water, sanitation, food, shelter, health hazard should be given proper attention to.
There may be water contamination and shortage of food and shelter. We can minimize
the damage of any disaster if we conduct rescue and relief works in a coordinated
manner.

Earthquake Safety Measures

Earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the earth, resulting from the certain release
of energy in the Earth's Lithosphere that creates seismic waves. It can be violent enough
to loss people around and destroy whole area.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 131

Before an Earthquake

• Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a
flashlight, and extra batteries at home.

• Learn first aid.
• Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
• Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
• Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
• Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
• Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

During an Earthquake

• Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay
inside. If you're outside, stay
outside.

• If you're indoors, stand against a

wall near the center of the building,

stand in a doorway, or crawl under

heavy furniture (a desk or table).

Stay away from windows and

outside doors. During An Earthquake
• If you're outdoors, stay in the open

away from power lines or anything

that might fall. Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the

building could fall on you).

• Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Don't mix broken gas lines and fire.

• If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.

• Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

After an Earthquake

• Check yourself and others for
injuries. Provide first aid for anyone
who needs it.

• Check water, gas, and electric lines for Disaster After Earthquake
damage. If any are damaged, shut off
the valves. Check for the smell of gas.
If you smell it, open all the windows
and doors, leave immediately, and
report it to the authorities (use
someone else's phone).

• Turn on the radio. Don't use the
phone unless it's an emergency.

• Stay out of damaged buildings.

132 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

• Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep
from cutting your feet.

• Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).

• Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground
has stopped shaking.

• Stay away from damaged areas.

• If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of
the person in charge.

• Expect aftershocks.

Cyclone/Storm Safety Tips

Cyclones and storms are likely visitors

in March and April in Nepal. Some

precautionary measures are as under:

• Make sure your home has been built

to cyclone standards.

• Check that the walls, roof and eaves

of your home are secure.

• Trim treetops and branches well

near of your home

• Clear your property of loose material Strom
that could blow about by winds.

• Know your nearest safe high ground

and the safest access route to it.

• Prepare an emergency kit to take with you and keep a list of emergency

numbers on display.

• Ensure that your family members know which part of your house is the

strongest.

• Listen continuously to your local radio/TV for further warnings.

• Disconnect electrical appliances. Listen to your battery radio for updates.

• Stay indoors (unless you are asked to evacuate) in the strongest part of the

building. ie. hallway or bathroom.

• Keep evacuation and emergency kits with you.

• Protect yourself with mattresses, rugs or blankets under a strong table or bench

• Drive carefully as roads may be filled with debris.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 133

Points to Remember :

C Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of community or a society.
C Disaster is quite often sudden, unpredicted and unexpected.
C Disaster can be caused by natural forces and human beings as well.
C Whatever may be cause, disaster causes tremendous pain, suffering, and

environmental degradation.
C We can prevent, and reduce damages of disaster by taking proper

precautionary measures.
C Disaster management demands high standard of skill, coordination and

commitment.

Evaluation Activities

Short answer questions:
1. What is a disaster?
2. What can be the effects of a disaster? Write in points.
3. What are the causes of manmade disasters?
4. What do you understand by disaster management?
5. What measures should be taken to prevent disaster?
6. Why is prevention better than the management after disaster? Justify with
examples.
7. Write down six earthquake safety measures
8. What are the safety tips for cyclone and storm?

Community Based Work:
There might have been some disasters in your community. You find out one from your
parents and other elders in your community and write a report on it.

134 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

4Lesson INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER &
CLIMATE

Weather vs. Climate
Weather is the current atmospheric conditions, including temperature, rainfall, wind
and humidity, while climate is the general weather condition.

If you think about it, this makes sense. Do you check the climate report for the day's
temperatures and rain forecast? Probably not - you check the weather report. You
also don't hear scientists and politicians talking about global weather change - they're
discussing global climate change.

Let's look at another example. If you want to look at the average temperature of Nepal
over the past 100 years, this would be the climate of Nepal for that period of time.
However, if you wanted to look at conditions for each month, day or hour, this would
be the weather of Nepal for those shorter periods of time.

Weather and Climate are Related
As we can see, though weather and climate describe different things, they depend on
each other to have any sort of meaning. Think about it this way: the weather is like
short-term climate, and the climate is like long-term weather. The specific weather of
any area depends on the climate, and the climate is the average weather conditions
for that area.

For example, if you were going to vacation in the tropics, you might expect high
temperatures, lots of sunshine, afternoon thunderstorms and high humidity. This is the
tropical climate. However, you would still want to know what the conditions of each
specific day of your trip are going to be, and that's the weather.

What Weather Means
Weather is the mix of events that happen each day in our atmosphere including
temperature, rainfall and humidity. Weather is not the same everywhere. Perhaps it is
hot, dry and sunny today where you live, but in other parts of the world it is cloudy,
raining or even snowing. Everyday, weather events are recorded and predicted by
meteorologists worldwide.

Weather is basically the way the atmosphere is behaving, mainly with respect to
its effects upon life and human activities. The difference between weather and
climate is that weather consists of the short-term (minutes to months) changes in
the atmosphere. Most people think of weather in terms of temperature, humidity,
precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, and atmospheric pressure, as in
high and low pressure.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 135

In most places, weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-
day, and season-to-season. Climate, however, is the average of weather over time and
space. An easy way to remember the difference is that climate is what you expect,
like a very hot summer, and weather is what you get, like a hot day with pop-up
thunderstorms.

Things That Make Up Our Weather
There are really a lot of components to weather. Weather includes sunshine, rain,
cloud cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezing rain, flooding, blizzards, ice storms,
thunderstorms, steady rains from a cold front or warm front, excessive heat, heat
waves and more.

What Climate Means

Climate in your place on the globe controls the
weather where you live. Climate is the average
weather pattern in a place over many years. So,
the climate of Antarctica is quite different than
the climate of a tropical island. Hot summer
days are quite typical of climates in many
regions of the world, even without the effects
of global warming.

In short, climate is the description of the long-term
pattern of weather in a particular area. Climate is
defined as the average weather for a particular region and time period, usually taken
over 30-years. It's really an average pattern of weather for a particular region.

Climate is an averages of precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity,
phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms, and other measures of the weather
that occur over a long period in a particular place.

Earth Has Many Climates
No place on Earth will have exactly the same climate, which is the overall pattern
of meteorological conditions, such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, wind and
precipitation. If this sounds a lot like weather, it's because climate is basically the long-
term weather patterns of an area. While weather is a more day-to-day view of these
variables, the climate of an area is these variables over a long period of time.

Though no location on Earth will have exactly the same climate as another, many do
have very similar climatic characteristics.

Earth's Five Major Climates:
Though vegetation helps us classify the major climate types on Earth, we tend to
describe them in terms of temperature and humidity. The classifications start at the

136 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

equator and work their way outward, all the way to the Polar Regions. And to make it
easy, the classifications are just letters of the alphabet. The first is A, which is along the
equator, then B, C, D and finally E at the Polar Regions.

Group A, our first climate classification, is also known as 'humid tropical.' This is
what you would expect at the equator - a warm, wet climate. Temperatures here stay
pretty warm all year round (summer is the only season here!), and we also find the
world's rainforests in this region, like the Amazon (you could even think of Group A
for Amazon).

Group B is the next climate classification, one step away from the equator both north
and south. This is also known as the 'dry' group because there is little moisture in
the air here. Not surprisingly, we find the world's great deserts in this region, like the
Sahara in Africa and the Great Victoria in Australia, so you could even think of Group
B as the 'barren' group. Like Group A, temperatures also stay fairly constant in this
region, with little seasonal change throughout the year.

Group C is our next classification, now two steps away from the equator. This group is
also known as the 'humid middle latitude with mild winters' region. So, think of Group
C for 'cold' since these regions do have winters (unlike Groups A and B). It's called
humid because there's moisture in the air, middle latitude because it is about mid-way
between the equator and the polar region (either north or south) and mild winters
because while it may get cold and snowy, they are still fairly tolerable conditions.
These areas have wonderful seasonal changes and occur in places like the central U.S.,
southern Europe and central South America.

Group D is our second to last classification, so we're getting pretty close to the poles
now. You can think of these regions as Group D for 'darn cold!' because the winters
are much more severe than in Group C. This group is also known as the 'humid middle
latitude with severe winters' region. While closer to the poles, we're still in somewhat
middle latitudes here, and the air is still moist, these winters really are cold! Think of
places like northern Canada and Siberia and you'll likely understand why these get the
'severe winter' classification.

Group E, is the polar group. Think 'E' for 'end of the line.' You can't go any farther than
the poles! Like Group A, there's no seasonal change here but on quite the opposite
end of the spectrum. As you might expect, this region is very cold all year round! Both
the Arctic and the Antarctic regions of Earth are part of this climate classification.

You can probably imagine that each of these major groups can be further broken down
into more specific classifications. While the major classifications broadly describe the
temperature and precipitation of a climatic region, the subdivisions get really specific
about certain temperature ranges and the amounts of rainfall that occur during the
year. In fact, there are 14 different sub-classifications for Earth's various climates used
to describe this information.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 137

Points to Remember :

C Weather is the short-term atmospheric conditions and climate the long-term
atmospheric conditions

C Weather and climate depend on each other.
C Weather is basically the way the atmosphere is behaving.
C Climate is the average weather pattern in a place over many years.
C Though no location will have exactly the same climate as another, many do have

similar characteristics.
C There are basically 5 types (14 subdivisions) of climate on the earth.

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is weather?
2. What is climate?
3. What are the components of weather?
4. What is precipitation?

Short answer questions:
1. What is the relation between weather and climate?
2. Weather is the integral part of climate, justify.
3. How many types of climate are found on the earth? Explain any two of them.
4. Differentiate between weather and climate.
5. What type of climate do you like most and why?

Community Based Work:
You might have seen different crops grown in your community. What are they and
when are the grown? Write a report on them.

138 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Lesson 5 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE
TEMPERATURE

Earth's average annual near-surface air temperature from 1961-1990.

The surface air temperature at any location on Earth is the result of a number of factors.
These factors act in concert to create a particular heat for this location that varies
over time. Some of these factors (like the input of solar radiation) positively influence
by providing some type of energy which is converted into heat, which then results
in a corresponding increase in surface air temperature. Other factors act to reduce
temperature by decreasing the input of heat energy or by taking away heat energy
from the atmosphere.

Some of the important factors that influence temperature are explained below:

Latitude

The most important factor to influence temperature is the input of solar radiation. On the

Earth’s surface, the amount of radiation input is largely controlled by the intensity and

duration of insolation. As the result of these two factors, the quantity of incoming solar

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 139

radiation available at the surface varies annually with latitude. Temperature is higher
at or near the equator. If away (north or south pole) from the equator, temperature is
lower. The reason for this is that the surface of the earth’s part is curved. As a result,
the sun‘s vertical ray strike different parts of the earth surface at different angles.
At the equator, the vertical rays hit the earth’s surface at an angle of 90° (angle of
incidence) towards the poles. Locations near the equator like Singapore - 1°N have
only small variations in solar input. Consequently, variations in surface air temperature
over the period of one calendar year also are minor.

Altitude
Altitude is the height above the sea level. Surface air temperatures tend to cool
gradually with increasing elevation. This phenomenon is well known to anyone living in
a mountainous region. Temperatures in the valley bottoms are generally warmer than
temperatures on mountainsides and peaks. At high altitude, there is low temperature
and at low altitude (on land surface), there is high temperature. The reason is that
at the higher altitudes, the amount of atmosphere decreases and as a result, there
is less water vapour in the air. The atmosphere absorbs less heat and therefore the
temperature at higher altitude drops.

Distance from the Sea
The difference in heating of land and water affects the temperature of places located
near the coast differently from those located inland. It is cooler closer to the sea and
hotter farther away from the sea.

Direction of Slope
Aspect is the direction in which a slope faces in relation to the sun. In the tropical
areas, the aspect is not much important because the sun is high in the sky during
mid day. In the temperate areas, the sun is low angle in winter, this will affect the
temperature of slopes that face north to south. In north hemisphere, the south facing
slope receive greater concentration of solar radiation and usually warmer than the
north facing slope.

140 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Points to Remember :

C The surface air temperature at any location on Earth is the result of a number of factors.
C The most important factor to influence temperature is the input of solar radiation.
C At high altitude, there is low temperature and at low altitude (on land surface), there

is high temperature.
C Closer to the sea cooler it is and hotter farther away from the sea..
C Continental effects also influence surface air temperature variations.
C Ocean current, humidity, cloud cover, types of landform and direction of slope etc

also affect temperature.

Evaluation Activities

Very short /short answer questions:
1. What is the most influencing factor of temperature?
2. What is the relation between cloud and humidity?
3. What is the relation between temperature and land form?
4. How is the temperature affected by altitude?
5. Why does the temperature decrease with the increase in latitude?
6. List out the factors that influence temperature of a place, and explain any two
of them.
7. How do the land-form and direction of the slope affect temperature?
8. What are ocean currents? How do they influence temperature?

Community Based Work:
You might have experienced varying temperature at different times of the day even in
the same place. Collect such data of a day. What do you think are its causes? Present
your findings in the class.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 141

Lesson 6 DRAWING MAP OF
NEPAL

Introduction : Map

A map is a representation of the earth or a portion of the earth drawn on a flat surface.
It can be in broad sense either physical or political map. Physical map shows physical
features, reliefs, natural resources, climate, population and political map shows political
division and human made structures. A map has a Title, Legend or Key or Index and
most importantly a scale.

Direction in a Map

The four cardinal directions or cardinal points are North, East, South, and West,
commonly denoted by their initials: N, E, S, W. East and west are at right angles to
North and South. The intermediate directions are Northeast (NE), Southeast (SE),
Southwest (SW), and Northwest (NW). On Earth, upright observers facing north will
have south behind them, East on their right, and West on their left

Drawing a Map of Nepal
The following is a simple method of drawing a map of Nepal.

First draw a rectangle ABCD: AB=CD=20cm and AD=BC=10cm or half the length of
AB or CD. Measure 4 cm from A along AB and AD, and mark as E and F respectively.
Again measure 4 cm from C along CB and CD, and mark G and H respectively. Join EF,
FG, GH and HE as shown on the figure, which is a parallelogram.

A 4 cm E 20 cm B

10 cm
4 cm

4 cm
F

H

C
D KG

Now, draw a map of Nepal using the rectangle and the parallelogram as the basis.
Once you finish drawing, measure 10 cm along AB and DC, and mark as J and K
respectively. Join J and K with dotted line as shown in the diagram which divides Nepal
almost into two halves. We can insert any information we like in this map using proper
conventional signs and symbols.

142 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Some Symbols Used in a Map: peak, canal, state boundary, district boundary,
mountain range, spring, ropeway/cable car, airways, lake, dam, river, north of map, oil,
bridge, international boundary, minerals, town/city, temple, church, mosque, airport,
settlement path, capital, road, pass, railways, hydroelectricity, industry, etc.

Peak Canal

Mountain Range Dam
Lake
River North of Map

International
Boundary

Bridge State Boundary
Pass District
Road Boundary
Railways Ropeways/Cable
Path car
Capital
Town/City Airways

Temple Oil
Church
Industry Sea

airway Stupa

Mosque

Settlement

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 143

Points to Remember :

C A map is a representation of the earth or a portion of the earth drawn to scale on a
flat surface.

C A map should have a Title, Legend or Key or Index and most importantly the Scale
C The four cardinal directions are north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by

their initials: N, E, S, W
C The head of the arrow on the map points to north in the map. It is mostly towards

the top of the map.

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is a map?
2. What are the cardinal points?
3. If you are facing to the north, which direction will your left hand show?
4. Which direction is shown by the top part of a map?

Short /long answer questions:
1. Explain the term: True North, Grid North and Magnetic North?
2. What is meant by legend or index in a map? Why are they importance?
3. What are the three ways in which directions are shown on maps?
4. Draw a map of Nepal on the basis of the scale given below: Rectangle
AB= CD=15 cm, AD=BC=7,5 cm, and parallelogram RO = QP =3 cm.
AU=DV=CV=BU=7.5 cm.
5. Draw a full page outline map of Nepal and insert the following information:
(Use proper symbols) Capital city, Regional headquarters, trade centres:
Kakarvitta, Biratnagar, Birgunj, Bharatpur, Bhairahawa, Nepalgunj; Lakes:
Phewa, Rara, Shey-Phoksundo; highways East-West, Araniko, Siddhartha,
Tribhuwan, Mechi; Peaks: Kumbhakarna, Mt Everest, Langtang, Annapurna,
Saipal and Api, and Tea and Jute growing areas.

Community Based Work:
Sketch an outline map of the area from your house to school. Show shops, office
buildings, bridges, temples, rivers, ponds, houses, trees etc, and any other roads
linked to it.

144 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Lesson 7 IMPORTANCE OF LONGITUDES
AND LATITUDES

Latitudes

• Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn East West on a map or globe for some
specific purposes.

• Latitude lines are also called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator but
with varying lengths.

• They join all places having the same angular distance North or South of the
Equator.

• They are measured in degrees. The Equator, which is located in the middle of
the globe, is measured as 0°.

• The equator is taken as the reference point in order to begin the measurement
of latitudes.

• Besides the Equator, there are altogether 180 latitudes: 90 in the north and 90
in the south of the equator.

• Latitudes run horizontally on either side of the Equator.
• The Equator (40,000km or 25000milies) is the largest circle of latitudes whereas

the North Pole and the South Pole are merely points.
• For example: 70° N latitude has a smaller circumference than that of 25° N

latitude.
• 1° latitude is 111 km or 69 milies approximately.
• Latitudes are measured from 0° (Equator) to 90° N and

to 90° S (North Pole and South Pole). Hence, the Equator
at 0° latitude makes a 90° or right angle with North Pole
or South Pole.
• When giving values of the latitudes, the letter N or S
should be added to indicate whether the given place is
north or south from the Equator.
• The half of the globe to the north of the Equator is
known as northern hemisphere, and the other southern half is known as the
southern hemisphere.

Longitudes

• Longitudes are imaginary lines, measured in degrees,
and draw North to South on the globe or map. East or
West of the Prime Meridian or Greenwich Meridian.

• Prime Meridian, which is the reference line for measuring
longitudes, is considered as 0° longitude.

• There are 360 longitudes: 180 in the eastern hemisphere
and 180 in western hemisphere.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 145

• The same line of longitude is numbered as 180° E and 180°W.
• They are half-circles, not parallel and are of equal lengths.
• Longitudes run vertically of the Prime Meridian.
• All longitudes start from one pole and join at another pole.
• They are widest apart at the equator.
• Longitudes are called meridians because all the places located along the same

longitude (meridian) experience noon or mid-day at the same time.
• Each degree of latitudes and longitudes is divided into 60 minutes and each

minute into 60 seconds.
• In a place east of the Greenwich Meridian, time is added at a rate of 4 minutes

per degree of longitude to the time of Greenwich. Similarly, 4 minutes per
degree is subtracted for the time of a place west of the Greenwich.
• The Prime Meridian 0° along with 180° longitude divides the earth into eastern
and western hemisphere.
• Longitude values to the east of the prime meridian can be specified by 0°
to 180° E or by positive values 0° to +180°. Longitude values to the west of
the prime meridian can be specified by 0° to 180° W or by negative values
0° to -180°.

Importance or Uses: Latitude measures how far north or south a point lies from the
equator. Longitude measures how far east or west a point on Earth lies from the Prime
Meridian. Longitudes intersect the Equator and latitudes and form grid on the surface
of the earth. They help us to locate a place on the globe or earth. Similarly, with the
help of longitudes, we can find out the Standard Time calculated from the Greenwich
Meantime and local time difference of any two given longitudes or places. Every
longitude is 4 minutes apart from another successive longitude: 1 hr in every 15° (15x4
min=60 min) longitudes.

For Example: Nepal lies between 26° 22’ N to 30°N and 80°4’ E to 88° 12’E. It means
Nepal is in north of the equator and east of the Meridian. 86°15’ E longitude is the
standard longitude of Nepal. Time is faster towards east as the earth moves from west
to east. So, as per its distance from the Prime Meridian, the standard time of Nepal is
5 hrs 45 minutes ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time(GMT). And, there is a local time
difference of 32 min (8x4 min=32 min) within Nepal. It means, the sun rises in the far-
west of Nepal only 32 minutes after it has risen in the far-east. But for convenience,
there is one standard time in the whole country.

146 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Key Terms and Words :

• Horizontally: crosswise, crossways
• Hemisphere: half of the earth
• Meridian: longitude, midday line ( it is midday in a certain place when its

longitude faces the sun directly)

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is latitude?
2. What is longitude?
3. What is the Equator?
4. What is the hemisphere?
5. What is Greenwich Mean Time?
6. What is the full form of GMT?
7. Why are longitudes called also meridians?
8. Why are latitudes called parallels?

Short answer questions:
1. Write down any four differences between longitudes and latitudes?
2. What are the importance of longitudes and latitudes?
3. Draw an earth figure and show how the equator and the Prime Meridian
divide the earth’s surface into hemispheres?
4. Find out the approximate (only degrees) longitudes and latitudes of the
following cities: Kathmandu, New Delhi, Tokyo, Bankok, Islamabad, Paris,
London, New York, Los Angeles.

Community Based Work:
Find out the approximate longitude and latitude of your place..

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 147

Lesson 8 CONTINENT OF AFRICA

Size and Shape

Africa is the second largest
continent next to Asia. It
occupies about 22 % of total
earth land. It is broader in
the North and narrower in
the South. It is almost equally
divided into two halves by the
equator. It is the only continent
which is passed by the Equator,
the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn.

Location

Latitudinal extension of Africa
is 37° North to 36° South and
longitudinal extension 51° East
to 17° West. It is bordered by

the Indian Ocean from the East,

by the Atlantic Ocean from the

South and West, and by Asia Map of Africa
and Mediterranean Sea from

the North. It is separated from

Asia in the North-East by the Suez Canal and from Europe by the Strait of Gibraltar in

the North-West. It is only 14 km away from Europe across the Strait of Gibraltar.

Physical Features

Landforms and Mountains: Africa has varied landforms ranging from mountains,
coastal plains, plateaus, rift valleys, deserts. It can be broadly divided into desert,
lowlands and highlands. It is actually a plateau of plateaus. Africa itself is a plateau
where there are many other plateaus. The plateaus are higher in the East and South.

There are mountain ranges like the Atlas in the North-West, and the Namib and
Drakensberg in the South-East. Mt Kilimanjaro (5899 m) in the Atlas range is the
highest mountain in Africa (Tanzania).

148 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8

Africa has the largest desert, the Sahara Desert, in the world. It covers almost all of
North Africa. It is almost 1/5 part of the continent
and is larger than the USA. There are the Namib
and the Kalahari Deserts in the South-West.

The Eastern part has the famous Great Rift Valley Kalahari Deserts
which is 7,000 km long and 3000 m deep. It
extends from Lake Malawi in the South to Red Sea
in the North. It is uneven and bisects eastern part
of Africa. It is believed that this valley is created
due to the movement of the plates in the earth
and so is Lake Victoria. It is a boon for Africa. It is
rich in minerals. The Northern part of Africa is
largely deserted and is thinly populated. The
Central part consists of mainly plains known as the
Savanna Grassland. It lies between 5 degree north
and 20 degree south of Equator. It is the transitional
belt between the desert vegetation to rain forest.
Variety of carnivorous and hoofed animals like
deer, giraffes, elephants, tigers, lions, zebras etc
are found here. It is also called ‘the zoo of the
world’.

Rivers and Lakes: There are famous lakes Lake Malawi
and falls like lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, Rudolf, River Zambezi
Edward, Volta, Chad and Nyasa. Victoria Falls is
the world’s highest and most beautiful falls. The
Nile, the Congo, the Zambezi and the Niger are
the main rivers of Africa. The Nile, the longest river
in the world originates from the Lake Victoria and
flows to the north into the Mediterranean Sea. The
Congo originates in the Central Plateau and flows
to the South-West and the Niger from Guinea
highlands and flows to the West into the Atlantic.
The Zambezi which has the Victoria Falls flows to
the South-East into the Indian Ocean.

Climate and Vegetation: As Africa is the only
continent being passed by three important latitudes: Equator, Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn, most of its parts, about 90% lies in Torrid Zone, Equatorial climate
or very hot, humid and wet. There is dense evergreen forest on either side of the
equator up to 5°. Similarly, there is vast grassland towards the North and South
(between 5° and 20 ° N/S of Equator) of this forest. There is desert between 20° and
30° N/S. The northern coast has Mediterranean climate and the South and Southeast
areas enjoy moderate climate.

Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8 149

Socio-Economic Condition: Africa is believed to be the first continent to be inhabited

by human beings. Fossils found in Eastern Africa

suggest that humanlike creatures lived there three

million years ago. The continent also had one of

the oldest civilizations: the Egyptian civilization.

But, due to its difficult geography, dense jungles,

varied tribal groups etc, other than the

Mediterranean cost was not known to the rest of

the world. It used to be a mysterious land for Pyramid
many people around the world. As many people

didn’t have good idea about this continent, it used

to be called the ‘Dark Continent’. Europeans and the Arabs explored it in course of

time.

During seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, almost all of the African countries
(except Abyssinia or Ethiopia and Liberia) were colonies of European countries: Britain,
France, Spain, Belgium, Portugal, Italy etc. Colonies ended, but there are still many
problems in Africa like internal conflicts, wars, epidemics, famine, AIDS, mass illiteracy
and so on. In spite of abundance natural resources: minerals, forest, water, flora and
fauna, it is still the least developed continent. Most of the African countries are in the
early stage of economic development. Majority of the people are engaged in agriculture
and animal husbandry.

Africans are of many groups, more than 800 Negros
tribal groups. The Negros are the natives of
Africa. They have primitive way of life. There is
poverty, illiteracy, superstition, high population
growth, and tribal infightings. The tribal people
follow different forms of animism. Mostly, Arabs
who follow Islam live in the Northern Africa.
South Africa, where many people are European
descendants, is more developed than other
African countries.

Points to Remember :

C Africa is the second largest continent, which is divided almost into two equal halves

by the Equator.
C Africa is the only continent bypassed by the Equator, the Tropic of Cancer and the

Tropic of Capricorn.
C Africa is separated from Europe by the Strait of Gibraltar and from Asia by the Suez

Canal.
C Africa, which has highlands, lowlands and deserts, is a plateau of the plateaus.
C Africa has the largest desert, 1/5 part of the continent, the Sahara Desert, which is

larger than the USA.
C In spite of huge natural resources: minerals, forest, water, flora and fauna, it is still the

least developed continent.

150 Social Studies and Population Education Book ~ 8