The Religions Book - Big Ideas Simply Explained

See also: Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ The ultimate reality 102–105 PRIMAL BELIEFS 49
The whole universe was originally contained in an egg or seed.
The Nommo
Everything that exists began as a vibration in this egg.
The Nommo are ancestral
The form of man was prefigured in the egg, beings worshipped by the
and is also echoed in the form of the universe. Dogon. They are often
described as amphibious,
Everything, from the smallest seed to the expanse of hermaphroditic, fishlike
the cosmos, reflects and expresses everything. creatures who, acccording to
myth, were fathered by the
A village, or a homestead, or a hat, or a seed, god Amma, when he created
can contain the whole universe. the cosmic egg. This egg was
said to resemble both the
decoration and furnishing is laden the seven spiral vibrations that smallest seed cultivated by
with symbolism. The hogon’s shook the cosmic “egg of the the Dogon, and the sister star
movements are attuned to the world” (see right). During a to Sirius—the brightest star in
rhythms of the universe. At dawn crisis, the chiefs gather around the night sky. Within the egg
he sits facing east, toward the the headdress; the hogon speaks lay the germ of all things.
rising sun; he then walks through into it and upends it on the ground,
the homestead following the order as if the world itself has been In one version of the myth,
of the four cardinal points; and turned upside down, ready to be two sets of male–female
finally at dusk he sits facing west. restored to order by the god Amma. twins, the Nommo, were
His pouch is described as “the inside the egg waiting to be
pouch of the world”; his staff is The complex cosmic symbolism born so that they could bring
“the axis of the world.” of the Dogon reflects outward from order to the world. But the egg
the cosmos, and then back in again was shaken by a vibration and
Cosmic meaning to the headdress of the hogon, the one of the male twins, Yurugu,
Even the hogon’s clothing shell of the world egg. Religion, broke out of it prematurely,
represents the world in miniature. society, cosmology, mythology, creating the earth from his
His cylindrical headdress, for cultivation, daily life—all are placenta. So Amma sent the
example, is a woven image of intermeshed in every detail, three remaining Nommo down
and reflected in every action. ■ to earth, and they established
the institutions and rituals
necessary for the renewal
and continuation of life. But
because of Yurugu’s premature
actions, the world was tainted
right from the beginning.

For [the Dogon],
social life represents the
workings of the universe.

Marcel Griaule,
anthropologist

50

WE EXIST TO
SERVE THE GODS

THE BURDEN OF OBSERVANCE

IN CONTEXT U ntil Christianity arrived The Work of the Gods was a form
in Tikopia in the 1950s, all of worship expressed as a system
KEY BELIEVERS the residents of this small of trade between human and spirit
Tikopians Pacific island devoted themselves beings. The Tikopians performed
to ritual for two weeks twice a year, the rituals, and the gods granted
WHEN AND WHERE as they undertook the Work of the the people the necessities of life.
From c.1000 BCE, Gods. At these times, they perfomed Moreover, the religion was
Tikopia, Solomon duties to propitiate the atua, spirits structured so that many of the
Islands, Pacific Ocean or gods, believing that they, in turn, activities undertaken to please the
would ensure plentiful harvests. gods—such as repairing canoes,
AFTER planting and harvesting, and the
1606 European explorers ritual production of turmeric—were
first land on Tikopia. of economic value to the Tikopians.
Offerings of food and kava (an
1859 The Anglican intoxicating drink) made to the
Melanesian Mission makes gods were consumed only in
contact with Tikopia. essence—leaving the actual food
available for human consumption.
1928–29 Tikopian culture
is studied by anthropologist Taking part in the Work of the
Raymond Firth; the population Gods brought status to individuals,
is divided into four clans. and was perceived as a privilege.
The rituals involved in this religion
1955 The Work of the Gods is also underpinned key social and
abandoned after an epidemic; economic structures, and held
the remaining pagan chiefs Tikopian society together. ■
convert to Christianity.
A Tikopian man performs a dance
2002 Tikopia is devastated with a canoe paddle: ritual dancing
by Cyclone Zoë, but islanders and drumming on canoes were part
take shelter and survive. of the Work of the Gods.

2012 The population of See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ A lifelong bond with the gods 39
Tikopia numbers about 1,200. ■ Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15

PRIMAL BELIEFS 51

OUR RITUALS
SUSTAIN
THE WORLD

RENEWING LIFE THROUGH RITUAL

IN CONTEXT T hrough their ritual songs [The Kixunai] painted
and dances, the Hupa themselves and danced there
KEY BELIEVERS tribe of northwestern one night. The next morning
Hupa California believed they could
renew the world, or “firm the earth,” they danced again.
WHEN AND WHERE and revitalize the land to ensure Hupa myth
c.1000 CE, sufficient resources for the coming
northwestern California year. One of their most important The First People
world renewal dances, held every The Kixunai were believed by
BEFORE autumn, was the White Deerskin the Hupa to be human in form
c.900–1100 CE Ancestors Dance. The purpose of the dance but extraordinary in character.
of the Hupa arrive in was to re-create the actions of the Whatever the Kixunai did became
northwestern California from the Kixunai, or First People, the the predestined custom of the
subarctic regions to the north. Hupa’s mythical predecessors. unborn Hupa race. So every detail
of Hupa daily life was mapped out
AFTER By replaying the sacred by the activities of the First People.
1828 The first contact is narrative of the Kixunai, the Hupa According to Hupa belief, the
made with American trappers; hoped to tap into the powers of Kixunai later scattered across the
around 1,000 Hupa live in the creation in order to safeguard the ocean, leaving only the mythical
Hoopa Valley at this time, and health of the people and guarantee being Yimantuwinyai to assist
trade furs until the beginning abundant stocks of game and fish people in their life on earth. ■
of the Gold Rush in 1848. for the hunting season. During the
dance, which lasted ten days, the
By 1900 The Hupa population elaborately decorated hide of an
is reduced to about 500 as a albino deer—a symbol of great
result of disease. wealth and status—was displayed.
Participants paddled along the
1911 The first modern Hupa river in dugout canoes every
Tribal Council is formed. morning and danced every
afternoon and evening, holding
Today More than 2,000 Hupa deer effigies aloft on poles.
live as a self-governing people
on their traditional lands. See also: The spirits of the dead live on 36–37 ■ Beliefs that mirror society 80–81

ANCIENT

CLASSIC

BELIEFS

FROM 3000 BCE

AND

AL

54 INTRODUCTION

Ancient Egypt is Tomb inscriptions known The pantheon of The probable date
unified and the Early as the Pyramid Texts, Greek mythology of the foundation of
Dynastic period begins. Zoroastrianism
A cult of a divine Pharaoh the oldest known evolves in the in Persia, although
religious writings, Minoan culture this may have been
is established. suggest an Ancient
of Crete. as early as the
Egyptian 18th century BCE.
belief in an afterlife.

C.3000 BCE 25TH–24TH CENTURIES 1700–1400 BCE C.1200 BCE
8TH CENTURY BCE
C.3000 BCE 20TH–16TH CENTURIES C.1600 BCE

Celtic clans spread In the First Scandinavian According to legend,
across much of Europe, Babylonian Dynasty peoples begin to make Romulus usurps
his twin brother
each tribe having its in Mesopotamia, figures of their gods Remus to found the
own local deities. a complex mythology and goddesses, and city of Rome.
develop a recognizable
is recorded in the Norse mythology.
Enuma Elish.

T he earliest civilizations elaborate tombs left by the early Coalescing faiths
emerged when scattered civilizations, such as the Egyptians, By about 1500 BCE, regional
nomadic tribes began that belief in an afterlife existed, religious traditions were well
to settle in order to raise crops. and that rituals of death and burial established in many parts of
Previously localized religious played a major part in religion. the world, and new, more advanced,
beliefs and practices evolved, As people settled in ever bigger societies arose, requiring more
and the beliefs of different tribes communities, temples dedicated elaborate belief systems. Some
amalgamated around common to the gods became focal points in new religions also appeared,
deities and mythologies. Complex the towns and cities. notably Zoroastrianism, which
pantheons emerged, and an often was arguably the first monotheistic
sophisticated body of myths arose Civilization also gave rise to faith, while the foundations of
from the various strands that had various forms of written language, Judaism were also being laid down.
come together, describing the role which allowed these stories of
of the gods and mythical creatures gods and creation to be recorded In India, the numerous local
in the workings of the world. and embellished over the millennia. religious beliefs were incorporated
Religious inscriptions first appeared into the Vedic tradition, based
These more formal religions on the walls of tombs and temples on ancient scriptures called the
offered explanations for natural in early civilizations, such as that Vedas. This later became the
phenomena, such as the sun, of Egypt. Elsewhere, distinctive pluralistic amalgam now known
moon, seasons, weather, and the traditions were also taking shape as Hinduism, but alongside this
gods’ influence on them. They as Indian, Chinese, Japanese, came Jainism, which placed more
often included creation stories Norse, and Celtic folk religions emphasis on a correct way of life
and tales of the interaction of were incorporated into the belief than on the worship of deities, and
gods and humans. It is clear from systems of the emerging nations. Buddhism, which was arguably

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 55

The Greek poet The Indian sage The classical period The Vikings flourish,
Homer writes the Mahavira establishes of the Ancient spreading their religion
Iliad and Odyssey, across northern Europe
and Hesiod writes the central tenets Greek civilization
of Jainism. begins in the eastern and in Iceland and
his Theogony Greenland.
(Origin of the Gods). Mediterranean.

8TH–7TH CENTURIES BCE 599–27 BCE 5TH–4TH CENTURIES BCE 9TH–10TH CENTURIES

6TH CENTURY BCE 551 BCE 8TH CENTURY CE 13TH CENTURY

The Chinese sage Laozi Confucius, founder Two collections of Icelandic epic
describes the dao, the of Confucianism, is Japanese mythology, the poems describing
way, and establishes Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, Norse mythology
Daoism in China. born in Zou, Lu are compiled as a resource are composed and
State, China.
to support Shinto as recorded in
national religion of Japan. the Eddas.

more a philosophy than a religion, as By the 6th century BCE, the Greek to divine the future, choose
it concentrated on enlightenment city-states had been established, auspicious times for action, and
without the need for gods. and classical Greek civilization was even defeat enemies. Most of the
exerting a strong influence on the time they existed alongside people,
This focus on moral philosophy eastern Mediterranean region. unconcerned with human affairs,
was also prevalent in the religions Religion (although the Greeks did but, to keep them happy, the
that evolved in China and Japan. not have a specific word for it) Greeks erected temples, performed
In the ordered society of the great was very much a part of life, and, rituals, and held regular festivals.
Chinese dynasties, religion and although the gods were believed to
political organization became live separately from the people, they As the early civilizations rose
intertwined. Daoism, proposed were imagined to lead remarkably and fell, many of their beliefs faded
by the legendary scholar Laozi, similar lives. The history of the away, or were incorporated into
advocated a religious way of life Greek people, as interpreted by the religions that replaced them;
compatible with Chinese society. Homer in his epic poems, was the pantheon of Greek mythology,
Confucius built on this to develop also the history of their gods. The for example, was absorbed into
a new belief system based on a hierarchy of deities, with their very Roman mythology, and along
reinterpretation of respect for human lifestyles and tempestuous with Celtic and other beliefs,
the hierarchy, and reinforced by relationships, mirrored Greek into Christianity. Some religions,
ritual. Later, in Japan, traditional society. As well as offering an however, such as that of the
religions were unified to create the explanation for aspects of the Norse, were still practiced until
state religion, Shinto, which showed world, the deities gave reasons for the Middle Ages, and others,
special reverence to ancestors and the vagaries of human behavior, including Shinto, Jainism, Daoism,
encouraged followers to connect and with their help it was possible and Confucianism, have survived
with them through ritual practices. into the modern age. ■

56

THERE IS A
HIERARCHY OF
GODS AND MEN

BELIEFS FOR NEW SOCIETIES

IN CONTEXT The god Marduk kills The Babylonians
the goddess Tiamat and succeed the Sumerians
KEY BELIEVERS makes all the other gods
Ancient Babylonians and establish the city
accept him as king. of Babylon.
WHEN AND WHERE
c.2270 BCE, Mesopotamia He then brings order to King Hammurabi then
(present-day Iraq) the universe and creates claims divine authority for
mankind to serve the gods.
BEFORE his rule and introduces
5th millennium BCE The a code of laws.
Ubaidians settle in the fertile
valleys between the Tigris and Both Marduk and Hammurabi assert their
the Euphrates (Mesopotamia). supremacy over others by establishing…

c.3300 BCE The Sumerian ...a hierarchy of gods and men.
people supplant the Ubaidians.
M esopotamia, the area As these larger settlements grew,
AFTER of modern Iraq between so did the need for new social
c.1770 BCE Babylonian King the Tigris and Euphrates structures, a common culture, and
Hammurabi introduces laws rivers, is often referred to in the shared beliefs in order to unify
for governing Babylon. West as the cradle of civilization. the population and reinforce the
It was there that—in the Bronze political system. Religion not only
c.1750 BCE The Babylonians Age—small communities first explained natural phenomena but
become the dominant people evolved into towns and cities. also provided a coherent mythology.
of Mesopotamia, adapting
Sumerian religion to reflect
the power and authority of
Babylon’s chief god, Marduk.

691 BCE Babylon falls to
the Assyrians; the myths
of Marduk are reassigned
to the Assyrian god Assur.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 57

See also: Created for a purpose 32 ■ Renewing life through ritual 51 ■ Beliefs The Enûma Elish
that mirror society 80–81 ■ A rational world 92–99

Images of Babylonian soldiers events it relates had largely been The Akitu ritual re-created the
lined the Ishtar Gate, which led to adapted from earlier Sumerian creation story of the Enûma
the city of Babylon. Effigies of gods mythology, but in this retelling Elish. This begins before
were paraded from the gate to the featured Babylonian deities—in time, when only Apsu (the
city along the Processional Way. particular Marduk, son of the freshwater ocean) and Tiamat
Sumerian god Enki and the rightful (the saltwater ocean) exist.
In the 4th millennium BCE, the heir to Anu. The story tells of Apsu and Tiamat give birth
Sumerian people inhabited the Marduk as the leader of a hierarchy to the primal gods, including
region. The population of Sumer of young deities, whose victory over Anshar and Kishu, the
was concentrated in about a dozen the older gods, including the horizons of the sky and the
city-states; each was ruled by creator god, Tiamat (see box, right) earth, who themselves beget
a king, but political power was gave him the power to create and Anu, the god of the sky, and
vested in the high priests of each organize the universe, which he Ea (the Sumerian Enki), the
city’s religion. The Sumerians ruled from his chosen home of god of the earth and water.
worshipped a pantheon of gods, Babylon. The Enûma Elish provided The shouts of the young gods
including Enki, god of water and an obvious analogy to the takeover disturb Apsu and Tiamat’s
fertility, and Anu, god of heaven. of Sumer and founding of Babylon, peace, so Apsu attempts to
When the Babylonians began to but Marduk’s ascendancy over the destroy them, but is killed by
settle in Mesopotamia in the 3rd other gods and his ordering of the Ea. At the site of this struggle,
millennium BCE, they absorbed the world also served as a metaphor the god Ea creates a temple for
Sumerians and their culture— for the sovereignty of Babylonian himself, which he names Apsu
including some aspects of their kings and their authority to make (after his father), where his
mythology—into their own empire. and enforce laws. son Marduk is born. To avenge
The Babylonian leaders used the her husband, Tiamat wages
Sumerian mythology to reinforce A mark of kingship war on Marduk, and puts her
the hierarchy they established, To reinforce the idea of Babylonian son Qingu in command of her
which helped to assert their power dominance and to unify the empire, forces. Marduk agrees to fight
over their own people and the the Enûma Elish was recited and Tiamat’s army, if all the other
supplanted Sumerians. acted out in an annual New Year gods accept him as king, with
festival, known as the Akitu, which sovereignty over the universe.
Babylonian religion was held at the time of the spring Marduk then kills Tiamat and
Central to the Babylonian religion equinox. This performance did Qingu, and brings order to
was the epic creation story of the more than mark the calendrical the universe. From Qingu’s
Enûma Elish, recorded on seven movement from one year to the blood he creates mankind.
clay tablets. The sequence of next; it was a ritualized re-creation
and reenergizing of the cosmos, I hereby name it Babylon,
which enabled Marduk to settle home of the great gods.
the destinies of the stars and
planets for the year ahead. Both We shall make it the
in its mythology and its ritual, the center of religion.
Akitu was fundamentally about Marduk, in the
legitimizing kingship; it was a Enûma Elish
public demonstration that the
Babylonian monarch held his
authority directly from the god.
By recreating Marduk’s triumph
over Tiamat, the centrality of
Babylon was also reaffirmed. ■

58

THE GOOD LIVE
FOREVER IN THE
KINGDOM OF OSIRIS

PREPARING FOR THE AFTERLIFE

IN CONTEXT We want to live again after T he Ancient Egyptians left
death, as the god Osiris did. extraordinary tributes to
KEY BELIEVERS their dead, such as the
Ancient Egyptians If we imitate the Great Pyramids, huge necropolises,
mummification of Osiris by underground tombs, and extensive
WHEN Anubis, we can join Osiris grave goods and art, but it would
2000 BCE–4th century BCE in the realm of the dead. not be true to say that they were
obsessed with death. Instead, they
BEFORE There, Osiris will judge us, were preparing for the afterlife.
In predynastic Egypt and our hearts will be
Bodies buried in the sand are All their mortuary rituals
preserved by dehydration; weighed against our sins. of embalming, mummification,
this may have inspired later entombment, and remembrance
mummification practices. If we are judged were aimed at ensuring new life
worthy, we will after death. Egyptians wanted to
c.2400–2100 BCE Royal tomb enjoy everlasting life. live after their death as perfected
inscriptions at Saqqara—the beings in Aaru, the field of reeds,
Pyramid Texts—suggest belief which was itself a perfected version
in a divine afterlife for the of the Egypt they already knew.
Egyptian pharaohs, promising
the kings: “You have not died.” Aaru was the domain of Osiris,
lord of the dead. In it, the blessed
c.2100 BCE The first Coffin dead gathered rich crops of barley
Texts—spells inscribed and emmer wheat—abundant
on the coffins of wealthy men harvests that are joyously depicted
and women—suggest that on the walls of Egyptian tombs.
the afterlife is no longer
reserved for royalty. Egyptians believed that a
complete person comprised a
AFTER number of elements: the physical
From 4th century BCE The body, the name, the shadow, the
conquering Greeks adopt some ka (spiritual life force), the ba
Egyptian beliefs, especially in (personality), and the akh (the
the cult of Isis, wife of Osiris. perfected being that could enjoy
life in paradise). To ensure life in
paradise, care needed to be taken
of all these constituent parts.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 59

See also: The origin of death 33 ■ The spirits of the dead live on 36–37 ■ Entering into the faith 224–25 ■ Social
holiness and evangelicalism 239 ■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13

Elaborate preparations for safe
passage to the next world were at first
reserved only for the nobility, as here,
but later the promise of rebirth into
eternal life was open to all Egyptians.

The body had to be preserved by decayed, the ka would starve. The the feather, it would be gobbled
mummification and buried with a ka needed to take strength from up by Ammut, she-monster and
set of funerary equipment, including the body to rejoin the ba in the devourer of the dead. If the scales
jars containing the internal organs, in afterlife. Together they created balanced, the deceased could
rituals that identified the deceased the akh, which would have to gain proceed to paradise, the gates of
with the god Osiris. Reenacting admittance to the afterlife. which were guarded by Osiris.
the death and resurrection of the
god prepared the deceased for The deceased then negotiated Important Egyptians were buried
the journey to the next world. the path from this world to the with a manual: the Book of the
next, and was led by Anubis into Dead, or the Spells for Coming Forth
Every stage of mummification the Hall of Two Truths. Here, the by Day. This guide taught the dead
was accompanied by religious ritual. heart was weighed in the balance how to speak, breathe, eat, and drink
Embalmers enacted the role of the against Ma’at, goddess of truth, in the afterlife. It included, crucially,
jackal-headed god, Anubis, who symbolized by a feather. If the a spell for “not dying again in the
was the protective god of the dead; heart, heavy with sin, outweighed realm of the dead.” ■
Anubis invented the mysteries of
embalming in order to resurrect
the slain Osiris. Embalming spells
reassured the deceased: “You will
live again, you will live forever.”

The journey of the dead
The preservation of the physical
body by mummification was
important because it was to the
body that the ka needed to return
for sustenance. If the body was

The death of Osiris to destroy the body of a god,” O my heart...! Do not stand
Seth said, “but I have done so.” up as a witness against me,
The story of the death and Osiris’s wife Isis and her sister
resurrection of Osiris was the Nephthys gathered up the body, do not be opposed to
foundation myth that offered piece by piece, and the god me in the tribunal.
Egyptians the hope of new life Anubis embalmed it as the first Ancient Egyptian
after death—initially just for the mummy. Isis changed herself Book of the Dead
king, but for all Egyptians by the into a kite and, hovering over
Middle Kingdom period. the mummified Osiris, fanned
the breath of life back into him
The god Osiris was said to for long enough to conceive a
have been killed by his jealous child, Horus (who would avenge
brother Seth, who cut his body his father), before Osiris took his
into pieces and scattered them place as lord of the underworld.
across Egypt. “It is not possible

THE TRIUMPH OF

GOOD OVER EVIL

DEPENDS ON

HUMANKIND

THE BATTLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL



62 THE BATTLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL

IN CONTEXT The creator is wholly good.

KEY BELIEVERS However, both good and evil can be seen in the world.
Zoroastrians
Evil cannot come from good.
WHEN AND WHERE
1400–1200 BCE, Iran (Persia) Therefore there must exist a wholly evil being,
opposed to the creator.
BEFORE
From prehistory Many belief We must choose the good, in order to help the creator
systems feature a destructive in his struggle against the bad.
or mischievous god or spirit
who is in opposition to a
more benevolent deity.

AFTER
6th century BCE The Persian
and Mede empires are unified;
Zoroastrianism becomes one
of the world’s largest religions.

4th century BCE Classical
Greek philosophers, including
Plato, study with Zoroastrian
priests; Aristotle is said to
have considered Plato to be a
reincarnation of Zoroaster.

10th century CE Zoroastrians
migrate from Iran to India to
avoid converting to Islam; they
become the Parsis, the largest
Zoroastrian community today.

Zoroastrianism is one of the Ahura Mazda is assisted by his and cannot be considered Ahura
oldest surviving religions, creations, the Amesha Spenta or Mazda’s equal. Ahura Mazda lives
and one of the first recorded bounteous immortals: six divine in the light, while his twin lurks
monotheistic faiths. It was founded spirits. A seventh and less easily in the dark. Their struggle, as evil
by the prophet figure Zoroaster in definable Spenta is the Spenta endlessly attempts to vanquish
ancient Persia (modern Iran). Mainyu, who is seen as Mazda’s good, forms the entire body of
own bounteous spirit, and the Zoroastrian mythology.
Zoroaster’s religion developed agent of his will.
from the old system of Indo-Iranian Ahura Mazda battles with
gods, which included Ahura Mazda, According to Zoroastrianism, Ahriman using the creative
lord of wisdom. In Zoroastrianism, the good Ahura Mazda has been energy of his spirit, Spenta Mainyu;
Ahura Mazda (sometimes called locked in struggle with the evil the exact relationship between
Ohrmazd) is elevated to become the entity Ahriman (also called Angra these three entities remains an
one supreme god, the wise creator Mainyu, or destructive spirit) since unresolved aspect of the religion.
who is the source of all good, and time began. Ahriman and Ahura Human beings, also Mazda's
represents order and truth, in Mazda are regarded as twin spirits; creation, have an important role
opposition to evil and chaos. however, Ahriman is a fallen being, in keeping disorder and evil at bay

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 63

See also: The end of the world as we know it 86–87 ■ From monolatry to
monotheism 176–77 ■ Jesus's message to the world 204–207

the battle in favor of goodness.
According to Zoroastrianism, it is
good that will ultimately prevail.

The goodness of the wise A world made by goodness Zoroaster
Creator can be inferred from Zoroastrianism tells that when
Ahura Mazda wanted to create a It is not known exactly when
the act of creation. perfect world, he made the Amesha the prophet Zoroaster (also
Mardan-Farrukh Spenta and a spiritual, invisible called Zarathustra) lived, but
world, which included a perfect c.1400–1200BCE seems likely.
by using their free will to do good. being. The spiritual nature of this Although his teachings draw
Good thoughts, good words, and world was intended to foil Ahriman, on early Hindu texts such as
good deeds support asha, the who tries to attack it nevertheless. the Rig-Veda, he regarded his
fundamental order of the universe. Ahura Mazda defeats Ahriman by religious insights into these
Asha is seen as being constantly reciting the holiest Zoroastrian texts as visions received
at risk from the opposing principle prayer, the Ahunavar, which casts directly from God. Zoroaster
of druj, chaos, which feeds on bad him back into the darkness. was already a priest among
thoughts, bad words, and bad deeds. seminomadic, pastoral Iranians
The essential opposition is between Ahura Mazda then gives on the south Russian steppes
creation and uncreation, with evil material form to his spiritual when he began to preach the
threatening at all times to undermine world. He creates one primal worship of Ahura Mazda. At
the ordered structure of the world. animal (a bull), and his perfect first he found few followers,
spiritual being becomes a human but he did convert a local ruler,
The birth of Zoroaster, with his being, known as Gayomart who made Zoroastrianism the
destiny to recruit humankind to the (meaning mortal or human life). ❯❯ official religion of the Avestan
fight between good and evil, tipped people. However, it was not
The symbol of Zoroastrianism, until the reign of Cyrus the
the Faravahar, is thought to depict Great, in the 6th century BCE,
a fravashi, or guardian angel. These that the religion spread across
protect the souls of individuals as the Persian empire.
they struggle against evil.
Key works

4th century BCE Zoroaster’s
teachings are compiled in
the Avesta, including the
Gathas, 17 hymns believed
to be Zoroaster’s own words.
9th century CE The dualistic
nature of Zoroastrian
philosophy is laid out in detail
in his Analytical Treatise for
the Dispelling of Doubts.

64 THE BATTLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL

The dissimilarity of good
and evil, light and darkness,

is not one of function
but one of substance…their
natures cannot combine and

are mutually destructive.
Mardan-Farrukh

Fire priests tend a sacred flame. They explains why they may be tempted The fact that Ahura Mazda
wear white cloths called padans over to do wrong. It also explains how has given humankind free will
their mouths to prevent their breath or evil can exist in the presence of a means that every moment of an
saliva from desecrating the fire. good god. Zoroastrian texts state: individual’s existence requires
“What is complete and perfect a choice to be made between
It is not long, however, before in its goodness cannot produce what is right and what is wrong,
Ahriman recovers and renews evil. If it could, then it would not and that it is our responsibility
his attack. He breaks through be perfect. If God is perfect in to choose good over evil.
the sky in a blaze of fire, bringing goodness and knowledge, plainly
with him starvation, disease, ignorance and evil cannot proceed This focus on moral choice
pain, lust, and death. He also from him.” This is to say that Ahura makes Zoroastrianism a religion in
creates demons of his own. Mazda cannot be responsible for which personal responsibility and
Gayomart and the bull ultimately the presence of evil in the world: morality are paramount, not only in
die, but upon their deaths, their the source of this is Ahriman. conceptual terms but as practiced
semen spills on the ground and is in day-to-day life. Human virtues
fertilized by the sun. Ahura Mazda
sends rain, which brings forth, One good twin, one evil twin
from the seed of Gayomart, the
mother and father of humanity: In Zurvanism, a now-defunct begins to doubt his power to
Mashya and Mashyoi. Meanwhile, branch of Zoroastrianism, Ahura produce a son. The evil Ahriman
the bull’s seed gives rise to all the Mazda is not the sole creator; is born from his doubt, just as
other animals of the world. he and Ahriman are the sons Ahura Mazda is born from his
of a preexisting god, Zurvan optimism. Zurvan prophesies
Because his perfect creation (Time). This doctrine arose from that his firstborn will rule the
has been spoiled by Ahriman’s the reasoning that, if Mazda world. Ahriman forces his way
destructiveness, Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were twin spirits out first, declaring himself
sets a limit on time, which was (as texts said), they needed Ahura Mazda, but Zurvan is not
previously limitless. a progenitor. Zurvan, a neutral, deceived, saying, “My son is
androgynous god, sacrifices light and fragrant, but you are
Evil and human will 1,000 of his years to create dark and stinking.” And Zurvan
In Zoroastrianism, all people a son. But, as the end of the weeps to think he has produced
are born good. The presence of millennium approaches, Zurvan such an abomination.
Ahriman, an active principle of evil,

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 65

Establish the power of Zoroastrian teachings tell that as also the sun. For this reason,
acts arising from a life the end of time draws near, the Zoroastrian temples always
lived with good purpose, Saoshyant (savior) will arise keep a fire burning, symbolizing
for Mazda and for the lord and prepare the world to be made their god’s eternal power. Some
whom they made pastor anew, helping Ahura Mazda to temple fires have been kept
destroy Ahriman. People will grow burning for centuries. Believers
for the poor. pure and stop eating meat, then bring offerings of wood (the only
The Ahunavar Prayer milk, plants, and water, until at last fuel used), and fire priests place
they need nothing. When all have these in the flames. Visitors are
worthy of, and helpful to, Ahura chosen good over evil, there will anointed with ash.
Mazda include truthfulness, loyalty, be no more sin, so Az, the demon
tolerance, forgiveness, respect of lust made by Ahriman, will The continuing struggle
for one’s elders, and the keeping starve, turning on her creator. The Zoroastrian idea of eternal,
of promises. Vices such as anger, Ahura Mazda will cast Ahriman opposing forces of good and evil
arrogance, vengefulness, bad from creation through the hole that is a form of what philosophy
language, and greed are condemned Ahriman made when he broke calls dualism. Another Persian
—and not only in this life. in. It is at this point that time dualistic religion, Manichaeism,
will be at an end. was founded by the prophet Mani
Judgment and salvation in the 3rd century CE. Mani felt that
Zoroastrians believe that after Saoshyant will then raise his Religion of Light completed
death, individuals will be judged the dead, who will pass through the teachings of Zoroaster, Buddha,
twice: once when they die and a stream of molten metal to burn and Christ.
once at a Last Judgment at the away their sins. According to
end of time. The two judgments Zoroastrianism, the world will begin Like Zoroaster, Mani saw
will address, respectively, the again, but this time it will be a the world as an eternal struggle
individual’s morality of thought and world everlasting, free of taint. between the forces of good and
his or her morality of action. In both evil, light and darkness. This
cases, moral failings are punished The use of fire and molten metal was to have a profound effect on
in hell. However, these punishments as a purifier in the Last Judgment Christian thinkers, and influence
are not eternal; they cease when is reflected in the prominence of medieval, heretical Christian cults
the person corrects their moral fire in Zoroastrianism as a symbol such as the Paulicians in Armenia,
failing in the afterlife—which, of sanctity. It is seen as the purest the Bogomils in Bulgaria, and, most
once successfully accomplished, of the elements. Ahura Mazda is famously, the Cathars in France. ■
is followed by the person going to strongly associated with fire and
dwell with Ahura Mazda in heaven.

Zoroastrians gather to pray together.
This very moral religion is summed
up in the old Avestan phrase: “Humata,
Hukhta, Hvarshta”—“Good thoughts,
good words, good deeds.”

66

ACCEPT THE WAY
OF THE UNIVERSE

ALIGNING THE SELF WITH THE DAO

IN CONTEXT The dao, or Way, is the The dao sustains
fundamental principle all things.
KEY FIGURE
Laozi of the universe.

WHEN AND WHERE We must cease actions The dao remains
6th century BCE, China that interrupt this flow and unchanged, while all
live simply, in harmony else flows around it.
BEFORE
7th century BCE In popular with nature.
Chinese religion, people
believe their fate is controlled Through meditation and inaction
by deities and practice we accept the Way of the universe.
ancestor worship.
T he origins of Daoism are book, the Daode jing (The Way and
AFTER rooted in ancient Chinese Its Power) identified the dao, or
6th century BCE Confucius beliefs concerning nature Way, as the power or principle that
proposes an ethical system in and harmony, but its first text, underlies and sustains all things
which virtue and respect lead attributed to the philosopher Laozi, and is the source of order in the
to a just and stable society. was written in the 6th century BCE universe. Following the dao, rather
—an unusually active time for than hindering or obstructing it,
3rd century CE Buddhism, ideas that also saw the emergence not only helps to ensure cosmic
with its focus on the personal of Confucianism in China, both harmony, but also leads to personal
journey to enlightenment, first Jainism and Buddhism in India, spiritual development and a virtuous,
reaches China. and early Greek philosophy. Laozi’s fulfilled, and possibly longer life.

20th century Daoism is
banned in China by the
Communist regime; this
ban is reversed in 1978.

20th century The physical
and mental discipline of t’ai chi
attracts followers in the West.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 67

See also: Wisdom lies with the superior man 72–77 ■ Physical and mental
discipline 112–13 ■ Zen insights that go beyond words 160–63

For life to run smoothly along and yang. Yin comprises all that is Laozi
the Way, we must attune and align dark, moist, soft, cold, and feminine;
ourselves with it, performing only all that is light, dry, hard, warm, The author of the Daode jing
those simple actions that maintain and masculine is yang. Everything is said to have been a court
nature’s inherent balance. is made of yin and yang, and archivist for the Zhou
harmony is achieved when the two emperors who earned the
What it means to follow the dao are kept in balance. In Daoism such name Laozi (the Old Master)
is succinctly expressed in the more balance is sought in mind, spirit, because of his wisdom. The
modern phrase, “going with the flow.” and body through practices such younger sage Kong Fuzi, or
as meditation and t’ai chi: physical, Confucius (p.75), is thought to
Action and inaction mental, and spiritual exercises have journeyed to consult him
The dao itself is eternal and intended to balance the flow of on religious rites. However,
unchanging. It is life that eddies qi, the life force, through the body. almost nothing is known
and swirls around the dao and, to for certain about Laozi. It
keep to its path, people must Under the rule of the Han is possible that he was not
detach themselves from material dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), Daoist a historical figure at all, and
concerns and disruptive emotions philosophy became a religion. Its that the Daode jing is in fact
such as ambition and anger. They meditative practices were thought a later compilation of sayings.
should instead live a peaceful, to guide experts to immortality. In
simple life, acting spontaneously the Daode jing itself, the notion of According to legend, Laozi
and in harmony with nature, rather immortality is not intended literally. disappeared under mysterious
than acting on impulses from the Someone who completely accepts circumstances; Confucius
self. This is the concept of wu wei, the dao reaches a plane above the himself compared him to a
or inaction, inherent in the dao; as material, and achieves immortality dragon, which can ascend to
the Daode jing says, “the Way by detachment. But the statement heaven on the wind. The story
never acts, and yet nothing is left that, for the sage, “there is no realm goes that on witnessing the
undone.” In daily life, Laozi placed of death,” was to be taken more decline of the Zhou dynasty,
great emphasis on those virtues literally by followers of the Daoist Laozi left court and journeyed
that encourage wu wei: humility, religion, who believed that actual west seeking solitude. As
submissiveness, non-interference, immortality could be achieved he left, a border guard who
passivity, and detachment. through acceptance of the Way. ■ recognized him asked for a
token of his wisdom. Laozi
The wisdom of Laozi came from My words are very wrote the Daode jing for him,
long contemplation of the nature easy to understand and and then traveled on, never
of the universe and its constituents, very easy to put into practice, to be seen in this world again.
which in Chinese philosophy are yin yet no one in the world
can understand them or Key works
put them into practice.
c.6th century BCE Daode jing
Laozi (also known as the Laozi).

68 IN CONTEXT

THE FIVE KEY FIGURE
GREAT VOWS Mahavira

SELF-DENIAL LEADS TO WHEN AND WHERE
SPIRITUAL LIBERATION From 6th century BCE, India

BEFORE
From 1000 BCE The concept
of samsara, the cycle of death
and rebirth, is developed by
wandering ascetics of the
shramana tradition in India.

AFTER
6th century BCE Buddha’s
enlightenment shows him
the way to escape samsara.

From 2nd century BCE
In Mahayana Buddhism,
bodhisattvas—enlightened
humans that remain on earth
to help others—are revered.

20th century Jainism is
recognized as a legally
distinct religion in India,
separate from Hinduism.

J ainism is the most ascetic
of all Indian religions. Its
followers practice self-denial
in order to progress toward moksha,
release from constant rebirth into
this world of suffering. Jainism
as we know it was founded by
Mahavira, a contemporary of
Buddha, in the 6th century BCE.
However, Jainism takes a long view
of its own historical development:
it is said that it has always existed
and always will exist. Within the
faith, Mahavira is simply regarded
as the most recent of 24 enlightened
teachers in the current era. Jains
believe each era lasts for millions of
years and recurs in an infinite cycle
of ages. These teachers are called

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 69

See also: The four stages of life 106–109 ■ Escape from the eternal cycle 136–43 ■ Buddhas and bodhisattvas 152–57
■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279 ■ The Sikh code of conduct 296–301

Life is an endless
cycle of reincarnation.

Only by freeing ourselves To do this we must
of the burden of karma follow the example of the

can we achieve great teachers who have
enlightenment and be achieved liberation,
liberated from this cycle. such as Mahavira.

If we follow this path, The path is set out Images of the jinas or tirthankaras,
we too may eventually in the Five Vows of the enlightened beings revered in
achieve enlightenment. nonviolence, truth-telling, Jainism, are used as devotional objects
chastity, not stealing, and as a focus for meditation while
and nonattachment. prayers and mantras are recited.

jinas, or more commonly, (aparigraha). The most important (“sky-clad”) sects. Shvetambara
tirthankaras: “builders of the ford of these vows is the practice of monks believe that detachment
across the ocean of rebirth.” By ahimsa, which extends beyond and purity are mental qualities
following the path of self-denial avoiding violence against human that are unimpeded by wearing
taught by the tirthankaras, Jains beings to encompass all animals, a simple robe. However, Digambara
hope to free their souls from including the smallest organisms monks go naked, believing that the
the entanglements of material found in water or air. The other four wearing of clothes indicates that ❯❯
existence. Without this hope, life Great Vows equip the monk or nun
is simply a continuous cycle of to follow the life of a wandering Having wisdom, Mahavira
life, death, and reincarnation. mendicant, dedicated to preaching, committed no sin himself,
fasting, worship, and study. nor did he induce others to
Personal responsibilty do so, nor did he consent
Jainism does not recognize any Self-denial is central to Jainism.
deity, placing full responsibility It is said within the faith that to the sins of others.
on the actions and conduct of the Mahavira himself went naked, Akaranga Sutra
individual. In order to adhere to having been so deep in thought
a life of self-denial, Jain monks at the start of his wanderings that
and nuns take what are called the he failed to notice when his robe
Five Great Vows—nonviolence snagged on a thorn bush and was
(ahimsa), speaking the truth pulled off. But in the 4th century CE,
(satya), celibacy (brahmacharya), long after Mahivira’s death, the
not taking what is not willingly extent to which self-denial should
offered (asteya), and detachment be practiced caused a schism in
from people, places, and things Jainism between the Shvetambara
(“white-clad”) and Digambara

70 SELF-DENIAL LEADS TO SPIRITUAL LIBERATION The liberated soul in its
elevated dwelling place.
The symbol adopted by Jainism is a
complex arrangement of elements within The four states the soul
an outline that represents the universe: may live in: heaven,
earthly concerns in the lower regions human, animal, hell.
lead up to the abode of celestial beings.

The Three Jewels:
right faith, right knowledge,

right conduct.

The open palm,
a reminder to stop and

consider all actions.

The wheel, the symbol The word “ahimsa”—
of the cycle of death nonviolence—the principle
and rebirth.
by which Jains live.

a person is not completely detached fallen from the plant in their the aim is to be at one with the
from sexual feelings and false notions worship, arguing that to cut a living universe, and to forgive and be
of modesty. Digambara monks may flower is an act of violence. Lay forgiven for all transgressions.
not even carry alms bowls, but Jains may marry, but are expected (Forty-eight minutes—one-thirtieth
must receive food in their cupped to uphold the highest standards of a day—is a mahurta, a standard
hands. Digambaras also believe of behavior. In this, as in all things, unit of time in India often used
that liberation from rebirth is not Jains follow the path of the Three for ritual purposes.)
possible for women until they have Jewels: right faith, right knowledge,
first been reborn as a man. and right conduct. Other Jain virtues are: service
to others, attention to religious
Living in the world Sometimes there is said to study, disengagement from passion,
Lay Jains do not take the Five be a fourth jewel, right penance: and politeness and humility.
Great Vows, but they do take atonement for sins is important Particular merit is gained by
lesser vows that are similar: in Jainism. At the annual festival donating food to monks and nuns.
renouncing violence, vowing not of Samvatsari, which follows an All of these practices combine with
to lie or to steal, embracing chaste eight-day period of fasting and the self-denial required by even
sexual behavior, and avoiding abstinence in the monsoon season, laypersons’ vows to reduce the
attachment to material things. All a full confession is made to family karma (consequences of past
Jains are strictly vegetarian, in line and friends of the sins of the past deeds) which, the Jains believe,
with the vow of nonviolence, and year, and vows are taken not to accumulates on the soul
must not do work that involves the carry grudges into the new year. as a kind of physical substance. All
destruction of life. Some Jains will Meditation is important, too, and karma, both good and bad, must be
only use flowers that have already Jain daily rituals include 48-minute removed to achieve liberation. The
sessions of meditation, in which idea is to progress gradually along

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 71

the path of spiritual enlightenment, I ask pardon of all living
earning merit little by little, life creatures. May all of them
by life. One of the Jain holy texts, pardon me. May I have a
the Tattvartha Sutra, sets out a
sequence of 14 stages through friendly relationship
which the soul must pass to with all beings.
achieve liberation: the first stage Jain prayer
is called mithyadrishti, in which
the soul is in a spiritual slumber; Mahavira
the final, 14th, stage is ayoga-kevali,
which is populated by souls known The religious reformer
as siddhas, who have achieved full Mahavira was born in around
spiritual liberation. This final stage 599 BCE in northeast India
is beyond the reach of lay Jains. as Prince Vardhamana, the
son of King Siddhartha and
Forms of devotion found in Hinduism, is called Queen Trishala, who is said
Jains may worship in a temple darshan, and involves making to have had many auspicious
or at a domestic shrine at home. eye contact with the image of a dreams during her pregnancy.
Jain temples are seen as replicas tirthankara, often while reciting a According to Jain tradition,
of the celestial assembly halls where sacred mantra. The fundamental Mahavira was placed in
the liberated tirthankaras continue prayer of Jainism is the Navkar, the queen’s womb by Indra,
their teaching. The adoration and or Namaskar, Mantra. By reciting the king of the Vedic gods.
contemplation of images of these this mantra, namo namahar, the Mahavira was allegedly so
tirthankaras is thought to bring worshipper honors the souls of dedicated to nonviolence
about inner spiritual transformation. the liberated and gains inspiration that he did not not kick in
The simplest form of worship, also from them in his or her own quest his mother’s womb, in case
for enlightenment. ■ he caused her pain.
Only monastic Jains who have
fully embraced a life of austerity and At the age of 30, Prince
detachment can hope to ascend the Vardhamana left the palace to
14 steps to spiritual enlightenment. live as an ascetic, renouncing
material comfort and devoting
himself entirely to meditation.
After 12 years he reached
enlightenment and then
became a great teacher, with
the new name of Mahavira.
Founding a large community
of Jain monks and nuns
(traditionally thought to be
more than 50,000 in total),
he molded Jainism into its
current form. Mahavira died
at the age of 72 at the town
of Pava in Bihar, India, and
is said at this point to have
attained moksha (release from
the cycle of death and rebirth).

VIRTUE IS NOT

SENT FROM

HEAVEN

WISDOM LIES WITH THE SUPERIOR MAN



74 WISDOM LIES WITH THE SUPERIOR MAN

IN CONTEXT C onfucius, as he is known To govern by virtue,
in the West, was one let us compare it to the
KEY FIGURE of the first thinkers to
Confucius systematically explore the notion North Star: it stays
of goodness and whether moral in its place, while the
WHEN AND WHERE superiority is a divine privilege myriad stars wait upon it.
6th–5th century BCE, China or is inherent in humankind and
can be cultivated. The Analects
BEFORE
From 11th century BCE Born in the 6th century BCE in of ren could be acquired by anyone.
The Zhou dynasty redirect Qufu, in modern China’s Shandong It is in fact the duty of everyone to
traditional Chinese ancestor Province, Confucius was one of a cultivate the attributes that make
worship toward the concept new breed of scholars—in effect, the up ren—seriousness, generosity,
of a heaven, with the Zhou first civil servants—who became sincerity, diligence, and kindness.
emperor as its representative. advisors to the Chinese court, rising To practice these virtues is to
from the middle classes to positions uphold the will of heaven.
6th century BCE Laozi of power and influence on the
proposes acting in accordance strength of their own merit rather The Analects—sayings and
with the dao (the Way) in order than through inheritance. In the teachings of Confucius collected
to maintain universal harmony. rigidly class-stratified society by his pupils—established a new
of the day, this presented an anomaly, philosophy of morality in which
AFTER and it is this anomaly that lies at the superior man, or junzi (literally
From 6th century BCE the heart of Confucius’s thought. gentleman), devotes himself to
Confucian ideals of virtue and the acquisition of ren for its own
responsibility inform Zhou The rulers of the reigning sake—he learns for learning’s sake,
imperial rule and the political Zhou dynasty believed that they and is good for goodness’ sake.
ideology of later dynasties. were given their authority directly
by the gods, under the Mandate of
18th century Confucius’s Heaven, and that the quality of ren
meritocratic ideas are admired (or jen)—humaneness—was
by Enlightenment thinkers an attribute of the ruling classes.
who oppose the absolute Confucius, too, saw heaven as the
authority of Church and State. source of moral order, but he argued
that the blessing of heaven was
open to all, and that the quality

Heaven is the source of Order is maintained by Goodness is a quality
moral order. goodness. that can be learned.

Virtue is not sent Therefore, everybody
from heaven. can be good.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 75

See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ Aligning the self with the dao 66–67
■ Selfless action 110–11 ■ Man as a manifestation of God 188

Asked by a student to explain the Attributes of a wise ruler Confucius
rules to be followed by the seeker of As for the rulers, Confucius advised
ren, Confucius replied, “One should that rather than exercising their According to tradition,
see nothing improper, hear nothing powers in an arbitrary and unjust Confucius was born in
improper, say nothing improper, way, they should lead by example, 551 BCE in Qufu, in the state
do nothing improper.” and that treating the people with of Lu, China. His name was
generosity and kindness would originally Kong Qiu, and only
Confucius was concerned not encourage virtue, loyalty, and right later did he earn the title
simply with self-cultivation, but behavior. However, in order to Kong Fuzi, or Master Kong.
with the relations between people, govern others, it is necessary first Little is known about his life,
and the proper way to behave to govern oneself. For Confucius, except that he was from a
in a family, a community, and a humane ruler was defined by his well-to-do family, and that as
a larger society. Confucius himself practice of ren; without it, he might a young man he worked as a
admitted students of all classes as forfeit the Mandate of Heaven. In servant to support his family
his disciples, and fundamentally many ways Confucius’s idea of the after his father died. He
believed that virtue lay in self- perfect ruler echoes Laozi’s concept nevertheless managed to find
cultivation rather than noble birth. of the dao: the less the ruler does, time to study, and became an
Because of the rigidity of the the more is achieved. The ruler is administrator in the Lu court,
prevailing hierarchy in China’s the stable center around which the but when his suggestions to
feudal society, Confucius had to activity of the kingdom revolves. the rulers were ignored he left
find a way to promote individual to concentrate on teaching.
virtue without calling for a simple Rulers who took this advice
meritocracy. He did so by arguing to heart also found themselves in As a teacher he traveled
that the virtuous man accepts and need of advisors and civil servants throughout the Chinese
understands his place in the social whose skill and trustworthiness ❯❯ empire, returning to Qufu
order, and uses his virtue to fulfill at the end of his life. He died
his allotted role rather than to Imperial authority in China was there in 479 BCE. His teaching
transcend it. “The superior man,” expressed through decisive rule survives in fragments and
he said, “does what is proper to the that reinforced the notion of a stable sayings passed down orally by
station in which he is; he does not power center; well-advised judgments his disciples and subsequently
desire to go beyond this.” were less likely to require revision. collected in the Analects and
anthologies compiled by
Confucian scholars.

Key works

5th century BCE Analects;
Doctrine of the Mean;
Great Learning

76 WISDOM LIES WITH THE SUPERIOR MAN

The Five Constant were founded in the Confucian Confucius traveled and taught for
Relationships concepts of virtuous behavior; in 12 years, acquiring disciples in much
136 BCE the Han dynasty introduced the same way that the contemporary
Sovereign–Subject new competitive examinations for schools of philosophy were taking
Rulers should be benevolent, the imperial civil service based shape in the Ancient Greek world.
on meritocratic Confucian ideals. In
and subjects loyal. turn the Chinese concept of heaven only could everybody be good, but
acquired a distinctly bureaucratic society would be bound together in
Father–Son tone, and by the time of the Song a positive and right-thinking way.
Parents are to be loving, dynasty (960–1279 CE), heaven was By revering the ancestors and
and children obedient. seen as a mirror image of the court performing the correct rites in their
of the Chinese emperor, with its honor, humans could maintain a
Husband–Wife own emperor and a vast celestial state of harmony between this
Husbands are to be good and civil service of lesser deities. world and heaven. At the family
fair, and wives understanding. level, such rites were an echo of
Despite his many references to those in which the emperors made
Brother–Brother heaven, Confucius did not believe sacrifices to their ancestors and
Elder siblings are to be his moral precepts were derived confirmed the Mandate of Heaven
from the gods; instead he found under which they ruled.
gentle, and younger them already existing in the human
siblings respectful. heart and mind. To this extent, Only he who is
Confucianism is more a humanistic possessed of the
Friend–Friend system of moral philosophy than it most complete sincerity
Older friends are to be is a religion; although even today, that can exist under
considerate, younger with some 5–6 million followers, Heaven can transform.
the distinction between the two Doctrine of the Mean
friends reverential. remains blurred. In Chinese popular
religion, Confucius has joined the
crowded pantheon of gods, but many
of his followers revere him simply as
a great teacher and thinker.

Building on ritual
The adoption of Confucianism as a
religion stems largely from the fact
that Confucius upheld the duty to
practice rites and ceremonies that
honored ancestors. This he saw as
part of a wider imperative of loyalty
to family and friends, and respect
for elders—which Confucius
defined in what he called the Five
Constant Relationships (see left).
Reciprocity plays a key role in these
relationships, for Confucianism, at
its heart, embodies the Golden
Rule: do not do to others what you
do not want done to yourself.
Confucius believed that by
honoring ties of love, loyalty, ritual,
and tradition, virtuous thought,
virtuous action, and respect, not

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 77

Filial piety remains one of the most Hold faithfulness Men’s natures are alike,
important Confucian virtues, and and sincerity it is their habits that
its ties and duties extend beyond carry them far apart.
death. Sons are expected to make as first principles. The Analects
offerings at their parents’ graves, The Analects
and to honor them at shrines in the
home that contain ancestor tablets,
in which the spirits of the elders are
said to dwell. Even today, the key
moment in a Confucian wedding is
when the couple bow to the
groom’s ancestor tablets, thus
formally introducing the bride to
the ancestors of her husband’s family
in order to secure their blessing.

Confucianism evolves of later dynasties such as the New Confucianism has emerged
It was during the Song dynasty that Han (206 BCE–220 CE), the Song in China, blending Confucian ideas
the scholar Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) (960–1279 CE) and the Ming with modern Chinese thinking
incorporated elements of Daoism (1368–1644CE) recognized the value and Western philosophy. Although
and Buddhism into Confucianism, of Confucian ideals in maintaining Confucius built his philosophy on
creating an enduring religion that is social order, and Confucianism existing concepts and practices, he
also known as Neo-Confucianism. became the Chinese state religion. was remarkable for his insistence
Confucius was not the first Chinese It was also a profound influence on that human beings are naturally
sage to contemplate the eternal daily life and thought into the 20th good—only needing to be taught
truths, and Confucius himself century, and was attacked during and encouraged, to be virtuous—
claimed to have invented nothing, the Cultural Revolution for its social and that this goodness is not
but merely to have studied the conservatism, but in recent years a confined to the aristocracy. ■
ideas of earlier thinkers, gathering
them together in five books, known
as the Five Classics. Under the
Western Zhou dynasty, from 1050
to 771 BCE, scholars were highly
valued at court, and in the 7th
century BCE the so-called Hundred
Schools of Thought emerged.
Confucius lived in a time of
philosophical ferment, but also of
social change, as the power of the
Zhou emperors declined and the
whole social order seemed to be
under threat. His focus on order
and harmony emerged from a
genuine concern about potential
societal breakdown. The emperors

Respect for elders and ancestors
is a core value of Confucianism: these
young Chinese students are marking
the anniversary of Confucius’s birth
by honoring his image.

78

A DIVINE CHILD
IS BORN

THE ASSIMILATION OF MYTH

IN CONTEXT A round 1420 BCE, the Minoan the place where Zeus’s mother,
civilization of the island of Rhea, hid her baby from his jealous
KEY BELIEVERS Crete was conquered by the father, Cronus, the cave became
Ancient Minoans Myceneans from mainland Greece, one of ancient Greece’s many
and Myceneans and as the Greek invaders absorbed sacred sites, or shrines.
the culture of the Minoans, so
WHEN AND WHERE indigenous Cretan and Greek myth Rhea may have been one of
14th century BCE, Crete became intertwined. The chief the names of the original, Minoan,
deity of the Minoans was a great great goddess, but in Greek myth,
BEFORE mother goddess, who, in legend, although she was the mother of
From prehistory Early gave birth to a divine son in the gods, Rhea was not considered an
settlers, probably from western Diktaean cave above Psychro. This Olympian goddess in her own right.
Asia, leave evidence of rituals cave became her holiest shrine and Her divine child, on the other hand,
and worship in caves on Crete. no one, god or man, was permitted was elevated in status to become
to enter. Once a year a fiery glow the highest god of all, the father
c.25th century–1420 BCE was said to erupt from the cave, of all other gods. ■
Goddesses are the primary when the blood from the birth of
focus of worship in Minoan the divine child spilled over. The infant Zeus, here painted
Crete; many are associated by Carlo Cignani (1628–1719), was
with serpents, birds, or bees. This child grew into a wondrous variously described in myth as being
beardless youth or kouros, a demi- nursed by nymphs, a she-goat, or bees
AFTER god who was often invoked in that lived in the Diktaean cave.
7th century BCE The Greek hymns to bring fertility and good
poet Hesiod relates the birth fortune to humans each year.
of Zeus to Rhea at Psychro
and his concealment from The Dorian Greeks, who
the wrath of his father. succeeded the Myceneans, gave
the Minoan kouros the name of
5th century BCE The Roman their own supreme god, Zeus, the
Republic assimilates the deity who came to rule the classical
myths and iconography Greek pantheon of gods that lived
of Zeus in its supreme on Mount Olympus. Regarded as
god, Jupiter or Jove.
See also: Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57
■ The power of the great goddess 104

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 79

THE ORACLES
REVEAL THE
WILL OF THE GODS

DIVINING THE FUTURE

IN CONTEXT T he ancient Greeks set advisable, meant that personalized
great store by divination access to the gods became the
KEY BELIEVERS of the future, and the most province of the rich and powerful. A
Ancient Greeks valuable and influential sources of popular alternative was the service
prophecy and wise counsel were offered by seers or soothsayers,
WHEN AND WHERE the oracles, who were almost who, unlike the oracles, were
8th century BCE–4th always women. The oracles would prepared to travel—particularly
century CE, Greece enter a trancelike state, during useful for Greek armies on the
and the Mediterranean which the gods spoke directly move. These seers interpreted
through them. The gods’ messages signs from the gods by methods
BEFORE were sometimes unintelligible, but such as dream analysis, inferring
From 3rd millennium BCE could be interpreted by priests. If meaning from chance events,
The temple at Per-Wadjet offerings were made at the oracles’ observation of birds, and deducing
contains the most renowned sanctuaries, or dwelling places omens from animal sacrifice. ■
oracle in Egypt , that of the (often caves), they would often
snake-headed goddess Wadjet. provide more satisfactory responses. The Sibyl, with raving lips…
reaches over a thousand
c.800 BCE The oracle of Apollo Oracles could be consulted on years with her voice,
is established at Delphi. any aspect of life, from personal thanks to the god in her.
matters, such as love and marriage, Heraclitus
AFTER to affairs of state. Prophecies could
From 1st century BCE The also be used for political ends:
haruspex is an influential Alexander the Great visited the
figure in the Roman Empire, oracle of the Egyptian god Amun
using Etruscan divination after conquering Egypt in 332 BCE,
techniques to interpret the and had his rule legitimized when
entrails of sacrificed animals. the oracle recognized him as the
“son of Amun.” However, the
From 1st century CE The number of oracles was limited, and
Christian Church condemns this, combined with the fact that
divination as a pagan practice; substantial offerings were often
it is forbidden in the biblical
Book of Deuteronomy. See also: The power of the shaman 26–31 ■ The African roots of Santeria
304–305 ■ The Pentecostal Church 336

80

THE GODS ARE
JUST LIKE US

BELIEFS THAT MIRROR SOCIETY

IN CONTEXT The gods The gods Household gods,
take an active take an active the penates,
KEY BELIEVERS interest in our interest in our reside in our
Ancient Romans public affairs. homes and help
domestic provide for us.
WHEN AND WHERE affairs.
8th century BCE, Rome
The gods are
BEFORE just like us
8th–6th centuries BCE
The Greek civilization flowers, Public leaders Ancestor spirit
with its pantheon of deities. consult the gods gods, the lares,

AFTER about political act as our
8th century BCE decision making. guardians.
Rome is founded.
Political leaders
c.509 BCE The Roman can be given the
monarchy is overthrown status of gods.
and the Republic established.
T he pantheon of ancient mirrored the lives of the mortals
133–44 BCE Civil wars finally Roman gods was largely and reflected their history.
bring an end to the Roman adapted from that of other However, while the Greeks saw
Republic; Julius Caesar is civilizations, notably the Greeks. their gods as remote controllers
named “dictator for life” before As the Greek deities had done, of the universe, the Romans
his assassination in 44 BCE. the Roman gods lived, loved, and considered them to be an intrinsic
fought their battles in a way that part of their lives, and to have
42 BCE Julius Caesar is deified.

c.335CE Roman Emperor
Constantine I (the Great)
converts to Christianity.

391 CE Emperor Theodosius
bans the worship of pagan gods.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 81

See also: Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The assimiliation of myth 78 The lares
■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85
Constituting a bridge between
a direct influence on every aspect invited to take up residence in the public and domestic gods,
of existence. They believed that Rome. For most Roman citizens, the lares were typically
divine aid was key to successful however, the local and household guardian deities, whose
governance, and so worship, ritual, gods, the lares and penates, were function was to protect the
and sacrifice were incorporated the ones associated with everyday livelihood of a particular area.
into public ceremonies in order to life. They were so interested in While many homes had a
ensure the cooperation of the gods. human affairs that their presence shrine devoted to the local
Public ceremonies also helped was everywhere; they were open lares, their scope was broader
to strengthen the authority of the to negotiation, and prayers to them than that of the household
regime, and religious festivals, often took the form of bargains: penates, and shrines to the
often involving public holidays “I give so that you will give.” neighborhood lares were often
and games, contributed to political placed at crossroads, a symbol
unity. Religious and state life The foundation of religion for of home in its wider sense.
were interdependent, with priests the Romans was the family. The The lares are thought to have
forming a part of the political elite paterfamilias—head of the family— evolved from earlier cults of
and leaders expected to perform was the spiritual leader and moral hero-ancestors, or the spirits
religious duties. In time, individual authority, who held legal rights over of ancestors buried in
rulers became associated, during the property of the family and was farmland, with their role
their lifetime, with a particular responsible for its members in as protectors of agriculture
god; some eventually became society. The home was sacred to and livestock. In the Roman
regarded as gods—either by being the Romans, and the heart of the Republic, they came to be
deified after death or even home was the hearth. The spirit of the guardians of businesses,
achieving divine status while the head of the household presided transport, and communication.
they were still alive. over all the household gods, Lares were closely associated
including the penates, the deities with local communities and
Cults and household gods of the store cupboard, to whom everyday public life, and
Various cults coexisted with the a portion of each meal was offered were very much gods of the
religion of the state. Some were on the flames of the hearth. ■ plebians (such as soldiers,
devoted to a particular god— seafarers, farmers, and
often one outside the conventional The Roman gods had human traders), rather than of the
pantheon; sometimes the foreign characteristics; they are often ruling class of patricians,
god of a conquered people was depicted feasting, sleeping, or complementing the major
engaging in bawdy drunkenness. deities of the state religion.

At Rome as elsewhere,
in order to understand
the society of the gods,
we must not lose sight
of the society of men.
Georges Dumézil

82 IN CONTEXT

RITUAL KEY MOVEMENT
LINKS US Shinto
TO OUR PAST
WHEN AND WHERE
LIVING THE WAY OF THE GODS 8th century, Japan

BEFORE
From prehistory In Japan,
animist belief in nature spirits
blends with ancestor worship;
the emperors claim to be
descendants of the gods.

2nd millennium BCE In
ancient China, just rulers
are thought to be invested
with divine authority.

6th century CE Buddhism
reaches Japan and begins
to attract followers.

AFTER
19th century Shinto becomes
the Japanese state religion.

1946 The Japanese emperor
renounces his divine lineage.
Shinto is disestablished, but
continues to be practiced.

S hinto is the indigenous,
traditional religion of Japan.
Some say that it is not so
much a religion as a Japanese way
of life, because it is so intrinsically
linked to the topography of the land
and its history and traditions. Its
origins can be traced to prehistoric
times in Japan, when animist
beliefs, with their respect for nature
and natural phenomena, prevailed.

As the universal belief system
of an isolated island nation, Shinto
had no need to define itself until
it was challenged by the arrival of
a rival religion, Buddhism, in the
6th century CE. The traditional
Japanese beliefs lacked complex
intellectual doctrines, allowing

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 83

See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57
■ Devotion through puja 114–15 ■ The performance of ritual and repetition 158–59 ■ Jesus’s divine identity 208

Great Japan is the Land of The world was created by the gods
the Gods. Here the Deity at the beginning of heaven and earth.
of the Sun has handed
It is full of sacred energies, or kami.
on her eternal rule.
Account of the Some kami are great creative beings, some are
Righteous Reigns of the natural forces, some are the souls of the ancestors.
Divine Emperors

Buddhism and also Confucianism The kami created our nation and shaped our culture.
to become influential in Japanese
theology and philosophy. In Rituals honoring the kami link us to our past.
response, the Japanese imperial
court consolidated Japan’s native a great weight of tradition, sacred present, for example, as essences
beliefs with a name—Shinto— beings called kami are prayed to of natural phenomena (such as
and in the early 8th century, at the and honored. The word Shinto storms and earthquakes) and the
request of the Empress Gemmei, literally means “Way of the Divine geographical environment (rivers,
the great Shinto texts such as the Beings,” and Shinto is known in trees, and waterfalls, for example).
Kojiki (“Record of Ancient Matters”) modern Japanese as Kami no Mountains, especially Mount Fuji,
and Nihon Shoki (“Continuing michi, the “Way of the Kami.” are held to be particularly sacred.
Chronicles of Japan”) were compiled.
The essence of everything As entities, kami include gods,
These books recorded the oral The word kami means “that which goddesses, and the souls or spirits
traditions of Japanese history and is hidden” and can be translated of family ancestors (ujigami) and
myth, alongside the lineage of the as god, spirit, or soul. However, in other exceptional human beings.
Japanese emperors, said to be Shinto belief, the term designates Shinto teaches that these kami
descended from the gods. They not only a vast range of divinities occupy the same material world
also defined a body of ritual that and spirit beings, but also the as people, rather than existing on
has remained key to Shinto ever spiritual energy or essence that a supernatural plane. They respond
since—perhaps more so than belief. is found in everything, and which to prayer and can influence events.
Shinto still permeates every aspect defines that thing: kami are However, unlike the divine beings
of Japanese life, and its rituals, in in many other religious traditions, ❯❯
which purification plays a key role,
are performed in both spiritual and
secular situations—for example,
to bring success and good fortune to
sporting events, new car assembly
lines, or construction projects.
During these rituals, which carry

84 LIVING THE WAY OF THE GODS

kami, although godlike, are not ancestors. The ritual worship of
omnipotent: they have limitations these sacred beings therefore
and are fallible. However, not all confirms a powerful connection
kami are good—some can be evil to Japanese history and tradition.
or demonic. But in their more
benign aspect, they possess Shrines and temples As you have blessed the
sincerity and a will to truth, or A harmonious relationship between ruler’s reign...so I bow down
makoto, and maintain harmony in kami and humankind is maintained my neck as a cormorant in
the universe through the creative by praying and making offerings at search of fish to worship you
potency known as musubi. shrines and temples. On entering
a shrine, a ritual of purification is through these abundant
Shinto’s creator gods performed. These rituals are central offerings on his behalf.
According to the Kojiki, at the to Shinto, for which ideas of purity Prayer to Amaterasu
creation of the universe, the first and impurity are very important.
three kami emerged. These Shinto does not have a concept Public temples and shrines may
included the Kamimusubi (divine/ of original sin, but rather believes be as large as a village, or as small
high generative force kami), which that human beings are born pure, as a beehive. They are remarkable
was too abstract to be a focus of only becoming tainted by impurity for their simplicity; many originated
worship. However, after several later. The sources of impurity as sacred areas around natural
generations of formless kami, the are sin (acts within our control) objects such as trees, ponds, or
major Shinto gods appear: Izanagi and pollution (things beyond our rocks. Each Shinto temple has
and Izanami, who created the control, such as disease or contact a gateless entrance called a
world, or “invited it into being.” with death). These impurities, or torii, which usually consists of
Many Shinto myths are devoted tsumi, need to be ritually purified. a pair of uprights and a crossbar.
to them and to the activities of Purification rituals may take a Typically, every temple also has
their offspring, Susanoo, the storm variety of forms, but ceremonial a wall where worshippers may post
god, Tsukuyomi, the moon god, hand washing and mouth washing wooden votive tablets that bear a
and Amaterasu, the sun goddess. sequences are common to most. message to the kami, asking, for
example, for success in passing
The kami represent the creators Small shrines known as kami- an exam or help in finding a
of Japan, the very land itself (as dona are found in many Japanese suitable marriage partner.
the spirits of its natural features homes, consisting of a small shelf
and natural forces), and those displaying objects used to honor Individual prayers at the
who have gone before—Japanese the ancestors and other kami. worship hall of a Shinto shrine
follow a set four-step process, after
the initial ritual cleansing. First,
money is put into an offering box.
Next, the worshipper makes two
deep bows before the shrine, then
claps their hands twice, and finally,
after concluding prayers, makes

Shinto priests may be male or female;
their white-clad assistants, or miko, are
often the daughters of priests. Traditional
costumes emphasize Shinto’s connections
with Japan’s great imperial past.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 85

one last deep bow. In addition to Rituals that please and propitiate the gods are among the
prayer and offerings at shrines, oldest in history, and still reverently attended to by followers
Shinto has celebratory festivals of Shinto. An offering of sushi to a fox-spirit or kitsune statue
known as matsuri, at which the should result in a prayer being carried to Inari, goddess of
kami are honored and important plenty, and be rewarded with a fine harvest.
points in the agricultural year are
marked, such as rice-planting in
April. Correctly performed, Shinto
followers believe that these rituals
enable wa, the positive harmony
that helps to purify the world and
keeps it running smoothly.

Descended from the gods Buddhism, but also placed an concessions to the Allies. Viewed
The most revered Shinto temple is emphasis on the superior status by the occupying US forces as too
that of Amaterasu, the sun goddess, of the Japanese people in general. militaristic and nationalistic,
at Ise, on the Japanese island of This was used, in turn, as the Shinto was disestablished in
Honshu. The simple wooden shrine rationale for Japan’s political and 1946, ceasing to be the official
has been rebuilt every 20 years for military ambitions, especially state religion. In the same year,
the last 1,300 years; the action of after the Meiji Restoration, which Emperor Hirohito renounced his
renewal is thought to please the returned imperial rule to Japan in claim to divinity. But while today
kami. Most Japanese people aim to the 19th century. the emperor is no longer formally
visit Ise at least once in their life. regarded as divine, the imperial
The emperor and his court were ceremonies are still viewed
The emperors of Japan were obliged to carry out ceremonies to as important. Shinto’s strong
traditionally regarded as the direct ensure that the kami watched over emphasis on order and harmony;
descendants of Amaterasu (the Japan and secured its success, a its regard for social norms, ritual,
first emperor, Jimmu, who took tradition that was maintained until and tradition; and its respect for
power in 660 BCE, was said to be the end of World War II. Shinto’s the emperor means that Shinto has
her great-great-great-grandson), standing in Japan was transformed, maintained its role as the bedrock
and this became official doctrine however, after the country lost the of conservative Japanese society. ■
in the 7th and 8th centuries. The war and was forced to make
codifiying of Shinto at this time not
only eliminated influences from

The origins of purification rituals

Man by nature is inherently Purification rituals (harai) play not to look at her, but he lights
good, and the world in a key role in Shinto and are a torch and discovers her rotting
believed to originate in a myth body crawling with maggots.
which he lives is good. This involving Izanami and Izanagi, He flees to the land of the living
is the kami-world. Evil then the two creator gods. The female and bathes in the sea to purify
cannot originate in man or in of this pair, Izanami, is fatally himself. The message of the
this world. It is an intruder. burned while giving birth to contaminating influence of
the fire god, Kagutsuchi, so she the dead is clear: Shinto regards
Sokyo Ono descends to Yomi, the land of death as the ultimate impurity.
the dead. Grief-stricken, Izanagi For this reason, Shinto priests
follows her there, but discovers will not officiate at funerals,
that she has eaten the food of which means that most funerals
the underworld and is unable in Japan are Buddhist, whatever
to leave. Izanami begs Izanagi the beliefs of the deceased.

86

THE GODS
WILL DIE

THE END OF THE WORLD AS WE KNOW IT

IN CONTEXT A sense of doom runs through Ragnarok, the final battle, in which
the Norse mythology of the gods will die and the world will be
KEY BELIEVERS Vikings, for everything utterly destroyed.
Vikings in it leads up to one calamitous
moment, in which two gods—Odin, As punishment for having
WHEN AND WHERE the all-father, and the trickster, duped Odin’s blind son, Hoder,
8th–12th century CE, Loki—bring an age-old conflict into slaying his brother, Baldr,
Scandinavia between the gods and the giants the shining prince of goodness,
to its terrifying conclusion. This is Loki was chained to three rocks
BEFORE for eternity. As he struggles to
From prehistory Preserved
bog bodies such as Tollund Catastrophe and violence will signal the beginning of the end.
Man, found in modern
Denmark, suggest ritualized The barrier between the worlds of the living
human sacrifice. A pantheon and the dead will be breached.
of Norse gods—the Aesir, led
by Odin—develops and is In a mighty conflict, the gods themselves will die.
widely worshipped across In the twilight of the gods, the whole world will be destroyed.
northern Europe.
But a new world will arise, with new hope for humanity.
AFTER
13th century As Christianity
spreads across Nordic regions,
Viking beliefs begin to pass
into legend. To preserve them,
the Eddas, poetic compilations
of Norse myth, are compiled.

From 19th century In
Scandinavia and across
northern Europe, Germanic
neopagan movements that
venerate the Aesir are formed.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 87

See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ Beliefs that mirror
society 80–81 ■ Entering into the faith 224–27 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13

The gigantic wolf Fenrir, here god finally breaks free, the sky will Yet from this destruction a new
swallowing Odin, was the offspring of split open, Loki’s monstrous wolf- world will be born, as a new land
Loki’s liaison with a female jötunn, one son Fenrir will swallow the sun, rises from the sea. One man and
of a race of giants at war with the gods. and Loki will lead an army of giants, one woman, Lifthrasir and Lif, will
monsters, and the dead from the survive the destruction. From them
free himself, the world will shake; underworld, in a ship made from a new race of humans will be born.
trees will be uprooted, and the uncut fingernails of the dead. As for the gods, Odin’s sons Vidar
mountains will fall. Loki will begin and Vali, and Thor’s sons Modi and
to regain his strength, and nature Odin’s army retaliates Magni, will be the only survivors of
itself will start to go awry: a series Odin is the god of poetry and the battle. They will be joined by
of terrible winters, with snow, frost, magic, but he is also the god of war the slain Baldr the beautiful and
and biting winds, will soon become and battle, and it is from the slain his blind brother Hoder, who were
constant, with no summer at all. of the battlefield that he assembles tricked by Loki—both freed at
There will be battles everywhere, his army of dead warriors, the last from the underworld. ■
brother fighting against brother, Einherjar, to fight against Loki’s
father against son, until the whole underworld horde. The sun turns black,
world is ruined. When the chained earth sinks into the sea,
Norse mythology is quite clear, the bright stars vanish
however, that even with this mighty
army, the gods are destined to be from the sky.
defeated and destroyed in this The Eddas
conflict. Odin’s son, the mighty
god Thor, will be killed by the huge
serpent Jörmungandr, and Odin
will be devoured by Fenrir. Thor’s
brother Vidar will step forward and
rip Fenrir in two by the jawbones,
but it will not be enough to save
either Odin or creation. The whole
world will be destroyed by fire,
and will subside beneath the sea.

The Viking heaven

Fallen warriors were burned on Vikings who died of natural been eligible. The other half of
a pyre, as decreed by Odin. Weapons, causes faced the dismal prospect slain warriors belonged to Odin,
food, and tools were burned with of Hel, the cold, damp realm of and they spent the afterlife in
them for use in the afterlife. the dead. Only Vikings chosen to Valhalla, the hall of the slain,
die in battle by Odin’s valkyries roofed with shields. There they
(a race of warlike, supernatural fought each other all day, but
females), or those selected for arose unhurt at night to feast
sacrifice, could cross the rainbow on the meat of a magical boar
bridge to Asgard, home of the gods. and drink the mead milked
Half of those who had died in battle from a magical goat. This was
belonged to the goddess Freyja and to prepare them for the day
went to the meadow, Fólkvangr, to when they would march from
be seated in her hall. Women who Valhalla to fight for the gods in
died heroic deaths may also have the final battle of Ragnarok.

HINDUIS

FROM 1700 BCE

M

90 INTRODUCTION

Vedic tradition Brahmanic ideas Mahavira becomes The poet Valmiki
begins to develop emerge, based on the a major figure writes the Sanskrit
in India, with ritual concept of Brahman, in establishing epic the Ramayana.
the supreme power. Jainism.
offerings made
to the gods.

1700 BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE C.500–100 BCE

1200–900 BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE

The four Vedas are The first of the Siddhartha
written. These are the Upanishads is Gautama, later
oldest Hindu scriptures written, offering a known as Buddha,
philosophical approach is born into a
and most ancient Hindu family.
Sanskrit texts. to religion.

A lhough Hinduism could connected faiths is as much any religion or creed. It may
arguably be called the sociopolitical as religious. The word broadly be described as a way
oldest of living religions, “Hindu” (which shares its roots of life and nothing more.”
the term itself is a relatively modern with the name of the River Indus,
one, which gives a misleading and of India) essentially means Common beliefs
impression of a unified faith with “Indian.” It distinguishes the native However, certain ideas have
a single set of beliefs and practices. religions from those introduced to remained central to virtually all
Hinduism can trace its origins the country, such as Islam, and strands of Hinduism, in particular
to the Iron Age, but it is in fact newer breakaway religions the notion of samsara (the cycle
more a convenient umbrella term such as Jainism and Buddhism. of birth and rebirth of the atman,
covering most of the indigenous the soul) and the associated belief
religions of the Indian subcontinent. The difficulty of defining in the possibility of moksha, or
Although these religions share some Hinduism was summed up in an release from this endless cycle.
characteristics, they vary greatly Indian High Court ruling in 1995: The key to achieving moksha is
in practice and encompass a wide “… the Hindu religion does not encapsulated in the word dharma,
range of different traditions. In claim any one prophet; it does which is variously translated
some of these traditions, the not worship any one god; it does as “virtue,” “natural law,” “right
faith has remained substantially not subscribe to any one dogma; living,” or simply “appropriateness.”
unchanged since the earliest times. it does not believe in any one
philosophic concept; it does not Inevitably, this is subject to a
While more than three-quarters follow any one set of religious number of interpretations, but three
of the population of India identify rites or performances; in fact, main ways of achieving moksha
themselves as “Hindu,” today the it does not appear to satisfy the have emerged, collectively known
definition of such a range of loosely narrow traditional features of as the marga. These are jnana-marga

The Yoga Sutras Adi Shankara Sri Ramakrishna HINDUISM 91
—the key texts establishes the emerges as a leading
non-dualistic Advaita figure in the Hindu Mahatma Gandhi
of Yoga, a school of Vedanta school of combines religion
Hindu philosophy— Hindu philosophy. reform movement. and politics in his
peaceful opposition
are compiled. to injustice and

discrimination.

2ND CENTURY BCE 788–820 CE 1836–86 1869–1948

2ND CENTURY BCE 6TH CENTURY CE 1526 1788–1860

The Mahabharata, Bhakti—a Hindu The Islamic The German
including the Bhagavad- movement with an Mughal Empire is philosopher Arthur
Gita (“Song of the Lord”), emphasis on personal Schopenhauer begins
devotion—develops. founded, ruling to incorporate Indian
offers role models parts of India until
for Hindus. the arrival of the beliefs into his
British Raj in 1858. Idealist philosophy.

(knowledge or insight), karma- And so, while it may seem that One of the main characteristics of
marga (appropriate action or right Hinduism is a polytheistic religion, these Hindu traditions is tolerance.
behavior), and bhakti-marga in many traditions, it is truer to say As a consequence of invasion, first
(devotion to the gods). The marga that adherents have a belief in a by the Greeks under Alexander the
allow scope for a very wide range Lord God, who is complemented Great, and later by Muslims and
of religious practices to suit the by the many minor deities who Christians, Hinduism has adapted
different traditions, including have special powers or carry and accepted some influences.
a variety of rituals, meditation, particular responsibilities.
yoga, and everyday worship (puja). However, while some reform
Sacred texts movements emerged as a result of
Concepts of god The different Hindu traditions colonial influences, collectively
Virtually all branches of Hinduism have all been shaped by the four labeling these connected religions
accept that there is a supreme Vedas, a collection of ancient as Hinduism gave them political
creator god, Brahma, who with texts composed between 1200 clout and a focus for nationalism.
Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva and 900 BCE. The Brahmanas, This came to a head in the
(the destroyer) form a principal commentaries on the Vedas, and struggle for Indian independence
trinity, the Trimurti. However, later the Upanishads, provided a in the 20th century, with Mohandas
many traditions have their own theoretical underpinning of the Gandhi famously advocating the
pantheons, or add local and religion, while other texts—notably Hindu weapons of nonviolent
personal deities to the mix. the two Indian epic poems, the resistance and civil disobedience,
Confusingly, even the three major Mahabharata and the Ramayana— and thereafter establishing an
gods (and a lot of the minor ones) expanded on history, mythology, independent India in which all
often appear in different guises. religion, and philosophy. religions are not only tolerated
but embraced. ■

THROUGH SACRIFICE

WE MAINTAIN

THE ORDER OF THE

UNIVERSE

A RATIONAL WORLD



94 A RATIONAL WORLD There is, strictly speaking, The eternal cosmic order
no single religion that Dharma, or “right way,” is
IN CONTEXT can accurately be called a key term for expressing what
“Hinduism”; this is a modern Hinduism is about. In its original
KEY SOURCE Western term for the different form, sanatana dharma, it may be
The Vedas religions and spiritual philosophies translated from Sanskrit as “the
that have originated within the eternal order of things,” truth, or
WHEN AND WHERE Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, reality. It expresses the idea that
1500–500 BCE there are some basic features of there is an underlying structure
these religious ideas and practices and meaning to the world; beneath
BEFORE that are shared by the majority of the complexity and apparently
From prehistory Early beliefs Hindus, and it is these ideas that random nature of events, there
regard events as unpredictable are grouped together under the are some fundamental principles,
or at the whim of the gods. umbrella of Hinduism. In practice, and, underpinning these, a single,
individual Hindus are free to unchanging reality. These ideas are
1700 BCE Aryan races begin choose which deities they worship, demonstrated in Hinduism in the
a migration into the Indian whether they do so at home or at a hierarchy of gods and goddesses,
subcontinent. temple, and how often they take each of whom expresses particular
part in religious activities. But they aspects of a single truth.
AFTER share a common social and religious
6th century BCE The authority background that sets Hinduism The idea of an eternal order
of the Brahmin class to perform apart from other belief systems, also has implications both for the
sacrifices is challenged by especially the monotheistic faiths. individual and for society. Religion is
both Buddha and Mahavira, effectively a way of understanding
founder of the Jain movement. In the same way as other the place of humanity in the world.
religions, however, Hinduism seeks If the world is capable of being
6th centuryCE Devotional to explain how human life fits into understood, and if it has a definite
Hinduism, or bhakti, becomes the universal context. Its rituals hierarchy or structure, then, by
popular; worshippers make and practices aim to address three following that order, a person can
their own offerings in order to levels of relationship—person to live in harmony with the rest of
develop a personal relationship the divine; person to person; society and with the universe as a
with the gods, an idea very and person to him or herself—and whole. A key feature of the forms
different from the establishing how all of these relate in turn to of religion that came together as
of order by Vedic sacrifice. the universal order of all things. Hinduism was that, in following this

There is an underlying, rational This sense of order is acknowledged
order to the universe. when we perform sacrifices to the gods.

Through sacrifice we maintain In the sacrifice, we learn our place in
the order of the universe. this order and the right way to live.

HINDUISM 95

See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45 ■ Man and the cosmos 48–49
■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The ultimate reality 102–105

Hinduism is not just a starting point is the only stage at Religious ritual and order
faith. It is the union of which linear theories of time require From perhaps as early as 1700 BCE,
reason and intuition that some kind of input from outside the and continuing over the next few
cannot be defined but is world itself: something has to have hundred years, there was a gradual
only to be experienced. been responsible for setting the influx of Aryan people from Central
Radhakrishnan, The great train of cause and effect in Asia into India. They brought
motion at the beginning of time. with them their pantheon of gods,
Bhagavad-Gita together with ideas that had
Conversely, in Hindu thought, parallels with those of the Ancient
order, or dharma, a person may the ever-turning cycles of time Greeks. The Aryans integrated
be required to perform rituals and are contrasted with an eternal themselves into the Indus Valley
make offerings to the gods (a form of and unchanging reality called civilization of northern India, an
sacrifice) that are thought necessary Brahman, which exists in and ancient society known to have had
to maintain the sense of order. through everything. Worldly time its own religious traditions. There
runs in cycles, but Brahman is is strong evidence to suggest ritual
Hindu ideas of time timeless, the central force that keeps bathing and worship of a great
Hindu thought sees time as cyclical, the cycles moving; it is the eternal mother goddess (p.100); other
with the universe already having reality that stands behind the artifacts found include cremation
moved through three great cycles. process of creation and destruction urns and a seal depicting a horned,
Each of these is said to have taken that characterizes the world of cross-legged deity.
millions of years; each coming human experience.
into being and then passing away. What took place was not a
If the great cycles of time are sudden or overwhelming change,
Thinking of time as cyclical utterly dependent upon a timeless but an intermingling of cultures.
has an important consequence for reality, then the right ordering of In terms of religion, what emerged
religious thought. In the Western, this changing world depends on was a tradition of sacrificial
linear, concept of time it is possible awareness of that reality. This worship and ritual that found
to think of everything as simply logic gives rise to the idea that expression in the hymns of the first
the product of something else that one of the aims of religion is to great collection of Hindu sacred
preceded it (the law of cause and understand and maintain the literature, the Vedas. Within this ❯❯
effect), and it is therefore natural to right ordering of the world.
wonder how the world began. This

By performing rituals in the
prescribed way, Hindus believe that
they are aligning themselves with
the rational ordering of the world and
becoming at one with it. The images
and actions are richly symbolic.

96 A RATIONAL WORLD

We concentrate our minds Fire was an essential part Indra. Agni is the god of fire; his
upon the most radiant of any sacrificial ritual; fire was most important role is to manifest
thought to exist in both heaven and as the fire that burns on the
light of the Sun god, who earth, and thus have a divine sacrificial altar, destroying any
sustains the Earth, the power that could reach the gods. demons who may attempt to
Interspace and the Heavens. disrupt the sacrifice. Varuna, the
As the Vedic religion developed god of the sky, water, and celestial
Gayatri Mantra it became important that the ocean, is also the guardian of rta—
Rig-Veda sacrifices were performed by the cosmic order. He is the most
the right people (the Brahmin prominent god of the Rig-Veda
new tradition, religious rituals class) and in exactly the correct (the ritual book of the Vedas),
and sacrifices were considered form. Details of the hymns to responsible for separating night
important, because they were recite and actions to perform and day. He is believed to have
thought to maintain the order of were carefully prescribed. created the waters, to prevent the
the cosmos. They also ensured rivers and oceans from overflowing,
that participants understood their Sacrificial ground needed to be and to sustain the universe. Indra,
place within that order and carefully prepared in a particular the god of thunder, rain, and war,
aligned themselves with it. area as recommended by the is known for his indulgence in
ritualistic literature of the Vedas. soma, a sacrificial drink (see below);
Sacrifice was the primary rite The texts also specified the right securing his goodwill is considered
of the Vedic tradition. It was a wood needed to light the sacrificial essential—he is locked in an
symbolic reenactment of the fire, and the type of vessel required eternal struggle against the forces
creation of the world and invoked to hold the sacrificial offering (huti). of chaos and nonexistence, and
deities who represented either Priests were expected to feed the it is his efforts that separate and
universal qualities, or different sacrificial fire with offerings that support heaven and earth.
features of the one, true reality. It might include ghee, cereal, fruit,
was through this worship that a or flowers, while chanting hymns Gods as aspects of order
human fulfilled the most important from the Vedas. As Hinduism developed, the Aryan
of human tasks: forging a link to gods of the Vedas were joined and
the divine. The ritual sacrifice was The sacrifice also needed to be in many cases superseded by
believed not only to provide a performed on an auspicious date. It others. Minor Vedic gods were also
connection to the invisible realm, might be an offering to a particular
but also to establish the right god or goddess, but especially offering to the gods in order that
ordering of things. In exchange for favored were Agni, Varuna, and its energizing properties might
the sacrifice, a human might obtain assist and inspire them, although
protection from evil forces and The drink of the gods it seems likely that the priests
accrue worldly benefits—such as themselves also partook.
better crops, good weather, robust The ritual drink soma appears
health, and increased happiness. in the Vedas and the sacred Fly agaric (Amanita muscari)
texts of Zoroastrianism, the or psilocybin mushrooms may
Sacrifice in this context simply ancient Persian religion, which, have been the source of soma;
meant making an offering to the like Hinduism, has its roots both are common inducers of
gods, generally of food or drink. in very early Aryan cultures. trance in shamanic rituals.
Produced by pressing the juice Marijuana and ephedra have
from certain plants, it had also been proposed, the latter
intoxicating, possibly stimulant for its highly stimulating effects,
and hallucinogenic properties. consistent with descriptions
The Rig-Veda describes it as of the god Indra downing soma
“King Soma,” proclaiming: “We as a preparation for battle.
have drunk soma and become
immortal: we have attained the
light the Gods discovered.” It
was prepared by priests as an

HINDUISM 97

The dance of Shiva represents
the cosmic cycles of creation and
destruction, the balance between
life and death. Shiva is the destroyer,
but also the transformer.

elevated to much more prominent represents the ongoing process of Historically, it is probable that, with
positions. Later Hindu literature birth and death. He has four arms: the invasion of the light-skinned
contains a huge range of gods and in his upper right hand he holds a Aryans, a contrast was established
goddesses, reflecting the blending drum, whose beat brings about between them and the darker-
of different traditions and different creation, and in his upper left a skinned native inhabitants of India,
periods in the history of early destructive flame; his lower with the latter being treated as
Indian religion. From these gods arms express a rhythmic balance inferior. This led to a social system
there emerged a ruling triumvirate between creation and destruction. of four main classes, or varnas, a
responsible for the existence, order, His right foot is raised in the word meaning “color.”
and destruction of the universe. dance; his left treads on a demon,
These three gods—the Trimurti, representing ignorance. This wild, However, in Hinduism, this
or trinity—represent different exuberant figure symbolizes perfect historical explanation is overlaid
aspects of reality: Brahma, the balance in an ever-changing world. by a mythological account of the
creator (not to be confused with Given that time is cyclical, Shiva’s origin of the class system. In the
Brahman); Vishnu, the protector destruction of the universe is seen Rig Veda there is a hymn to the
and guardian of humanity; and as constructive, in that it paves Divine Person (Purusha) in which
Shiva, the destroyer, or, he who the way for beneficial change. the body of a primal human being
balances the forces of creation is sacrificed and divided up to
and destruction. The ordering of society create the four main varnas
The classification of Indian society or classes of people: Brahmin,
The god Shiva is often into four main groups has, since Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra.
represented, in images and in Vedic times, been based on the Brahmins are members of the
sculpture, as Shiva Nataraja, the concept of dharma, extending the priestly class, who are said to
Lord of the Dance. Shiva’s cosmic theory of the order and structure of have been created from Purusha’s
dance is shown as taking place the universe to include the correct mouth. Kshatriya is the military
within a circle of flames, which ordering of human life and society. or administrative class, created
from Purusha’s arms, while ❯❯
You dwell in all beings;
you are perfect, all

pervading, all powerful
and all seeing…

You are the Life in all life,
yet you are invisible
to the human eye.

From a hymn to Vishnu

98 A RATIONAL WORLD Brahmins All living entities have
(priests) different characteristics
According to Hindu tradition, and duties that distinguish
the four varnas, or classes, were them from one another.
formed from the various body Bhavishya Purana
parts of Purusha, the primal man.

Kshatriyas
(warriors)

Shudras Vaishyas tradition to, literally, maintain the
(workers) (merchants) sense of order in the universe. By
contrast, the caste system was
Vaishyas are members of the Class distinctions discriminatory, emphasizing
merchant class, formed from The four varnas are sometimes separation as being necessary in
Purusha’s thighs. Shudra is the referred to as castes, but that is not order to avoid “pollution”: higher-
class of the common working strictly accurate. The Indian caste caste people began to fear that
people, hewn from Purusha’s system is based on an equally they would be contaminated by
feet. Because they all come ancient way of classifying people, contact with a low-status person.
from the single human reality, broadly in terms of their occupation. The caste system encouraged
Purusha, they are interdependent There are a very large number social fracturing, with rules
and all have an essential part to of such classes, or jati, each with a forbidding people of different castes
play in the ordering of society. corresponding social status. The to mix together and especially to
Their roles reflect their dharma two different approaches seem to marry. This divisiveness was
—their divine duty. have become entangled as Hindu recognized in the Constitution
society developed in the later Vedic of India, drawn up in 1948,
Members of the first three period (from around 1000 BCE), and which prohibited discrimination
varnas are said to be twice-born the crucial differences between against lower castes, although
in a sacred thread ritual, the them became blurred. popular prejudice has taken
upanayana, which marks the longer to eliminate.
person’s acceptance of responsibility Under the varna system the
as a Hindu. The ritual is generally different social classes are all Personal versus social
performed when, or soon after, a essential to to the right ordering of In the 6th century BCE, wandering
child turns eight, and has the effect the world; since everyone comes teachers within India, such as
of establishing his or her social from a single primal human figure, Buddha and Mahavira, became
position. Below the four varnas Purusha, everyone depends upon critical of the formal and class-
are those who find themselves one another. Only the Brahmins bound nature of Vedic worship.
completely outside the class were portrayed as a superior class They welcomed followers from any
system; formerly called outcasts —understandably, given that in the class, and all were treated equally.
they are now generally referred to Vedic literature they are the ones These teachers argued for an
as Dalits, meaning “the oppressed.” empowered and authorized by emphasis on personal insight
rather than inherited privilege.
They also rejected the authority of
the Vedas, and were therefore